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Energy Efficiency in Denmark

Monitoring of Energy Efficiency in Europe,


Phase 9

An Analysis Based on the

ODYSSEE and MURE Databases

Danish Energy Authority

August 2004
Table of Contents

1. Introduction 3

2. Policy on Energy Efficiency 4

3. Data Collection and Updating 15

4. Overall Assessment of Energy Efficiency Trends 16

5. Households 22

6. Updating of the MURE Database 36

2
1. Introduction

This document prepared by the Danish Energy Authority (DEA) is the national
report for Denmark, Phase 9 of the SAVE project Monitoring of Energy
Efficiency in Europe.

The report deals with recent energy efficiency trends in Denmark at the macro level
particularly in the transformation sector and sectors constituting final energy
consumption. The main emphasis is placed on development during the period
1990-2002.

The main source of data for the figures and tables in this report is the ODYSSEE
database.

The contents of this report are as follows:


Recent energy efficiency, CO2 and price policy measures
Data collection and updating
Energy efficiency indicators

Conclusions underlying trends in the Danish economy and energy consumption are
integrated in the chapters dealing with energy efficiency indicators.

3
2. Policy on Energy Efficiency

2.1 Institutional Changes and Overall Policy


In 2002, energy efficiency policy underwent some changes dues to the shift in
government in November 2001.

The new government consisting of a coalition of liberal and conservative parties


moved the energy portfolio from the former Ministry of Environment and Energy
to the newly created Ministry of Economic and Business Affairs. This move
signalled a change towards economically efficient and market based solutions with
regards to energy efficiency measures.

An example of changes in policy is the termination of subsidy schemes to promote


energy efficiency in industry. Furthermore, the year 2002 showed increased efforts
to promote energy efficiency in buildings, especially with the finalisation of a new
EU directive on the energy performance of buildings, which was a key objective
during the Danish EU presidency in the second half of 2002. This indicates
enhanced attention towards common European and international policy measures.

The following documents lay down the general guidelines for Danish energy policy
and energy efficiency activities:

A report on Liberalisation of the Energy Markets, the Danish Growth Strategy


published by the government in September 2002
A report on Climate Change Strategy published in February 2003
A new Energy Saving Report sent to the Danish Parliament in May 2003 (The
full report in English is available at:
http://www.ens.dk/graphics/Publikationer/Energibesparelser_UK/eng_energispa
reredegoerelsen/index.htm.)

2.1.1 Liberalisation of the Energy Markets, the Danish Growth


Strategy

The Liberalisation of the Energy Markets, the Danish Growth Strategy from
September 2002 highlights four key action areas to meet its objectives of
liberalising the energy sector:

A wider choice for consumers


Increased competition and efficiency
High security of energy supply, and
Cost efficiency in achieving environmental goals

4
2.1.2 The National Climate Change Strategy

The Climate Change Strategy from February 2003 provides an analysis on how
Denmark can comply with its obligations under the Kyoto Protocol in the most cost
efficient manner. Denmark has an ambitious target under the 1998 EU Burden
Share Agreement approach to the Kyoto Protocol. The commitment is to reduce
annual GHG emissions in the budget period 2008-12 by 21% compared to the base
year 1990, although there are certain reservations about the base year, since it was
an abnormal year. This is to be ruled upon in 2006.

The governments analysis shows that greater cost efficiency is achieved through
the use of flexible mechanisms of emissions trading, Joint Implementation (JI) or
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

Recent analysis forecasts that for the budget period 2008-2012, Denmark will be in
excess of its Kyoto commitment by 25 million tons CO2 equivalents per year. This
is based on its legal commitment under the EU burden share agreement without
correction for the base year issue. 25 million tons of CO2 represents a considerable
challenge. About 10 million tons of CO2 are due to anticipated exports of
electricity.

Among the initiatives undertaken to meet the target include the EU quota trading
system, which is expected to operate in 2005, JI and CDM.

The government has also prepared an indicative list of potential domestic


initiatives. A threshold of 120 DKK/tons of CO2 has been set for domestic
initiatives on emissions reduction. At that level, flexible mechanisms are
considered more cost efficient.

Domestic initiatives below the threshold, which have high potential for CO2
emissions reduction includes heat pumps replacing certain decentralised combined
heat and power (CHP) units and decrease in electricity production. Examples of
domestic measures with low potential are window standards, oil and gas boiler
standards, flare gas recovery, heat pumps that replace oil-fired district heating (DH)
and establishment of biogas plants.

The list presented in the strategy only comprises few energy efficiency measures;
however, the list is indicative and not intended to be exhaustive.

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2.1.3 Energy Saving Report

A new Energy Saving Report was sent to the Parliaments Energy Committee in
May 2003. In the report, the objectives of improvement of energy efficiency and
reduction of energy demand are:

Reduction of energy costs and improvement of the competitiveness of the


economy
Improvement of security of supply: influencing demand is a very important
factor in developing future security of supply
Protection of the environment: an element in a cost effective strategy to fulfill
the Kyoto commitment

In the report, the Danish government stresses the importance of cost efficiency
energy saving initiatives, both for society and consumers. This means that costs
should be recovered through energy savings achieved after only a few years.
Technological solutions should be adapted and co-operation between industry and
the state enhanced to prepare the market for new and innovative energy solutions.

Energy saving measures shall be based on market initiatives instead of subsidies or


new taxes. Markets should be made more transparent and inappropriate barriers
removed to generate more financially attractive savings. It should be relatively
simple for consumers and enterprises to choose energy appropriate products, thus
making it easier to identify good energy savings.

In addition, supply of energy efficient products and solutions should be promoted.


Free market competition ensures effective and cheap supply of energy saving
appliances, products, and services.

The Danish government expects to play an active role in introducing common


measures to promote energy saving under the auspices of the EU. Internationally
concerted initiatives will ensure greater savings at lower costs without impairing
competitiveness of Danish enterprises, thus enhancing the impact of initiatives. It is
therefore vital to view future national initiatives from an international perspective.

