EEei!

:r :::=EYtr: tE gt9 zz
EgE=Tg:
it Etilz
g1!i;1EE:1+
;;lii; 1E5E!T=z
iisi:; gi
;sE; iiti1tlil*=E
li i?i
E;zii
i'
gillg;iiigEsl
i;g;EjEi,"?''
IZ
it=z.itt';it
i;EiE:eiiii;g #i 7t
?rsE;,
EEi!il: ft.,i
EEEEiEiE
;ifei:i::t3;g i{: EEi
3l;LEit sE:: .i-
-v
fr
F i;
;;iE; 'EEl iiilltz=.iiilll
iE;z*zE=EE.i ii+?E
;'lg : i tl: iEt+i; E;;'i=EEZi
q)
L
'ulEl?ti
g:
-
EEE>: H
ll|=li\llizzzeilZtl
6
a
L
F
I
-
'J=<Z'z=- j
-==-=== t:== i=:::: Zz 7,J., :=
:=
Ez+
i?.
,E ,E i=
:. zE?E=, E : EEi:
E=E?i,E Z Z i=1E2
F E+ :;iFs E ; =7=:*=
-!E $ Y*TEit!= E:*E'ii)tt
-
sAFE t,;=r'+=E,i: iEzl11ii=t,
Z ;ii; i1=i
+, ;; O.
z=in'iEi =sz'=i:i,
li!
?fiE iaiqf=riZZZEiZii
:iiatlllAE !,a1
*3gz=|i
rh.5
\-/+J
Elltiel_5ig*
-'
5 -
;: E !
=i:i-=*=
=iJ-
?z+
-=-^li -- vuev+ !-
 *Ebt'EE:jHsa
'?EiiiiViE'*= EHE:EFE d
,ltEEzz
; iF si
-n>bzjrig.I5 #:Z*ce E ; i
F:il=1;zzi3i* :aE;EFEE EE
ra3F=':\iZ:gI :
?i_==ft?.. z E
!{:1EEFgZ*Ee
lEEEizi E '
gE:lE:;;qs*E i;?z$zE? = :,
IE=g=.*E^EtE;i i{-dbE: ? 7
*=r?tl:i;ii;:gsys5 g i !
*Eri:s?itir{ ;E*;l:; = ; =
EV;:yryiEiEEi ii;iE?=, F a! =
y_zve1=ttsi}i IEEE;;7e ii ,
:Et,E**i,iEsi
j =*';
t
tr E|E!g:;Ei iEi
F
q)
1|I=IE1;;,EEE
;:s:'Fb==EsE E:l,EEil=H : =i =tt t
Eai'a
EEr!;;;-;1:,; i;l;E+;
L
-r - ,
E E,==E=E*i.=i 3,:+a!;
E;iii3si6!r
g;:iaiEiE:iii
a
Eitit=4
G
L
.I -
-a
v
It s i.=i=-i=ZEV:Z i:?',!?-=;:-'= , =.:
E*ii'yEigiE
'#gtri;FEi";
il
:;e
a
c
E??i:::?,;Igr+
;iiEEEigE,ec;
rrl
?E
E;i#li,Ei=Ei=i+
EEE;:EiEIi:iF;
*i =i E:i fii tq:i
li?:*;Ig5*:ia
i:izEEE:,=zz='e
=a:i:rtEi;UA;
;a'E6i*+u?s!jE
a! r iE:i riE!
toaT=
ii;'riii Efig!;: ;
;3!E;=r:EiEiiE =i!x
siizEifE
8E;u !;: Ea
gEifi EE$E
E
r:-i 3sa;
 Hq*e ;; $EEE
E +E
1z
s! i
gg z1z
;EHlsFgi
IIrEI .z
iii!i?
gIEi i:+ IiisE i;;rir+ii1
iEl I ;* :i[ i;EEiJigggI
i+; !;li Eii iEEF;E;ltt=t
1*
ssg ; gF*!;s
FI H
i
Er ; aE
ri,;
SElBie i12
tl!?gi
FEiEE
F1 E:;gs$i*i .E!i;;i stiEEi,z:z
E
I !?i,i ;i:; S-SggEi
i?'i s-il?:itii.tz
iii! zi;ielilEZi :; : ! i: i t;=?.=:=
ii,t='ri:;:i g: i;=1;=
: +iiiltljilI
'c
a
:EElze3;;
5liEi::;:;i:!!::i=1
i:E=i+i,Ei1l;zia
LL.
2
':
-c
,
ri
!ryE$;'.IliiillIuE,EE
; 3E;SEPi
.a
=
EslE:;:'ii!!gi
rilE;t!; iii;:
iii!lig|iEigil|s
iigiglIi*Esii iiE gs
E:iiiiiFil
iisiig: 1=
ii;
 boo cJ!
X o tr
'? !
e 'e !6!r o
E F: E
i ts= i :H :E
+ i'! 3 ; 5;! *e-
F ;Z'=E;-:ii ;i
c; ve:5
E:-T;iEFEEEi
;*nFg Ia
iE',Eg? e:irF
Efi'gi: nEE'oz Et
rE
ji::E E=
=Z;;:: 'E2+7Ez=E
E5E.:+
- c ' = c_ if,,=c/;--t-
i=1i7,=., :EiaE ltl=
2Zr,r=?iz=
^ziii= :i= g! 1;:
X*EJ'!
-E a -> g.q
EE|3:;
E=:
=:;:!i-t-
:::;:l
Ha:A:?E!;;:;13:
E ;E: z7i 1eiE+I;
0 r.Z - ;.= ;
?eA
,: = ; i ;.2 y .,,r
E:g;EEi-laEEriI:ag F
c
ii"?
E 7Z=e!:E:E;::f -i:r ==El
O
a
!.
.:o i ;rA
2 ii-aE
I EErt2:j
*9.q9i.Ei
a'E-2=:-=t
:I cca;;
;ee; :
!
fr.
L
Irl
g$gi$
il ;i;t
iisiEiigiiiElgFilii,r:::
El
is;sie rai :lft;;:g:g
Tllttii!{i$
iiiiii
ziv{z l il=u i!1
ietl::ie5ll:
u'il;
lrEiiE !:IF
iisiig g
=;E
gi
;'i$$ lii E 3
IliIgliliig EFt
X
iisE[i:flE
il;:Ii
'iZE, igi?iEEii1;
!;;!;1; iE3gigllin!Ei::
. Eiiz
tliiii$=;3zi;lFsrr
i:EB{E:zft
ggiIietg
:lEitltlEiE
Ea+i;:E| ,,rr ilZ
1i::9l
s':i;zEr?iiza+E*zEfiiil;iEil:zt
g EE-
;i1:
iii;EEi
i?giesirE:Ei
?; ,elgg:
iiEiEgii,
-o
iltisBigg itill
l!.1
a
E
I E*a9r!
eiE !gllt rzzite.:?
a
eiiliZilE ;illLltil
o
a
U
.-
o! 6
?EE3
boQ=
.i i r ?= ?3.i
qil g
t=
i;;:ii;i Eg:f t?Eise
*:;:Er"FirFi
iEei;i!iElFg!i
i!:ligi FIi!$E
-:'!g'
::
=iE:5i:: ;ecFeEEiiE=
-t
.-
+a
E.

i ;9Es;
E*gliE ii;i;ii;glFgieE
E#lilE
: *;i1lr! F;;ruig;;+5;gi;l
: iiEie
*r;!*'
-l'vl
E;
-
-
*i*iiEiEig;
;ssff li*gE
q)
-
-!a
*a
a
-A
*a

q)
;;:i;;i: ;Eg
ilisiEE;;$i,i;
rE?:=E
i:
;;i;tEir . a:E3.4-;'3;iF:g;;i:sI
e!;ililgii;:Igi5EilFggE
*)
!;Fg;
FI
iiiFi
v
L
F
g; gs5
q)
L
-t i sss;#:,i:i
EEi[:5': g
II:*si *E
 i:l!gE:! I!'
ii eEr
tsa/
:!v-ts
EI iIIIE
J?(Ji-
Eg
J>c:
-'_E
'a'7
- a v -
? V
d - ! ! s
i- 'F: -t se !
;::
o t Y"=
ffE! Eg;: iggE
E9gsilli,gF
E
a"ln
EO
'"-6; >.
z:
ha
3: ) c
( ) , = - !
Oaltso
txii
d
E;*ttE
x.Y >i
iiil iiliEiii
' - u : ! e
iggi
i ^ v F F
!/ c =;:.=
Airvi
'U
- . ,-O; E
> ,
a:V)= oo
rlEz=
u--vk
lgi
@ >,H C
C0; qr
I
ilii:iigEEiEg
'l':.^;q)-
!Iilil;ffi
- v ) a r -
^ F F ! ' -
v C).= cr i
=nOrd
.:i:ltr
. - g H
s;gli=iiEEIEilE
E
iL.l
P 1+F:
=vrv9v
dg^i?
! - d k ^
J=5
- ^ : - v
r v v . r J -
! H -
a o;c,.!
>.= ^i E
u'-!rw
!ggll'a,sgEigliiE
ti;(!>
a,)==pC)
- : H ' F _
rY)rv
l--r9O!
c
O
':
El
E #1-'i-iss
sr:;;I isEF: giE?li grtiE 1
Eg
a
?,
I
iligiiiigi$ii:giiiig:*ii,E
i;i atrilg:ig;g;lili
X.eE 5 EE r i iliiiggffgitll
5iirsr
E+,a?.'=Li!'l;i!
iEz
X
gFrsEci i 3:Eiisr;
!;lll:igg
 .eF9. 199 yF,.; Etbi=E E iE egg a7 c
a= e
E4?!;; FEgE;TE: ;'* #= E
3t
-e^-
!*-
0;5
-c
>.o:
c! .=
E"Z=+fi !:E=;iui+
iEE3E!;e;s:; ilE i
aF ?i-- q)
EH A} - 9 J XJX () "="
P : ; 9'--i
5.y r-tr
E3-P
F7,7:36EtFq;;X; 6' es
E: E
50!
:-
=
f!!i* ;:gs*;u-t; ! --9 X
?VEEtr?iEE!;ig$E
; - a J J ! - 4 t t a \

E ?U
P> :n
5a=
or ar ii
B -
r./
N>:
::
.-
EEE}3: ;2t;EZlt,?=7
l=E.!3. .EIiE*.oe.66i-a
i >E E9 I B
- :1 .=
^,=- =
= !, O
HH:-
cde
fi.==
X F c

;i=E:i EE.q+=!=t?^ zt J<=
=itEE= -=i7Ev,=-iE?!
cH 9!lo
E= -yPUk
: q d 9 .

r w - L
B-::
-17
Er+;l !g*;;iv::AE # 1i
-a E= ail
d , Y( S
qr9r9
- o F -CE o .,?!
J=,t
':='il;E= aEi?HlsEgs o e
3 > g9J
=?49'h .')c-
0'5+a- - -+-EE
9s;;Er5=;I= 8_ yl A
Ou r-O - -
+-i;
a;: ^,
;; +E7,.= zE :i O a
!qJtrtr:O.
A q'.Y
o
-
l: r$$i
! i tI i3
E!E l,5!
?E
= pjiE=_i *=+?
y o-^
",!
jzi.
tr
!
\
=.=i
-.,=
; e EE=
.J
i,=:c * iFi6 =!r<
gE
a'=
! = E' ; I C-
- '-:^
iij *Ei u#i;;iiEE;
^i 4 I i : t i 1 ; Eei
s =uil'l'==
trl
o I =:3E?-,2 S
v - -=
E
!
i s S: F;+ I 5
g:$ ry ==e?,;E
f Ft $ i 3Uc -..:t="'- a.:J
EEy,?pi= = -- s:
.c n i H= -'i
A iE;ii;t E:=?,7,8
a t-
B ?a
;; E;=;;;r5''; aaz!
l : , E + =i =-3z= '= 2
2r?
i $
N
: :i-
-- t -
-c -: -
yZ:=i= =oe*F' Fc= itiSiTt=Z .-=l-'t-'.'t a) =iE
:,=ZtE=?=!zii='*t
!
E=82!
- -l 2
u i 7 --.,./=.:.; ,
-t=:-===
- 2 xi , -. Z
E
rrl
E ,*iltrili:lt
.H
E{; ; E; E i=titii
;T zla1ll?
{lfl
ii1 giicTalliEli
o
!
=
{11i
6
:;i !i;; giz*
sii;i-E
O
;
tL

o
a
;tE
3:g :;lltlli,iIEtE1Elltlv #l1ili
iiE;ri iillttll;i;$ iig
tEill*l llii?efi
;:;aiiii;ii;sgr*Eggg'* ,llt!iillitz
iii*:EeaE
grE;
E-s= il Fgis:E
tEssiii;EEEiIi:
 O O *.a \O OO C * t i N ca ca =:i n r) F-
al a] -l -l c] ol .7) o o o .7) ca ca 6 m.a f ,4
E
tr
e
c
8
E
c

-a-
id a
ata
2.?9 tr h
oV
y.=.=;
-= - ^ =- a
. E3 ? ^ i i
i 2 = .l Z: ^. = Sx i 2== /
- = .; d. ;,
;-.YEi.ia := 7i
?.=
1
-- 7
h'EEEiEdieY pETa
'TEoE ; ? Z i Z E4i | _
o o x i : 5 - Y
=+E4t 7u
=V:ti =
i = 6 ' J l , E {c;r V -.: c.=-?z * uE
=
6Shoo-o !;^-,?>
.E
? -V
< tc' E
t - P- t.= '
J_ - =+! t ;
-
f;tE;g-U!F -.:E== =?
e=
zZ='= i ,=-.23:
: , . : 7 .? 9 2 ? =1'==
E ; ; : = . i 2+'i z ei 7
aEa=ta=2-=====!..
-_t>
r*.;L=
ei-n E y y y i= i=<,6a'JT = =
u=D-C-.=) 7!! X;g
a i -t
+l F6aFtrFo Eo+.,--tnd-cr a-E?
t4
- P?-rn:r.v:'.2: "'l E?Z
q)
+) ; =L-. )- : - :- l-. :l ^-1r. i-. l. = ' l -.1 .l
!v. :v! +-
E
F
- =- ^!-^t
a- e. p"""""""".
r)
+EdE -- g
= 's
1EbSg :- H
. c r-:g
^6a?b- ;g b
d.r4- qp'E
ta!i !ti;!Ea;EiF
rrl
!
a
;,E: ;;rtIEirs::;r
=iE; ;E?ei;jliiriE=
!
o
;E=E IeaEgg ;iig+:ci
tri
E!{7 :s1;' i=:;i!i3
iii;*gsi!!;-;gcg$;a
giEgg IE!EE1;
1;g!E!;:
FIi;i;iligiggi''
iEilig !aE
X sis;iisii!!:i;iE:;*:ee
;s;
 oC C' C' * al =J- \O \C C * tl -l C\ C. - rC - Cl ca t-. '.- '_ a.l f- C\ =t \O \C t-- 5 ca V) n \O - ca ca \O cO O ca.a n F- F- aa aa = v.
c! cl cl cJ al ci ca ca ca ci o n \c f-- F- F- F- CC aa.t).a cc o\ c\ o, c. 3\' c o o o - + o] c! -l a! c] c] cr cr -. --
N cl N N ol N N et N N Cl C.] C\t a] C! ct .l -r.l
.!
.=
?
o
.F
!
?,
a
J
-=;
a
= : =+
f -
! - -
'=
- i,-
dX
E =,
-1 -
. J - -
OL
D, oc t=
t lu u=6 =; =i
=t=
'=i-=-==-- c F, ' -.t ==!
!..= i. , t ;,c
t; ;;=7'=?. cPF 7 t :: u; . 7 - ;,
laJ
=;{. = ,-
,
t
==
! =.=r. =*.=!=! =J.-a . - -a _ - > 1 u .:
- - _- - U - .. ') : -
9=:
- i'=7 Zl=2-= -
==
.- a- =
= . = tI t l = - : -t ; du, =
C-u
.3L\ :,t;
t: - ., ,-
'!=-i.t:r,
- )
a= =,
= = a = r = ! ._-> -a'r=
-.7
; !. 1 ?,72 --,i :. i='l
--=-- - -'
--7+
^ ri, 1
- -*
z E*s-^t, ,
- '=
- !?--'.==
a,'aE :.'>,-
:izJ1E: =' ^=- - I
E= i
_ _ , _. _ - -
9!Y Ei_2 air= -t?z = : = = J
-- -tj
a C >:=.= C =
' - ' -==. '-! ' = o! eE c d i'l
&6'".: .= '7.{J=,.a=
4-"'=i,q--:+=a==
t * c.: E 9 ! =.= a = !
t:4:..t2.",7'i-=
.='-:2v<-iv!- a =; 7, u,P
tE=3zi. +ia i:aE
Ec,-"==jj['O=A:,.?
-==a=
: - 4 = = =
!=xrzt
= a --.-- 4
=:C-N-,-rr,a:rx-:i
+p-
L - v

=+, --.=
i'-.=g.,/:'i-.|-.t7L
-
v--aa.L
al ca t r - . o I E',4 =-.t-. t- :'l
=i iv- e.e..
Ltl r. v', v', l ! n r i.a-.-i;;; ^- -
7--'-.
r]cgs
n
i
vt \c F- cc 3\ c\ 3
t =J .t =J { t i-
-
r,
-
v'
ol.a
v, v'
\c) \c
v' v' F ,F F A E e R F ? 8 ! s ? s 3 3 D A a 8 5 S S 3 = = = = : i
U
U
f
:
3E
- ! ' = L
E
o'-065 3 ;2#
-o- o'.=c-c
o!=3,:E
a E := E^= :g
L = tp+A
F
o
c c-E i E
e
t
3-=Z
',- : -
cc -: d a- ;- ! = = u =
is bE EZ
--_ t z=
ts =' .
5 lE t e 7+98 :
r= EE a 8.. =Zi./rE E
i =.
E i
ii= E t ij . :7'7
c- z= 1'
ia 2;iE ;; {; ,ilE7:. z ,. -,;=
!- lt z Z7y2
. =' ==2=-i 7 z a . =
.O -. =
r
i+ t
eZ!.
=.;,?
i .ai a- 7
i - = "Z Z ,
-i=
t=
=
E a{=t tz ti= =t= -*E 2 * a
=777 Z2=aE=.tti
.i===tt
1!;zJ--=.c.=i
Ei;ti-iv='
,9 -:-a
! 1n ait7==z
E t zzE?*t'yr-
E 9 == t,,?u1= y, + ==tt,?=i
=..2- ==-e.7'.T=.2
=i E::
= t = j- - = 2 . t = : ' . - = | ; , . ' - : , E = i t "z
7,i= ==z=Z='=

i: -
,! ='r
=-a'i;'==='i--_
z== 2E!
=v-=- \i4 E=:
.n2- /1iZlEE
*-.:ca:1:E;
E2= = i:72 ?a: t ti,-.1!=;?i:;?*z-tzttEaEZii::iz
i i2v y=== ==z.t E 1 4 i, i = = = =
=.!a-;a=i=!::-V i==:Z2E Vaz
.*i;: r F tr E;
.!-z==aZiEETEE2==
?-=ii 2tr7=_zy:;:::: ",,-
clEiZr^iz=t*^2.:=:?=a' a:zhh='!i77'=
- N - . * ii=;i;i
'.iai.i,q=i--.r -:!
-.-tv. -- --io-'=t l7J: -, l-^-.; - =-',-
! =f a =\n-7:=v -atl=
=tv1E-:n cl a E:l-Uf
?-lc1 it}-cin-:.'llt":l-:
Ea-j--j-j-jri c-.r Egiorci cl;..ri .1 n n f n n n ,\ )?vn' :an' :aF' \^ , i
:i+++++(r++ E;4;'virl sl.';'v"i'ncin v) tr)
cl -, .* r') \ct--
i-: .5-.".r ,r' ;, ';' v'vt
o.d + Q"i;
X
-
x
x
clcn\o<-n
<-d-dnr)
-6ocac.)
c
6 6
b3a
.a ..) c7)
6
o
E
oo
A:F
O O-
o.!
:"??-
: ^ ^ O
c! a)
! L ! d D
^ - - : !
a>><,jj a9 1!
=
n-lalf,+ Vo
>\v
at .-:
,:
:
ea!clcial cs x tr 9':
>rrs> trFF E.
tr E-^, i.9 x
a.l
a r t t:a = =1t
- gI-
c c *.o \o o, o'\ c\ - v)\o\o coc ol !j- <-\o N * -j-'f d c\ o\-i <- t-- F- oo: N c.rca * c\ v) r) o'\ cl v) ooc) N ca r, F- al
Sii-.if i- $<-$<-t/]r)v)r)V)\O\O\C\O\C tr-cOcOcOcOCO@O\C\O\O\O\O\ = OC O = O +iia.tGlCicaf,f,f,-,-t
o -l al C.l (.l (\ al cl N cJ c] cl cl a.l cl ^l o.l N al a.l N a.l (.l o1 o] tl al (\ 61 6l oI 6.1 ca ca.a cr) ca ca ci ca o o o o o - r, (,.-,
(,
E
!2
6
,- ^ nE
c-) du
C qc
r-i $ I
u !u
:5
a
E Ez
Fe ! 6
-S
! E
E ! *Y
E ir
: ,^ a +
EE E
9
E F !!?-pt
!
-F
25,
:: E
.c
ir V 'E
E
El b
t; H"-E
=i E= - ; {;oz= ;} .r =*si; Ee:E .=F, E E E. Ea
Zl
o-f
Ez =e
e" E
;-;i=z=Z_ii;_.:2i_=-;
4
d: ! E .
i l a+;+;+
E F
\1= :5 E ! ; ; : * i F f l P - E = = i | r i -
iz ;i *.i =EZa|;EEEZ i77=-. ?": Lr ! p i,,i!== I
rE E'0 a!!= iEgii?{EEi;ii;+;i,E=-ii E iE!2:?_-rE
.. 4zv.=rztE+zvE?Eizzz*,Ei=i=Ez;z
1-
it
" ?.:
riii?,=:I:ii;
=+=E; E iaEaE|EE
F -.a ;- i
2= -=e==Zz=:..5;iEP+ ;|-=i-yL =;;E i Ev :,- -
=E7aii;2ta =:EEE =",;:'!!7:2,:ii..yPEi,E ?. 3?a=: i!e!z "-
+? :: 1 - = t4;= E i *;. = .++++eT!= i= l = ? =. ? !+2 E" ;i=?;-E E -Fii =ai
iltETli: ia;\?Ei;
t3a&dta5ic zar.s"4,iaaeaad
4oo6;EE=tdJdi
iiiiizig;gi:s: :v1+=Fi .:EzEi! i i
O r cl.o s O * cr c. + O * N c 7 )+ O * c.rco <-,..o s O = c . rc . o gE r.r.n O *...r
;9! t4i#35idI
3(, i; * - * - F
E ; EAA ".
n 1 n 9 \ N 1 .= -.+c!..$r) \c
v) v) v, n r) 7c. c. ; -:
3.3--j-:i
.o .o .o 6 .o O.d .o |.l..1 iAsF.-Fs F-
\o fr- $a
.o .o AF-
 Introduction

