682

Borgs scales in strength training; from theory to

practice in young and older adults
Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by UNIVERSIDAD AUTONOMA METROPLITANA on 01/08/16

John P. Buckley and Gunnar A.V. Borg

Abstract: This study is the first to apply Borgs psychophysical equation to measuring responses to strength training with
weights machines. Theoretical constructs of Borgs scales were assessed in younger and older adults to estimate the appro-
priate load and number of repetitions required to meet recommended practice guidelines. A younger group (YG; 20 males,
20 females; aged 1938 years) and older group (OG; 13 males, 13 females; aged 5075 years) participated in 3 experiments.
Experiment 1: YG performed 2-repetitions of incremented loads during tricepselbow extensions and knee extensions to
level 7 on Borgs CR10 Scale. Experiment 2: YG (n = 16) then performed 12-repetitions at the loads from experiement 1
that elicited CR10 ratings 1.5, 3.0, and 5.0. Experiment 3: OG performed 15-repetitions of lat-pull and leg press at
15-repetition maximum (RM) load. In experiments 2 and 3, CR10 or Borg RPE were measured every 2 repetitions. Experi-
ment 1 revealed classic psychophysical response growth exponents between 1.1 and 1.8, which were greater in arms than
legs (p < 0.001) and in females (p < 0.001). Theoretical estimates of 1RM were derived from the growth curves for the
weights eliciting CR10 ratings of 1.5, 3, and 5. CR10 ratings of 3 to 6 fell within estimates of 40%70% 1RM. Experi-
ments 2 and 3 revealed, for constant load exercise over time (12 and 15 repetitions) from an initial CR10 rating of 4 to 6,
a linear increase of 1 scale point for every 3 to 4 repetitions. In conclusion, Borgs equation has been used to set theoretical
estimates of a %1RM. Relevant to current practice guidelines was the ability to set appropriate loads in relation to perform-
ing recommended numbers of repetitions (e.g., if the CR10 rating is >6 after 2 repetitions, the weight is likely be too heavy
to complete 12 to 15 repetitions).
For personal use only.

Key words: resistance training, perceived exertion, younger people, older people, psychophysical scaling, responses to load
and duration.
Rsum : Cette tude est la premire appliquer lquation psychophysique de Borg aux rponses des sujets sexerant sur
des appareils de musculation. On applique les constructs thoriques des chelles de Borg chez des adultes jeunes et gs
afin de prdire la charge approprie et le nombre requis de rptitions pour se conformer aux recommandations en matire
de pratique de lactivit physique. Un groupe de jeunes adultes (YG; 20 femmes et 20 hommes gs de 19 38 ans) et da-
dultes gs (OG; 13 femmes et 13 hommes gs de 50 75 ans participent aux trois exprimentations. Exprimentation 1 :
le YG dplace des charges incrmentielles par srie de 2 rptitions au cours dexercices dextension des coudes et dexten-
sion des genoux jusquau niveau 7 de lchelle CR10 de Borg. Exprimentation 2 : le groupe YG (n = 16) effectue 12 rp-
titions avec les charges de lexprimentation 1 qui ont suscit des cotes de 1,5, 3,0 et 5,0 sur lchelle CR10.
Exprimentation 3 : le groupe OG effectue 15 tractions dorsales et autant de dvelopps des jambes (15RM). Au cours des
exprimentations 2 et 3, on prend note des cotes CR10 ou RPE de Borg toutes les 2 rptitions. Dans lexprimentation 1,
on obtient la rponse psychophysique classique : la valeur des exposants voquant la croissance positive de la courbe varie
de 1,1 1,8 ; elle est dailleurs plus leve au cours des exercices des membres suprieurs (p < 0,001) et chez les femmes
(p < 0,001). On obtient des estimations thoriques de 1RM daprs les courbes daccroissement associes aux charges pour
lesquelles on attribue des cotes de 1,5, 3 et 5 sur lchelle CR10. Les valuations allant de 3 6 sur lchelle CR10 corres-
pondent aux estimations allant de 40 % 70 % du 1RM. Pour les efforts prolongs (12 et 15 rptitions) avec une charge
constante au cours des exprimentations 2 et 3, la cote initiale de 4 6 sur lchelle CR10 augmente linairement de 1 point
toutes les 3 4 rptitions. On utilise lquation de Borg pour faire des estimations du % 1RM. Sur le plan des recom-
mandations en matire dactivit physique, il est possible de dterminer les charges convenables pour raliser le nombre re-
command de rptitions; par exemple, si lvaluation sur lchelle CR10 est suprieure 6 aprs 2 rptitions, la charge est
probablement trop lourde pour se rendre jusqu 1215 rptitions.
Motscls : entranement contre rsistance, perception de lintensit de leffort, personnes jeunes, personnes ges,
chelonnage psychophysique, rponses selon la charge et la dure.
[Traduit par la Rdaction]

Received 3 December 2010. Accepted 3 May 2011. Published at www.nrcresearchpress.com/apnm on 6 October 2011.
J.P. Buckley. Department of Clinical Sciences, The University of Chester, Parkgate Road Chester, Cheshire CH1 4BJ, UK.
G.A.V. Borg. Department of Psychology, University of Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden.
Corresponding author: John P. Buckley (e-mail: j.buckley@chester.ac.uk).

Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 36: 682692 (2011) doi:10.1139/H11-078 Published by NRC Research Press
 Buckley and Borg
Introduction
Strength training for health and fitness has now become an
integral part of national physical activity guidelines for
younger and older adults in the United States, United King-
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dom, and Canada (www.health.gov/paguidelines, 2008;
ODonavan et al. 2010;1 www.csep.ca, 2011). It is also rec-
ommended in key professional guidelines and reviews for
health and rehabilitation (Liu and Latham 2009; Braith and
Beck 2008; Volaklis and Tokmakidis 2005; Hass et al.
2001). Multi-joint exercise using machines are reported to be
better for overall functional muscle strength compared to sin-
gle joint exercises; the former seeming to be more appropri-
ate for general health, fitness, older, and clinical populations
(Hass et al. 2001).
Guidelines of the American Heart Association (AHA) and
the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (Pollock
et al. 2000; Williams et al. 2007) and the above cited re-
views have recommended using Borgs (620) rating of per-
ceived exertion scale (RPE Scale), in young and older
adults, for setting strength training intensities. There are,
however, no known studies on validating Borgs scales for
strength training in older people; hence this raises the ques-
tion of age being a mediating factor. RPE training zones
(11light to 15hard), like in aerobic exercise, have been
given but with no clear guidance of why these levels are
given or when during the set of repetitions the rating is to
For personal use only.
be made.
Perceived exertion as a function of intensity (weight lifted)
Many in sports medicine and exercise science are likely to
be unaware that muscle sensations related to weight or heav-
iness were the focus of the first psychophysical scaling stud-
ies performed by Weber and Fechner in the mid 1800s
(Stevens 1957, 1961). No studies to date on typical and prac-
tical strength testing and training procedures have properly
evaluated perceived effort in light of this long history of psy-
chophysical scaling theory. The most appropriate type of rat-
ing scale to rate localized sensations of muscle work is one
with ratio properties that can accommodate for the curvilin-
ear responses to incremented muscle work (Stevens 1957,
1961, 1989; Stevens and Mack 1959; Borg 1961, 1962,
1973, 1998; Borg and Borg 2001). In essence the 1 scale
that meets these criteria is Borgs CR10 Scale (Borg 1998,
2004; Borg and Borg 2001). Surprisingly it is Borgs RPE
(620) Scale, designed to measure a composite of all body
sensations for aerobic-type activity and not localized muscle
sensations, which has been the focus of most of the strength
training and perceived exertion validation studies (Gearhart et
al. 2001, 2002, Lagally et al. 2002, McGuigan and Foster
2004, Suminski et al. 1997; Tiggemann et al. 2010). An
exception to this is Pincivero et al. (2003) who assessed
CR10 responses to various loads (10% to 90% 1-repetition
maximum (RM)) of isometric knee flexor exercise; more of
an experimental than a wider practice-based application.
All of these validation studies on Borgs scales have been
performed on young adults and they reported gender not to
be a mediating factor. Gender differences are still to be as-
sessed more fully with regard to Borgs equation (see below)
1ODonovan et al. 2010 is a supporting document for the pending publication of the Chief Medical Officers report on Physical Activity and
Health from the Department of Health for England.
683
and the CR10 Scale. Other RPE scales have been promoted
for use during strength training but their design properties
have not been clearly described in relation to the classic and
accepted psychophysical principles of Stevens Power Law
(Stevens 1961) and Borgs equation (Borg 1961, 1962; Ek-
man 1962):
R a cS  bn
where R is the rating of perceived intensity; S is the strength
of the external stimuli (e.g., weight lifted); a, c, and b are
correction constants; and n is the important exponent that de-
scribes the curvilinearity of the response line (curve).
In applying Stevens power law, the classic studies on per-
ceived heaviness of incremental handheld weights have
shown a positively accelerating growth exponent in the range
of 1.4 to 2.0 with an average of 1.6 (Stevens 1961, 1989;
Borg 1962, 1973, Borg and Ottoson 1986) but no reports to
date on perceived exertion to incremented loads of weight-
lifting exercises, either with free-weights or machines, have
reported on this phenomenon.
Perceived exertion as function of time (repetitions)
Absent in all studies or guidelines recommending the use
of RPE during strength training is guidance on how effort
perception is expected to change as a function of time
(e.g., working at a fixed load for a set number of repeti-
tions). Furthermore, there is the need to assess if this
change is different for different muscle groups, types of ex-
ercises (single joint vs. multi-joint exercises) or types of
muscular contractions (isotonic, isometric, isokinetic). The
AHAACSM joint guidelines (Williams et al. 2007) do
mention that RPE will increase across a number of repeti-
tions but they did not state by how much it might be ex-
pected to change. In referring back to principles of
psychophysics, however, it has been noted that for submax-
imal constant loads of muscle work, where changes in per-
ceived exertion are measured as a function of time (e.g.,
number of repetitions performed), the slopes of these re-
sponses have either been negatively accelerating or ap-
proaching linearity (Stevens 1989).
Study aims
The general aim of this study was to assess Borgs psy-
chophysical model, equation, and CR10 Scale during
strength training using weights machines. The 3 specific
aims were (i) to add to the theoretical evidence-base
within the context of psychophysical scaling across incre-
mental loads of weights found on weights-stacks ma-
chines; (ii) to assess changes in RPEs as a function of
time (e.g., over a number of repetitions) in younger and
older adults for setting out a recommended weight and
number of repetitions (12 to 15) (Pollock et al. 2000; Wil-
liams et al. 2007); and (iii) to provide a practical time sav-
ing alternative method for use in health promotion and
rehabilitation settings for determining an effective training
weight; as compared with the traditional 1RM method that
is felt to require potentially greater amounts of time and
Published by NRC Research Press
 684
motivational effort than the methods described and dis-
cussed in this present study.
Materials and methods
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Rationale and general methods to all study parts
There were 3 experiments in this study. The first 2 experi-
ments involved young healthy active adult participants and
the third experiment involved regularly active older partici-
pants. All data were collected in real gymnasium settings.
There was a progressive rationale to the order of the 3 ex-
periments. Experiment 1 was designed to focus on evaluating
the classical theoretical psychophysical properties that under-
pin the construction of Borgs CR10 Scale in relation to
measuring responses to incremental loads of muscular work.