The report also contains:


A new forecast on energy consumption and an evaluation of the effects of
energy saving initiatives, which corresponds to the forecast included in the
government's Climate Strategy
A description of the effects of energy efficiency for end users and of the
barriers, etc. to the realisation of a number of energy savings with economic
potential

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A status of the energy saving elements in the action plan, which is a part of
the agreement of 29 May 2001 between the previous government, Venstre -
Denmark's Liberal Party, the Conservative Party, the Socialist Peoples'
Party, the Centre Democrats, and the Christian People's Party on natural gas
supplies and energy saving. It deals with both savings targets for individual
sectors and a review of existing measures on how they can be made more
market oriented and cost efficient.
A number of new energy savings initiatives, which should be seen in
connection with the government's Climate Strategy:

- Promoting energy efficient refrigerators and freezers


- Phasing out traditional double-glazing : voluntary agreement
- Tightening building regulations
- Efficiency requirements for boilers and circulation pumps
- Strengthening energy saving initiatives in the public sector
- Action plan to reduce stand-by consumption
- Enhancement of research and development activities

2.2 Energy Efficiency Programs and Measures

The legal foundation for Danish energy efficiency policy is Act No. 450 of 31 May
2000. This Act provides the overall legislative framework, which ensures future
efforts in the improvement of energy efficiency essential in the fulfilment of
Denmark's international climate change obligation to reduce emission of
greenhouse gases by 21% in 2008-12 in relation to 1990. It also establishes the
guidelines for planning, co-ordination and priority of measures at central and local
levels.

An English version of the Act and remarks are available on DEAs website
(www.ens.dk).

A description of the actual policies and measures are available in the Energy
Saving Report. Recent initiatives are discussed in the following topics.

2.2.1 Promoting Energy Efficient Refrigerators and Freezers

In combination with campaigns by the Danish Electricity Saving Trust and the grid
companies, energy labels have contributed to the fact that around 60 % of
refrigerators and freezers sold bear the class A label. This percentage is still rising.
Products exist today which are significantly more energy efficient than the A
requirements, thus considerable savings can be achieved if sales of such energy
efficient products are increased.

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To support this initiative, the DEA has advised the Danish Electricity Saving Trust
to exert special efforts in promoting the sale of these products in succeeding years.
The trust will receive an additional 10 million DKK in 2004 and 2005 for this
activity. One component of the promotional campaign, which commences after
summer 2004, is the granting of subsidies for a certain period to energy efficient
products.

2.2.2 Phasing-out of Traditional Double-glazing: Voluntary Agreement

Despite the fact that energy efficient double-glazing is economically very attractive
for consumers and provides significant improvement in comfort, traditional double-
glazing is still being used to a large extent. Use of energy efficient double-glazing
results in considerable energy savings. Furthermore, additional savings can be
generated by the use of better window systems, including secondary glazing.

In this context, the government has made an agreement with the glazing and
window sector, which will ensure the termination of sale of traditional, inefficient
double-glazing for normal use effectively, at the same time promote the sale of
energy efficient window systems. As part of the agreement, the sector receives 20
million DKK in 2004-06 to finance promotional activities.

2.2.3 Tightening of Building Code Provisions

In general, buildings have a very long life span. Thus, it is important that new
buildings have a good level of energy efficiency in order to contribute to the
reduction of heating requirements, hence of consumer energy costs in future years.
The new directive on energy performance of buildings adopted by the EU during
the Danish Presidency recommends that Member States must evaluate the
possibilities for tightening energy requirements every five years.

In view of the fact that it is possible today to reduce energy use significantly below
the level stipulated in the current building regulations from 1995/98, the Danish
government will tighten the energy provisions in the building code, which have
their legal basis in the Buildings Act (Byggeloven). The new provisions on energy
shall take effect by 1 January 2005.

Tightening energy requirements by 25 to 30 per cent is the starting point. However,


the specific requirements will be laid down based on an assessment of
technological prospects and taking into consideration the fact that such
requirements must reflect the desire to achieve viable energy savings from both an
economic and financial perspective.

8
Nevertheless, the greatest potential for savings lies in existing buildings.
Considerable savings at a reasonable expense can especially be achieved in
connection with conversion, improvement, renovation, urban renewal etc. Thus, in
the light of the EU directive on energy performance of buildings, the government
will consider how energy requirements can be tightened regarding improvements
etc. in existing buildings.

2.2.4 Implementation of the EU Building Directive

In order to implement and comply with the provisions of the EU building directive,
the government will present a proposal of a new act on energy savings in buildings
to the parliament in October 2004.

A scheme of certification of buildings has existed in Denmark for many years, but
this does not fulfil all the provisions of the EU building directive. With the
proposed Act, the scheme will be improved and simplified for consumers. The Act
will also establish the implementing rules and regulations for boilers and
ventilation.

In connection with the implementation of the building directive, initiatives to


promote energy efficient oil and gas boilers and circulation pumps will be
undertaken. In this group, the use of energy efficient products is usually very
profitable for consumers. However, due to a number of barriers and other factors,
these products only account for a limited part of total sales. In general, consumers
are unable to obtain a transparent picture of the market for these products.

One of the measures will be energy labelling of boilers. The government is also
examining the possibilities of introducing efficiency requirements either through an
amendment of the building and construction legislation or within the framework of
the existing legislation on standards for energy efficiency in energy consuming
equipment. The prospects will be examined closer in relation to EU legislation.

2.2.5 Strengthening Energy Savings Initiatives in the Public Sector

To the highest degree, general improvement in overall efficiency is demanded


today of the public sector. Obviously, this applies also to energy use.
Consequently, the government needs to strengthen energy savings initiatives in the
public sector. The public sector must implement energy savings, which are
economically viable.