.l The scopeof design

,l.l Tasksandactivities
: engineer's main task is to apply his scientific knowledge to the solution of
nical problems and then to optimise that solution within the given material,
nological and economic constraints.To this task the designermakes a highly
rrtant contribution. His ideas, knowledge and abilities have a fundamental
t on the nature of manufactured products, their customer appeal and their
rall profitability.
Dcsigning is the intellectual attempt to meet certain demands in the best
activitythat impingeson nearlyeverysphereof
blc way. It is an engineering
irn life, relies on the discoveries and laws of science, and creates the
itions for applyingtheselaws to the manufactureof usefulproducts[1.2,
. t . 11
. . 2 67, . 5 2\,. 5 3 1 .
l ) i x o n [ 1 . 1 1 ] a n d l a t e r P e n n y [ 1 . 3 4 ]h a v e p l a c e dt h e w o r k o f t h e e n g i n e e r i n g
igrrcr at the centre of two intersectingcultural and technical streams(Figure
l), ()ther modelsare also possible:
Iu 1t.t.vt'hologlcal respects,designingis a creative activity that calls for a sound
rtling in mathematics, physics, chemistry, mechanics, thermodynamics,
rrtlynamics,electrical engineering, production engineering, materials tech-

Politics

I
Sociology,
psycn0r0gy
I
Economics

Englneering E n g i n e e r i n g Production
Sclence
science desrgn ili;l,:d:-

Industrial
deslgn
I
I
riesr0n
Arlislic
l , l . T h e c e n t r a activity
l of I
n I l..ial
de*i3n,from Arl
 'fhe
I Introduction I scope of design

nology and design theory, together with practical knowledge and experience in thc senior staff providing backup with technical advice and cost calculations
specialist fields. Initiative, resolution, economic insight, tenacity, optimism, llrigure 1.3). Such work must be scheduledvery carefully-innovations can only
sociability and teamwork are qualities that will stand all designersin good stead hc introduced step by step and within limits; otherwise the risks may become too
and are indispensable to those in responsible positions 1I.32]. Areat, especially in heavy engineeringprojects.
ln systematicrespects, designing is the optimisation of given objectives within
partly conflicting constraints.Requirements changewith time, so that a particu-
lar solution can only be optimised in a particular set of circumstances.
ln organisational respects,designing plays an essentialpart in the manufacture
lu1111ll,
and processingof raw materialsand products. It callsfor closecollaborationwith \t-
r.iI Conct
workers in many other spheres.Thus, to collect all the information he needs,the
-__jlEmbo(
designer must establish close links with salesmen, buyers, cost accountants,
estimators,planners, production engineers,materialsspecialists,researchwork-
Figure 1.3. Organisationof the
ers, test engineers and standards engineers. A good flow of information and design activity: the conceptual
regular exchangesof experienceare essentialand must be encouragedby proper design,the embodiment design,
organisation and personal example. the detail designand the
r-) Product
creation ----- Inl0rmatl0n
Because of the different demands made upon him and the many possible cxecution of the order are
organisedjointly
procedures,the designer can play a variety of roles in the productive process.
With original designs not commissioned by an outside client, the conceptual
and embodiment design phasesare often organisedseparatelyfrom the execu- When it comes to mass production, it is often useful to involve the ex-
tion of the order (see 3.2) as shown in Figure 1.2. This organisationalmodel perirnental development department in the design activity (Figure 1.4) because
ht'rc the fusion of theory and experimental development greatly facilitates the
dcsigner's task. Many problems are solved more simply and cheaply by
l)r('lirninary and relatively cheap experimentsthan by calculation and work on
tlrt' rlrawing board alone. Some designs require further development work
Conceptual
design
Embodiment
design ht'lorc production; in other casesthe job can be started straight away.

Figure 1.2. Organisationof the

f-l
design activity: the conceptual
| | Mana0ementl
l-l
L
Design design and the embodiment
design
Detail
activity design are separated from the
Execution
of order
d e t a i l d e s i g na n d t h e e x e c u t i o n
E- Product
creation ---- Inlormation of the order

offersthe designermuch greaterfreedomand scopethan conventionaldevelop- I rptrrr r' I ..1.Organisationof the

ment design.The drawbackis a possiblesplit betweenthe conceptualand detail r h ' r r i r ri r c t i v i t y :t h e c o n c e p t u a l
( h ' r r r , r rt .h c c a l c u l a t i o n t, h e
designdepartmentsand also the introduction of a distinction between 'high f r r r l r o t l i r nnet d e s i g na n d t h e
class'and 'run-of-the-mill' designers.This trend must be deliberatelycounter- tt||r' I rllcntal developmena t re activity
actedby regular staff exchanges.Thus, when a new designis sent to the detail | c f r , r r ; r l c tl lr o m t h e d e t a i ld e s i g n
t ,-J Hr00ucl
crealr0n ---- lntormation
designdepartment it is advisableto allow a proportion of the staff to move l n r l t l r c e x c c u t i o no f t h e o r d e r
acrosswith it. This will alsoensurean optimumflow of information.Conversely,
staff from the detail designdepartmentprovide a useful sourceof experience Irt lroth psychologicaland organisationalrespects,designwork on a particular
duringthe conceptualdesignphaseand canhelp to keep productioncostsin line :rrr rrnclin a particular place is performed by people with extremely varied
with market realities. l l i o t t a n c lc x n c r i c n c c .F o r t h c m o s t c f f c c t i v ed i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r , t h e w o r k
With large, one-off products, an order often calls for further developmentin b c s l t i r r c do u t l r c t w c c t ti t c i t d c t t t i c i t l ltyr a i n c c lc n g i n c c r s ,e n g i n e e r sw i t h a
the form of adaptivedesigns.Inthis case,the conceptualdesign,the embodi- p r a c t i c i r lb i r c k g r o u r r dt,c c h n i c i t n s t t t d t l r i r u g l t l s t r t c na, l l w o r k i n g i n c l t t s c
ment design,the detail designand the executionof the order go hanclin hand, )ntIt()n,
 I Introduction
1.1.2 Typesof design
Design terminology has changed considerably within the past few years. Thus'
Wogerbauer [1.60] speaks of original development, further development, and
adaptive design; Opitz [1.31] of original, adaptive,variant and principle design.
In this book, we distinguish between three types of design whose boundaries,
however, are not precisely fixed:
- Original design
which involves elaborating an original solution principle for a system (plant'
machine or assembly)with the same, a similar, or a new task.
- Adaptive design
which involv es adapting a known system (the solution principle remaining the
same) to a changed task. Here original designs of parts or assembliesare
often called for.
- Variant design
which involves varying the size and/or arrangement of certain aspectsof the
chosen system, the function and solution principle remaining unchanged.No
new problems arise aS a result of, say, changesin materials, constraints or
technological factors.
The last heading also covers commissioned work in which the solution
principle and the finished design remain the same and only the dimensions of
individual parts are changed on previously prepared drawings. Some authors'
'fixed principle design'.
[1.31]
- and U.501, call this
An enquiry [1.5] held among members of VDMA (German Association of
Mechanical Engineering Companies) in 1973 showed that, in the mechanical
engineering industry, some 55 per cent of products were based on adaptive
designs, 25 per cent on original designs and 20 per cent on variant designs.
Although the imprecision of the boundaries of each type makes classification
difficuli, the large proportion of original and adaptive designsshows that a good
designerhas to be both highly creative and flexible.
1.1.3 The nature of, and needfor, systematicdesign
The designer has to be a man of many parts. If we consider the vast range of
products he helps to make and the specialisedknowledge or experience that goes
into them, it is clear that his work does not fit into a rigid mould. Because design
has a crucial effect on the technical and economic value of the product-
production methods can only be optimised within the framework he has
bstablished-the designer must aim at a dependable approach. To that end, he
must be taught, or be expected to learn, all the special skills underlying
systematic thought and procedure.
A design method, therefore, must:
-"n.ouiuge a problem-directed approach; that is, it must be applicable to
every type of design activity, no matter in what specialistfield;
I I fhe scope of design
foster inventiveness and understanding; that is, facilitate the search for
optimum solutions;
,be compatible with the concepts, methods and findings of other disciplines;
not rely on chance:
'facilitate the application of known solutionsto related tasks;
- - be compatible with electronic data processing;
-- be easily taught and learned; and
--- reflect modern management-sciencethinking; that is, reduce workload, save
time, prevent human error, and help to maintain active interest'
Such an approach will lead the designerto possiblesolutionsmore quickly and
drrectly than any other. As other disciplinesbecome more scientific,and as the
usc of computers calls increasingly for logical data preparation, so designing,
loo, must become more logical, more sequential,more transparent, and more
()pcn to correction U.14]. An enhanced appreciationof the designer'scontribu-
lion and status is only possible when his methods and style of work are in line
with current developments in scientific and industrial practice.
'fhis
is not meant to detract from the importance of intuition or experience.
qtritethe contrary-the additional use of systematicprocedurescan only serveto
increasethe output and inventivenessof talented designers.Any logical and
rvstcmatic approach, however exacting, involves a measureof intuition; that is,
tn inkling of the overall solution. No real successis likely without intuition.
ln teaching design methods, it is therefore important to foster and guide the
rtrrdent's own abilities, to encourage creativity, and at the same time to drive
Irorne the need for objective evaluation of the results. Only in this way is it
prrssibleto raise the designer'sgeneral standingand the regard in which his work
rr hcld. Systematicprocedureshelp to render designingcomprehensibleand also
r.;rscthe teacher'sload. However, the student should be warned againsttreating
lris teacher'sopinions as so many dogmas.The best teacher merely tries to steer
tht.student'sefforts from unconsciousinto consciousand more fruitful paths. As
rr result, when he collaborateswith other engineers,the designerwill not merely
l',' lrcrldinghis own, but will be able to take the lead [1.32].
Systematic design alone can produce a truly rational approach and hence
gt'rrcrallyvalid solutions-that is, solutions that can be used time and again. It
rrlsohelps to establisha workable schedulebased on rational project planning,
rtrth as Critical Path Analysis, and hence enables the designer to predict how
rrrrrchtime he will have to spend on a feasibility study, how much on the search
for a solution and how much on the evaluation of the result. Increasedreliance
orr similarity laws, so useful in model testing, along with consistent use of
ltlrnclard specifications, size ranges and modular methods, facilitates further
tirtionalisation, not only in the design activity, but throughout the entire
p r ( ) d u c t i o np r o c e s s .
'I'imc
i s r n o n c y . L c s s d e m a n d i n g t a s k s c a n b e d e l e g a t e dt o s u b o r d i n a t e s .
N f t r r c o v c r ,i t i s r c l a t i v e l yc a s yt ( ) d c t c r n r i n ch o w m u c h o f t h e w o r k i s u n n e c e s s a r y
o r b c s t l e f t t o c o m p u t c r s a n d c o m p u t c r - a i d c dd r a u g h t i n g [ 1 . 8 , 1 . 2 6 1 .T h c s c
lcmarks also apply to such indircct dcrign activitic$as collccting intirrmation on
 I Introduction
standards,components,matcrialsclc. systcnrttictlcsigngreatlyfacilitatesthe
rationaldeploymentof computcrand dutu $yritcnls.
A rationalapproachmust als'cover thc designcr'scostcomputations. More
accurateand speedypreliminarycalculutions with thc help of better data will
becomea necessityin the dcsignfiekJ.lt is csscntialtcl devisemethods
with
which it is possibleto estimatefinal costs.at lcast approximateiy,even ar an
early stagein the designprocess.This. too. callslirr a systematic
and rational
approach.
1.2 The development
of systematic
design
1.2.1 Historical backgroun-d
and important contributionsby
Kesselring,Leyer,Niemannandothers
All developmentshave antecedents.They mature when there is a need for them,
when the right technology is available, and when they are economicallyfeasible.
This also applies to the development we have called 'systematicdesign'.
It is difficult to determine its real origins. Can we trace it back to Leonardo da
vinci? Anyone looking at the sketchesof this early master must be surprised to
see-and the modern systematistdelights in discovering-the great extent to
which Leonardo used systematicvariation of possiblesolutions
[1.30]. Right up
to the industrial era, designingwas closely associatedwith arts and crafts.
with the rise of mechanisation,as Redtenbacher[1 .35] pointed out early on in
his Prinzipien der Mechanik und des Maschinenbaas (principles of Mechanics
and of Machine construction), attention became increasingly focused on a
number of characteristicsand principles that continue to be of great importance,
namely: sufficient strength, sufficient stiffness,low wear, low friction, minimum
use of materials, easy handling, easy assemblyand maximum rationalisation.
Redtenbacher'spupil Reuleaux [1.36] developed these ideas but, in view of
their often conflicting requirements, suggested that the assessmentof their
relative importance must be left to the individual designer's intellieence and
discretion.
Important contributions to the development of engineering design were also
m a d e b y B a c h [ 1 . 1 ] a n d R i e d l e r [ 1 . 3 9 ] , w h o r e a l i s e d t h a t t h e s e l e c t i o no f
materials, the choice of production methods and the provision of adequate
strength are of equal importance and that they influence one another. Rotscher
[1.42] mentions the following essential characteristics of design: specified
purpose, effective load paths, and efficient manufacture and assembly. Loads
should be conducted along the shortest paths, and if possible by axial forces
rather than by bending moments. Longer load paths not only waste materials
and increase costs but also require considerablechanges in form. Calculation
and laying out must go hand in hand. The designerstarts with what he is sivcn
1 . 2 T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s y s t e m a t i cd e s i g n
rrnd with ready-made assemblies.As soon as possible, he should make scale
tlrawings to ensure the correct spatial layout. Calculation can be used to obtain
cither rough estimatesfor the preliminary layout, or precisevaluesfor checking
the detail design.
Laudien II.24], examining the load paths in machine parts, givesthe following
rrclvice:for a rigid connection, join the parts in the direction of the load; if
llexibility is required, join the parts along indirect load paths; do not make
unnecessaryprovisions;do not over-specify;do not fulfil more demandsthan are
rcquired; save by simplification and economical construction.
Modern systematicideas were pioneered by Erkens [1.12] in the 1920s.He
insistson a step-by-stepapproach basedon constant testing and evaluation, and
rrlsoon the balancing of conflicting demands, a processthat must be continued
turrtila network of ideas-the design-emerges.
A more comprehensive account of the 'technique of design' has been
prcsented by Wogerbauer [1.60] who divides the designer's overall task into
rubsidiary tasks, and these into operational and implementationaltasks.He also
cxrrmines (but fails to present in systematic form) the numerous interrela-
lionships between the identifiable constraints the designer must take into
lc('ount. Wogerbauer himself does not proceed to a systematicelaboration of
lrrlrrtions. His systematicsearch starts with a solution discoveredmore or less
Inlrritively and varied as comprehensively as possible in respect of the basic
for rrr, materials and method of manufacture. The resulting profusion of possible
trrlrrtionsis then reduced by tests and evaluations,cost being a crucial criterion.
W,'qcrbauer's very comprehensivelist of characteristicshelps in the search for
In ()l)timum solution and also in testing and evaluating the results.
llrough some need for improving and rationalising the design process was
fclt evcn before World War II, progress was impeded by the following
tttls'
tlrc lrbsenceof a reliable means of representingabstract ideas; and
tlrc widespread view that designing is a form of art, not a technical activity
l r k c i r n yo t h e r .
lht' risc of systematicdesign had therefore to wait until these obstacleshad
rr t lcared and for the wider adoption of systematictechniques,not least in
tct'hnical areas, and the emergenceof modern data-processingmethods. A
rotl ol staff shortages[1.54] provided a further impetus.
lvftrtlt'r'lricleasof systematic design were given a greal boost by Kesselring,
rt'hncr, Niemann, Matousek and Leyer. These men were not merelv
rttrrnl 1'rioneers; their work continues to provide most useful suggestionsfor
ittg thc individual phasesand steps of systematicdesign.
:lring Il.l9l first explainedthe basisof his method of successive
t r r l i o r r si n 1 9 4 2( f o r a s u m m a r y s e e[ 1 . 2 1 ] a n d [ 1 . 5 6 ] ) .I t s s a l i e n tf e a t u r e
cvirluirtion ol fornr variants accordingto technical and economic criteria.
l h c o r y o t t c c h n i c i r cl o r n p o s i t i o nI I . 2 0 1 ,K c s s e l r i n gp r e s e n t s - i n a d d i t i o n t o
r t l b r r s i ci d c a s o n t h c t c c h n i c a lc o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h c d c s i g n e ra n d o n h i s
. u t t i t u d c i u r d r c s p o n s i l l i l i t y - t n a c c ( ) u n lo l ' t h c u n d c r l y i n g s c i c n t i f i c
 I Introcluction
principles (the mathematical and physical relationships) and the economic
constraints (the manufacturing costs). In the theory of form design which he
derives from the above, he mentions five overlying principles:
-the principle of minimum manufacturing costs;
-the principle of minimum space requirement;
-the principle of minimum weight;
-the principle of minimum losses;and
-the principle of optimum handling.
The design and optimisation of individual parts and simple technical artefacts
is the object of the theory of form design.It is characterisedby the simultaneous
application of physical and economic laws, and leads to a determination of the
shape and dimensions of components and an appropriate choice of materials,
manufacturing methods etc. If selected optimisation characteristicsare taken
into account, the best solution can be found with the help of mathematical
methods.
Tschochner [1.53] mentions four fundamental design factors, namely working
principle, material, form and size. They are interconnected and dependent on
the requirements, the number of units, costs etc. The designer starts from the
working principle, determines the other fundamental factors-material and
form-and matches them with the help of the chosen dimensions.
Niemann [1.29] starts out with a scalelayout of the overall designshowing the
main dimensions and the general arrangement. Next he divides the overall
design into parts that can be developed in parallel. He proceeds from a definition
of the task to a systematicvariation of possible solutions and finally to a formal
selection of the optimum solution. These steps are in general agreement with
those used in more recent methods. Niemann also draws attention to the then
lack of methods for arriving at new solutions. He must be considereda pioneer
of systematicdesign inasmuch as he consistentlydemanded and encouragedits
development.
Matousek [1.27] lists four essential factors: working principle, material,
manufacture and form design, and then, following Wogerbauer [1.60] , elabo-
rates an overall working plan based on these four factors. He adds that, if the
cost aspect is unsatisfactory, all four factors have to be re-examined in an
iterative manner.
Leyer 11.25] is mainly concerned with form design. He distinguishes three
main design phases. In the first, the working principle is laid down with the help
of an idea, an invention, or establishedfacts; the secondphase is that of actual
design;the third phaseis that of implementation. His secondphaseis essentially
that of embodiment, that is, layout and form design supported by calculations.
During this phase, principles or rules have to be taken into account-for
instance the principle of constant wall thickness, the principle of lightweight
construction, the principle of shortest load paths and the principle of
homogeneity. Leyer's rules of form design are so valuable because.in practice,
failure is still far lessfrequently the result of bad working principlcs than of poor
detail desisn.
I h c d e v e l o p m e n t o f s y s t e m a t i cd e s i g n
1.2.2 Modern designmethods
'l
hese preliminary attempts made way for intensive developments,mainly by
runivcrsityprofessorswho had learned the art of design in practicalcontact with
prorlucts of increasing complexity. They realised that greater reliance on
phvsics,mathematics and information theory, and the use of systematictechni-
cs. were not only possible but, with the growing division of labour, quite
lispensable.Needless to say, these developmentswere strongly affected by
.' requirements of the particular industries in which they originated. Most
rc from precision, power transmissionand electromechanicalengineering,in
ich systematicrelationshipsare more obvious than in heavy engineering.
Svstematicdesign according to Hansen
rrscnand other membersof the IlmenauSchool(Bischoff,Bock) first put
designproposalsin the early 1950sII.6, I.1,I.16].
rrrdtheir systematic
nscn presented a more comprehensivedesignsystem in the secondedition of
standard work published in 1965 [1.17]. He himself has summed up his
rt'eclure as follows:
l)etcrmine the crux of your task, becauseit is common to all solutions.
('ombine the possible elements purposefully, for all solutions develop from
r r r c hc o m b i n a t i o n s .
l)e tcrmine the shortcomingsof every solution and try to reduce them or their
t ' l Ic c t s .
St'lect the solution with the fewest shortcomings.
l'rovide documentation to permit practical evaluation.
I lresc procedural rules are the basisof a systemcomprising four steps.Figure
1 rlrows the steps for the conceptual phase. The same four-step system is also
rcrl cluring the subsequentdesign phases.Hansen begins with the analysis,
r(lu('. and specificationof the task, which leads him to the basic principle.
rnrrst be formulated abstractlv enough to comprise everv conceivable
Iro11.111.',1 must embrace the overall function derived from the task.
'l
ht' sccond step is the systematic search for solution elements and their
l r r r u r l i o ni n t o w o r k i n g m e a n s .
l.rrrs.'n lrttachesgreat importance to the third step, in which any shortcomings
I
rt'r'icwcclin order to develop improved working means.
In thc lirurth and last step, these improved working means are evaluated to
r r r i r r cl h c o p t i m u m w o r k i n g m e a n sf o r t h e t a s k .
l()7-l lf irrrscnpublished another work, entitled Konstruktionswissenschafl
s c i c n c co l c l c s i g n )[ l . l t t l . I n i t , h c u s e ss y s t e m sa n a l y s i sa n d i n f o r m a t i o n
t o t l c f i n c t h c r l c s i g n p r o c c s si r n c lt h c n i t t t t r c o f t e c h n i c a la r t e f a c t s .H e
o r r l h c v l r i o u s t y p c so l ' s l r u c t u r ci r n r ll u t t c l i o t ri r n c lt h c i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
'l'hc
alur discusscsthc prtlblcln of dnlu ril()ritgc. lrook is tn<lrcconccrncclwith
thun with ruler of pructicll tlcsign.
icrl l'undanrcnttls
 1t) I Introductio t l t v c l o p m e n t o f s y s t e m a t i cd e s i g n 11