Experiment 2 progressed from the theoretical concepts in ex-
periment 1 by providing the derived fixed loads to evaluate
changes in perceived exertion over a typically recommended
number of repetitions (12) for young healthy adults perform-
ing strength training in keeping with AHA and ACSM guide-
lines (Pollock et al. 2000; Williams et al. 2007). This
experiment used single joint muscle actions (triceps elbow
extension and quadriceps knee extension), which are often
used for enhancing strength and muscle tone (Hass et al.
2001). In experiment 3, a similar evaluation to experiment 2
was applied. However, in keeping with AHA and ACSM rec-
For personal use only.
ommendations for these populations (older people and some
with a clinical condition), the exercises were performed over
a greater number of repetitions (15). Furthermore, to reflect
the need for weight training to include functional movements
as well as being strength promoting in these populations
(Hass et al. 2001), multi-joint exercises were performed (lat-
issimus dorsi pull-downs (lat-pull) and leg press. The AHA
and ACSM guidelines (Pollock et al. 2000; Williams et al.
2007) for older or clinical populations focus on the applied
relevance of fatigue occurring at or around the last repetition
(e.g., the 15th repetition) and hence our choice of the 15RM
as the reference point rather than the 1RM.
Prior to assessing any of the participants in this study, eth-
ical approval from the related academic institutions was given
and each participant gave his or her informed consent. None
of the participants had experience in using RPE scales during
strength training exercise. All participants had been correctly
instructed and experienced at using the weights machines de-
scribed later. On the first time the Borg scales were used, the
standardized instructions with both written and verbal de-
scriptions were given to each participant according to Borg
(1998, 2004) and Gearhart et al. (2001). On all subsequent
sessions participants were reminded of the key elements of
these rating of exertion procedures, specifically the anchoring
of the verbal and numerical values and the focusing on the
muscular sensations arising either with each incremented
weight (experiment 1) or each repetition (experiments 2 and 3).
During all testing sessions the Borg scale was kept in full
view of the participant at all times. For each participant dur-
ing each of the tests the exercise machines were adjusted ap-
propriately to his or her stature (leg length and arm length).
Appropriate instruction on the correct movement technique
for each of the exercises was given prior to each test using a
very light weight. Limb movements were paced using a met-
ronome for the younger individuals and a stopwatch with the
Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Vol. 36, 2011
older individuals. In the older participants it was decided to
pace the limb movements with a stopwatch along with verbal
guidance as it was felt that with background noise from
within the gym, this may impede the participants hearing. In
keeping with the ACSM recommendations (Kraemer et al.
2002; American College of Sports Medicine 2009) and the
AHA and ACSM joint statements (Pollock et al. 2000; Wil-
liams et al. 2007) for untrained to intermediate level partici-
pants we used moderate to slow limb movement pacing for
each repetition. Therefore, the concentric phase of the move-
ment for the prime muscle group was performed in 1.5 to
2.0 s and the eccentric phase in 2.5 to 3.0 s. All testing ses-
sions were preceded and proceeded by a 10 min warm-up
and cool-down, respectively. These exercises consisted of
light intensity cycle ergometry or motorized treadmill activity
that was graduated up to (or down from in the case of the
cool-down) 60% of age-estimated maximum heart rate
(HRmax).
To attain statistical power greater than 85%, with a = 0.5
and a large effect size of 0.4 for analyses of variance and
0.35 for regression analyses, a minimum sample size of 14
was calculated. The underlying assumption being that for a
practicallyclinically meaningful response, a 10% change is
required in a RPE score and allowing for a standard deviation
of 1.5 scale points for any given mean rating.
Experiment 1
This experiment had 2 components to it. The first compo-
nent was the first time that Borgs equation, R = a + c(Sb)n,
has been used to assess the change (growth) in perceived ex-
ertion with incremented loads when using weights machines.
In light of this analysis not being done before and thus not
knowing whether there would be a gender bias, separate
analyses were performed on males and females. The aim of
this first component would provide theoretical ground
work for this current study and future studies to establish,
for use by practitioners, more clearly defined relationships
between the numerical and categorical levels on Borgs
CR10 Scale and percentages of a given repetition maximum.
As with all of the key studies previously noted (Gearhart et
al. 2002, Grant et al. 1994, Lagally et al. 2002, McGuigan
and Foster 2004, Pincivero et al. 2003, Suminski et al.
1997), the underlying assumption has been that a localized
maximal muscle effort for a 1RM corresponds to the terminal
point on the rating scale (in this case 10 a sensation of
extremely strong, max). The trend-lines could thus be used
to estimate the various percentages of a 1RM for any point
on the Borgs CR10 Scale.
The second component of this experiment allowed for the
determination of the 3 fixed loads (weights) that each partic-
ipant would use in experiment 2. These weights would equate
to CR10 ratings of 1.5, 3, and 5.
Participants and testing sessions
Forty participants consisting of 20 males (aged 19
35 years; height 178.1 5.7 cm; body mass 72.1 4.6 kg)
and 20 females (aged 2338 years; height 169.0 4.0 cm;
body mass 64.2 8.2 kg), who exercised recreationally be-
tween 3 and 5 h per week, were recruited either by poster or
invitation from within a university psychology department.
Published by NRC Research Press
 Buckley and Borg
Each participant performed both an elbow (triceps) extension
using a high-pulley machine and knee extension exercise
using a seated thigh extension machine (Nordic Gym, Care-
taker Scandinavia AB, Bollnas, Sweden). Participants carried
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out 2 repetitions of a given weight for the triceps exercise,
then rested for at least 2 min and performed the same for the
knee extension exercise, rested for 2 min and then returned to
the next weight increment for the triceps exercise, and so
forth. This was repeated until participants reached the weight
that elicited a rating of 7 on the CR10 scale. In keeping with
guidelines of the National Strength and Conditioning Associ-
ation (www.nsca.com), this process provided enough rest
(>4 min) for each muscle group to mitigate the effects of
muscle fatigue on the test results. The first resistance level
involved performing the exercise with no weight and was rep-
resented in the data as 0 kg. In keeping with Lynch et al.
(1999), where female arm and leg strength are 50% and
60% that of men, respectively, the elbow extension weight
increments for the females and males were 2.5 kg and
5.0 kg, respectively, and for the leg extension 5.0 kg and
7.5 kg, respectively. CR10 perceived exertion ratings were