As a general guideline, savings ought to be implemented where the additional


investment has a reasonable payback period. In this manner, the public sector can

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contribute to influencing the market for various energy efficient products and
services, thus affecting development in other sectors as well.

A detailed plan for the promotion of energy efficiency in the public sector will be
published in the near future.

2.2.6 Reduction of Stand-by Consumption

A significant part of electricity consumption is increasingly due to appliances in


stand-by mode. In households, standby consumption by televisions, video
recorders, Hi-Fi systems, computers, chargers etc. typically accounts for around ten
per cent of total electricity consumption.

In the office sector, measurements show that in many cases around 40 per cent of
electricity is used outside normal working hours. A great part of this is stand-by
electricity consumption. In most cases, it is technologically possible to reduce
electricity consumption considerably.

In January 2004, the Minister for Economic and Business Affairs presented an
action plan to reduce stand-by electricity consumption. The action plan covers all
sectors, with focus on the office sector wherein stand-by electricity consumption is
significant, particularly from computer equipment. The action plan includes
evaluation of options on how to create greater transparency on electricity
consumption by public institutions.

2.2.7 Assessment of Energy Saving Activities by the Electricity Grid


Companies and the Electricity Saving Trust

The Minister for Economic and Business Affairs has requested the DEA to
evaluate the energy saving activities commenced by the electricity grid companies
and the Electricity Saving Trust. The assessment shall look at the possibilities for
improving and increasing the efficiency of the activities. It shall also consider how
the activities should be organised in the future.

As a part of this, an independent evaluation of the energy consulting schemes of


grid companies will be made. Furthermore, an examination of subsidies to the
conversion from electricity heating to district heating or natural gas is being
undertaken by the DEA.

The assessment will be finalised in October 2004.

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2.2.8 New Action Plan on Energy Efficiency and Savings

In 29 Marts 2004, the government (the Liberal Party and the Danish Conservative
Party), the Social Democrats, the Danish Peoples Party, the Socialist Peoples
Party, the Social Liberals and the Christian Peoples Party made an agreement to
ensure reliable energy infrastructure for the future.

This agreement includes the following paragraph about energy efficiency:

As part of ongoing evaluations of the energy conservation efforts of electricity-


grid companies, natural gas companies and the Danish Electricity Saving Trust,
the Minister for Economic and Business Affairs will present an action plan at the
end of 2004. This plan will contain a strategy to increase energy efficiency and
conservation. The action plan will respond to the long term challenges that energy
policies address, and the scope will be discussed with partners to this agreement.

This action plan must be seen in relationship to implementation of the EU directive


on energy performance of buildings and to the tightening of building code
provisions relating to energy. Particular emphasis will be given to energy
conservation in existing buildings. Another major issue will be the campaign for
greater use of energy efficient devices and equipment, including pumps.

The action plan can also be seen in connection with a wide range of other current
activities, which include a standby action plan, implementation of the allowance
directive, and intensification of energy conservation efforts by grid companies. The
action plan will also provide the framework for two directives proposed by the EU
Commission concerning Eco-Design and for energy efficiency in the end-user
sector and in energy services.

Agreement has been reached with the electricity companies to increase efforts to
save energy and to provide more information, to the extent financially possible.

The new action plan will present the governments policy for energy efficiency in
the future.

2.3 Research, Development and Demonstration

The role of the Danish Energy Research Program (ERP) was reduced in 2002 as a
result of a decrease in available funding. This reduction was due to changes in
energy policy after the Parliament election in November 2002. The reduced ERP
contribution to research, development and demonstration (R, D&D) in 2002 of 40
million DKK was focused on renewable energy and new energy technologies such
as fuel cells. Industry and utilities were still included in the 2002-programme,
though not to the same extent as previous years.

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However, it should be noted that in 2002, electricity companies responsible for
operating the transmission grid in Denmark contributed 100 million DKK to
research and development in environmentally benign technologies for production
of electricity, while companies undertaking distribution of electricity contributed
15 million DKK in technologies for efficient use of electricity.

In 2003, the Danish government has increased the funding of energy R, D&D. A
new initiative of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation involves the
disbursement of 35 million DKK on research projects concerning renewable energy
and energy saving technologies, while the abovementioned 15 million DKK for
efficient use of electricity is increased to 25 million DKK. These amounts are in
addition to the ERP of 41 million DKK and R&D in environmentally benign
technologies for production of electricity of 100 million DKK, as previously
mentioned for 2002.

Further increases have been politically agreed for 2004 and future years. In 2004,
the funding of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation will increase
from 35 to 45 million DKK, while ERP will increase from 41 to 72 million DKK.
These amounts are in addition to R&D in environmentally benign technologies for
production of electricity of 100 million DKK and R&D in technologies for efficient
use of electricity amounting to 25 million DKK.

2.4 Energy Prices and Taxes

2.4.1 Energy Prices

Energy prices are among the most important determinants of energy consumption.
The table below shows current and real energy prices (2002-prices) for households
during the period 1980 to 2002. The table also includes the Consumer Price Index.

During this period, the general price level as measured by the consumer price index
has more than doubled. In 2002-prices, the price of motor gasoline per litre has
from 1980 to 2002 declined by 23%. Over the same period, the prices of heating oil
and electricity have increased by 1.1% and 43.9% respectively. The increase in
electricity price is mostly due to higher taxation. It should be noted, however that
oil prices declined in 2002 compared to 2001.