Task (Concept,
layout) Input
Prel Energy, signals
material,
iminary
considerations
principle
Basic

Search
lorandcombinati0n
0f eiementary
soluti0n
elements
Working
means Function
of a Machine
(Workrng
principle, principle)
lormdesign fulflledbya
Review
ol shortcomings Physical
Process
lmproved
workingmeans realised
bythe
(Working
principle, principle)
lormdesign
- Rationai
evaluation FormDesign
Features
0ptimumworking
means of theoverall
design
(Working
principie, principle)
lormdesign

Concept
(Layout,
Production
documents)
Figure1.5. Designstepsaccordingto Hansen[1.16,1.17]
1. From the taskvia workingmeansto the conceot 0utput
2. Fromthe conceptviawor-king principlesto the layout
3. From the layoutvia form designprinciplesto the productiondocuments 1.6. Design steps according to Rodenacker [1.401

Similarly, Miiller [1.28] in his Grundlagen der systematischenHeuristik (The 7 . l i i n a l i s et h e o v e r a l l d e s i g n .

-
fundamentalsof systematicheuristics)presentsa theoretical and abstractpicture fi. I{cview the chosen design.
of the design process. this rrrcthod, the function structures (Rule 2) are based solely on functions
'rl lrtrrn two-valued logic. These functions are separation,connection and

2 Systematic design according to Rodenacker
After Hansen, it is Rodenacker [1.40] above all whose original design method
has made the greatest impact. He starts out from the fact that every machine
must fulfil certain purposesor functions. Rodenacker looks upon designingas a
transformation of information, leading from the abstract to the concrete.
Designing is a reversal of physical experiments.Figure 1.6 showsthe main steps
of Rodenacker's design method. He starts out by defining and abstracting the
requirements and by establishing a function structure. Next he looks foi the
appropriate physical process and finally for the required form design features.
Rodenacker develops his systematic principles chiefly by means of examples
taken from process engineering, but his ideas apply quite generally to the
development of technical systems.He proposesthe folrowing rules
[1.a1]:
Rule 1. Clarify the task (the required relationships).
Rule 2. Establish the function structure (the logical relationships).
Rule 3. Choose the physical process (the physical relationships).
Rule 4. Determine the embodiment (the constructionalrelationships).
Rule 5. check the logical, physical and constructionalrelationshipsby
appropriate calculation.
Rule 6. Eliminate disturbine factors and errors.
tlrc llow of energy, material or signalsin technicalsystems)channelling.We
I'r' r'rrrnriningthe problem of logical functions at greater length in 5.3.3.
' losiL',,1rcquirements having been satisfied,the next step is to choose the
Srlrrsit'irlprocess(Rule 3). Rodenacker usesphysical effectsand equations,
p;rrlicular attention to the time factor. Experimentation is said to be the
\{ ru| ( (' of information.
tlrc rrcxt concrete step, Rodenacker determines the embodiment fixed by
lnr,'rrl lrrrclthe form desiqn features. The latter result from the variation of
t's. rrrrlcrials and motions to achievethe required characteristics(Rule 4).
' \ \ ( ) l k c k r r . r cs o f a r m u s t b e c h e c k e d b y c a r r y i n g o u t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
t r o r r s .s r r c ha s c o m p o n e n t s t r e s s e s( R u l e 5 ) .
nirr'kcr is particularly concerned with the identification and elimination
rrrlrillti lirctors causing quantitative and qualitative fluctuations (Rule 6).
tnirv surrr it irll up by saying that the main factor of systematicdesign,
trg to l{otlcnackcr, is the determination of the underlying physical
:r. ln his irl.rproachR . o c l c n a c k c rc o n s i c l c r sn o t o n l y t h e s y s t e m a t i c
n l o l c o n c r c t c r l c s i s nt i r s k si r s o u t l i n c r ll b o v c . b r . r ta l s o t h e m e t h o d o l o g v
i t t g ' n c w r l c v i c c si r r t r rl t t i r c l t i t t c s . ' lt' lrtl i r lc t r t .l h c l ) r o p o s c ist s c i t r c hf o r
s l k n o w n g t l t y s i c i rcll l c c t s i r s i r n l c i u r so l ' i t r r i v i n g l r t
n c w i t l ) l ) l i c i t l i o l ro
xrlttlions.
 1a
I h c d e v c l o p m e n t o l s y s t e m a t i cd e s i g n
72 I Introduetion IJ

I lrc first phase is the analysisof the product environment leading to a precise
3 Algorithmic selectionprocedure for design basedon design catalogues
according to Roth dr'lirrition of the problem. This definition includes the specified function, the
'hrrical requirements and the specified costs, three selection criteria with
Roth divides the design process into several phases,each with specific steps that, t'sc help it is possible to choose from design cataloguesin due course. Next
depending on the results, must be repeated several times [1.44, 1.48] (Figure 'lunctional relationship has to be elaborated in two steps. To discover the
1.7). t'rirll function structure, every statement in the problem definition must be
rciated with a system of general functions so selectedthat different alterna-
's result from changesin their arrangement.Roth's 'general functions' refer
gcneral characteristicsdetermining various technical artefacts-that is, which
cct, change, store and channel material, energy or information [1 .45-I.47,
0. Task-formulation ll. Once the general functional relationship has been determined, the
ible combinations of sub-functions are split up into recurring elementary
l r l c m sw h i c h c a n b e c a t a l o g u e d .
'l
requtrements
echnical hc next step, the determination of the special function structure, is the
cosls
andspecitied rpt to solve these elementary problems with the help of basic physical
irtions-that is, of physical effects expressed,if possible, in mathematical
trrlite.
of overall
1.1Determination 'he
actual product is elaborated in the next phase. First comes the embodi-
lunction
structure
rt oi the solutions of the elementarv Droblems. A seneral solution is then
rrirted by combining these embodiments in accordance with the overall
ol special
1.2Determinatton ti()n structure. Variation will now produce a host of general solutions from
lunction
structure 'lr tlrc best can be chosen and modified in the light of production require-
rrts.'fhe resulting variants are evaluated in turn so that the most promising
tlr('l)roblem in hand can be determined before oroduction drawinss and
i l ) r r ' l r t a t i o na r e c o m p l e t e d .
[,'t lr rcfers to the whole process as an'algorithmic selection procedure for
rr lxrsed on design catalogues'. He suggeststhat the information needed
tlr, inclividualstepsis best chosenfrom catalogueswith the help of selection
and
2.1Formdesign r, lt'r.istics.He accordingly attachesgreat importance to the compilation of
selection
material
r : r r r r l < r g u[e1s. 4 3 , I . 4 9 1( s e e5 . 4 . 3 ) .

forproduction
2.2Design
:rlgorithmic-physical design method according to Koller
(",\('nliirlfeaturesof Koller'smethod1I.22,I.231are the breakdownof the
tunctronAclualcosts
Actual
r l)r'occssinto a larger number of steps and the emphasis placed on
'rrlrrrv lrhvsical connections. The aim is the algorithmicisationand hence
lunction
'""" actual-specified
,"^. ir\rng corrlputerisationof design. Figure 1.8 shows the various phases of
costs,
actual-specilied
r'r schcrne and the elementarv desisn activities associatedwith them. He
trishcs bctwccn function svnthesis.oualitative svnthesisand cuantitative
drawings
Production
s, l'or iur cxact dcscription of the individual steps the reader is referred
l i l c r r r t t r Ir lc. : . ] 1 .
r r s c o l c ( ) r r r p u t c r as l s o c a l l s l i r r t h c f i l r r n u l a t i o no f c l e a r r u l e s g o v e r n i n g
c l c t t t c n l i r r ys t c p . ' l i r t h i r t c r t d K o l l c r r c t l u c c sc o n t p l c xt c c h n i c a p
l r o c c s s e tso
nunll)cr ol physicll lunctiotts lnd lltclt slipulatcs rulcs lirr thcir
F i g u r c I . 7 . P h r r s c rsr n t ls t c P so l t l t c r l c s i g t lt l I ( ) c c s ist c c t r r t l i t ttgo l { o t l r I I ' l t i l nt. llis basicprcmisc is thrl thcrc l'unctiort$
cirn bc cxprcsscdby
 | ' I h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s y s t e r n a t i cd e s i g n 15

hrrownmachine elementsand also by elementsthat have still to be developed. ln

tlt'riving his functions, Koller?s starting point is the fact that, in technical
rvslems, only the properties and states of energy, material, signals and their
llows can be changed in magnitude and direction. Together with the physical
ittputs and outputs, this gives 12 functions and correspondinginversefunctions,
which Koller calls basic operations, amongst them channelling and isolating,
:reasingand decreasing,coupling and interrupting (see Figure 2.5).
.9
Ilccause technical systems involve logical as well as physical relationships,
ion synthesis will yield a function structure consisting of logically and
C ysically interrelated basic operations.
-F
Koller contends that, in the qualitative design phase, the basic operations of
c
= struclure
lunclion
Elem.
L
Irnical systems depend exclusively on physical, chemical and/or biological
:ts. The choice of the appropriate effect producessolution principlesfor the
rlormance of the basic operations which, with more complex requirementsor
nctlon structures, may be combined into assembliesand overall systems.A
I
rirlitativedesign', finally, demands the determination of shapes,to which end
rller has devised several rules of form desiqn. Variations involvins several
tcria are stipulated for every step, for example variations of the material or of
'6 shape,thus paving the way for severalsolution variants. Koller's quantitative
ltthesiscomprises the classicaldesign activitiesof calculation and layout.
C
lrr accordancewith his aim of algorithmicisingand computerisingthe design
E rcess,Koller lays particular emphasison small (elementary) developmentsor
ps and on clear mathematical rules and definitions.
E
theconcept
Fixing
=
L

.2.3 Other proposals

out(arranglng)
Laying
'I
he systems approach
ternstheory as an inter-disciplinaryscienceusesspecialmethods, procedures
I rridsfor the analysis,planning, selection and optimum design of complex
.6 t r ' r n s[ 1 . 3 , 1 . 9 , 1 . 1 0 ,1 . 6 1 ] .
I r'ehnical artefacts, including the products of light and heavy engineering
hrstry,are artificial, concrete and mostly dynamic systemsconsistinsof setsof
.z 'rccl elements, interrelated by
virtue of their properties. A system is also
= rrcterisedby the fact that it has a boundary which cuts acrossits links with
<J
t'rrvironment (Figure 1.9). These links determine the external behaviour of
torproduction
Preparing \vstem, so that it is possible to define a function expressingthe relationship
s'ccn inputs and outputs, and hence changesin the magnitudesof the system
I l r l c s( s e e2 . 1. 3 ) .
l;ronr the idea that technical artefactscan be representedas systems,it was a
c= t s t c p t o t h c a p p l i c a t i o no f s y s t c m st h c r l r yt o t h e d e s i g np r o c e s s t, h e m o r e s o
iIo tltc objcctivcsof systcms
thcorycorrcspundvcry largclyto thc cxpectations
Itavcof a good dcsignmethodus specificdat thc bcginningof this chaptcr
'l'hc
Figure1.8. Stepsand elementarydesignactivitiesaccordingto Koller [1.22. l, sy$tcmsupproachrellcctf tho gonoralupprcciationrhar complcx
 d e v c k r p m e n t o f s y s t e m a t i cd e s i g n 1'7
l6

System
studies
State problem
analysis, definition

Goalprogramme
Goalsetting,
criterla
lisl

System
synthesis
Development
ol solution
variants

ors2;
orerements
ors;s2,- s,a:subsvstems
Slti::"t*,tJll.,Jlff,}i131ft',T.r,,",'., System
analysis
1, - 13:inPuts; O1-O2: outputs Properties of variants
andbehaviour

eaih involving analysisand syn

problems are best tackled in fixed steps'
System
evaluation
,r";;';?"t].10 The first of theseis t
showsthe stepsof rhe systemsapproach. Evaluation
ol varlants goalpr0gramme
against
gathering or
gatnerlrlg i9"* th"'v*1."T.,
nto,-uiio':.""*-
(rr irr'ur'rou"l'
111"i-::
;---^-:^ -^^,,i-amcnrq
trend studiesor known requirements'
Tlo:
The :?*"l".tJ'
he is
aim here -T;::i.
the clea
market analyses,
to U" t91".:.1.,tl
formulationof ttreprobieir(o' 'ut'-ptot'lem) is drawn :T:::":i.:t:3
up the purpose: System
decision
programme
perhapseven during the first step' a 0ptimum
system
selected
torrnui'"^f*ion'to thl goalsof th""tft:l
which is to give ::::i:i]:51'J
variants andhenc
of solution
eviruation
ffi:}.';ij,',[r,;^i;;;",.Jrlqr"r, Soluti.onvzrriantsare tneXs;'r1tfe;s"1
for the discovery.f th;';;ti"tu"i'otutio'.t Beforether
:,T;: ilH.?ir;'t;;;#;*. u.quir",rduringthefirsttwosteps. System
lmplementation
Plans
variantscanbe the performunt" 6J:u:1,*"-t':: lilt^t*::: Planning phase
thenexlsystems
l
"uuruut"i,
;rd ;#;;r.'rn tt" evaluationthar follows,the performance
;?:'r*"".
each variant is comparedwith the original Coul:'ing,,:",:l:-:i:i:-tl.*1: , I . 10.Stepsof the systems
approach
decisionismadeandtheoptimumsystemselected.Finally,informationlSglve
outintheformof-y';;;;l;meniation plans' As
ltsl: 1 l9::^"^Y,l:lniii'l
goil' so that iterativeproceduresmay , rscn [1.15] are currently developing this method, paying particular atten-
do not alwayst"uOstruigntto tn" final
this optimisationprocess,which con t,r thc optimisation of dynamic systems.
needed.Built_in o".irir", ,t"ps facilitatJ
tutes a transformation of information'
An importantrprt"rl^ti "ppiit"io,n of -th"-:tt:::::p^p::ffi1"f #
concept th.signas a learning process
basisof a known or a developedsolution
rrrplcmcntto the methods we have been describingis basedon the view that
to p.oou."
"r;;,;;;;"r;;;;r;{."o"the
ispossible ;';";;;i;' ""d"1.,!fil::'-'T,-',::"'::'i'JJ1:li:L,'5t
;*:I'ffi# hil;*;; with their tinks,canbe subjected
iogether rrrrt'-sidccl cmohasison discursivemethods is inadequate and cannot, in any
variationinJ opti-it"d to satisfv ttt" d:.*-1111:tjf,lt:||:,T; , srrtisl'ythc clesigncr.For that reason various attempts have been made to
mathematical statements about1 lop tlcsign mcthoclswith the help of automatic control techniquesinvolving
ffi::H',i';il;;; ir, ,r," use of such mathematical
n* t:r"f: i r r r tl c c d b i r c k .S r " r cm h c t h o d s n o t o n l v h c l p t o e l u c i c l a t et h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p
a n l l t a l l v sb
quuantitative uehaviour ' : tutio
"r^ . so
( ; r r a v r v uoi
: ; ^ - ; ' :and11:l]:
j: h e:L?,':9t
, . 1 - . - ; .li"^ h e v i o r r of t h e :il*:il
or I the e l e m e n3:'
t s f. ' e r t t l c s i g r t c t ' l r t ccl r t v i r o n n r c n l . l ' r uitt l s t lt h r o w l i g h t o n t h c g e n e r a ls c o p eo f
dynamic behaviour
relations expresslng tne statistical
and the formulation of a goal functttl tt tltouglttl)roccsscs
instance in the form of transfer functions, 1 . . hhavc btr '
,'rr" h
of systems-toq:l* W l i c l r t l c r 1 1 , 5 7 . l . 5 f { l l r i r s t t r g t t c t l .h y i t t t i r k r g vw i t h s t t c l tc y b c r t l et i c
Such mathematicaltu*' fo' the description RichtcrIl '37' I 3t'tlt
equipment' n s c o n l r o l i t n d l c i t r n i n g .t h u t c f c l t i v c d c s i g n i s l l t c t t t o s lc o t t t p l c xl o r t n
aboveall, for signal-processing
cstablished,
 'l'he
I lntroduction | ' d e v e l o p m e n t o f s y s t e m a t i cd e s i g n 19
18
'l
that
of the ,learningprocess'.Learning representsa higher form of control, one hc learning processthus keepsincreasingthe level of information and hence
involves not onty quantitative at constant quality (rules), but also flt'ilitatesthe searchfor a solution.
"nung"t technical quantitiesas
changesin the qualiiy itself. Similarly, designingchanges
well as working PrinciPles. General comparison and statementof the authors' own aims
In structuralterms,iearning and control can, despitequalitativedifferences,
be consideredas comparablecircularprocesses. Thus Figure1.11representsa closerexaminationthe methodswe havebeendescribingprove to havebeen
designcycle involvinga learning system,an environmentand the relevantflow rnglyinfluencedby their authors'specialist
fields.They nevertheless
resem-
one another far more closelythan the variousconceptsand terms would
lCommunicationDecision Storage Action n to suggest.
ln particular, several of these methods have been strongly influenced by the
rtluctsof precision engineering and power transmissiontechnologywhich, in
r, bear a strong structural resemblance to electronic systems. This has
sted a breakdown of functions and associatedsub-solutionsinto elements
mbling the functional building blocks of electronics.Moreover, the compila-
of classificationschemesand design catalogues,as well as the combination
solution elements, is easier in these fields than it is in general mechanical
rrcenng
Itr ull the methods examined, the requirementsare abstractedfor the purpose
trriving at generally valid functions. The degree to which the various authors
irk down their functions. however. differs from case to case. All stressthe
lr'Iirnceof physicalprocessesduring the first phase.They alsosharethe idea of
:p-lry-step
advancefrom a qualitativeto a quantitativephase.Furthermore,
ol t ltem stipulate a deliberate variation and combination of solution elements
tlillcrent complexity. All try to algorithmicise the design process and to
css it by simple rules or laws. This common approach has been embodied in
system ' l i n cV D I 2 2 2 2
Environment Learning |.551.
rtlr thc help of the methods examined above together with our own work we
F i g u r e1 . 1 1 D e s i g n c y c l e w i t h l e a r n i n g S y s t e m a n d e n v i r o n m e n t , a f t e r W i i c h t l e r [ 1 . 5 8 1 , irr what follows, endeavour to present a comprehensivetheory of general
'learning system:designer'takes a problem from' 'r'r'ingdesign. Most of the argumentsare elaborationsof a seriesof papers
of information. The
pro
returnsa solution to, the enviionment. Discursiveand intuitive actions frtrlrlishedin 1912-1914[1.33] and which we have since discussedat some
learning system' lr rvith a number of practising designers and research engineers, tested
solutions (ideas) that are held in the short-term store of the
solution with the environmental demands ltt'tllv in practice, and changed and amplified accordingly.Our own theory
comparison of the proposed lt,"^Tt
;;';"J;;; ;h;";;; hiscrepunciescallingfor new decisionsand henceleadir rrrlrrckresnot claim to be the final word on the subject-it simply tries to
to new actions.once the discrepancies are reducedto a minimum, the optimu rre various methods in a coherent and oracticable wav. We hooe that it
solution is to hand. A cycle in this process of optimisationis called a learni \('r'\'c as an introduction and springboard for the learner; as a help and
from 1
element. The learning iystem musi not be consideredin isolation
lrtiorr lilr the teacher; and as a source of information, and perhaps of
the requir
environment.In otheiwords, the environmentnot merely imposes
r l c l r r r r i r r gl i.r r t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r .
part in findi
ments and receivesthe solutions,but frequentlyplays a crucial
which presel
the latter. we distinguish between a passiveenvironment,
to informati
information on demuni, and an activeenvironment,which reacts
involved in
returned by the learning system,or in other words is directly
of optimisati
discoveryof the solutioti.Wnut mattersis that, for the purpose
as a con
the designprocessshouldbe treated, not statically,but dynamically
process-inwhich the information feedbackmust be repeatedY"iit llt llllll
solution can bc ft
iion content has reached the level at which the optimum
 I F u n d a m e n t a l so f e n g i n e c r i n g s y s t e m s 2T

A concrete example is the combined coupling shown in Figure 2.1. This can be
Fundamentals treated as two sub-systems-a flexible coupling and a clutch. The sub-system
't
ltrtch' can, in turn, be subdivided into system elements, in this case
( ()llrponents.