measured after the second repetition at each weight incre-
ment. It was felt that 2 repetitions gave adequate time (8 to
10 s) for participants to perceive and judge the necessary
muscular sensations required to give a rating on the CR10
scale. No motivational feedback was given. The intermediate
For personal use only.
relative weights were denoted for CR10 ratings of 1.5, 3, 5,
and 7 by the corresponding abbreviations of W1.5, W3, W5,
and W7.
Experiment 2
This experiment aimed to evaluate Borgs theoretical
model for the change or growth (slope) in perceived exertion
as a function of time (over a given number of repetitions), at
pre-set weights determined in experiment 1. Of the 40 partic-
ipants from experiment 1, 16 (8 male) were able to return
1 week later to complete this experiment. The group mean
descriptive values from experiment 1 remained the same.
With a main feature of this experiment involving tests of dif-
ferences in perceived exertion and knowing such type of
analysis in the past showed no gender bias (Lagally et al.
2002; Pincivero et al. 2003), the data were pooled. A gender
subgroup analysis was still performed to further confirm the
current assumptions of no gender bias.
This group were instructed to complete 12 repetitions (in
keeping with AHA and ACSM guidelines for young healthy
individuals), or as many as possible at the same relative in-
tensity during the same single joint exercises of experiment 1
(triceps elbow extension and legknee extension). The loads
were the submaximal weights from experiment 1 (W1.5, W3,
and W5). As in experiment 1, the same process of providing
rest periods and alternating between muscle groups was ap-
plied to mitigate the effects of muscle fatigue.
Experiment 3
This experiment aimed to reflect the AHA recommenda-
tions (Pollock et al. 2000; Williams et al. 2007) for resistance
training in older or clinical populations by evaluating changes
in CR10 and RPE during 15 repetitions of lat-pull and leg-
press exercises at an intensityweight that elicited a 15RM.
685
Participants and grouping into CR10 or RPE evaluations
Participants were recruited from a health and exercise club
database, which has a high proportion of people over the age
of 50 years. The aim was to have 2 groups of at least 15 par-
ticipants perform the same set of strength exercise trials but
1 group using Borgs CR10 Scale and the other using Borgs
620 RPE Scale. Testing of the latter group was for purposes
of making comparisons to previous studies and the ACSM
and AHA recommendations.
Fifty members, who were over the age of 50 years
(25 men and 25 women), were selected at random from this
database and invited to participate in the study. Thirty of
these members agreed to participate after informed consent
and health screening by an Accredited Clinical Exercise
Physiologist (British Association of Sport and Exercise Sci-
ences; BASES) and (or) a United Kingdom Chartered Physi-
otherapist in accordance with respective professional
guidelines (British Association for Cardiac Rehabilitation
2006; BASES 2006) and codes of practice. This convenience
sample of willing volunteers included healthy individuals and
others with previous cardiovascular disease or musculoskele-
tal conditions. Those participants with any medical history or
condition risk, who were previously referred to exercise for
health or rehabilitation, were cleared for participation by a
medical doctor. None of these participants were in an acute
or rehabilitation phase of treatment (all regularly exercising
for more than 6 months or more since any formal treatment
or medical therapy), and all of whom who had previously
been deemed appropriate to use the 2 different exercise ma-
chines by the BASES Accredited Exercise Physiologist or
the United Kingdom Chartered Physiotherapist.
Four participants did not complete all the trials because of
unexpected social commitments. Thus 26 of the members
completed all the trials, which resulted in 2 groups of 13 par-
ticipants. The final CR10 group, aged 67.4 6.8 years, con-
sisted of 5 females (height 159.4 4.8 cm; body mass
63.8 1.9 kg) and 8 males (height 170.6 3.1 cm; body
mass 78.4 13 kg) and the final RPE group, aged 61.2 +
5.7 years, consisted of 8 females (height 163.9 5.4 cm;
body mass 74.9 11.3 kg) and 5 males (height 174.8 cm
2.2; body mass 81.2 9.3 kg). As in experiment 2, male and
female data were pooled.
Testing sessions of older people
The first testing session involved appropriate instruction
and (or) correction for standardized movement technique and
posture with the leg press and latissimus dorsi (lat-pull)
weights machines (Force Fitness Ltd, Bolton, UK). As per
Lynch et al. (1999), the starting weights were set at 50% and
25% body mass for the leg press and lat-pull, respectively.
Participants completed 15 repetitions and gave a rating of ex-
ertion after every odd numbered repetition. At each session
(2 to 3 per week), the amount of weight for the lat-pull was
increased by 2.5 kg for females and 5.0 kg for males. Simi-
larly for the leg press, the respective increments for males
and females were 7.5 kg and 10 kg. In reflecting real prac-
tice for teaching individuals to use weights machines safely
and effectively, it took between 4 and 6 sessions (with at
least 1 day between sessions) before each participant had pro-
gressed up to a weight where they could not perform more
than 15 repetitions (a 15RM). To make participation in the
Published by NRC Research Press
 686
study as similar and convenient to participants normal at-
tendance as possible, it was decided to take this progressive
bight-sized approach rather than making their attendance
to the centre being perceived as something extraordinary to
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normal attendance. The CR10 and RPE scale responses
measured in the final session, where a 15RM was achieved,
were the ones used for analysis.
Statistical analyses
Multi-factor analysis of variance was used to assess
changes or differences in CR10 or RPE scores in relation to
both gender and type of exercise (e.g., arms or legs) as af-
fected by the following parameters: increases in the amount
of weight lifted, the growth exponent in RPE with increments
in weight or in the case of the number of repetitions per-
formed, and the slope (or curvilinearity) of the line of re-
sponses between the first and the final repetition performed
at a constant weight.
1RM theoretical estimate graphs and equations
Borgs equation (previously noted) was applied in estimat-
ing theoretical estimates of a 1RM. For the sake of simplic-
ity, functions were determined with the constant a from
Borgs equation set to zero. The c values for selected levels
were created through graphic interpolation of each participant
with a precision of 0.005. Thus, the c value here corresponds
For personal use only.
with the individuals estimation of his or her strength. A
higher c value indicates a broader dynamic range (Borg and
Karlsson 1976), where in this case it is an ability to perform
exercises at higher loads. Data were excluded for individuals
who chose to terminate testing before a rating of 7 had been
reached or if a rating below 1.5 was absent. The %1RM esti-
mates for a given value on the CR10 scale were then deter-
mined by the following process using Borgs equation: (i) as