Energy Prices for Households (DKK)

Current Prices 1980 1990 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Motor Gasoline per litre 4.63 5.82 6.66 6.43 7.21 8.36 8,20 8,20
Heating Oil per litre 2.41 4.24 4.47 4.27 4.72 5.90 5,70 5,61
Electricity per kWh 0.49 1.17 1,36 1,49 1,52 1,60 1,65 1,79

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Natural Gas per m3 4.71 4.88 4.73 4.98 6.35 6.48 6.18
Consumer Price Index 100 177 204 208 213 219 224 230

2002-Prices 1980 1990 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002


Motor Gasoline per litre 10.64 6.96 7.50 7.11 7.78 8.77 8.40 8.20
Heating Oil per litre 5.54 5.39 5.04 4.72 5.09 6.19 5.83 5.61
Electricity per kWh 1.24 1.46 1.53 1.65 1.64 1.68 1.69 1.79
3
Natural Gas per m 5.95 5.50 5.23 5.38 6.66 6.64 6.18

Figure 2.1 illustrates that consumer prices of heating oil, gasoline and electricity
are composed of three elements: a price before tax, an excise tax and a value-added
tax. It is clearly evident that the size of the components has changed significantly
from 1990 to 2002.

For electricity, the price before tax in 1990 amounted to 54% of the final price,
excise tax 28% and value added tax 18%. In 2002, the price for electricity before
tax amounted to 39%, excise tax 41% and value added tax 20%.

For gasoline, the percentage share of excise tax has increased from 43% in 1990 to
50% in 2002.

100%
18 18 18 20 20 20
80%

28
60% 43 42 38 41
50
Percent

40%

54
20% 39 40 42 39
30

0%
Gasoline Heating Oil Electricity Gasoline Heating Oil Electricity
1990 2002

Price before Taxes Excise Tax Value Added Tax

Figure 2.1 Composition of Danish Consumer Prices in 1990 and 2002

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2.4.2 Energy Taxes

An important element of the official taxation policy in Denmark is to substitute


green excise taxes for income taxes. Figure 2.2 shows a huge growth of revenue
from energy taxes, from 6.7 billion DKK in 1980 to 35.45 billion DKK in 2002.
The increase has been particularly steep since 1990.

40

30
Billion DKK

20

10

0
1980 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98 '00 '02
Gasoline Heating Oil Natural Gas Coal Electricity CO2 Sulphur

Figure 2.2 Revenue from Energy Taxes in Denmark

The energy taxes on fuel oil and electricity in 2002 are shown in the table below:

Gasoline (Unleaded) 4.07 DKK/litre

Diesel 3.03 DKK/litre

Diesel Light 2.93 DKK/litre

Fuel Oil 2.58 DKK/kg

Coal 1.37 DKK/ton

Electricity 0.666 DKK/kWh

Most energy taxes are fully refunded to commercial enterprises, whereas


environment taxes including CO2 taxes are only partly reimbursed.

14
3. Data Collection and Updating

The main sources of data used for preparing the report on energy efficiency
indicators are:

Danish Energy Authority


Statistics Denmark
Association of Danish Energy Companies (DE)
National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark (DMU)
ELMODEL-bolig
FEHA and ELDA databases on electrical appliances

Collection and dissemination of data to the technical co-ordinator, ENERDATA


has been done by the Danish Energy Authority. Generally, the time series are all
updated until 2002.

The conversion of the Danish national account statistics to the new EC-standard
ENS95 has now been completed with corresponding revision of data. Hence, all
economic time series in the national account statistics are now available for the
period 1966 to 2002. The time series concerning energy and economy are available
for the period 1975 to 2002.

The units used are as follows:

Units
1 koe = 41.868 MJ
1 toe = 41.868 GJ
1 Mtoe = 41.868 PJ
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ

1 EC95 = 1 EURO (1995 prices)


1 EC95 = 7.328 DKK95
1 EURO = 7.43 DKK (actual level)
1 mia. = 1 billion

15
4. Overall Assessment of Energy Efficiency Trends

Figure 4.1 below presents the trends in the main macro-economic indicators from
1975 to 2002. From 1993 to 2000, Denmark experienced an economic boom,
which resulted in an increase of 23.7% in GDP at constant 1995-prices
corresponding to an annual growth of 3.1%. From 2000 to 2002, GDP only showed
an annual increase of 1.3%. During the period 1990 to 2002, the Danish GDP at
constant prices increased from 916 billion DKK to 1183 billion DKK equivalent to
2.5% per year.

1200

1000

800
Billion DKK

600

400

200
1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002
GDP Gross Value Added Private Consumption

Figure 4.1 Macro-economic Development in Denmark (1995-Prices)

Similar development is shown in gross value added. From 2001 to 2002, the
growth rate in Danish economy has been rather low (GDP by 1.0% and VA 0.9%).
Private consumption has since 1990 expanded so fast. From 2001 to 2002 private
consumption increased with 0.6% after a decrease in the preceding year.

16
900

800

700
PJ

600

500

400
1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002
Final Energy Gross Energy

Figure 4.2 Gross and Final Energy Consumption in Denmark. Climate


Adjusted
Source: Odyssee

Figure 4.2 shows gross and final energy consumption adjusted for climatic
variations. From 1990 to 2002, gross energy consumption has increased with 1.0%,
i.e. from 820 PJ to 828 PJ. In the same period, final energy consumption (inclusive
non-energy use) increased 6.6%, i.e. from 605 PJ to 645 PJ.

40

30
Percent

20

10

0
Non Energy Transport Agriculture Industry Tertiary Households
1975 1980 1990 2002

Figure 4.3 Final Energy Consumption by Sector. Climate Adjusted

17
The distribution of final energy consumption by end-users is illustrated in Figure
4.3. During the last 20 to 25 years, the share of transport has increased, while the
share of households showed a decline. In 1996, transport became for the first time
the most energy-consuming sector. The shares of agriculture, industry and tertiary
sectors have been relatively constant throughout the period. From 1990 to 2002, the
share of transport has increased from 28.1% to 30.0%, while the share of
households declined from 30.8% to 29.5%.