Designingisamany-sidedandwide-rangingactivity.Itisbasednotonlyon
etc-but
math"emaiics,physics and their branches-mechanics, thermodynamics
machine elements, industrial
also on proOuition technology, materials science,
-unug"..nt and cost u..orrrting, which are not discussedin this book'
i;?;;";p a theory of designthut .un serveas a strategyfor the development
-__^L^*^ ^^A
systems
of solutions, we must first examine the fundamentalsof engineering
make detail
p.oc"du."s.' only when that has been done is it possible to
recommendationsfor design work.
I
2.1 Fundamentalsof engineeringsystems

2.1.1 System' plant' equipment, machine' assemblyand componen l:

Technical tasks are performed with the help of such technical artefacts
as plant . -SvslelHoulOarv ___J
listed here in the approxi 5
equipment, machines, assemblies and components,
l . S y s t e m :' C o u p l i n g '
complexity. These terms may not have idenli-cal uses
mate order of their / r s r s t e r ne l e m e n t s r; . . / c o n n e c t i n ge l e m e n t s S ; o v e r a l ls y s t e m S
; , subsystem
a piece of equipment (reactor, evaporator) is sometim r l ' l , r ' o u p l i n g ' ;. t 2 s u b s y s t e m' c l u t c h ' l 1 i n p u t s ; O o u t p u t s
different fields. Thus,
as 'plant' i
consideredto be more complex thin plant, and artefacts described 'llr,'s',51cm
'machines' in others' d e p i c t e di n F i g u r e 2 . 1 i s b a s e do n i t s m e c h a n i c a cl o n s t r u c t i o n .I t
certain fields may be described as
is u ftrrrrs'c r'. equally possibleto considerit in terms of its functions (see2.1.3). In
A machine consistsof assembliesand components.control equipment
compon( r;rrt'. the total system'coupling'can be split up into the sub-systems
in olant and machinesalike and may be made up of assembliesand
various uses of these terms re 'rrrg' lrnd 'clutching'; the second sub-systeminto the further sub-systems
ani perhaps even of small machines. The
'transferring
1,rrrqclutch operating force into normal force' and torque'.
historical develoPments.
llrc svstcrnelement g could equally well be treated as a sub-systemwhose
Hubka [2.10] has drawn up a comprehensivelist of possibleclassifications
r{rn rt i\ to convert the actuating force into a larger normal force actins on
technicalirteficts basedon such criteria as function, solution principle,
on llrttion strrfaces.
plexity, manufacture,product etc' It is., however' impossibleto agree r('n(lir)gon their use, any number of such subdivisionsmay be made. The
tasks,applications and fort
i"n"ruity acceptable,yrt"- of classification-the 't lrirs to cstablish particular systemsfor particular purposes, and must
ir" *u.-h too varied and complex. Hence there is much to be said for Hubk
to t lltt'ir virrious inputs and outputs and fix their boundaries.In doing this he
suggestionthat technicalartefactsshouldbe treated assystemsconnected
be divided i w h r r t t er n r i n o l o g yh c l i k e s o r i s c u s t o m a r yi n h i s p a r t i c u l a rf i e l d .
by means of inputs and outputs' A systemcan
"niironr',.nt what belongsto a particular systemis determined-by the sys
sub-systems.
t
boun'dary.The inputs anJ outputs crossthe systemboundary(l'2'3)' With (lottversion of energy,materialand signals
upprourhitispossibletodefineappropriatesystemsateverystageofabstr
parts ilf la ) t t t t l c r st t t i r l t c ri t t r t t i r t t ys l t t t p c su n d l i t r r t t s .l t s r r i r l t r r i rtli l r r n . < l rt h c l i l r n t
tion, analysis or classification. As a rule such systems are
lmprcsscdu;roltit. ;rrovidcrhim with infitrmutiorrirlroutits possiblcuscs.
superiorsystems.
 I r r r r d a m e n t a l so f e n g i n e e r i n gs y s t e m s Z3
2 Funclamentals
22
lrrirrirlswithout any flow of material. In many casesenergy has to be specially
is a primary source of information prol'ided for this purpose; in other caseslatent energy can be drawn upon
Matter without form is inconceivable-form concept of force
the development ;f physics'-the
about the state of matte'' Wlttt being the means by
rrcctly. Every conversion of signalsis associatedwith a conversionof energy,
Force was ton'eiued as rrrghnot necessarilywith a conversion of material
became increasingly important' this process was explained
which the motion ;;;",;; ;;, .t ung"a. Ultimately lrr what follows, we shall be dealing with:
equivalence of energy
"f of relaiivity postulated the. l rrcrgy: mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, optical, nuclear etc
in terms of energy. f'tt" in"o'y offi:
[2'30] lists."nergi.'*"ll:i, *,'::"^T1':"':t"
andmatter.Weizslcker asa run- lrlso force, current, heat . . .
,n,,rtbeintroduced
l|l.S]ll"il [llrrl'"r'ni* rl ir""r""o,"ii*" t::i:1si31
lrlirterial:gas, liquid, solid, dust etc also raw material, test sample,
damental quantitv.o;iv ;v referencet-ini"'pruv
g r r o r k p i e c ee t c . . e n d p r o d u c t , c o m p o n e n te t c .
i:["J:ffi1'J;t#;i:,"jn;;;;' il l*:, 9::',of energv, ;:: Xt"T
matterand1;'ffu1
informa- Si{niils: magnitude, disptay. control impulse, diSa, information etc .
,tTtiJi::;lfil
be adequately described' w lnr cvery type of proposed conversion, quantity and quality must be taket taken into
tion
is ofrenspecifiedby ito
-^:c:^A x., manifest
itsmqnif'eqt form.We
form.
iln"r" , enersy sideration if rigorous criteria for the definition of the task, for the choice of
speak oI mechanical,"'i""i'"i"'"t:'.:1
of rrtions and for an evaluation. are to be established. No statement is fullv
*Zigrtt, colour,conditionn:{t;
sp:a\ *"tl"l]iil: ::".:g,,;l'":''i,fif,l,il"',i
etc' Thr
as
substitutematerialwith such propertles lirrcd unless its quantitative as well as its qualitative aspects have been taken
is'o"n"'ally givJn more concreteexpressionb r l c c o u n t . T h u s . t h e s t a t e m e n t : ' 1 0 0k g / so f s t e a ma t 8 0 b a r a n d 5 0 0 ' C ' i s n o t
generalconcept i'i;';;;;ti t::,:if";T:t-::J
means
"f
of the,"r^,'inoi'hat is'itreptrvsic?t f::TtL *l:: rrrllicient definition of the input of a steam turbine unlessthere is the further
ff#":;[i#"tt";; betweenpeopleis often calleda
exchanged tilication that these figures refer to a nominal quantity of steam and not, for
trrnce,to the maximum flow capacityof the turbine, and unlessthe admissible
12.\rl. svstems-qrunt
of technicar
il! un",rrls I "qlllT::i :1r.1*l5;i.l''T$il (turrtions of the state of the steam are fixed at, say, 80 bar + 5 bar and
ilff;#:il#'ffi
."ffi"Jff l';r;T:ilil::::::::::'l'.,'.T'.'"','[:l
*n"1'
u'"'r' o]::,:: t (' + 10oC,that is, extended by a qualitative aspect.
;;;i'
ll:lfi:H;# ,iliJ-.'i#.:;;ffi ".1
J;#llilft in"a,varietv ::'*:t :;:T^:il;i;:';
:: lrr very many applications,it is also essentialto stipulate the cost or value of
:?"Jf "'" ;;u:"'i1"rv;:'"iJ"*:'::TI":J3# irrputsand/or the maximum permissiblecosts of the outputs (see [2.23]).
T"Zir)-'r;"T;;il''"danctthermalenergy,
"-r:iI':a combustion
n:H:::il:l
::;::1ff engineconvet l o sgtn up: all technical systemsinvolve the conversion of energy, material
rl or signalswhich must be defined in quantitative, qualitative and economic
:Ii7i;"i;,J"*"".n"r,.a1 ,--- ^l^.-- ^^ir/ar f q f i n n cconve
cstatlon onvel
thermal energy a nuclear power r r r r ' ( F i g u r e2 . 2 ) .
chemical into mechanical and
';;:;:;;
nuclearinto thermalenergy,and
so.on'
; ; varietY
ff'ffi il.:k;i "l Y:I^lh;1;T.?:,'T I rr,rrr2 - e. 2 . T h e c o n v e r s i o no f
,"{':n::',';;:o''il{;;;;'t"J'"-'n"""4"::'nffli"}";"l,"Ti:"'; , r r ' rq v . m a t e r i a la n d s i g n a l s .
;; ;'**; o?J I nI't'"dp' l"::': T::?lll"',1i",
iil'lll'lI 1." surfacefinishesand some
iJ,li
"t*are destroved
for test
"l
\ , , l u t i o n n o t y e t k n o w n ; t a s ko r
l r r r rtLi o n d e s c r i b e do n t h e b a s i so f
Energy-
+
Material
+ Energy'
----c- lVlaterial
--.- Signa
;:ffiilT':,i#r""r; r r r l ) l l 1 \ . n od u t p u t s s ----
Signa s'
o"fffi Signals a
informationin the form of signals.
ot"nt must process with others' transmitted, disPla
,"."iu"i, prepared, comparetl or combined
The functional interrelationship
'" eot,.conver1i1J-"*l3s;;,1"::1111
tvp
::'X".1''?J"1ilJ.l;,",,onej"p"nding.on piobrem
th.e #'iIn I ,'rrlcr to solve a technical problem we need a svstem with a clear and easily
.i;;".:l':lit.l"l",Tl";;r,",r, ::.]:,:**ton' r.t1119".1 relationship between inputs and outputs. In the case of material
case, heco
case, tthe nversron
convelsrurril;;i; ; il 1;""tJa.1 tl", T,il: r*,"iji'.I;'
frequently alllil:":'J
three cc \ ( rsions, for instance,we require identical outputs for identical inputs. Also,
accompanied by a second type of converston, and quite lrr r'r'n thc bcginning and the end of a process,for instancefilling a tank, there
or signalswithout
into play. rhus there-cu'"''u3no ::^I:T,:::::i?1"""
small'
lrc ir clcrrr anclrcprocluciblerelationship.Such relationshipsmust alwaysbe
;::#;iltttg ."t""^;tn of.energy' howe^ver I n r r c r -l t h u t i s . c l c s i g n c ct ol n l c c t z rs p c c i f i c a t i o nF. o r t h e p u r p o s eo f d e s c r i b i n g
rsionof'n"igvisoftJnT'o:i?.t:9 t:t:,
rheconve l]t,1
(asin a :::l:""':#i.trf
nuclear, compared ll
wit s t r l v i r r gc l c s i g np r o t r l c n r s i.t i s u s c l u l l < li r p p l yt h c t c r m . f i l r < ' t i o nI < 'tth e g e n e r a l
Hi:i-t.;;vl" "ir'rr" l l ( ) u t l ) u tr c l i r t i t l n s h i op l i r s v s t c r rw r l t o s cl ) u r l ) ( ) s ict i s t o p c r f o r m a t a s k .
coal-rirecr,
power *"li;i^ il"
""H:r'r,l-n;'-ilil l"i''*" o-.ont,or
::1::"1:l:j il flli::':i thc:";
or1.;3cnt l o r s t l r t i c[ ) t ( ) c c s s ci sl i s c r r o t r g l lt o t l c l c t r t t i r t ct l t c i n l t t r t si r t t r lo u t l t u t s ;l o r
i," andregu'ation
flilt',Tf; 3,'iliJ,iii'i;"";i;";; l ( ' ( . s s clsl r i r t c l r i r r r g ew i t l r l i r t t c ( t l y l t l n t i c p f r l c c s s c s )t.h c t l r s k t t t t t s tb c t l c l i n c t l
t l r e l b v i r d e s c r i p t i o rorl ' t l r c i r r i t i n l u n df i n u l m u g n i t u t l c sA, t t h i ss t i r g ct l t c r ei s
otiltli"t"u"r' rcccivc' trltttsttlrltr
numerousmeasuringinstrumcnts
 a1 2 Fundamentals , ' i I u n c l a m e n t a l so f e n g i n e e r i n gs y s t e m s 25

no need to stipulate what solution will satisfythis kind of function. The function L00secarpel
,' lTF-ffi
*ifffiTfl* 3i;ffi1'0"'
thus becomesan abstractformulation of the task, independent of any particular ili1ii.ii,'o,o l::':'-'r'-'-'^'-"' rJiJ n l0ls
solution. len0in

If the overall task has been adequately defined-that is, if the inputs and
outputs of all the quantities involved and their actual or required properties are
known-then it is possible to specify the overall function.
An overall function can often be divided directly into identifiable sub-
functions corresponding to sub-tasks. The relationship between sub-functions
and overall function is very often governed by certain constraints,inasmuch as
some sub-functionshave to be satisfied before others. + f 0w l---l lVainlunctron ---
l\,'laterial System
boundary
On the other hand it is usually possible to link sub-functionsin various ways
1.3. Function structurefor the packing ofcarpet squares
and hence to create variants. In all such cases,the links must be compatible.
The meaningful and compatible combination of sub-functionsinto an overall 'l
lrc result is the function structure shown in Fieure 2.4.It will be seenthat the
function produces a so-calledfunction structure,which may be varied to satisfy
lrrnction'count squares'can also give the signalto pack the squaresinto lots
the overall function.
ruspccified size.
To that end it is useful to make a block diagram in which the processesand
sub-systemsinside a given block (black box) are at first ignored (Figure 2.2).
Functions are usually defined by statementsconsistingof a verb and a noun,
f o r e x a m p l e ' i n c r e a s ep r e s s u r e ' , ' t r a n s f e rt o r q u e ' o r ' r e d u c e s p e e d ' .T h e y a r e
derived from the conversionsof energy, material and signalsdiscussedin2.1.2.

-1
So far as is possible, all these data should be accompaniedwith specificationsof
the physical quantities. irernp
In most engineering applications, a combination of all three types of conver- lr0m
L'1r(lln
s i o n i s u s u a l l y i n v o l v e d , w i t h t h e c o n v e r s i o ne i t h e r o f m a t e r i a l o r o f e n e r g y
influencing the function structure decisively.
It is useful to distinguish between main and auxiliary functions. Whtle main I
functions are those sub-functions that serve the overall function directly,
auxiliary functions are those that contribute to it indirectly. They have a
supportive or complementary character and are often determined by the nature .==+ lvaterlal flow i---l Marn{unctlon
of the sofution. These definitions are derived from value analysis [2.4, 2.28, --- Signal flow function
Auxiliary
i_-_-_i
- - - S y s t e mb o u n d a r y
2.29]1andare not identical for all levels of approach. While it may not always be
' l. l:unction structurefor the packing of carpet squaresas in Figure 2.3 with
possibleto make a clear distinction between main and auxiliary functions, the
tcrms are. nevertheless.useful. r l r r r r c t i o nas d d e d
It is also important to examine the relationship between the various sub-
functions, and to pay particular attention to their logical sequenceor necessary llr,,, l'hirus [2.19] has defined functions in general as activities,effects, goals
interconnection. r orrrtrrintq. In mathematics, a function is the associationof a magnitude y
As an example, consider the packing of carpet squares, stamped out of a ,r rrrrunituclcx so that a unique value (single-valuedfunction) or more than
length of carpet. The first task is to introduce a method of control so that the r . r l t r c( r n u l t i - v a l u e df u n c t i o n ) o f y i s a s s i g n e d f o r e v e r y v a l u eo f x . A c c o r d i n g
perfect squarescan be selected,counted and packed in specifiedlots. The main flrc rlclinilion givcn in DIN69910 l2.al, all functions are determined by
flow here is that of material shown in the form of a block diagram in Figure 2.3. r v c s( t i r s k s ,u c t i v i t i e sc, h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ) .
On closer examination we discover that this chain of sub-functionsrequires the r t i u u s r v r i t c r s o n c l c s i g nr n c t h o c l s( s c c 1 . 2 . 2 ) h a v e put forward wider or
introduction of auxiliary functions because: t t l c l i r r i t i r l nos l g c r t c r l r l l yi r p p l i c i r b l lcu n c l i o n s( s c c -s3)
-the stamping-out processcreates offcuts that have to be removecl; l l t e o r y . i t i s l l o s s i t r l ct o c l i t s s i l ' yI t t t t e l i o t t ss o t l t l t l t h c l o w c s t l c v e l o f t h e
-rejects must be removed separately and reprocessecl;ancl s l r t t c l t t r c c o t t s i s t sc x c l t t s i v c l Yo l ' I t t l t c l i o t t sl l t t r t c i u n r o t b c s u b - d i v i c l c c l
-packing material must be brought in. gcncrlllyupplicrblc,
r wlrilc rcrrrairring
 2 Fundamentals | , r r . l . r n r e n l a ol sl c n g i n c e r i n S
gy\tems 2l

Rodenacker [2.23] has defined functions in terms of two-valued logic, Roth

12.251interms of their general applicability, and Koller 12.12,2.131in terms of
the required physical effects. Krumhauer [2.14] has examined generalfunctions
in the light of possible computer applications during the conceptual design
phase, paying special attention to the relationship between inputs and outputs
after changes in type, magnitude, number, place and time. By and large, he
'change' he refers
arrives at the same functions as Roth, except that by
'increase or
exclusively to changes in the type of input and output, while by
decrease'he refers exclusivelyto changesin magnitude.
As Figure 2.5 shows, all these definitions are compatible if it is remembered
'connect' and'separate'to refer to the logical connections
that Rodenacker uses cl
only. .i
ffi
c.)
l- lol a cl
lF r;l # N

2.1.4 The physical interrelationship t"it +

ii
Establishinga function structurefacilitatesthe discoveryof solutionsbecausei a.l
I
simplifies the general search for them and also because solutions to
ci
functions can be elaborated separatelv.
Individualsub-functions,
originallyrepresentedby blackboxes,mustnow
replacedwith more concretestatements.Sub-functions are usuallyfulfilled 6
physical processes-nearly all engineering solutions are based on physi
phenomena. In addition, of course, chemical and biological phenomena m
also be involved, but they are relatively few and far between in our chosenfield.
If, in what follows, we refer to physical processes,we tacitly include the effects E
z
possiblechemical or biological processes.
Physical processes are based on physical effects. A physical effect can
described quantitatively by means of the physical laws governing the physica O
cd

quantities involved. Thus the friction effect is described by Coulomb's law

F p : 1 z F N tl h e l e v e r e f f e c t b y t h e l e v e r l a w F a ' o : Fs 'b; and the expansi I-:TJ
frilE
O
effect by the expansionlaw ll: ct'l'A0. R o d e nacker [2.23] and Kolle
,-
[2.I2], in particular, have collated such effects.
Several phvsical effects mav have to be combined in order to fulfil
sub-function. Thus the operation of a bimetal strip is the result of a combina
of two effects, namely thermal expansion and elasticity. If, in concrete cases
these effects are assigned to a sub-function, we obtain the physical principle
that sub-function.
Figure2.6 illustratesthe stages-sub-function,physicaleffect.physicalpri
ple and solutionprinciple(see2.1.5)-of three sub-functions(only the inp
and outputs of the main flow are shown):
-transfer torque by the friction effect in accordance with Coulomb's law c