stated earlier the 1RM is assumed to coincide with a rating of
10 (Wmax10) (Gearhart et al. 2002, Grant et al. 1994, Lagally
et al. 2002, McGuigan and Foster 2004, Pincivero et al.
2003, Suminski et al. 1997); (ii) extrapolation of the calcu-
lated growth curves for each participant was made from the
final absolute weight (kg) lifted that elicited CR10 ratings of
7 up to the estimated weight that would theoretically coincide
with a rating of 10; (iii) conversion of these absolute values
from the 1RM estimate into a %1RM; (iv) calculating the
group mean SD CR10 ratings for each 10% increment of
the 1RM.
Results
Experiment 1
Figure 1 summarizes the results from experiment 1 in the
young males and females, where there is a positively acceler-
ating growth in the CR10 score for each increment in weight.
The highest data point in each of the graphs in Fig. 1 is a
weight lifted by all the participants; for the participant with
the least strength this will have been his or her terminal
weight that coincided with a CR10 rating of 7. For the males
and females performing the triceps exercise, the mean CR10
values at 0 kg, which represents the value of a in Borgs
equation (R = a + c(Sb)n), were 0.4 and 0.2, respectively.
Similarly for the leg extension, CR10 values at 0 kg for
males and females were also 0.4 and 0.2.
Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Vol. 36, 2011
Analysis of the positively accelerating growth in perceived
exertion (growth exponent values noted in each panel of
Fig. 1) revealed that in both males and females the growth
was greater in the triceps (arm) exercise compared to the leg
extension exercise (F[1.38] = 53.473, p < 0.001). Furthermore,
the growth exponents for both triceps and leg extension exer-
cises were greater in the females (F[1.38] = 15.609, p <
0.001). These mean growth exponents for males and females
performing leg extension and triceps extension exercises have
been calculated with a = 0 (from Borgs equation: R = a +
c(S b)n), to take account of the fact that rest or no de-
tectable muscle action (nothing at all) represents 0 on
Borgs CR10 Scale. A significant interaction effect between
exercise and gender was also apparent (F[1.38] = 22.791,
p < 0.001), with post hoc analysis showing the main effect
for gender was in the triceps extension (Figs. 1D and 2).
%1RM theoretical estimations
Figure 2 illustrates the group mean growth curves from the
exponents derived from the curves in Fig. 1 and being fac-
tored into Borgs equation. These curves represent theoretical
estimates of the trend for estimating the %1RM from a sub-
maximal effort for a given weight and its corresponding
CR10 rating.
Experiment 2
Figure 3 summarizes the group mean change in CR10 rat-
ings for young adult males and females (pooled data) with
the exception of the first weight increment (W1.5) for the leg
extension exercise illustrated in Fig. 3A, whilst performing
12 repetitions at 3 pre-set weights. The slope of the regres-
sion lines for males and females at the this first weight incre-
ment (W1.5) of leg extension exercise were significantly
different (p = 0.02) where at all other increments for both
leg or arm exercises there was no significant gender differ-
ence. Each of these 3 weights corresponded to the amount
of weight that previously elicited, after 2 repetitions, CR10
ratings of 1.5 (W1.5 diamonds), 3 (W3 squares), and 5
(W5 triangles).
Mean values and regression lines (Fig. 3) were estimated
for perceived exertion across the 12 repetitions. The corre-
sponding equations are all described in Fig. 3 and all the as-
sociated correlations were very strong (>0.95). Had it not
been for this natural ceiling effect at maximum performance
level, the mean values for the entire group would probably
have been higher at this level. To compensate for this to in-
clude all participants, the reported regression equations for
W5 in Fig. 3 are based on the median values.
Experiment 3
Male and female data in this experiment are pooled as sub-
group analyses showed no gender effect on the slope of the
CR10 or RPE responses. The results summarized in Figs. 4A
and 4B illustrate that for both Borgs CR10 Scale and Borgs
RPE Scale there was a positive linear growth in the rating of
exertion as the exercise progressed up to the 15th repetition.
The change in exertion ratings for both scales, between the
1st and 15th repetition, was significant (p < 0.001). Although
the average ratings taken from both exertion scales appear to
be less during the leg press compared with the lat pull up to
the 7th repetition, these differences were not statistically sig-
Published by NRC Research Press
 Buckley and Borg
Fig. 1. Mean CR10 scale ratings of perceived exertion performing 2 repetitions at incremental amounts of weight. (A) Male leg extension;
(B) female leg extension; (C) male triceps extension; (D) female triceps extension. Grth Exp = Group mean (SD) Growth exponent describing
the curvilinearity of the trend line. *, Triceps extension significantly greater than leg extension (p < 0.001); , females significantly greater
than males (p < 0.001).
Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by UNIVERSIDAD AUTONOMA METROPLITANA on 01/08/16
For personal use only.
Fig. 2. Relative group mean growth curves of CR10 ratings for tri-
ceps extension and leg extension exercises at theoretically estimated
%1RM in young adult males and females. Data were derived from
the absolute values in Fig. 1. In the accompanying table (Table 1)
are the CR10 standard deviations (SD) for each 10% increment.
From these growth curves, data were extrapolated from CR10 rat-
ings of 7 up to the 1RM that coincided with a CR10 of 10 (Wmax).
687
nificant. The regression equations of the relationship between
the number of repetitions and the perceived exertion re-
sponses on the CR10 and RPE scales for the Lat pull
down are presented in Fig. 4A and 4B with a trend for the
slopes to be steeper in the arm vs. the leg exercise but these
were not statistically significant. For all these regression
equations the correlation coefficient (r) was 0.99.
Discussion
This study evaluated perceived exertion responses during
resistive exercise training both in terms of the intensity
(weight lifted) and duration (number of repetitions) in
younger and older individuals. In keeping with principles of
psychophysics summarized by Stevens (1989), as illustrated
in Figs. 1 and 2, the perceived exertion ratings grew in a pos-
itively accelerating fashion (relative to a given intensity) with
each added weight for both the leg extension and triceps ex-
tension exercise. This is the first time that Borgs equation,
which underpins the original design of Borgs scales from al-
most 4 decades ago, has been applied to evaluate perceived
exertion responses to incremental work using weight-stacks
machines typically found in most fitness centers. The growth
exponent values in this present study ranged from 1.1 to 1.8,
which compare favourably to the growth exponents for incre-
mented loads of muscular work of 1.45 to 1.7 (averaging 1.6)
as noted for many decades (Stevens. 1989). However, this is
the first time such an evaluation has covered different muscle
groups using a system of weights machines.
Published by NRC Research Press
 688 Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Vol. 36, 2011