0,20

0,18
toe/1000 EC95

0,16

0,14

0,12

0,10

0,08
1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002
Final Energy Primary Energy

Figure 4.4 Primary and Final Energy Intensities in Denmark. Climate Adj.
Source: Odyssee

The development in the energy intensities of primary (gross) energy consumption


and final energy consumption during the period 1975 to 2002 are shown in figure
4.4. Energy intensity is defined as the ratio between energy consumption and the
GDP. In figure 4.5, final energy intensity is measured excluding non-energy
consumption.

From 1980 to 2002, primary energy intensity and final energy intensity have fallen
by 32.3% and 29.1% respectively. Compared to 1990, primary intensity has
decreased by16.2%, whereas final intensity by 16.9%.

Primary energy intensity only decreased by 0.8% from 1988 to 1993. In the
succeeding 5-year period which was characterised by a strong economic boom, the
intensity decreased by approximately 10%. A significant strengthening of the
energy and environmental policy mainly caused the improved result, although a
business cycle effect may also have played an important role.

Throughout the period 1990-2002, primary energy intensity fell from 0.148
toe/1000 EC95 to 0.124 toe/1000 EC95 corresponding to a reduction of 16.2% (a
little less than 1.5% per year).

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A similar development took place in the energy intensity of final energy
consumption. In 2002, final energy intensity decreased from0.113 toe/1000 EC95
in 1990 to 0.094 toe/1000 EC95 or with 16.9% (a little more than 1.5% per year).

0,15

0,14

0,13
toe/1000 EC95

0,12

0,11

0,10

0,09
1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002
Actual Constant Structure

Figure 4.5 Final Energy Intensity in Denmark


Source: Odyssee

Changes in the economic structure only have a minor effect on final energy
intensity, cf. figure 4.5. From 1990 to 2002, the actual intensity declined with
16.9%, whereas the constant structure intensity fell by 13.9%. This indicator
eliminates the influence of macro-economic structural changes, because current
sector intensities are calculated at the economic structure level of 1995. The results
indicate that 3 out of the total decrease of 16.9% in final energy intensity is not due
to improved energy efficiency, but stems from structural changes.

An alternative method to illustrate the development in energy efficiency in total


final energy consumption and in the consumption sectors is by the use of Bottom-
up indicators also called Energy efficiency indices. This is done in figure 4.6,
which shows energy efficiency indices (1990=100).

Energy Efficiency Index


The energy efficiency index is calculated as a ratio between the actual energy
consumption and a fictitious consumption without savings. This index provides an
aggregate indicator to summarise the energy efficiency improvement in a sector.
An index of 80 means a 20% improvement in the energy efficiency. In the
ODYSSEE database, energy efficiency index of a given sector is an evaluation of
aggregate energy savings of all energy consuming modules.

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For total final energy consumption, there has been an improvement in energy
efficiency of 12.0%. All sub-sectors have contributed to this development. The
trans-port, industry and tertiary sectors exhibit improvements in energy efficiency
of 14.4%, 15.6% and 19.0 respectively. In households the improvement has been
9.3%.
120

110

100
Percent

90

80

70

60
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Households Transport Industry
Tertiary Final Consumption

Figure 4.6 Energy Efficiency Indices for Final Consumption.


Bottom-up Indicators
Source: Odyssee

20
7,0 0,35

6,0 0,30

Tons CO2 per 1000 EC95


5,0 0,25
Tons CO2 per Capita

4,0 0,20

3,0 0,15

2,0 0,10

1,0 0,05

0,0 0,00
1980 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98 '00 '02

CO2 Emissions per Capita CO2 Intensity of Final Consumers

Figure 4.7 CO2 Emissions from Final Consumption (Excl. Electricity).


Climate Adjusted
Source: Odyssee

Figure 4.7 shows CO2 emissions corresponding to per capita and final consumption
of fossil fuels per gross value added unit. Measured per capita, CO2 emissions have
decreased by 9.2% from 1990 to 2002. Per gross value added unit, the decrease in
the same period has been 26.4%, which should be compared to the previously
mentioned decline in the energy intensity of final consumption of 16.9%. The
difference can mainly be explained by the significant changes in fuel composition,
from coal and oil to natural gas, renewable energy and district heating.

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5. Households

This chapter deals with the trends in energy consumption in households and
underlying factors, which can to some extent explain the development. The
analysis is divided in three parts:

Total energy consumption


Energy consumption for space heating, incl. heating water
Electricity consumption for lighting and electrical appliances

Households are in this paper classified into single family houses and multi-family
houses. Energy consumption for transport is not included.

Total Energy Consumption in Households

Looking at the annual changes in energy consumption, the potentially strong


influence of climatic variations should be taken into account. 1990 and 2000 were
exceptionally mild years, whereas 1996 was an exceptionally cold year.

Figure 5.1 shows energy consumption in households during the period 1975-2002.
After a significant decline in the years subsequent to the second oil crisis, the
climate adjusted energy consumption has been relatively constant. From 1990 to
2002, the climate adjusted total energy consumption has increased by 2.1%,
whereas electricity consumption has likewise grown by 3.8%.
300

250

200
PJ

150

100

50

0
1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002
Actual Climate Adjusted Electricity, Clim. Adj.

Figure 5.1 Energy Consumption in Households

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Although total energy consumption in households has been almost constant for
many years, the composition of the energy consumption has undergone significant
changes. Figure 5.2 illustrates the composition in 1975, 1980, 1990 and 2002. The
consumption of natural gas and district heating has increased at the expense of oil.
The share of electricity has grown until 1990, after which it has been fairly
constant.
In 1980, the share of oil is equivalent to 59%, while that of district heating to 19%.
Ten years after, the shares were one third and less than one third (29%)
respectively. In 2002, district heating was dominant with a share of more than one
third (36%), while oil consumption was reduced to less than one fifth (18%). The
consumption of natural gas has increased considerably, since its introduction in
1982. It accounts for a share of 16% in 2002.