-amplify force by the lever effect in accordance with the lcvcr law; a '(' O
- make electrical contact by bridging the gap by means of thc cxpansion cf i''
?,
i.i al
,', i,i j!
i n a c c o r d a n c ew i t h t h e l a w o f l i n c a r c x p a n s i o no f s o l i c l so r l i c l u i c l s . iu ,rS s,b nr i\ 0
9i "gt ,,, i !;;
A s u b - f u n c t i o nc a n o f t c n b c l t r l l ' i l l c t lt r y v a r i o u sp h y s i c i r cl l ' l ' c c t s , ' l ' h uisr l i i';
r{
("
'i ii ,"r' ,! h :' .!b ry)

can bc arrrplil'icd by thc levcr cl'l'cct, ihc wedgc cfl'cct. thc clcclro-ntlgnc
28 2 Fundamentals I I u l t d a m e n t a l s o f e n g i n e e r i n gs y s t e m s 29

Sub-f
unction Physical
eflect Physical principle
principle Solution S i r rilarlyr i l the requisite motions (kinematics) are determined by:
(independent (Subfunction principle
(Physical and )e
I r'1.1, translation-rotation
ol solution) and
physical
etlect) leatures)
formdesign N l r ture t regular-irregular
l ) iircction
rc in x, y, z-directions and/or about x, y, z-axes
Friction N{rtgrrgnitude velocity etc
, N trrmnb e r o n e , s e v e r a le t c
l n iircldition,
t< we need a general idea of the type of material with which the
fircc ccs are to be produced, for example, whether it is solid, liquid or gaseous;
ft:pFn
ftl or flexible; elasticor plastic; stiff, hard or tough; or corrosion-resistant.A
LeVCI rirl idea of the final form is often insufficient; the properties of the materials
FA FA Amplily ,F^
!criri
muscularb
tr specified before an adequate formulation of the requisite form design
be
lorceby lever fttt
rs: rei I trc
rc undertaken.
p r r lIythe combination of the physical principle with the main form design
Fa'a: Fs'b
Expansr
on
!urc:s (surfaces,motions and materials) allows the principle of the solution to
by
contact
Close
nsol expanding
l.''r,. . This combination is called the solution orinciple. and it is the first
fcrctte step in the implementation of the solution.
ry
mercu
q

ZI=a l-ZS
In l';igure 2.6 the examples discussedin 2.I.4 have been converted into
Zl=u I ZS futi.,r ,n principles by the addition of certain form design features.
p'rirr rrsferring the torque by friction against a cylindrical surface in accordance
Figure2.6.Fulfillingsub-functions
by solutionprinciplesbuilt up of physicalprinciples l v i r l r Coulomb's law will, depending on the way in which the normal force is
andform designfeatures
I l t P licd,
l lead to the selection of a shrink fit or a clamp connection as the
&rl r' r t i o n p rinciple.
:ffect, the hydraulic effect etc. The physical principle found to satisfy a
efie
Arrtl plifying muscular force with the help of a lever in accordancewith the
rarticular sub-function must, however, be compatible with the physical princi-
part 'r
It' r .' law after determining the pivot and force application points (working
ples
rles of other, associatedsub-functions. A hydraulic amplifier, for instance,
t t r rl ;rces)
; and consideringthe necessarymotions will lead to a description of
:annot be directly powered by an electric battery. Moreover, a given physical
canr
:
l l t t ' solution principle (lever solution, eccentricsolution etc).
prin
rrinciple will fully satisfy a given sub-function under certain conditions only.
N ; r liing
li electric contact by bridging a gap using the expansioneffect, applied
Thu
fhus a pneumatic control system will be superior to a mechanical or electrical
l l l r (t'cordancewith the linear expansionlaw, only leads to an overall solution
:ontrol system only in particular circumstances.
conl
l r i l lrt'iple
( after determination of the size and position of Ihe surfaces needed
Compatibility and optimum fulfilment cannot generally be assessedexcept in
fot Itltc motion of the expanding medium , a material (mercury) expanding by a
hc context of the overall function, and then only during its concrete embodi-
'l'o I t r . ' tl
t irmount and serving as a switch.
ttcrtt. that cnd, the required layout and final forms have to be specified.
li' ., .rrtisfy the overall function, the solution principles of the various sub-
h ' l t t trrrshave to be combined. There are obviously severalways in which this
,
I lrr' rltrrrc. Guideline VDI 222212.211calls each combination acombination of
21.1.5
. 1 The form interrelationship )n, r1,tlcs.
ln ",rilny cases, a combination of solution principles must be given more
fhe function is satisfied by the application of the solution principle, which
The [ ' r c t c cxpressionbefore it can be evaluated.This involves more definite ideas
ealised by the arrangement of surfaces (or spaces) and the choice of motic
real hc nratcrialsto be used, a preliminary dimensionedlayout and a technical
[ 2.23).
2.2 ity stucly.As a rule it is not until then that one obtains a solution concept
The surfacesare varied in respect of, and determined by: :irn lrc cvaluated in the light of the objectives and the actual constraints
- Type 'l'lrc
.6) solution concept is thc funclamentalproposal of a solution satisfying
- Shape
o v c r i r l l l u n c t i o n a n c lh o l c l i n g< l u t t h c p r o r n i s ct h a t t h e t a s k m a y b e r e a l i s e d .
* Position
I Irxl. scvcrll conccptvariantsarc possiblc.
- Size
*Number
[2.24).
*.giiEii-
30 2 Fundamen I : u n d a m e n t a l so f t h e s y s t e m a t i ca p p r o a c h 31

2.1.6 General objectivesand constraints rrrlr-functions), until, finally, in the detail phase the elaboration of detail
;nvingsand production documents brings the design processto a conclusion.
The solution of technical tasks is determined bv the seneral obiectives a
constraints.
The fulfilment of the technical function, the attainment of economic feasibili
and the observance of safety requirements may be considered as genera 2 Fundamentals of the systematicapproach
objectives. The fulfilment of the technicalfunction alone does not complete t
designer's task; it would simply be an end in itself. Economic feasibility i
another essential requirement, and concern with human and environment 2.1 General working method
safety must impose itself for ethical reasons.Every one of these objectives h 'lirre we deal with the specific steps and rules of systematic
design, we must
direct repercussionson the rest. cliscussa number of general principles. These come from a host of different
In addition, the solution of technical problems imposes certain constra 'iplines, including non-technical
ones, and are usually built on inter-disciplin-
or requirements resulting from ergonomics, production methods, tra v lundamentals. Management science,psychotogyand philosophy have been
facilities, intended operation etc, no matter whether these constraintsare t ong the main inspirations, which is not suprising when we consider that
result of the particular task or the general state of technology. In the fi thods designed to improve working procedures impinge on the qualities,
case we speak of task-specific constraints, in the second of general rrrcitiesand limitations of human thought.
straints that, though not specified explicitly, must neverthelessbe taken i I lre following conditions must be satisfied by anyone using a systematic
account. rr.oach:
Hubka [2.10] separatesthe properties affectedby the constraintsinto catego l tr.sr,tre the requisite motivation for the solution of the task, for instance by
ies based variously on industrial, ergonomic, aesthetic, distribution, deliver tliscussionof the objectivesand of the significanceof the entire project and by
planning, design, production and economic factors.
rlcneral intellectual stimulation.
Besides satisfying the functional, physical and form interrelationships, {'larfy the boundary conditions, that is, define the initial and marginal
solution must also satisfy certain general or task-specificconstraints.These t onstraints.
be classifiedunder the following headings: I )ispelprejudice to ensure the most wide-rangingpossiblesearchfor solutions
- Safety alsoin the wider senseof reliability rrrrclto avoid logical errors.
- E,rgonomics the man-machine context I ttok for variants,that is, find a number of possiblesolutionsfrom which the
- Production type of manufactureand facilitiesfor the production lrt'st can be selected.
parts \ltke decisions.This is facilitated by objective evaluations.without decisions
- Quality control at any point during the manufacturing process t l r c r ec a n b e n o p r o g r e s s .
- Assembly during and after manufacture
'f I lrc following proceduresare based not only on our own professional
ransport inside and outside the factory rl', ricnce,but alsoand aboveall, on the work of Holliger12.8,2.91, Nadler
Opcration intended use, handling ' 1t.2.113]and Mtiller
[2.16]. when used as intellectual
toolsin the systematic Lv r) rLLrrrorr!
Mirintcnuncc u p k e e p , i n s p e c t i o na n d r e p a i r ',rri n for iolutions ;; ;;;"i;;; ;;.ly and effectivethoughrthey are also
lrxpcncliturc c o s t sa n d s c h e d u l e s r,,\\
r i l \ \ ln
l as
( t i heuristic
"r.l
principles. They underlymostsystematic
'l'hc lIgUrlSllu
PIII procedures and are
corrstraints thnt can be derived from these characteristicsaffect t , l , l i er r b l ei n a l l f i e l d s .
I u n c t i o r . rt,h c w o r k i n g p r i n c i p l e a n d t h e f o r m d e s i g n , a n d a l s o i n f l u e n c e
anothcr. I lcncc they should be treated as checkpoints throughout the desi
process.and adapted to each level of embodiment. I rrltritiveand discursivethought
It is advisable to consider them even during the conceptualphase, at least
Itrrrritivc thought involves sudden ideas (flashes of inspiration) and cannot
essence.During the embodiment phase, when the layout and form design of t ' r r n r r l l yb c p r o c l u c c ctlo o r c l e r . A s a r u l e . i n t u i t i v e t h o u g h t p r o c e s s e si n v o l v e
more or less qualitatively elaborated concept is first quantified, both t t rl v c o n t p l c x i t s s o c i i t t i o n so f i c l c i r s ,c l a b < l r i r t c ci ln t h e s u b c o n s c i o u sm i n d .
objectives of the task and also the general and task-specificconstraintsmust I t t r t r g litn l t r i t i o r rh l r sl c c ll o i r l i r r g cr t r r r n b cor l g o o r l l r r r ccl v c n c x c c l l c n ts o l u t i c l n s
considered in concrete detail. This involves several steos-the collcction p t r r c l vi r r t r r i l i v ci r p p r o l r c lhr t r st l r c l i r l k r u , i r rtgl i s l r t l v i r n t i r g c s :
further information, layout and form design, and the elimination of wcirk lin l l t c r i g l t l i t l c t rr i t r c l vc ( ) n l e sa t t h c r i g h l n l ( ) n r c nsl i r r c r ' i lc i u l t . t (b) tc c l i c i t c c il r l
t o g e t h e r w i t h a f r e s h , i f l i m i t e d , s e a r c ho f s o l u t i o n sf o r a v i r r i c t y o l ' s r r b - l i r will:
 32 2 Fundamentals
- the resultdependsstronglyon individualtalent
and experience;and
- thereis a dangerthat solutionswill be circumscribed
by one's specialtraini
and experience.
It is therefore advisable to use more deliberate procedures that tackl
problems step by step, and such procedures are called discursive. Here the ster
are chosen intentionally; they can be influenced and communicated. It is
lmportant aspect of this procedure that a problem is rarely tackled as a whole
but is first divided into manageableparts and then analysed.
It must, however, be stressedthat the intuitive and discursivemethods are
opposites.Experiencehas shown that intuition is stimulatedby discursi,
thought.Thus while complexassignments
must alwaysbe tackledone srepar
time, the subsidiary problems involved may, and often should, be solved
intuitive ways.
In systematic work it is helpful to exploit certain general characteristics
human thought. Holliger [2.9] distinguishesbetween unconscious,preconsci<
and consciousthought and prescribesthe transformation of aimlessand uncon
scious procedures and of disorderly and fantasy-charged preconscious proce
dures into a conscious or deliberate approach. This can-be dbne with the help o
methodical rules, clear task formulation and a structured procedure. A furtheiair
to conscious thought is the assoclation of ideas. one should, however, avoid se
complexes of ideas becausethese may turn out to be too inflexible, and
complexes shouldbe deliberatelydissolved.
It is obviousthat systematic
thou
is neededmore for originaldesignthanfor routinetasks,whichcanqenerallv
performed successfullyeven if the underlying thought processesremain uncon
scious. Another important property of human thought is the inevitability o
errors, for which allowancesshould, if possible,be made from the start. In thi
connection,Holliger speaksof 'catastrophe
analysis'.one should,however,
carefulto minimiseerrorsor the weak links resultingfrom them. This can
doneby:
-clearly definingthe requirementsand constraints
of a particulartask;
-not forcingintuitivesolutionsbut usinga discursive
approach;
-avoiding fixed ideas;and
-adapting methods,proceduresand technicalaids
to the task in hand.
2 Analysis
Analysisis the resolutionof anythingcomplexinto its elementsand the study
theseelementsand of their interrelationships.It calls for identification,deii
tion. structuringand arrangement.
If errorsare to be minimised,then problemsmust be formulatedclearlya
unambiguously.To that end, they have to be analysed.problem analysismez
separating the essential from the inessential and, in the .ur" of .o.
problems,preparinga discursivesolutionby resolutioninto individual.
transparent,
subsidiaryproblems.If the searchfor the solutignprovcs6ifficult,
reformulationof the problem may provc hclpful. Expericncehas shown thi
u n d a m e n t a l so f t h e s y s t e m a t i ca p p r o a c h JJ
clul analysis and formulation of problems are among the most important
rs of the systematicapproach.
'llrc
solution of a problem can also be brought nearer by structureanalysis,
is, the searchfor hierarchicalstructuresor logicalconnections.In general,
type of analysiscan be said to aim at the demonstrationof similaritiesor
:titive features in different systems(see 5.4).
rnther helpful approach is weak link analysis. It is based on the fact that
ry systemhas weaknesses causedby ignorance,mistakenideas,external
ances, physical limitations and manufacturingerrors. During the de-
lment of a system it is therefore important to analyse the design concept or
embodimentfor the expresspurposeof discoveringpossibleweak links
prescribing the remedies. To that end special evaluation procedures (see
and weak tink identification methods (see 6.6) have been developed.
rience has shown that this type of analysis may not only lead to specific
ovementsof the chosensolution principle, but also may trigger off new
ion principles.
nthesis
r'.llsis the putting together of parts or elements to produce new effects and
dcrnonstrate that these effects create an overall order. It involves search and
rvcry, and also composition and combination. An essentialfeature of all
rt work is the combination of individual findinss or sub-solutionsinto an
rrllworkingsystem-that is, the association
of components
to form a whole.
irrs the processof synthesisthe information discoveredby analysesis
'csscdas well. In general,it is advisableto basesynthesison global
a or
rtt.sapproach; in other words to bear in mind the general task or course of
rtswhile workingon sub-tasks
or individualsteps.Unlessthisis done,there
lht' grave risk that, despite the optimisation of individual assembliesor steps,
rtritirbleoverall solution will be reached.Appreciation of this fact is the basis
f lrc inter-disciplinary development known as value analysis which proceeds
thc analysis of the problem and function structure to a global approach
ving the early collaboration of all departments concerned. A global
orrch is also needed in large-scaleprojects, and especially in preparing
tltrlcs by such techniques as Critical Path Analysis. The entire systems
otl is strongly basedon the global approach,which is particularly important
lltt' cvaluation of solution proposalsbecausethe value of a particular solution
ortly be gauged after overall assessmentof all the requirements and
r i r i n t s( s e e5 . t t ) .
rn of labour and collaboration
csscntial finding of management scicnccis that the implementation of large
cttnrplcx tasks calls for the division of labour, the more so as specialisation
'I'his
is alsodcmandcdby tltc incrcaringlytight schcdulcs
of modern
. Now, divisionof labou |nrg!{iFdlrciplinary which,
collaboration
f-
 34 2 Fundament I I r r r r c l a m e n t a losf t h e s y s t e m a t i ca p p r o a c h 35

in its turn, involves special organisational and staff arrangements and attitude
Task:Connectshattto hub
including individual receptiveness to the ideas of others. It must, however, t lnitral Shaft
situation. andhub
stressed that inter-disciplinary collaboration and teamwork also demand
rigorous allocation of responsibility. Thus the product manager should be in sol
charge of the development of a particular product, regardless of department
boundaries.

5 Generally applicable methods

The following general methods provide further support for systematicwork,
are widely used [2.9].

The method of persistentquestions (The 'Why?' technique)

When using systematicprocedures it is often a good idea to keep ask
questionsas a stimulus to fresh thought and intuition. A standard list
questionsalsofostersthe discursive
method.In short,askingquestions
is one o
the most important methodological tools. This explains why many authors ha rc 2.7. Develooment of shaft-hub connectionsin accordancewith the method of
drawn up special questionnaires(checklists). rvlrrdsteps

The method of negation
The method of deliberate negation starts from a known solution, splits it in
individual parts or describes it by individual statements, and negates the
statementsone by one or in groups.This deliberateinversionoftencreatesne
solutionpossibilities.
Thus,when considering a 'rotating'machineelement
might also examine the 'static' case. Moreover, the mere omissionof an elemen
can be tantamount to a negation. This procedure is also known as 'systemati
doubting'[2.9].
Themethodof forward steps
Starting from a first solution attempt, one follows as many paths as
yieldingfurther solutions.This method is also called the method of diverse
thought.It is not necessarilysvstematic.
but frequentlystartswith an unsystem
tic divergence of ideas. The method is illustratedin Figure2.7.
Themethodof backwardsteps
Starting from the objectivesof the development,one retracesall the poss
paths that may have led up to it. This method is also called the melhod
convergent thought, because only such ideas are developed as converge on
ultimate goal.
The method is particularly useful for drawing up production plans an
developingsystemsfor the manufactureof designedcomponents.
It is similarto the methodof Nadler 12.17l,whohasproposedthe constructi
of an ideal systemthat will satisfyall demands.This systemis not developed
practicebut formulatedin the mind. It demandsoptimum conditionssuchas
ideal environment which causes no external disturbances.Having formul
sucha system,there follows a step-by-step
investigationof whal concc
bc made to turn this purely theoretical and ideal systeminto a technologi-
lcasible one, and finally into one that meets all the concreterequirements.
rrtunately, it is rarely possible to specify in advance which particular ideal
rrr will satisfy all functions, especiallythose linked together in a complex
rtrttltod of systematicvariation
of the solutionare known, it is possible,by
requiredcharacteristics
variation,to developa more or lesscompletesolutionfield. This
rlvcs the construction of a generalisedclassification,that is, a schematic
'rcntation of the various characteristicsand possible solutions (see 5.4.3).
rr lhc viewpoint of managementscience,too, it is obvious that the discovery
lrrlrrtions is assistedby the construction and use of classificationschemes.
Ir rrll authors consider systematic variation one of the most important
r t l i c a lp r o c e d u r e s .
2 I'roblem solving as information conversion
ation conversion
we cliscussed the basic ideas of the systemsapproach (1 .2.3) we found that
rrr solvinq demands a constant flow of information. Information is
, proccssed and transmitted (see Figure 2.8).
nrirtion is rcceivetlfrctm markct analyses,trend studies,patents,technical
I , t { . ' l ' l t c c o t t v er s i r l t tr l l '
rn
,Eft-
 2 Fundamen I ' rrtllutrcntals 31

journals, research,licenses,inquiriesfrom customers,concreteassignment lrrlilrmation systems

design catalogues, analyses of natural and artificial systems, calculations lrrrild up an information system, one may have to take into account, aparl
experiments, analogies,general and in-house standards and regulations, stoc rr the above criteria, the position of the user (for instance section leader,
sheets,deliveryinstructions,computerdata,test reports,accidentreports,a l n c r , o r d r a u g h t s m a n ) t; h e d e s i g np h a s e( c o n c e p t u a l ,e m b o d i m e n t ,d e t a i l ) ;
also through 'asking questions'.Data collectionis an essentialelement t r p c o f d e s i g n ( o r i g i n a l d e s i g n , a d a p t i v ed e s i g n , v a r i a n t d e s i g n ) ; a n d t h e
problemsolving[2.1]. plcxity of the system to be developed (for instance plant, machine,
Information is processedby analysisand synthesis,the development :rnbly, component). The following stepsin the constructionof an information
solutionconcepts,calculation,experiment,the elaborationof layout drawin 'nr can be distinguished:
and also the evaluation of solutions. :tcrmination of the requirements;
Information is transmittedby means of drawings, reports, production do cntification of the sources;
ments etc. Quite often provision must also be made for the information to rllcction:
stored. rrssificationand processing;
Information conversion is usually a very complicated process. Thus, )l llge;
solution of various problems requires information of different type, content a : t ri c v a l ; a n d
range. Beyond that, in order to raise the level of information and improve it, rrnputerisation,if necessary.
mav be necessarvto reiterate certain steps. rcral information systems have already proved their practical usefulness.
To meet the growing demand for an optimal and rational flow of informati : rvc shall merely list a few important bibliographicalsourceson information
inside an enterprise, and also about its dealingswith the market, severalspeci d a t as y s t e m[s2 . 5 ,2 . 1 5 , 2 . 2 0 ,
i c a t i o n[ 2 . 6 , 2 . 2 I , 2 . 3 4 ]a n do n c o m p l e t e
procedures have been developed in recent years. Zimmermann [2.32] h
, .1.33].The most important conceptsof information theory are covered in
published a comprehensiveanalysisof these procedures,basedon 74 thesesa .l.l 300 and DIN 44 301 12.2,2.3).
206 bibliographicalentries. What matters above all is, by organisation t'onglusien,it must be stressedthat the ready availability of a wide range of
measuresand the appropriate techniques,to establisha quick and adequate
llrellcnsive and problem-oriented information is of the utmost importance in
of information between the various departments working on a particular tflrisn process12.261.The optimum and rational processingof information is
To that end various models have been developedfor processingwritten or tlr lrrcilitatedb y t h e s y s t e m a t i ca p p r o a c h .
informationto satisfya variety of needs12.221.
It is understandable
that t
researchwork should have been done initially for management systems.
recently this type of researchhas spread to engineeringsystems[2.15], since it
now recognised that technical developments in a particular industry depen
largely on the efficiency and range of its information system.
Useful criteria for evaluating the quality of information will be found in
They include:
-Reliability, that is, the probabilityof the informationbeingtrustworthyan
correct.
-Sharpness, that is, the precision and clarity of the information content.
-Volume and density, that is, the indication of the number of words a
pictures needed for the description of a system or process.
-Value, that is, the importance of the information to the recipient.
- Actuality, that is, an indication of the point in time when the information
be used.
-Form, that is, the distinction between graphic and alpha-numericdata.
- Originality, that is, an indication of whether or not the original character
the infbrmation must be preserved.
-Complexity, that is, the structure of, or sirnilaritybctwccn, inlirrntirt
s y m b o l sa n d i n f o r m a t i o n c l c r n c r t l s .u r r i t sr l r c o r n l l l c x c s ,
- l ) c g r c c o f r c f ' i n c r n c r ttl l.t i r t i s . l l t c t l r r i r r r l i tovl d c l i r i l i r r t l r c i n l i r n r r i r t i o n .
 I r i er r c r a l p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g 39