Table 1. Standard deviations (SD) of the CR10 ratings from Fig. 2 at each increment for triceps and leg extension
(ext) exercise.

SD CR10 10%1RM 20%1RM 30%1RM 40%1RM 50%1RM 60%1RM 70%1RM

Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by UNIVERSIDAD AUTONOMA METROPLITANA on 01/08/16

Female tricep 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.7

Male tricep 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.2 1.3 1.5
Female leg ext 0.5 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.8
Male leg ext 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.8

Fig. 3. Regression analysis of males and females combined (M&F), Fig. 4. Changes in CR10 (A) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE)
or where the slopes were significantly different of males (M) and (B) scores during 15 repetitions of lat-pull (diamonds) and leg-
females (F) these are presented separate; the change in CR10 ratings press (squares) strength training exercises in older males and fe-
(y) for a given number of repetitions (x) at 3 different weights (WR) males. (A) CR10 ratings to 15-repetition maximum (15RM) in
that on a previous occasion elicited CR10 ratings of 1.5, 3, and 5 older adults; (B) RPE to 15RM in older adults. Weights were set at
after 2-repetitions. (A) Leg extension young group; (B) Triceps ex- a level of a 15RM in keeping with Williams et al.s (2007) guide-
tension young group. Triangles, CR10 5 (M&F); squares, lines.
CR10 3 (M&F); circles, CR10 1.5 (F); diamonds, CR10 1.5 (M).
*, Regression equation is based on the median CR10 values for each
2 repetitions in all participants to accommodate for the fact that not
all were able to complete 12 repetitions at a weight which on a pre-
vious occasion elicited a CR10 rating of 5 after 2 repetitions.
For personal use only.

differences between leg and arm exercise and men and

Musclelimb and gender comparisons
In experiment 1, when comparing the leg with arm exer-
cises, both men and women had greater growth exponents
for the arm exercises. In both the arm and leg exercises the
women demonstrated larger growth exponents. When the rat-
ings of exertion were converted to a relative measure of
weight (Fig. 2), then with the exception of the triceps, the
women all but disappeared. The gender bias towards women
reporting that a weight used for arm exercise (triceps) feels
lighter (Figs. 1 and 2) for any given proportion of estimated
maximum may reflect the biomechanical, neuromuscular, and
histochemical differences found in the upper arm function be-
tween men and women (Bilodeau et al. 1992; Anders et al.
2004; Kawakami et al. 2006). These studies also showed
that such gender differences were much less apparent in the
functioning of the legs, which corresponds with the growth
exponents being more similar between men and women in
the leg extension responses (Figs. 1 and 2). This also corre-
sponds with Lynch et al. (1999) who reported that there was
less of a difference in leg strength than in arm strength be-
tween men and women. Pincivero et al. (2003) found little
difference in males and females when measuring CR10 re-
sponses during isometric muscular contractions for knee-
flexor hamstring work at intensities between 10% to 90%
MVC.
A concurring point with Pincivero et al. (2003) is that
when our participants returned for a second time to use the
CR10 scale (experiment 2), their CR10 ratings at the same