80

60
Percent

40

20

0
Oil Natural Gas Electricity District Heating Others
1975 1980 1990 2002

Figure 5.2 Energy Consumption in Households: Fuel Shares

A main driving force of energy consumption in households is the number of


dwellings or the area in square meters (m2). In the period 1980-1990, the number
of dwellings and area in m2 increased with 9.9% and 10.3% respectively. After
1990, the growth rate has slowed a little down. From 1990 to 2002, the increases
have been 7.0% and 9.5% respectively. The development is shown in figure 5.3.

23
3000 300

2700

200
1000 dwellings

2400

Million m2
2100
100

1800

1500 0
1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002
Permanent occupied dwellings Area in million m2
2
Figure 5.3 Number of Dwellings and m in Households
Source: Odyssee

The development of unit energy consumption per dwelling and unit electricity
consumption per dwelling has been very different especially from 1975 to the end
of the 1980s. During this period, unit energy consumption per dwelling
experienced a remarkable fall (most pronounced in the years after the second oil
crisis) from 2.645 toe/dw to 1.880 toe/dw, which corresponds to 28.9%. In the
preceding period, the fall has been more moderate. From 1990 to 2002, the decline
has been only 4.0%.

As in all other countries, electricity consumption in Denmark grew very fast in the
1970s and 1980s, which is reflected in the unit electricity consumption per
dwelling. In 1975 and 1987, the unit electricity consumption per dwelling was
3,084 kWh/dw and 4,319 kWh/dw respectively, which corresponds to an increase
of 40%. After 1987, the unit electricity consumption per dwelling has been
declining (except for the years 1991-96). In 2002, it was 4,006 kWh/dw or 7.2%
lower compared to1987 and 1.6% lower than 1990.

24
3,0 5000

2,5 4500

2,0 4000

kWh/dw
1,5 3500
toe/dw

1,0 3000

0,5 2500

0,0 2000
1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002
Total Electricity

Figure 5.4 Unit Consumption per Dwelling: Total Energy and Electricity.
Climate Adjusted
Source: Odyssee

Energy Consumption for Space Heating

As shown in the preceding section, total energy consumption and electricity


consumption developed differently in the period 1975-1987, which is mainly due to
the decline in energy consumption for space heating. Figure 5.5 focuses on the
development of unit consumption for space heating and unit consumption for
electricity for lighting and appliances. Index numbers are used with 1990 as base
year. It is seen that the two indicators behave quite differently from 1975 to 1985-
87, after which the indicators converge at a constant level (around 100). Since
1990, unit consumption for space heating has declined by 0.8% per year but this
is mainly due to an extraordinary low consumption in 2000-2002 - while unit
consumption of electricity for lighting and appliances has been almost constant.

Looking at figure 5.5, a crucial conclusion can be made: It is doubtful that the unit
consumption for heating continues to decline. On the other hand, the development
over recent years shows clearly that unit consumption of electricity for lighting and
appliances is no longer increasing.

25
160

140

120
Index 1990=100

100

80

60

40
1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002
Electrical Appliances Space Heating

Figure 5.5 Unit Consumption per Dwelling: Space Heating and Electricity for
Lighting and Electrical Appliances
Source: Odyssee

In analysing the development in unit energy consumption for space heating, a


number of factors have to be considered, refer to the following figures. Changes in
the two structural factors Share of single family houses and Average size of
dwellings have made minimal contributions in the last 20 years to the
development of energy consumption of the household sector. Neither have
improvements in the Danish building codes had a major impact on consumption
trend. This signifies that development can mainly be explained by shifts in the
composition of fuels used by households and by household behaviour.

Figure 5.6 shows that the share of single-family houses in the period 1980-2002
has been rather constant. From 1980 to 1990, the share has risen considerably from
56.5% to 58.7%, after which the share has remained fairly constant. In 2002, the
share is equivalent to 59.0%.

26
70

60

50
Percent

40

30
1980 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98 '00 '02
Single Family Houses Multi-family houses

Figure 5.6 Shares of Single Family and Multi-family houses


Source: Odyssee

Figure 5.7 shows that the average size of Danish dwellings has changed modestly
in the period 1980-2002. For all dwellings, the average size increased from 106.4
m2 in 1980 to 109.3 m2 in 2002 or by 2.7%. In 2002, the average size of a single
family and multi-family house were 131.5 m2 and 75.6 m2 respectively.

140

120

100

80
m2

60

40

20

0
Total Single Family Houses Multi-family Houses
1980 1990 2002
Figure 5.7 Average Sizes of Dwellings in Denmark
Source: Odyssee

27
4

3
U-values

0
BR 72 BR 77 BR 82 BR 95

Walls > 100 kg / m Walls < 100 kg / m Roof Floors Windows

Figure 5.8 Building Codes in Denmark for Large Buildings

An important indicator of the insulation standards of buildings in the household


sector is found in the requirements laid down in building codes over time. The
building codes are valid for new buildings and major renovation of old houses. In
Denmark, two building codes exist for small and large buildings. These codes
differ slightly.
The unit of measurement is the U-values, which measure the heat loss through the
material (Watt per m2 material per degree temperature of Celsius). Figure 5.8
illustrates that the codes were introduced in 1972 and improved in 1977, after
which they remained unchanged until 1995.
It is obvious that improvements in the building codes only have long term effects
on energy consumption, since the annual increase of new buildings is very
moderate compared to the total building population. However, there is an ongoing
improvement of insulation standards of existing buildings.

Figure 5.9 show that while the average size of dwellings in Denmark has been
rather constant since 1980, the distribution of heating installations by fuel has
changed drastically. Oil burners were dominant until the mid 1980s, after which
district heating became the most widespread heating installation. The number of
district heating and natural gas installations has continued the increase at the
expense of oil burners. From 1990 to 2002, the share of oil burners has declined
from one third to 17.8%, whereas the share of district heating installations
increased from 47.1% to 59.8%. Over the period 1990-2002, the share of natural
gas burners increased from 6.7% to 13.3%.