3 The designprocess

__-: -
lo
to
t
t4
IE
In the previous two chapterswe examinedthe
fundamentalson which design r=
work should be to best advantage.They form the basisof a l=
approachwhich the.built systemaic ta
practisingdesignercan foilow, regardlessof specialty, - ---
t O
t d

involve a variety of methods,someof which and

havestilf to be described. I
I
I
____J

3.1 General problem solving l . l . G e n e r a lp r o b l e m - s o l v i n gp r o c e d u r e

virriant is selected. Because each step of the design process must be

):,::::*Tt "l:::-?!"",:',:y.: meth,odinvorves stepbv step tcd, evaluation servesas a check on progresstowards the objective.
it, weli:?1'T-:.rving
proceed from tie quatitati;,;;;;,";;",',l,oi,'i!, :isionsinvolve the following considerations(see Figure 3.2):
:::!::.::i^yi,!,,:::r:
each new step being more concrete than
the last. lhc results of the previous step meet the objective, the next step can be
as theconversion
of information(see2.2.2).
lj,r:q:"*-* ::I 1."-:r"ydered
lrt::: ::* .1^y,',
is,"1, 11 "I it.9".o : n"r".nroi"'utiJ,il;;;;;;Ji;";;;;,";,'i
Thigher ru.fi" e.iai,r'ffi ;; J;.,
"p " are incompatible with the objective the next step may not be
!v rvrrur4re"lfti;
to repear at a
:"r^,1"t"r,'that
the necessary improvement
I
has beei made.
conversionof informationprovidesdata not only
next for the
step, however small, but also throws fresh iight
"^lt"i:"r*l:"".1y on tr," fr"uious one.
The splitting of the designprocessinto stepsensures
. that the essentiallinks
be^tween objectives,planniig, implementation andchecking Repeat thestep
are maintained [ 3 . 1 ,
3.e]. 0 na n r g n e r
information level
With theselinks we can,following Krick
or::j:T:: [3.2] andpenny
[3.5], construct a
generar
sotutiori
orprourem'sirir"r"
llr).
f:1.1.
Every task invotves-,first.of atl, a confro";";;;;;f
il;;;;;iem with what is
already known. The intensity of this confrontation
depends on the designer,s Afolheresuts
knowledge, ability and expeiience, and ls a repetition
ol the
on the particular field inr r which In
salrslactory
vt rrrvrr he
rtu is
tJ steplinancially
viable
however, more-detailediniormarion
abourihetaskitself,
l(rrnrs
ol andpromising?
lliii"i;^t"^1t]:T:r; .rrv
about possibtesolutionprinciplesand about known
140\ rtJgtl, lhcobiccl
ve?
3];.1,,^ll.^.::,lljraints,
olems
0." isextre
mely
:?,lJ:::'Tl-il
of the requirements. "r"rrf "i ll.r;tffi i'i ;#; #.l:;
Nextcomes the definition of the essential problems
(the crux of the task) on a
mo^re.abstract plane, to.ut fix the objectives and chief constraints. Such
1o
definitions, far from prejudging the issue, open the way to the untrammclrcd
search for solutions, including unconventional
ones.
is creTtjon,when
solutions
aredeveloped
by variousmc.ns.nd
lT,::llrl:f
ji:l"jl1.i,,1.:.i::Tlif".l'y'.1",T,ticauy
thcre mustalsr hc evuruution,
rr,n."",Ir,;'"';iil;;i'il'1.;;:
foll'wcd riy a deci;;itt,,
.n thc trrisisof wtrich Ooncrrldesirionprrrcctr
40 3 T h e d e s i g np r o c e s s Flow of work during the designprocess

- If repetition of the previous step (or if necessaryof severalprecedingsteps)is

financially viable and promises good results, the step must be repeated on a
higher information level. II
- If the answer to the previous question is no, the development must be -t

stopped. E
Even if the results of a particular step do not meet the objective, they might Clarify
thetask =:
Elaborate
thespecilication
neverthelessprove useful if the objective or the task were wholly or partly -9o

changed. -
This whole process, leading from confrontation through creation to decision,
must be repeated in each successive,increasinglyconcrete, phase of the design T
process. I
ll
ldentily problems
essential '-
o
Establish
function
structures --
Search principles
lorsolution
=-
Combineandlirmupintoconcept
varlants
3.2 Flow of work during the designprocess Evaluate
against
technical
andeconomic
criteria O

The main phasesinvolved are: .2

- Clarification of the task E

- Conceptual design O

- Embodiment design
- Detail design. Developpreliminary
layouts
andl0rmdesrgns
Figure 3.3 shows this processstep by step. At every step, a decisionhas to be bestpreliminary
Select layouts E
Reline
andevaluate
against
technical
andeconomic
criteria ;
made as to whether the next step can be taken or whether previous steps have E C

first to be repeated. Continuing right to the end only to discover that a serious E
. oq
=
mistake has been made at an earlier stage is somethingthat must be avoided at o E
g

all costs. o
E
- E E
The obvious decision to stop a development that may not prove cost-effective E
E
(3.1) has not been included in the flow diagram. E
.E
E
Clarification of the task 0plmiseandcompleteformdesigns O
(lhcckf0rerr0rs
andcosteffectiveness
This phase involves the collection of information about the requirements to be thepreliminary
l'rr:pare partslistandproducti0n
documents
embodied in the solution and also about the constraints.
It is followed by the drawing up and elaboration of the detailed specification
(requirements
list) (see4.2).

Conceptualdesign
The conceptual design phase involves the establishment of function structures I rrr;t
t:;t;dt;lails .6

the searchfor suitable solution principles and their combinationinto co (,ompktlu rJclai andproduction
drawngs documents
variants. The conceptual designphase consistsof severalsteps (see 5.1) none {ilrtr;k;rlldocLtmenls
which may be skipped if the most promising solution concept is to be reached. I -6
the subsequentembodimentand detail designphasesit is extremelydifficult t
I
impossible to correct fundamental shortcomings of the concept. A successf
solution is more likely to spring from the choice of the most appropria
principles than from exaggerated concentration on the finer points. This clai
does not conflict with the fact that even the best principles may be frustratccl by
l a c k o f a t t e n t i o nt o d e t a i l .
Steprof thedcrignprrrcs
'...'*l&*
 42
3 The design process A'
I Flow of work during the designprocess +J

The concept variants that have been eraborated

_ must now be evaluated.
variants that do not satisfy the demands of phase, much as the range of possible materials and the spatial requirements
the specification have to be
eliminated; the rest must be judged by the methodical irrl'luence the choice of a particular solution during the embodiment design
application of specific plurse.In general, however, the optimisation of the form designsand hence of
criteria. During this phase, the chief ciiteria are
of a technical nature, though
rough economic criteria have also begun to play part lhc manufacturing processes will begin to assume growing importance as
a (see 5.g). on the basisof
the evaluation the best solution concept can now e r r r b o d i m e npt r o c e e d s .
be selected. 'fhe
It mav be that severalconceptvarianis look equally promising, main phases of the design process cannot always be clearly delimited.
and that a final 'l
decisioncan only be reached on a more concrete hus even a conceptual decision may require a scale drawing for the purpose of
level. Moreover, various form
designsmay satisfy one and the same solution conceot. :ciding on possiblelayouts. Conversely,the preliminary layout selectedduring
hc embodiment design phase may involve nothing more than rough sketches
Embodiment design 3.31.Moreover, certain optimisations may be postponed until the detail design
D u r i n g t h i s p h a s e .t h e d e signer, itse. Such variations of the design process in no way detract from the value of
i starting from the concept, determinesthe lavout
and forms, and develops a technicai product o. ,yrt.- : general scheme.
i. l;igure 3.3 does not include models and prototypes becausethe information
technical and economic considerations(iee """;;l;;;'#,h
[3.7] and[3.g]). :y supply may be needed at any point in the design process and cannot
It is often necessaryto produce several layouts
to ,.ui" simultaneouslyor
successivelyin order to obtain more information :refore be fitted into any particular slot. In many cases,models and prototypes
about the advantagesand vc to be developed even during the conceptualphase, particularly when they
disadvantagesof the different variants and thus pave
the way for a technicaland
economic evaluation. : intended to clarify fundamental questionsin, say, the precisionengineering,
Frequently, the evaluation of individual variants may ctronics and mass production industries. In heavy engineering,on the other
lead to the selectionof rrd, if prototypes are needed at all, they must often be precededby a complete
one that looks particularly promising but which may
neverthelessbenefit from, rr through the detail design phase.
and be further improved by, incorporating ideas
and solutions from the others.
By appropriate combination and tire elimlnation It rnust also be stressedthat the execution oforders (1.1) need not be part of
of weak links, the best layout ' clesign process, especially not in the case of size ranges and modular
can then be obtained.
definitive layout provides a check of function, strength, rrrlucts,where electronic data processingcan help to reduce the work to a
, ..Thut spatial compati- tnple consultation of data banks. Apart from general layout drawings and
bility etc, and it is also at this stage, at the very latest,
that t*hefinancialviability 'rrrbly plans, no further design or drawing work is needed.
of the project must be assessed.
lrr (iuideline VDI 2222 [3.6) the designprocessis representedby a flow
Detail tlesign rrrm (Figure 3.4) which we have included here becauseof its visual impact
This is the phase of the design process in I rrlsofor purposesof comparison. On it, the embodiment designphase is not
which the arrangement, fbrm,
dimensions and surface prop".ties of all the tlrvicledto the same extent as it is in Figure 3.3 or as we shall be dividing it up
individual parts are finally laid ( ' l r i r p t e6r .
ooyn:.r1" m-aterialsspecified,the technical and
economic ieasibility re-checked ( )rr looking at Figure 3.3, and after reading about the methods described in
and all the drawings and other production documents
p.oau."Jl:.7, 3.g1.
It is important that the designershould not relax his vigilance lolkrwing chapters,the practising designermay well object that he lacks the
at this stage,lest ' to go through every one of the many steps. He should bear in mind that:
his ideasand plans be changedout of recognition. It
is a mistake to think that the
detail design poses subordinate problemJacking in rrrostof the stepshave to be taken in any case,albeit unconsciously,in which
importance or interest. As
we said earlier, the difficulties frequently arise from t ' ; r s cr r n f o r s e e nc o n s e q u e n c e m
s ay arise:
lack of attention to 6etail.
Quite often correctionsmustbe mioe ouringthisphaseand the prece<ling lltc rlcliberate step-by-step procedure, on the other hand, ensures that
steps notltirtg cssentialhas been overlooked or ignored, and is therefore indispens-
repeated'not so much with regardto the overallsolution,
as for the im-prove- tltlc in thc case of original designs;
ment of assembliesand components.
In the flow diagram (Figuie 3.3), the crucial activities In tlrc casc of adaptive designs, it is possible to resort to time-tested
are: rachcsancl to reservethe step-by-stepprocedure for speciallypromising
- Optimisation of the principle;
and
- Optimisation of the layout $cs I
and forms.
Theyinfluence each other and, as the figure shows, overlap thc dcsigncr is cxpcctccl to pnrducc bctlcr rcsults. then he must be given the
to a consicrcratrll
extent. It is obvious that important production criteria (such rt| timc tlrc systcmirtic
approuchdcmands;and
as maximunr sizc
production mcthods etc) can play a crucial rore hcconrcsmorc occuratcif thc ttcp-by-stcpnrcthodis followccl
c v c n c r u r i n gt h c c ' n c c p t

--*fr*--
 3 Thc dcsignProcess
44

trl EE Tasks 4 Product planning and clarificationof the task

o
-E a task
Selected
s4 m lunction
Overall
(Function
Subjunctions t0
structure
lunction)
theoverall
meet
and/orbuilding
principles
Solutron
forthesub-lunctions
blocks
prrnciples
and/or
Assignments are set not only by clients but increasingly, and especiallyin the
s0luti0n
@ Selected
a

E blocks
building cuse of original designs, they originate in the special planning dipartments of
-
6
- to
ofptinciples
eompanies.In that case,the designersare bound by the planning ideasof others.
-o Qsrn[tnstions
tunction
fulliltheoverall lrven then, however, the designer'sspecial skills wiil prove most useful in the
C

0tprinciples
c0mbinati0n ltredium and long-term planning of products. The senior staff of the design
O
V Selected
dcpartment should therefore maintain close contacts not only with the produc-
- (r0ugh
variants
Concept dimensioned
tion department, but also with the product planning department.
orlaYouts)
sketches
l'lanning can also be done by outside bodies, for instance by the authorities,
concePt
Solution bv planning committees etc.
@
- lay0ut
!irns65i6ned llcfore he takes the first step, by proceedingto the clarification of the task in
@ lnprouedla1oul hlrlcl' the designer should familiarise himself *itn tne principles and procedures
a
- aSSemDlles
Selected ol grroductplanning.

E
E
=
D
E Formdesrgn ol assemDlles
variants
U
.l Product planning
A assemottes
0ptimum
NI FinallaYout
l.l Taskandprocedures
- ol components
deslgn
Detail e l.rg 11commercial product can be designedthere has tobe aprocluctidea;thar
, rnt' lhat promisesto lead to technicallyand economicallyviable applications.
z\t ctrrcfing to Brankamp [4.2] and
[4.77], product planning is the systematic
rrrm documents
Plgiu6lion ttt h lirr. and selectionand development of, promising product ideas.In many
* lists.
oarts instructl0ns)
ldrawings. rIrrrrics,accordingly, the product planning department is expectedto follow
rlt'r'ckrpment of the product idea in the design and manufacturing depart-
Figure3.4.Flow diagramofthe designprocess'from [3'6] tr irncl to watch over its market behaviour. In this book we shall only be
rrrr witlr product planning in the narrower sense.while it is often left to the
irrg clircctor or other responsible individuals to develop and market the
Experiencehasshownthat'byandlarge,theresultsof.thestep-by- grrotlrrctat the right time, it is now increasinglyacceptedthat innovations
conventi
procedure compare favourably with those involved in the
tl bc systcmatically planned. A very important aspect of the systematic
approach. It is that it provides a better prediction of the timing and costs of a
i r t 'l ) r ( ) . l c c t .
r l i r t t u l u s l i r r i r p r o c l u c tp l a n c a n c o m e from outside or from within the
y , W c i r c c o r c l i n g l cy l i s t i n g u i s hb c t w c c n c x t c r n a l a n d i n t e r n a ls t i m u l i .

t t l l n d c c o l l o r n i co b s o l c s c c n c co l ' t h c c ( ) n l P a n y ' sp r o d u c t s ,i d c n t i l ' i c c l

by n drop in lurnoveri
 4 P r o d u c t p l a n n i n g a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e task I I Product planning 4j
46

high flexibility in case of market fluctuations; and

-the discovery of new researchdata, proceduresor technologies;
high rates of profit and good liquidity.
market requirements;
- economic and political changes; and Market conditions, company objectives and company potential define the
-technical and economic superiority of competing products' rrrca in which the search for a new product can be usefully pursued. That area is
Internal stimuli include:
capacitY; Areaol
- drop in profitabilitY; potentialDevelopmenl Procurement Production Distribution
- n"* discoveries by the company research department; and lypeot
notential
- introduction of new production methods'
Therehavebeennu-",ou,proposalsforasystematicandorganisedapproach Experience Experience Fvnpripnro Experience
involve the following
o - Developmentof Negotiationol - Procedure
,o pioOu", planning [4.4, 4.6, 4.i-, 4.I4,4.15] all of which D
functions
and deliveryterms Preparation
Publicity
- Customer
Inform- service
steps: properties - 0rganisational Materials - 0rganisational
-situation analysis and definition of company objectives; ation - Workingprinciples methods Dimensions melhods
-discovery of Product ideas; 0rgan
isational Purchasing organi- Precision Salesorganisation
meth0ds sation - 0rganisational Customer relations
-product selection; and Trademarkrights Contactswithsuppliers methods Sale
negotiators
- product definition. - Patents - Materials,
bought- 0rgan isationai - Final
buyer
(I'2'3)' - Ltcences outparts
These steps are compatible with the general systems approach Resources
Structure etc
etc etc etc
Means of developmenl Property,Buildings Branches
4.1.2 Situationanalysisand definitionof companyobjectives
Fnrrinmpnt

t acilities - Experimental
lields Means of transporl Infrastructure Equipment
are am - Testequipment Means ol production Means ol transport
Market analysisand clarificationof companypotentialand.objectives etc
etc etc etc
the most important first stepsof successfulproduct planning' ^.
Market analysisis first of all appliedto the turnover and profit situation. Research
statf Staff
gre Professional
staff Stafl
timely detection of profit shortfills and their correction are clearly of l'rtrson
nel Designers - Insidestaff Auxillary
stalf - Inside
staff
impoitance.Next the analysisis extendedto the following external aspects: Draughtsmen - Outsidestalf 0utsidestaff
etc
- socio-political and environmental requirements (including laws etc etc etc
regulations);
- limits of growth; I lltance
Budget;
long-term
linance
- overall market develoPments;
- economic conditions; and
- technological develoPments. g r r r t ' - 1 .T1y. p e sa n da r e a so f a c o m p a n y 'pso t e n t i a la, f t e r
[4.6]
The accuracy of the analysis is impeded by:
- market fluctuations;
vr crrllcda searchfield 14.2,4.6].In the final determination of a searchfield. il
- decreasing life cycles of products; and
lr bc nssssary to take severaladditional factors into account (seeFigure 4.2).
-uncertain forecasts.
of Ic lroundariesof a searchfield depend strongly on the planning horizon-that
An important aspect of product planning over and above the analysis
| .n Ihc time scale (short-term or long-term) set for product planning.
externaliactors isitre anitysis of internal data, representedby the companv 'l'lrc
s.me approach underlies the procedural plan shown in Figure 4.3.
potential and its actual situation. The company potential charactertses
Kraa
tverall capacityof an enterpriseto meet a demand.Kehrmann[4.6] and
surveyof the types and areasof a compa l..l l)iscovery of product ideas
[a.9]have-ud" u comp.eh"nsive
potential (Figure 4.1)
Apart from data obtained from outside and inside the company'
pr f cru* ol productplanningis the systematic
searchfor newproductideas.
planning also calls for a clear definition of the company's objectives. )thodsol' discovcring ideasarc cssentially
mcthodsfor findingsolutionsas
in ('hlptcr 5, anclshoukl be buscdon thc gcncral*-ting method
objectives may include: fsribcd
- i i g t t m a r k e t g r o w t h a n d a g o o d s h a r eo f t h c m a r k c t : lurrcd in 2,2,1.
-r-r-.-
 , 1 P r o c l u c tp l a n n i n g a n d c l a r i l i c a t i o n o f t h e t a s k Clarification ol' the task 49

Therearecases,however,inwhichtheseproceduresalonedonotleadtothe
discoveryofconcreteproducticleas.Insteadtheythrowupinterestingquestions
for whicir solution ideas must first be elaborated'

demands
Market measures
Economic
- Environmental
control
- Market
potential Financial
Polic\/
regulations
Salety policY
- Market
structure Fiscal
regulations
Factory - Customsagreements
- Standards - Market
share
Competition regulations
Export field
Search

{ields
of search
Determination

- Aimsof enterprise Patent situatton

andlicence
Procedure
- Methods - Lilecyclesof Products - lnternationalrsatlon
- Materials - Costs,Protits - Population
growth
- Education I r l r r r e4 . 3 . P r o d u c t p l a n n i n g
, Enterprise
Potential
Limitsof Potentlal develoPments
Military
expansion
.1.1.5 Product definition
'I
lr, last step of product planning, namely 'product definition', involves the
Fisure 4.2. External and internal
iniormation for the determination
rg,,t il'ication of the most important features and requirements of the final
of searchfields, atler [4.6] frr,rtluct.Such definitions or proposals are usually submitted to the company
lrr',1111 $efs1e they are acted upon. They are best presented in the form of a
rrrrrlrlified specification or requirements list (see 4.2) which must later be
4.1.4 Product selection , r r r p l c t e da n d e l a b o r a t e db y t h e d e s i g nd e p a r t m e n t .