Published by NRC Research Press

 Buckley and Borg
weight after 2 repetitions were lower. This was true at all
weights used as illustrated by the y intercept values all being
lower in the regression equations than the pre-set CR10 val-
ues (Fig. 3). A very similar pattern and magnitude of this fa-
Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by UNIVERSIDAD AUTONOMA METROPLITANA on 01/08/16
miliarization has been shown after repeating incremental
aerobic step tests and exercise treadmill exercise in cardiac
patients (Buckley et al. 2004, 2009). Interestingly, when the
female participants in experiment 2 performed 12-repetitions
at a fixed-load light intensity (CR10 rating = 1.5; Fig. 3 leg
extension) they demonstrated a steeper rate of fatigue in the
legs than the males, possibly demonstrating a greater muscu-
lar endurance in the males. Another possibility is the matter
of greater variability and lower accuracy and precision of
perceiving exertion at lower intensities as a result of the
physical stimulus signals simply being weaker (Buckley et
al. 2004). These comparisons in males and females do re-
quire further study with greater numbers of participants.
1RM estimates
The concept of estimating a 1RM in this study is based on
theoretical modeling, where further research is required to
add more precision to these estimates by comparing esti-
mated with actual 1RMs, in a similar way to studies that
have estimated maximal aerobic power (Faulkner et al. 2007;
Morris et al. 2009) from submaximal efforts. It is, however,
encouraging to see that the relationships of the theoretically
For personal use only.
estimated %1RM and CR10 ratings summarized in Table 2
show good transferability to the results in experiment 3 on
older people. With a 15RM load approximating a load that
equates to 50% to 60% 1RM (Pollock et al. 2000; Williams
et al. 2007) and its corresponding CR10 rating being 5 to 6
described in Table 2, one can see that the first 3 repetitions
in Fig. 3 have similar ratings of 5.5 and 6.5. From the au-
thors experience of applying this procedure in real practice,
the amount of trial and error needed to select the correct
weight for a novice or clinical patient has been greatly re-
duced by using Borgs scale. The utility of this method of
performing 2 repetitions, taking a rating of exertion and re-
peating this in a incremented fashion until a weight is found
that elicits a rating of 5 on the CR10 scale is certainly felt to
save much time compared with the 1RM method. It may be
argued that in research the 1RM method for determining the
correct weight for strength training has now been shown to
be safe in older populations and even in those with higher-
risk cardiac disease (Hass et al. 2001; Pu et al. 2001; Vola-
klis and Tokmakidis 2005; Braith and Beck 2008). It is felt
that in addition to saving time, another advantage over the
1RM method, is that the RPE method avoids the need of the
higher motivation effort required to attain a true 1RM. With-
out the appropriate motivation, the 1RM method will not
provide a true maximum and hence subsequent percentage
calculations of weight as a %1RM will be incorrect.
Pincivero et al. (2003) reported more of a linear growth in
CR10 ratings for intensities between 10% and 90% of a max-
imum voluntary contraction (MVC). They found no gender
bias in CR10 ratings across this intensity domain. However,
their participants performed isometric exercises lying prone
and involving the hamstring muscle group with the knee
fixed at 30 of flexion (fairly unconventional or nontransfer-
able to muscle activity in daily life). It therefore appears that
future work also needs to compare the psychophysical re-
689
Table 2. Theoretically modeled and estimated relationships be-
tween Borgs CR10 Scale and the percentage of a 1-repetition
maximum (%1RM) for muscular strength exercises (based on
tricepselbow and knee extensions in young healthy adults).
Verbal descriptor of elicited
muscular sensations CR10 rating %1RM
Very weak 1 15
Weak 2 30
Moderate 3 4045
Strong 5 6065
Very strong 7 7580
Extremely strong 10 100
sponses with various types of muscular work (e.g., isometric,
isotonic, or isokinetic). The variation in the curvilinearity of
perceived exertion responses found in this present study and
considering those of Pincivero et al. (2003) could potentially
be a function of either the muscle group used (e.g., legs or
arms) or the type of muscular contraction (dynamic or
isometric). What does seem apparent is that the estimated
%1RM values summarized in Table 2 are similar to those
reported for %MVC by Pincivero et al. (2003), with the ex-
ception of women performing triceps exercise.
More recently, Pritchett et al. (2009) reported that during
resistance training when the muscle is taken to failure, the to-
tal work performed influences the acute RPE more so than
the percentage of a 1RM. This is in contrast to the conclu-
sions of Stevens and Mack (1959), Borg (1973), and of La-
gally et al. (2002). It is important, however, to consider how
the anchoring of maximal effort is described to the partici-
pant, as the causes of muscle failure during only a few repe-
titions may be quite different physiologically when compared
with muscle failure from multiple repetitions (>15); hence
giving rise to differed sensations that are either influenced
by the intensity of effort or changes in effort sense due to fa-
tigue gradually occurring at a fixed intensity. This has clearly
been shown during aerobic endurance activity (Utter et al.
2002; Fontes et al. 2010); an area that certainly merits further
study.
Responses as a function of time (repetitions) and effects of
exercise mode and age
In experiments 2 and 3, perceived exertion responses were
measured at equal time-points during the performance of 12
and 15 repetitions in younger and older participants, respec-
tively. The key difference to experiment 1 is that here
changes in perceived exertion were measured as a function
of time (number of repetitions) and not as function of inten-
sity. This may partially explain the presence of a bias in fe-
male arm exercises found in experiment 1 (functions of
strength) not found in experiments 2 or 3 (tests of muscle fa-
tigue over time). Women at all ages have shown to have a
proportionally lower arm-to-leg strength ratio as compared
with men (Lynch et al. 1999).
In keeping with the theoretical models described by Borg
and Borg (2001) and Stevens (1989), the change in perceived
exertion across time (over the course of a given number of