28
3000

2500

2000

1500
1000

1000

500

0
1980 1990 2002
District Heating Oil Natural Gas Others

Figure 5.9 Heating Installations in Danish Dwellings

Fig. 5.10 shows the trend in climate adjusted unit consumption for space heating
per dwelling. The development is shown for final energy consumption and useful
energy, i.e. energy consumption less local losses.

From 1990 to 2002, unit consumption for space heating has fallen from1.277
toe/dw to1.189 toe/dw, i.e. with 6.0%. Unit consumption for space heating
measured as useful energy - was in the same period almost constant (decreased
from 1.023 toe/dw to1.020 toe/dw or by 0.3%). The varying trends are due to the
significant transition from oil burners to the more efficient natural gas burners and
district heating installations.

29
2,2

2,0

1,8

1,6
toe/dwelling

1,4

1,2

1,0

0,8
1975 '78 '81 '84 '87 '90 '93 '96 '99 '02
Final Useful

Figure 5.10 Unit Consumption per Dwelling for Space Heating. Climate Adj.
Source: Odyssee

Unit consumption per m2 for space heating displays almost the same trends as seen
in figure 5.11. This is due to the close correlation between the number of dwellings
and the heated area in m2, refer to figure 5.3. In 2002, unit consumption per m2
was 11.3 koe against 12.0 koe in 1990.

16

14

12
toe/m2

10

6
1980 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98 '00 '02
Final Useful

Figure 5.11 Unit Consumption per m2 for Space Heating. Climate Adjusted
Source: Odyssee

30
The energy substitution from oil to natural gas and district heating has had a
substantial effect on the development on energy consumption for space heating in
the household sector. This substitution effect will be much smaller in the coming
year and without new initiatives for energy savings, the unit consumption for space
heating will again begin to increase.

Electricity Consumption for Lighting and Electrical


Appliances

Before 1986, a very close connection between the development in electricity


consumption (total as well as consumption for lighting and appliances) and in the
total value of private consumption existed. As can be seen from figure 5.12, the
correlation disappeared in the subsequent decade. From 1996, electricity
consumption is again related closely to total private consumption.

From 1990 to 2002, total private consumption has grown with 21.4%, whereas total
electricity consumption and electricity consumption for lighting and appliances
increased 3.8% and 11.4% respectively. The trends have been much faster in the
first half of the 1990s than in the second half. From 1997 to 2002, the percentage
increases are 2.6%, -0.6% and 4.3% respectively. The weak decrease in total
electricity consumption is mainly due to a significant decline in electricity used for
space heating

150

125
Index 1980=100

100

75
1980 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98 '00 '02
Private Consumption Electricity Consumption
Electricity for appliances etc.
Figure 5.12 Electricity Consumption in Households versus Private
Consumption

31
Since 1990, the development of electricity consumption in households differed
from consumption for space heating, although the trend is more similar today than
prior to 1990. Figure 5.13 shows total unit consumption of electricity per dwelling
(not climate adjusted) and for lighting and electrical appliances. From 1990 to
2002, unit electricity consumption experienced a minor decrease of 1.6% - i.e. from
4,071 kWh/dw to 4,006 kWh/dw per year.

Looking only at electricity consumption for lighting and electrical appliances, unit
consumption has increased by 5.6% in the period 1990-2002 (from 3,069 kWh/dw
to 3,241 kWh/dw). The different developments in the two unit consumption series
are due to a significant decline in electricity used for space heating.

5000

4500

4000
KWh /dwelling

3500

3000

2500

2000
1975 '77 '79 '81 '83 '85 '87 '89 '91 '93 '95 '97 '99 '01

Total Electrical Appliances etc.

Figure 5.13 Unit Consumption of Electricity per Dwelling

Consumption of electricity in households for lighting and appliances only increased


about 6% from 1990 to 2002 irrespective of a strong penetration of electrical
appliances in households. Figure 5.14 offers a quick overview of how fast the
development of electrical appliances has been. The number of refrigerators has
increased by 44% while that of dishwashers and dryers by 125% in the period
1990-2002.

32
4000

3500

1000 appliances
3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1980 '82 '84 '86 88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98 '00 '02
TV Sets
Refrigerators
Independent Freezers
Dish Washers
Microwave Ovens
Washing Machines
Dryers

Figure 5.14 Stock of Electrical Appliances in Households


Source: Odyssee

Ceteris paribus one should have expected that the outcome of this development has
been a significant increase in the electricity consumption. This has not happened
and can be explained by a general decline in the specific consumption of all
electrical appliances in the same period, refer to figure 5.15. Taken as examples
from 1990 to 2002, the specific consumption of independent freezers and
refrigerators has fallen by 25.6% and 21.5% respectively.

800

600
kWh/year

400

200

0
1980 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98 '00 '02
Independent Freezers Dryers
Dish Washers Washing Machines
Refrigerators TV Sets

Figure 5.15 Specific Consumption of Electrical Appliances


Source: Odyssee

33
As previously mentioned, unit electricity consumption did exhibit a moderate
decrease of 1.6% in the period 1990 to 2002. Without the technical improvements
in electrical appliances etc., the development in electricity consumption would
have been different. With specific consumption kept constant at 1990-level for the
abovementioned seven appliances, electricity consumption in 2002 would have
been 3.9 PJ higher. Under this condition, the unit consumption of electricity per
dwelling would have increased by 9.0% in the period 1990-2002, as shown in
figure 5.16.

4600

4400
kWh/year

4200

4000

3800
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
1990-Standards Actual

Figure 5.16 Unit Consumption of Electricity per Dwelling: Actual and with
Unchanged Specific Consumption for Appliances

Figure 5.17 shows an example of changes from 1980 to 2002 in specific


consumption for household appliances measured by three time series: Average of
independent freezers, average of new independent freezers and the best of the new
independent freezers (with an essential market share). Although the distance
between the three curves has diminished slightly over the years, it is seen that there
is still an important potential for energy savings. In 2002, specific consumption of a
new freezer was 32% lower than the average consumption, while specific
consumption of the best (most energy efficient) of the new freezers was 55%
lower.