The selection of promising product ideas is of great importance becauseof t

expenseof subsequentdevelopments.Such selectioncannot, of course,be mo
t
than rough and ready at this stage, when still relatively little is known about
impleme-ntation of ihe product idea or the properties of the- product to .2 Clarification of the task
develooed from it. Here, too, it may be advisableto make a feasibility st 'I'he
before beginning the search for a concrete solution' l. | importance of task clarification
With a great many product ideas it is advisableto make a selectionfor
t l es i g t t c r ' sw o r k s t i t r l sw i l l t i t p i r r t i c r r l r r r ' p r o b l c[r' n . v. c r vt a s ki n v o l v c sc c r t l r i n
purpose oT identifying t6or" product ideas that seem to fit in bcst with
I'url t t l t i t t l s t l u t t t t t i r vc l t i r n g cw i l h t i r r r c l r r r l r r r r r s hl c l r r l l y u r r d c r s t r l o ri l t h c
.o-puny'r or othei generalobjectives. This step should be followcd by a I t t t t t t ts r t l t t t i r l tits t o l t c l o t u t t l , l j r o n t l h c v c r y ( ) u l $ c l .t l r c i c t i r r c .t l r e t l r s k r n t r s l
evaluatitn (see 5.8) based on the technicalancl ccononriccritcriit l i s tcd
r l c l i t t c d i r s l u l l v i u t t l c l c i r r l yi t s p o r u i b l cf f r t h $ t u m p l i l ' i c i r l i o r r r ; r r rcrol r r c c l i o r r s
, 4.e]
[4.1
 :1.2Clarification of the task
50 ,l Product planning and clarificationof the task 51

To that 3. Standards and guidelines

during its subsequentelaborationcan be confinedto the most essential'
(requirements -
end, ind also as a basisfor subsequentdecisions,a specification International recommendations.
in -
list) [4.10,4.11]shouldalwaysbe drawnup and consulted.It is indispensable National standards.
- Expert advice.
the caseof originaldesigns.
-presented
The task is generally to the designor developmentdepartmentin
4. Future developments
one of the following forms:
-aSadevelopmentorder(fromoutsideorfromtheproductplanning -Allowing for changesin requirements ancl fashion.
- observing new projects so
department); as to determine the trends of technical and
definiteorder; or economic developments.
-asarequestbasedon,forinstance,suggestionsandcriticismbysales' - Developing ideas that best meet
customers'wishes.
itself.
research,test or assembiystaff, or originatingin the designdepartment once all the necessarydata have been collected, it is advisableto combine
or proposer on the one hand and them into a system basedon the establishedstepsof the designprocess.
Without closecontactbetweenthe client For that
the other, no optimum solution can l)urpose a general specification should be drawn up, namely, a more detailed
thosein chargeof the designdepartmenton
presented to the design department, often rcquirements list than the one supplied by the customer.
be expected6".u,,*" the pioblem, as
further data
does not contain all the necessaryinformation. A phase of
This phase must answer the following
collection must then be initiated. 4.2.2 The specification(requirementslist)
questions:
- What is the ProblemreallYabout? t Contents
- What implicit wishesand expectationsare involved?
Whcn preparing a detailed specification it is essential to state whether the
- Do the specifiedconstraintsactuallyexist?and
irrrlividualitems are demands or wishes.
- What paths are open for development?
formulation I)amands are requirementsthat must be met under all circumstances,in other
Fixed iolution ideas or concreteindicationsimplicit in the task $o1{5, requirements without whose fulfilment the solution is not acceptable(for
on the final outcome. Only the required function
often have an adverseeffect irrrtrrncesuch qualitative demands as 'suitable for tropical conditions', ,splash-
outputs and the task-specificconstraints should
with the appropriateinputs and prrol'' etc). Minimum demands must be formulated as such (for examole
For that purpose the following questions must be
be specifiedrigtrt at the start. l' ' 20 kW; L < 400 mm).
asked: ll'i,rftesare requirements that should be taken into considerationwhenever
-Whatobjectivesistheintendedsolutionexpectedtosatisfy?
possible,perhaps with the stipulation that they only warrant limited increasesin
- What proPertiesmust it have?and
r"t It is advisable to classify wishes as being of major, medium or minor
- What propertiesmust it not have?
departme
eny geneial requirementsnot specifiedby the product planning
l ) ( ) r t a n c [e4 . 1 3 ] .
department' T lhc distinction between demands and wishes is also important at the
must be assessedin terms of information collected by the design ,rlrrirtionstage, sinceselection(see 5.6) dependson the fulfilment of demands,
that end, the following factors should be examined: rlt' L'vuluation (see 5.8) bears on only such variants as already meet the
t;rttcls
l. Possible com7anY shortcomings l'r'crr bcfore a certain solution is adopted, a list of demandsand wishesshould
-Evaluationofenquiriestothesalesdepartment.Thisevaluationclarifiest rlurwr.rup and the quantitativeand qualitativeaspectstabulated.only then
customer'srequirements.Itisimportanttoevaluateenquiriesratherth I tlrt' resultinginformationbe adequate:
firmorders,whichalreadyrepresenttheselectionofaspecificproduct' ttrty: All data involving numbers and magnitudes,such as number of items
- Customers' comPlaints. rccluired, maximum weight, power output, throughput, volume flow
-Assembly and test reports. rittc ctc.
ity: All data involving permissiblevariationsor specialrequirementssuch
2. Stateof technologY ils watcrproof, corrosi<tnproof, shock proof etc.
G g u i r c n t c n t ss h o u l c l .i f p o s s i b l c ,b c q u a n t i f i c c la n c l ,i n a n y c a s e ,c l e f i n e di n
- ComPetitors' Programmes'
tcchnical jtltrrnitls ancl ntttlttt c l c s r c s t p t l s s i b l ct c r m s . S p c c i a l i n d i c u t i o n so l ' i n r p o r t i u r t i n f l u c n c c s .i n t c n -
- Acc<luntstlf sinrilitr stllutions in tcxtbotlks,
or procedurcsmuy llso be includcdin thc rpccificltion,which is thus an
- S t u c l Yt t l P a t c n t s '
52 4 Product planning and clarification of the task
internal digest of all the demands and wishes expressed in the language of the
various departments involved in the design process. As a result, the specification
not only reflects the initial position but, since it is continually reviewed, also
serves as an up-to-date working document. In addition it is a record that can, if
necessary,be presented to the board and the sales department so that they may
make their objections known before the actual work is started.
2 Format
For a recommended layout of a specification,see Figure 4.4.
The format of the specification should be agreed with the company's standards
office so that it can be used, elaborated and adopted in as many departments as
possible. Figure 4.4 is thus no more than a suggestionthat can, of course, be
modified at will.
veor orooeily
Oblecl
wilhquanl
kl veand
quar
tal!e
dala
I necessry spil nloslb{yslems
(l!nclonsor assembles)
of baseon checkihtheadings
Figure4.4. Layout of a
specification
It may prove useful to draw up the specificationin order of sub-systems
(functions or assemblies)where such can be identified, or else by checklist
headings(see4.2.2.3).With establishedsolutions,in whichthe assembliesto
developed or improved are already determined, the specificationmust
arranged in accordance with these-special design groups are usually put i
charge of the development of each assembly. With motor cars, for instance, t
sp'ecificationcan be subdividedinto engine, transmissionand bodywork
velopment.
In the case of essentialand also of less obvious reouirements it is extre
useful to record the source of specific demands or wishes. It is then possible to
back to the proposer and to enquire into his actual motives. This is partic
important when the question arises of whether or not the demands can
phangedin the light of subsequentdevelopments.
Such change.rin, and additions to" the original task as might rcsult from
b c t t c r u n d c r s t a n d i n g o f s o l u t i < l n p o s s i b i l i t i c so r f r o m p o s s i b l c c h t n g c s
1.2 Clarification ol the task 53
crnphasismust always be entered in the specification,which will then reflect the
progressof the project at any one time.
Responsibility for this work is vested in the chief designer. The updated
specification should be circulated among all departments concerned with the
tlevelopment of the product (management, sales,accounts, researchetc). The
specificationcan only be changed or extended by decision of those in charge of
lhe overall project.
3 Listing the requirements
As a rule designers have some difficulty in drawing up their first specification.
l:xperience, however, will greatly facilitate the compilation of subsequentones.
It is useful to head all specificationswith a description of the overall task and
some characteristicdata, for example'Induction motor, rating 63 kW,4-pole'.
'l'his
helps to convey some idea of the nature and scope of the problem.
Further data are collected with the help of a checklist reflecting the general
anclspecific objectives and constraints.By applying this checklist to the task in
hrrnd and then asking what questions he needs to have answered,the designer
rrrayelicit a most beneficial associationof ideas.
Franke [4.3] has drawn up a very detailed checklist,basedon a searchmatrix.
('hccklists and questionnairesare particularly usefulif they cover no more than a
lirnited field, if they do not date too quickly, and if they can be taken in at a
glirnce. In this book we shall deliberately refrain from presenting detailed
tlrrcstionnaires-it is our considered opinion that easily memorised checklists
rrith regular headings will help the designerto hit upon the essentialquestions
;rrrlonatically, and without laborious aids.
'I'lrc
first step in the clarification of the task is the elucidation of the necessary
Irrrtctionsand task-specificconstraints. This is done by reference to the follow-
trru lrcadings: geometry-kinematics-forces-energy-material-signals. The
lorrrbination of the relevant concepts produces a welcome redundancy and
Ircrrccan important check that nothing essentialhas been forgotten.
I'lrc remaining general or task-specificconstraintscome under the headings
frstcrfin 2.1.6 and must be taken into account time and again.
( )ncc the data have been gathered, they must be combined in a sensibleway.
'lo
thlrt end, numbering of individual items may prove useful.
lrr thc light of the arguments advanced in this chapter, the following general
Itcllrocl of compiling specificationscan now be recommended:
('onrpilc the requirements
l'ly attcntion to the main headingsof the checklist(Figure 4.5) and determine
l l t c c p r a n t i t a t i v ea n d t h e q u a l i t a t i v ed a t a .
Ask:
Whlt objcctivcsmust thc solutionsatisfy'?
Whlt propcrtics must it havc'/
Whutpropertics
mustit not havc?
furthcr
Compile information
'*--
54 .l Product planning and clarificationol the task 55

;SUEd:NOV
Mainheadings Examples
VEPAG Specification
Geometry Size,height,breadth, spacerequirement,
length,diameter, arrangement,
number, PACKING
CO. for Sub-task: assemble
cartons Page:1
extensron.
connection,
)hanges D Requirements Resp.
Kinematics Type
ofmotion, velocity,
ofmotion,
direction acceleratl0n. W
Forces Direction magnitude
of force, of force, weight,
lrequency, load, stiff
detormation,ness, andgluel5 carlons/mln
Assemble
inlertia
elasticity, res0nance.
f0rces, ai?o ^f hn"^hr ^, I ca^ri^nc Smith
s
Energy 0utput, ventilati0n,
loss,friction,
elficiency, pressure,
state, heating,
temperature, gr0up
500 x 500mm
Alternatives
supply.
cooling, storage. c0nve'si0n.
capacitV. 400 x 400mm
Material Flowandtransport
of materials. 450x 450mm (onlyl0%)
Physica
andchemical oltheint a andf nalproduct,
propertres auxl arymaterials, Probablelolerance:
t I mm
prescr als(toodregu
bedmater atl0nsetc).
Cardb0ard y Bll allowl0raul0malic
fedif mafual
sediOns (Project
leed'inln duecOurs conference
Signals Inputs lorrn,
andoutputs, control
display, equipment. lgi70)
, nu165
Satety protecti0n
Direct Operational
systems, andenvrronmental
salety.
Assembled placed
cartons 0n cofveyorbelt1yln0
0nlher base
Ergonomics Man-machine relationship,
typeol operation, height,
operating 0t layout,
clearness Heighl
0f convey0r
beltab0vell00rleve:300mm
sitting
comfort,lighting,
shape compatibility.
Producti
on FactoryI mitations,
maximum possible
dimensrons, pr0ducti0n
prelerred rnethods,
Carl0ns if anyol lhree
0l benq rem0ved
capable dlrect
ons
means ofproduction, qualtyandtolerances,
achievable wastage.
control
0uality Possibilities andmeasuring,
oftesting application regulations
ofspecial andstandards.
Assembly installation,
regulations,
Special foundatlons.
siting,
151121 Available bar
airoressure:6
Transport dueto liftinggear,
LimitatiOns clearance,
means (height
0ftransport nature
andweight), r970
ol despatch.
andconditions
COunler
required lheassembled
f0rcOuftlng cartons
0peration wear,
0uietness, uses,marketing
special area, (lorexample,
destinati0n sulphurous
tropical
atmosphere, conditi0ns). quick
Machine y m0veable
wllhout
lurther
adjustmenl

Maintenance (il any),inspecti0n,

intervals
Servicing exchange painting,
andrepatr, cleaning
thgiuemuslhave
Gluenq 0n leavngthemachine setandthecarl0ns ngthe
0l bear
mustbecapable
Costs permissible
lvlaximum manufacturing
costs, investment
costoftools, anddeprecrati0n. lull load.

les
Schedu project
Enddateol development, planning
andc0ntro1, date.
delivery
Workng prnclple in Outpul
musla lowincrease c leedmechan
n withaul0mal
t0 30 carlors/m sm

F i g u r e4 . 5 .C h e c k l i sf to r d r a w i n gu p a s p e c i f i c a t i o n Maxm!mprodrcl
0nc0slsDl/ I 5000 (Pr0jecl min!ls
c0r{cfcfcc 20i70)

End ol developmenl
Schedule: 311311971
Planfeddeliverydate 1l7 11911

- Specify demands and wishes clearly.

21,'1i71 ncw Ihsetln0limcls (Prolecl
fl0lmeI gluenqmach m f!les2ill P0nt2)
c0nlerence
-If possible, rank wishes as being of major, medium or minor importance.
2. Arrange the requirements in clear order, as follows: lll/ I,'7l putchased
equlpment
Gl!cing cOstD[/ 6000
ftom0!tsideAdditional
-First define the main objective and the main characteristics; I )t'11 (induslria
wllh2 handcOftrol
can0fly bestafted
Opefation safety)
-then split into identifiable sub-systems,functions, assemblies etc, or in
8 )ttl Provide slop
emerqncy
accordancewith the main headings of the checklist.
3. Enter the specification on standard forms and circulate among interested
departments"licensees,directors etc.
4. Examine objections and amendments and, if necessary,incorporate them in
the specification. li'ol,nr'ri ,jsr/' r/

Once the task has been adequatelyclarified and the relevant departments itre
s a t i s f i e ctlh a t t h c l i s t e d r e q u i r e m e n t sa r e t e c h n i c a l l ya n c l c c o n o m i c i t l l yi t t t i t i I r g t r r e ' l , t t , l ' ; 1 1 l o ts I e c i t i c l t t r o r r l i r r i r ( ' i r t l o n ; r r s e t t t l r l t t t l r c l t i n c ' ( l ) c t t u r t t t l s / ) l l t tvteo t
I t ' t ' t r r r r t l i t; r t t . t l) ,
i r b l c . t h c w i t v i s c l c i r r l i l r t h c c o r t c c p t u u lc l c s i g nl t h i t s c .
56 ' 1 P r o c l u c tp l a n n i n g a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e t a s k
4 Examples
our first example concerns the subsidiary task 'assemble cartons' in the new
design of a packing machine (Figure 4.6). Quatitative and quantitative consid-
erations were taken into account, for instance on the specification of the
cardboard sections.A first change in the specification(15 December 1970)was
made following the discovery that, though the nominal rating of the compressed
air system was 8 bar, no more than 6 bar could be counted on with certainty.
closer study also showed that glueing would prove more costly than was
originally anticipated, so that the maximum costswere corrected on 29 January
I97I, the extra expenditure having first been approved.
rn 5.2, Figure 5.2, and in 5.9, Figures 5.65 and 5.81, complete specifications
based on the above recommendationsare provided as further examples.
5 Further applications
Even when the design is not original and the solution principle as well as the
layout are fixed so that nothing more than adaptations or dimensional changes
have to be made in a familiar area, orders should neverthelessbe executed on
the basis of specificationswhich can then take the form of printed forms or
questionnaires.They should be constructed in such a way that information for
electronic data processing and quality control can be read off directly. As a
result, specificationsbecome sourcesof information for direct action.
Beyond that, specifications once compiled, are an invaluabl e store of informa-
tion about the required or desired properties of the product, and hence
extremely helpful for further developments, negotiationswith suppliersetc.
The examination of a specification during project conferences or before
assessingvarious designs is an extremely useful procedure. All those involved
are put in possessionof all the available information and all salient evaluation
criteria are brought home to them.
Conceptualdesign
Conceptual design is that part of the design process in which, by the identifica-
tion of the essential problems through abstraction, by the establishment of
function structures and by the search for appropriate solution principles and
their combination, the basic solution path is laid down through the elaboration
of a solution concept.
From Figure 3.3 we can see that the conceptual phase is preceded by a
decision based on the following considerations:
- Has the task been clarified sufficiently to allow development of a solution in
the form of a design?
- Must further information about the task be acquired?
- Is it possible to reach the chosen objective within the given financial
restrictions?
-Is a conceptual elaboration really needed, or do known solutions permit
direct progress to the embodiment and detail design phases?
- If the conceptual stage is indispensable, how and to what extent should it be
developed on systematiclines?
5.1 Stepsof conceptualdesign
According to the procedural plan outlined in 3.2, the conceptual design phase
succeedsthe clarification of the task. Figure 5.1 shows the steps involved; they
rrre correlated in such a way as to satisfy the general principles set out in 3.1.
The reasons for the individual steps have been examined in Chapter 3 and
nced not be further discussedhere. It should, however, be mentioned that
rcfinements of any one of the steps by reiteration on a higher information level
slrould be made whenever necessary.The loops involved have been omitted
lrom Figure 5.1 for the sake of greater clarity.
'l'he
individual steps and the appropriate working methods will now be
c x u m i n e di n d e t a i l .
5.2 Abstracting to identify the essentialproblems
5.2.1Aim of abstraction
Solutionprinciplcsor dcsignsbasedon traditionalmethodsare unlikelyto
providc optimum ilnswcrswhcn ncw tcchnologics,
proccdurcs,matcrials,and
58 5 C o n c e p t u a lc l e s i g n 5 . 2 A b s t r a c t i n g t o i d e n t i f y t h e e s s e n t i a lp r o b l e m s 59

-to improve the sealing quality or to improve operational safety;