repetitions) grew in a linear fashion. The younger partici-
pants responses were measured at 3 different weights. Figure
3 illustrates a trend that the steepness of the slope of per-
Published by NRC Research Press
 690
ceived exertion responses across 12 repetitions is a function
of the amount of weight used. This seems naturally sensible,
in that as one uses weights that are an increasingly greater
proportion of ones maximum strength, the rate of fatigue
Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by UNIVERSIDAD AUTONOMA METROPLITANA on 01/08/16
will become greater until a point where a decreasing number
of repetitions can only be completed with each weight in-
crease; up until a weight equal to a 1RM. For both arm and
leg exercises performed at the same relative intensity in
young (Fig. 3) and older participants (Fig. 4), the slopes
were similar (between 0.2 and 0.3). A similar trend was true
for those who were using Borgs RPE Scale. However, in the
older individuals the visual difference in the slope of the line
(Fig. 4) between leg press (slope = 0.2) and triceps extension
(slope = 0.3) was noticeably greater when measured with
Borgs CR10 Scale compared with those measured with
Borgs RPE Scale. This merits further study to demonstrate
that the Borg CR10 Scale, with its obvious finer increments
at the lower end of the scale, is a more sensitive and thus a
more appropriate measurement scale than the Borg RPE
Scale for assessing localized muscle sensations during
strength training as mooted by Borg (1998).
When the weight elicited a rating between 5 and 6 on
Borgs CR10 Scale in the first few repetitions, the ratings
proceeded to grow over the course of the repetitions with the
same slope (0.30) during the leg exercise in both the
younger and older participants. For the same perceived exer-
For personal use only.
tion starting point for the arm exercises, the slopes were dif-
ferent in the younger and older people but it needs to be
acknowledged that there were 2 distinct differences in the ex-
ercises performed. The young participants performed 12 rep-
etitions of single-joint exercises where perceived sensations
are localized to a single muscle group, whereas the older par-
ticipants performed 15 repetitions of multi-joint muscle exer-
cises. Single joint exercises, with fewer stimuli to interpret,
may be easier to more accurately judge exertion sensations
compared with the multiple joint exercises, which may have
varied levels of stimuli coming from the different muscles in-
volved in the exercise. On the whole, with the exception of
single-joint arm exercises or low-intensity leg exercise, this
present study further concurs with many previous studies
that at the same perceived (relative) intensities of muscle ex-
ertion (especially during leg muscle training), neither gender
nor age appear to create a notable bias in ratings measured
on Borgs CR10 Scale. Further study is warranted on compa-
rative differences in legs and arm exercises and multi- and
single-joint exercises.
Considerations for practitioners
In practical terms and with relevance to the AHAACSM
guidelines (Pollock et al. 2000 and Williams et al. 2007), ex-
periments 2 and 3 of this present study have highlighted 2
considerations for exercise prescription: (i) that when work is
performed at levels >50% 1RM equivalent to a 12- to 15RM
(levels recommended by the AHAACSM; Pollock et al.
2000; Williams et al. 2007), the CR10 or RPE rating will
grow by approximately 1 point on the scale for every 3 to
4 repetitions (Figs. 3 and 4); and (ii) if the initial 2 repeti-
tions elicit a CR10 rating greater than 5 to 6 or an RPE
greater than 15, the participant is working with a weight that
makes it unlikely for he or she to be able to complete 15 rep-
etitions; hence for strength training in health and rehabilita-
Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Vol. 36, 2011
tion the weight would be considered too heavy. In referring
back to the classic psychophysical principles of performing
short duration localized muscle work, Borgs CR10 Scale
lends itself to be used as the preference for rating perceived
exertion during muscular strength training.
Conclusions
In the main neither gender nor age were notable mediating
factors when using Borgs CR10 Scale to guide strength
training at loads and repetitions commensurate with recom-
mended professional practice guidelines. In keeping with
classic principles of psychophysics, when perceived exertion
was measured as a function of loadintensity (amount of
weight used) it grew in the expected curvilinear fashion and
when measured as a function of timeduration (number of
repetitions) it grew in the expected linear fashion. When
strength training is performed at intensities recommended for
performing 12 to 15 repetitions (e.g., approximately >50%
1RM), the slope of the perceived exertion responses equate
to an increase of 1 scale point for every 3 to 4 repetitions.
The appropriate weight that will allow one to perform 12 to
15 repetitions at a recommended intensity can be set by find-
ing a weight, which after 2 repetitions, will elicit a rating of 5
to 6 on Borgs CR10 Scale. For health promotion and reha-
bilitation settings, this is certainly far less time-consuming
and more amenable than using the traditional 1RM method
for determining an appropriate weight. Future work is re-
quired in 3 areas of using Borgs CR10 Scale to (i) assess
further the psychophysical principles of the curvilinear rela-
tionship between the percentage of various repetition maxi-
mums and Borgs CR10 Scale; (ii) increase the number of
reports, both theoretical and practical, for using perceived ex-
ertion during weight training in older people; and (iii) con-
sider how either of these areas are mediated (or not) by
different types of muscular contractions (isotonic, isometric,
isokinetic) and single and multi-joint strength exercises.
Acknowledgements
No funding has been received for this project except for
the support given by the authors affiliated institutions. We
would first like to acknowledge the work of Ola Gustafsson
at the University of Stockholm for his valued assistance in
the participant recruitment, gymnasium work, and data analy-
sis within the Swedish location of the study. Second is to ac-
knowledge the work of Glen Robbins and Chris Bradford
from Keele University, United Kingdom, for their efforts in
participant recruitment and gymnasium work with the older
participants at the Lifestyle Exercise & Physiotherapy Centre,
Shrewsbury, United Kingdom.
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