34
800

700

600

500
kWh/year

400

300

200

100

0
1980 '82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96 '98 '00 '02

All Freezers (Average) New Freezers (Average)


New Freezers (Best)

Figure 5.17 Specific Consumption of Independent Freezers


Source: Odyssee

60 80
50
60
40
Percent

Percent

30 40
20
20
10
0 0
Label class A Label class B Other Label class A Label class B Other
1994 2002 1994 2002

New independent freezers New refrigerators without freezers

Figure 5.18 Sales of Electrical Appliances by Label Class


Source: Odyssee

To promote the reduction of electricity consumption in households, vital measures


have been introduced such as information campaigns and labelling of electrical
appliances. Figure 5.18 illustrates that the share of label A (most efficient) and
label B (second best) appliances have become more popular in Denmark. As for
new independent freezers, the share of label A grew in the same period from 18%
to 57% from 1994 to 2002. For new refrigerators, the share of label A (B) increased
from 3% (24%) to 62% (34%) in the same period.

35
6. Updating of the MURE Database

MURE (Mesures dUtilisation Rationnelle de lEnergie) is a database on measures


for energy efficiency. The database provides information on energy conservation
measures that have been carried out in the 15 Member States of the European
Union, and enables the simulation and comparison at a national level of the
potential impact of such measures. Danish measures have been updated in 2003
and the results can be seen in the four tables below.

Table 1 MURE II Household Updating of Measures


Measure Title Changes New status
Code
1982 Building regulations on thermal Updated, no new
A1 DK 1 Not in force, completed
insulation description uploaded
Updated, new
A1 DK 3 1995 Building regulations Ongoing
description uploaded

Updated, no new
B1 DK 1 Energy consultants Not in force, completed
description uploaded

Updated, and new


B1 DK 2 Energy labelling of smaller buildings Ongoing
description uploaded

Updated, and new


B1 DK 3 Energy labelling of larger buildings Ongoing
description uploaded

Revision of thermal building code Updated, and new


Proposed
B1 DK 4 (2005/2006) description uploaded

Updated, and new


B10DK 1 Heating Planning Ongoing
description uploaded
Heat Consulting (Heating equipment
Updated, no new
B2 DK 1 maintenance and control for large heating Not in force, completed
description uploaded
systems)
Updated, and new
B2 DK 3 Energy labelling of larger buildings Ongoing
description uploaded

Updated, and new


B2 DK 4 Heat inspection of small oil heat furnaces Ongoing
description uploaded

New measure,
B3 DK 1 EU energy labelling of electric appliances Ongoing
description uploaded

Grant for energy saving measures for Updated, and new


B4 DK 1 Not in force, completed
pensioners dwellings description uploaded

No update and no
B4 DK 2 Grants for Energy Saving Measures Unknown
description uploaded

36
Updated, and new
B4 DK 4 Grants for product oriented energy savings Ongoing
description uploaded

Grants for connection of houses built before Updated, no new


B4 DK 5 Not in force, completed
1950 to district CHP systems description uploaded

Updated, new
B4 DK 6 Agreement on efficient windows Proposed
description uploaded

Updated, and new


B5 DK 1 Electricity Saving Trust Ongoing
description uploaded

Updated, and new


C1 DK 1 Carbondioxid tax Ongoing
description uploaded

Updated, no new
E1 DK 1 Database on electrical domestic appliances Not in force, completed
description uploaded

Demand Side Management - Electricity New measure,


E2 DK 1 Ongoing
Companies description uploaded

Table 2 MURE II Industry Updating of Measures


Measure Title Changes New status
Code

Updated, new
A0DK 18 Agreement on energy saving measures Ongoing
description uploaded

Updated and new


A0DK 21 Heating Planning Ongoing
description uploaded

New measure,
A0DK22 Green taxes on energy use in Industry Ongoing
description uploaded

Table 3 MURE II Tertiary Updating of measures


Measure Title Changes New status
Code
Energy labelling of larger buildings Updated, no new Ongoing
description uploaded
A0DK 10
Heat inspection of small oil heat furnaces Updated, no new Ongoing
A0DK 11 description uploaded

Energy labelling of smaller buildings Updated, no new Ongoing


description uploaded
A0DK 13
Heating Planning Updated, no new Ongoing
A0DK 14 description uploaded

37
1995 Building regulations Updated, no new Unknown
description uploaded
A0DK 15
Energy considerations in public sector Updated, no new Completed
A0DK 3 procurement description uploaded

Tax on energy expenses in government Updated, no new Ongoing


financed institutions description uploaded
A0DK 6
Improved incentives for energy saving in Updated, no new Completed
A0DK 7 the government sector description uploaded

Table 4 MURE II Transport Updating of measures


Measure
Title Changes New status
Code

Updated and new


D 0DK 1 Increased taxes on gasoline Ongoing
description uploaded

New measure,
D 0DK2 Green Owner Fee Ongoing
description uploaded

Active Electronic Parking Guidance System in Updated, no new


E 0DK 1 Not in force, completed
Kolding description uploaded

Updated, no new
E 0DK 3 Priority of the bus line in city centres Not in force, completed
description uploaded

Updated, no new
G 0DK 3 New S-trains in the greater Copenhagen area Not in force, completed
description uploaded

Action Plan for Reducing CO2 in the Transport Updated, new


G 0DK 4 Proposed
Sector description uploaded

Optimization of the fuel consumption in trucks Updated, no new


H 0DK 3 Not in force, completed
in connection with driving behaviour description uploaded

New measure,
H 0DK4 Energy label of new passenger cars Ongoing
description uploaded

38

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