I -to
I reduce weight or to reduce the spacerequirement;
I -to lower costs;
I -to shorten delivery time; or
lnlormation
Abstract
to identifv
the essentlal
Droblems -to improve production methods.
I
Definitiion New developments involving a proven solution principle, coupled to modifica-
ishfunction
Estab structures
- sublunctions
lunction
Overall II tions in production methods, are often imposed by the need to lower costs and
shorten delivery times.
I All the requirements listed above might have to be satisfied by the overall
Search princlples
for solution Creation
solution, but their importance may differ from case to case. Nevertheless,due
to fulfilthesubjunctions
6
regard must be paid to each of them, since any one is likely to provide the
a
6
impetus for the discovery of a new and better solution principle.
Combine principles
solution
Once the crux of the task has been clarified to some extent, it becomesmuch
I lunctron
to fulfiltheovera
O
easierto formulate the overall task in terms of the essentialsub-problemsas they
cmerge.
Thus if, in the example we have mentioned, an improvement in the sealing
properties were the crucial requirement, new sealing systemswould have to be
Firmupintoconcept
variants lirund. This would mean studying the flow of fluids in narrow passagesand, from
the knowledge acquired, providing for better sealing properties, while also
Evaluate variants
concept against
lechnical
and economic
criteria Check sirtisfyingthe other sub-problemswe have mentioned.
lf, on the other hand, cost reduction were the crucial point, then, after an
i
Decision rrrralysis of the cost structure, one would have to see whether the same physical
cllccts could be produced by the use of cheaper materials, by reducing the
I rrrrmberof components or by using a different manufacturing technique.
Figure5.1. Stepsof conceptual
design It is the identification of the crux of the task with the functional connections
rrrtdthe task-specificconstraintsthat throws up the essentialproblems for which
also new scientific discoveries, possibly in new combinations, hold the key to r o l u t i o n sh a v e t o b e f o u n d 1 5 . 1 6 .5 . 3 5 . 5 . 5 7 1 .
better solutions.
Every industry and every design office is a store of experiences as well as of
prejudices and conventions which, coupled to the wish to minimise risks, stand .q.2.2 Abstraction and problem formulation
in the way of better and more economic but unconventional solutions. In his
search for an optimum solution, the designer, far from allowing himself to be I lrc clarrification of the task with the help of a specification will have helped to
influenced by fixed or conventional ideas, must therefore examine very carefully lot rrs the designer's attention on the problems involved and will have greatly
whether novel and more suitable paths may not be open to him. To that end, he Ilt rcased his particular level of information. Elaborating the specificationmay
should have recourse to abstraction, which means ignoring what is particular or lhrrs be said to have prepared him for the next step. When he setsout to tackle
incidental and emphasising what is general and essential. Irr rrssignment,the designer has no ready solution, or only an inadequate one.
Such generalisation leads straight to the crux of the task. If it is properly )('l)cndingon his knowledge, experienceand familiarity with previous designs,
formulated, then the overall function and the essentialconstraints become clear ' lrrsk will be more or less new to him.
without in any way prejudicing the choice of a particular solution. llis first step is to analyse the specification in respect of the required function
As an example, consider the improvement of a labyrinth seal in accordance csscntial constraints. Roth [5.50] advisesthat the functional relationships
with a specification. In the abstracting approach, the crux of the task would not ttaincd in thc specificationbe formulated explicitly and arrangedin order of
so much be the design of a labyrinth seal as that of a shaft seal without physical
'l'hlt
contact, due regard being paid to certain operating and spatiai constraints,and analysis,couplcdto a stcp-by-stcp abstraction,
w i l l r e v e a lt h e s e n e r a l
also to cost limits and delivery times. Specifically,the designerwould have ttl ask ;ts and cssentialfcaturcsof the task.as follows:
h i m s e l fw h c t h e r t h e c r u x w a s : l. Eliminatcpcrsunalprcfercncct.
 - 5 C o n c c P t u a ld c s i g n 6t
5 . 2 A b s t r a c t i n g t o i d e n t i f y t h e e s s e n t i a lp r o b l e r n s

Step2. Omit requirements that have no direct bearing on the function and the
essentialconstraints.
Step3. Transform quantitative into qualitative data and reduce them to essen- Specification
tial statements.
Step 4. Generalise the results of the previous step. Fuelgauge

Step 5. Formulate the problem in solution-neutral terms.

Depending on either the nature of the task or the size of the specification, or
both, certain steps may be omitted.
Tabl'e 5.1 illustrates abstraction based on these steps using the specification
shown in Figure 5.2.The generalformulation makes it clear that, with respectto
the functional relationships, the problem is the measurement of quantities of V o l r m e : 2 0l16 0 l
D

Shape lied(rigid)
llxedor unspec
motor vehiclefuel gaugebasedon specification
Table5.1. Procedureduringabstraction:
givenin Figure5.2. D : sleelor p astlc
l,4atsria
Connectlon
lo conta
ner:

Fiange
connection
Resultof stepsI and 2: D Topconnecliol
- V o l u m e s2: 0 I t o 1 6 0I D Sideconnct
on
- Shapeof container:fixed or unspecified(rigid)
H : 1 5 0m m - 6 0 0m m
- Top or side connection
d:gTlmmh=20mm
- Height of container:150mm to 600 mm
- Distancebetweencontainerand indicator:I Om, 3m to 4m D D slancc ner10indcalor
lromconla
- Petroland diesel,temperaturerange:-25"C to 65'C + 0 m ,3 m - 4 m
- Output of transmitter: unspecifiedsignal lm-20m
- Externalenergy:(DC at 6V, 12V, 24V, Variation-I5Vo to +257o)
2 C0nlenls,
lemperalure
rangemalerial
- Output signalaccuracyat maximum+3Vc (togetherwith indicatorerror *5".)
- Responsesensitivity:\o/oof maximumsignaloutput Llquid range
operatln0 Sl0raqe
envirOnmenl
- Possibilityof signalcalibration Pelrol
0r diesel -25"C t0 +65'C -40'C l0 +100'C
- Minimum measurable content:3aloof maximumvalue 3 Signal,
energy

Result of Step3 0ulput0f transmilter: slgfal(v0ltage

electrlc w th quantity
change chanqe)
Availabl
s0urc
0f energy:
DCal 6V,12V,24V
- Various volumes
- Various containershapes varatlon-15% Ia +25'k
Vollage
- Various connections Oulput
signaaccrracy
al maxa3%
- Various contents(liquid levels) !2"/"
- Distancebetweencontainerand indicator:I Om
(toqelher
withndlcalor
err0rt5%)
- Quantity of liquid varieswith time
- Unspecifiedsignal undernormal
c0ndllions leve v = cOnsl
hOrizonlal

- (with outsideenergy) ablel0 wllhsland

shocks
0l n0rmal
drivifg
Res00nse ly: I % 0f maximum
sensitiv s gnal
oulpul
Result of Step 4 0 5% 01maxmumoulput
signal
- Various volumes S gfal unallected
byanqleol iquidsurtace
- Various containershapes Possb I ly ol signal
calibralion
- Transmissionover variousdistances
- Measurecontinuouschangesin quantity of liquid
Replaces
lirs!issue
ol 14i5i19f3

Resultof Step5 (Problem formulation)

- Measurecontinuouslychangingquantitiesof liquid in containersof unspccificd
and shapeand indicatethe measurementsat variousdistances from thc conlitittc . p c c i l i c a t i o n r: r r o t o rv c h i c l cf u c l g l u g e
l ' r g u r c . 5 . 2S
62 5 Conceptualdesign 5 . 2 A b s t r a c t i n g t o i d e n t i f y t h e e s s e n t i a lp r o b l e m s 63

liquid, and that this is subject to the essentialconditions that the quantity of
2rd issue21
6,1973 liquid is changing continuously and that the liquid is in containers of unspecified
size and shape.
Specifrcatton
This analysis thus leads to a definition of the objective on an abstract plane,
Fuegauqe
without laying down any particular solution.
for

5.2.3 Systematic broadening of problem formulation

D Requirenents Bespansible
Changes W Once the crux of the task has been identified by correct problem formulation, a
step-by-stepenquiry must be initiated to discover if an extension of, or even a
Possibil withIu I c0ntaifer
ty of siOnacalibralion
change in, the original task might lead to promising solutions.
D Llinimum
measurable 3% 0l maxmumvalue
conlent:
An excellent illustration of this procedure has been given by Krick [5.29]. The
Reserve
lankc0nlents
byspeclal
signa
task he used as an example was an improved method of filling, storing and
4 0peralinq
condlions
loading bags of animal feed. An analysisgave the situation shown in Figure 5.3.
D Forward on 1 l0m/s2
acceleral
It would have been a grave mistake to begin immediately by thinking of possible
D Sideways
accelerat
on t10m/s2
improvementsto the existing situation. By proceedingin this way one is likely to
0 tlpward 0n (vibrali0n)
acceleral up lo 30m/s2
ignore other, more useful and more economic solutions.
Sh0cks
in l0MarddirectiOn
wilh0ul
damaoe
up lo 30m/s2
In principle, the following problem formulations are possible,each represent-
D FoMard
t ll up to 130"
ing a higher level of abstraction (broader formulation) than the last:
D Sideways
lill max45'
l. Filling, weighing, stitching and stacking bags of feed.
D Tankn0lpressrrised
(ventilated)
.1. Transferrins feed from the mixins bin to stacked bass in the warehouse.
5 Testrequiremsnls

D SaltspraytestsfOrinsdeandoulside
components
accordlng
l0 clefl s requremenls
D Pressure
testfof c0nlaiflef
30kN/m2
6. Lifeexpeclancy
dufabll
ly 0l conla
ner
Stack
of -A B0
D 5 years
Lileexpeclancy ln respecl
0l corrOslOt
dueI0 cOflenls
andcondensali0n
empty Key
D l\.4ust
c0nlorm
withheavy
vehlcle
reg!lalions sacks c0 P Prepare
/ Product
on
Wagon L) | ransporl
S Tply To0lied 0 L:ld"lpre'L0.ldrner
\iia\ Q Process
on maintenance
8 Operat I Check
lnstallalion
by nonspec
a isl
#lT:rql Vstore
0 lvuslbe repaceab
e andmantnance
lree

9. 0uantily

10,000/day
0l theadiuslable 0l them0stp0puar
lype5000/day type D Stackedsacks await
filling
tr,tan
D takesthebagandloadsit onwagon
Q
10.Cosls
o ManA Iiftsempty
andplaces
sacklromstack
it underspout forfilling.
wagonis pushed
ioaoeO to warehouse.
l\lanulactrrinq
cOsts< Dl\13 ManA f llsthesackbygravrty $
00 each
o manually controlling
leed,
therateof frow.
by menE andF.
aaqsarestacked
Replaces
firslissutol 14i311973 w ManA hands thebagto manB @
ManB checks theweghtandadds.orrem0ves
E r'raleil,i
wh(-.n necessaryto adjrsl 'heweighl Vv
Baqs
- arestOred
awartrng
sale.

t, lVlan
B hands
lhcbaqto manC. Bags areloadedonwaitinglruck,
Figure -5.2(continued) Q' twoo' tnree
al a trmebyfanolruck
c M;ur(l ftrlrl:;
a|(isllch0s
lhclop0l lit0harl (jclrvrrrrtrr
llrorr r0 c0nsumer
'l'he
l ' t g u r e5 , . 1 . P l c s c r r ln t c t l t ( x lo l l i l l i r r g ,s l o r i l t g ,n n t l l o n r l i r r gl r i r g ro l l i , c t l .r r l t er l 5 . J t ) l
 5 Conceptualclesign 5 . 2 A b s t r a c t i n g t o i d e n t i f y t h e e s s e n t i a lp r o b l e m s 65

3. Transferringfeed from the mixing bin to bagson the delivery truck. the case under consideration, Formulation 8 must be rejected on technical,
4. Transferringfeed from the mixing bin to the deliverytruck. seasonaland meteorological grounds: the consumption of feed is not confined to
5. Transferringfeed from the mixing bin to a deliverysystem. harvest time; for various reasons the consumer will not want to store feed for a
6. Transferringfeed from the mixing bin to the consumer'sstoragebins. whole year; moreover, he may be reluctant to mix the required ingredients
7. Transferringfeed from ingredientbins to consumer's storagebins. himself. However, the transfer of feed on demand, for instance, with delivery
8. Transferringfeed ingredientsfrom their sourceto the consumer. trucks taking it directly from the mixing bin to the consumer's storage bin
Krick hasincorporatedsomeof theseformulationsin a diagram(Figure5.4). (Formulation 6), is more economical than intermediate storage in a warehouse
and the transport of smaller quantities in bags. In this connection, the reader
might recall the development in a different field which culminated in the delivery
StateA StateB of ready-mixed concrete direct to the building site in special vehicles.
c

B We have tried to show how comprehensive problem formulation on an

= N
E Feed
Stackedbagsol abstract plane opens the way for better solutions. This approach, furthermore,
leedin warehouse helps to raise the influence and responsibility of the engineer by giving him an
m i x i nbgi n
overview of the problem and thus involving him in, for instance,environmental
StateA B
State p r o t e c t i o na n d r e c y c l i n g .
'-
C EI
rj 'ffi At this stage, at the very latest, all but genuine constraints ought to have been
=o
E Feed Bagsof leed climinated. Unfortunately, fictitious constraints often continue to impede the
L bin
mixing loadedon designeror proposer, albeit unconsciously.Thus a solution of the feed-transfer
delivery
truck
problem in accordance with Formulation 6 would have been impossible had the
A
State StateB cngineer concerned set himself the fictitious constraint that the transfer might
=
- E
Feed Feedin
only be made in bags.
Another example: technical staff of a company that has been exclusively
E
bin
mixing c0nsumer's rnaking or using hydraulic control systemswill all too easily accept the fictitious
orns
storage
constraint that, in the future as in the past, all technical control problems must
A
State State
B hc solved on the hydraulic principle. This restriction only becomes a genuine
WFeed D
L,t/ eonstraint if it is decided, after due consideration and a deliberate decision, that
E
ingredients Feed
in the hydraulic control system must be retained, for instance in order to increase
r
o
at their consumer's tlre firm's turnover or in order to simplify storekeeping and maintenance
s0urce bins
storage
rrroblems.
Figure5.4.Alternativeformulations illustrating
of the feeddistribution_problem, In principle, all paths must be left open until such time as it becomes clear
progressively broaderformulationsof a problem,after[5'29] *'hich solution principle is the best. Thus the designer must question all the
A : initial state;B : final state t onstraints he is given and work out with the client or proposer whether or not
they should be retained as genuine restrictions.In addition, the designer must
It is characteristicof this approachthat the problem formulation is made as It,rrrnto discard fictitious constraints that he himself has come to accept, and to
broad as possiblein successivesteps. In other words, the current or obvious thrrt end ask critical questionsand test all his presuppositions.Here he may find
formulation is not acceptedat face value but broadenedsystematically, which rt useful to ask the questionswe mentioned in connectionwith the compilation of
may conflict with decisionsalreadytaken, but opensup new perspectives. Th thc specification, namely:
formulation 8 above is the broadest. the most general and the least circu What properties must the solution have?
cribed. What properties must the solution not have?
The crux of the task, in fact, is the transport of the correct quantity and quali Abstraction helps to identify fictitious constraints and to eliminate all but
of feed from the producer to the consumer and not, for instance, the licnuincrcstrictions.
method of closing or stacking bags, or moving them into the warehouse.With Wc shall concludc this section with a few useful examplesof abstractionand
broader formulation, solutions may appear that render the filling of bags a p r o b l c m l i r r t n u l a t i o n:
storing them in the warehouse unnecessarv l)o ntlt clcsigna gilritgc cloor, trut ltxrk lirr lnclrls of sccuringa garagein such a
H o w f a r t h i s p r o c c s so f a b s t r a c t i o ni s c < l n t i n u e dd c p c n d so n t h c c o n s t r a i n t s . wny that the cur is protcctcd from thievcs und thc wcitthcr,
 5 Conceptualdesign 5 . 3 E , s t a b l i s h i n gf u n c t i o n s t r u c t u r e s

not design a keyed shaft, but look for the best way of connecting gear
_Do
wheel and shaft.
5.3.2 Breaking down into sub-functions
Do not design a packing machine, but look for the best way of despatching Depending on the complexity of the problem, the resulting overall function will
a
product safely or, if the constraints are genuine, of packing a pioduct in turn be more or less complex. By complexity we mean the relative lack of
compactly.
Do not design a clamping device, but look ior u -"uns of keeping
the transparency of the relationships between inputs and outputs, the relative
workpiece firmly fixed. intricacy of the necessaryphysical processes,and the relatively large number of
From the above formulations-and this is very helpful for the next assembliesand components involved.
step-the
final formulation can be derived in a way that ioes not prejudice Just as a technical system can be divided into sub-systems and elements
the solution
and at the same time turns it into a function: (2.I.1), so a complex or overall function can be broken down into sub-functions
'Seal
shaft without contact'-and not 'Design a labyrinth seal,. of lower complexity. The combination of individual sub-functionsresults in a
quantity of fluid continuously'-and noi .Guug" height of liquid function structure representing the overall function (see Figure 5.6).
-'Measure
with a float'.
'Measure
out feed'-and not .Weieh feed in sacks'. Energy
Material

5.3 Establishingfunctionstructures
5.3.1 Overall function
Accordingto 2'r.3, the requirements
determinethe function,that is, the
relationshipbetweenthe inputsand outputsof a plant,machineor
assembly. In
5.2we explainedthat problemformulaiionobtainedby abstraction
doesmuch
the same'Hence,oncethe crux of the overallproblemhasbeenformulated,
it is a functionstructureby breakingdownan overallfunction
Figure5.6. Establishing
possibleto indicate an overall function thai, based on the intosub-functions
flow of energy,
materialor signalscan,with the useof a block diagram,expressthe relationship
betweeninputs and outputs independentlyof thi solution.That relationship The object of breaking down complex functions is:
must be specifiedas preciselyas possible. - the determination of sub-functions facilitating the subsequent search for
In our exampleof a fuel gauge(Figure 5.2), quantitiesof liquid areintroduced solutions; and
.
into and removedfrom a container,and the p.bbl.m is to measureand - the combination of these sub-functions into a simple and unambiguous
indicate
the quantityof liquid found in the containerat any one time. The result, function structure.
in the
liquid system,is a flow of materialwith the funciion .storeliquid' The optimum method of breaking down an overall function-that is, the
and, in the
measuringsystem, a flow of signalswith the function ,measureand optimum number of sub-function levels and also the number of sub-functions
indicate
quantityof liquid'. The secondis the overallfunctionof the specific pcr level-is determined by the relative novelty of the problem and also by the
taskunder
consideration,that is, the developmentof a fuel gauge(Figur"i.sy. That overall rncthod used to search for a solution.
function can be divided into sub-functionsin a iurther stlp. In the case of original designs, neither the individual sub-functions nor their
rclationships are generally known. In that case, the search for, and establish-
System: Function: rrrcnt of, an optimum function structure constitute some of the most important

t
*LrJl|=. stcps of the conceptual design phase. In the case of adaptive designs,on the
othcr hand, the general structure with its assembliesand components is much
I Measuring
----_-- system
I t bcttcr known, so that a function structure can be obtained by the analysisof the
+ I lveasure
andrndrcate
I
otliourdI
procluct to bc developed. Depending on the special demands of the specifica-
I- Quantity tion, that l'unction structure can be modified by the variation, addition or
t o r n i s s i o n o f i n c l i v i c l u a ls u b - f u n c t i o n st l r b y c h e r n g e si n t h e i r c o m b i n a t i o n .
Figure5.5.overall functionsof the systems
involvedin measuring
the contentsof a l"unction structurcs arc of grcat importuncc irt thc clcvcl<lpmcntof moclular
container
$ystcms, For ihis typc ol' vuriunt dcslgn, thc physical structurc-that is. thc
 6u 5 conccptual
design 5 . 3 E s t a b l i s h i n gf u n c t i o n s t r u c t u r e s 69

assemblies and individualcomponentsused as buildingblocksand also their

relationships-must be reflectedin the function structuie. 5.3.3 Logical considerations
A further advantageof settingup a function structureis that it allowsa clear The logical analysis of functional relationships starts with the search for the
-
defin-itionof existingsub-systems oi of thoseto be newly developed,so that they cssential ones that must necessarily appear in a system if the overall problem is
can be dealt with separately. to be solved. It may equally well be the relationshipsbetween sub-functionsas
If existingassemblies can be assigneddirectlyas complexsub-functions, those between inputs and outputs of particular sub-functions.
the pV "
subdivisionof the function structurecan be discontinuedat a fairly high level Let us first of all look at the relationships between sub-functions'
of "'1
complexity.In the caseof new assembliesor thoserequiring fuithei As we pointed out in 2.1.3, certain sub-functions must be satisfied before
/-*
develop- 'if-then' rela-
ment,however,the divisioninto sub-functions of decreaiingclmplexitymustbe another sub-function can be meaningfully introduced. So-called
continueduntil the searchfor a solutionseemspromising.As a iesult, tionship helps to clarify this point: if sub-functionA is present, then sub-function
function
structuresmay savea greatdeal of time and money. B can come into effect, and so on. Often several sub-functions must all be
Apart from helpingin the searchfor a solution,functionstructures satisfied simultaneously before another sub-function can be put into effect. The
or their
sub-functionscan also b,eusedfor purposesof classification.Exampres co-ordination of sub-functions thus determines the structure of the energyl
'classifying are the
criteria'of classification
schemes(see5.4.3)and the subdivisionof material or signal conversion under consideration.Thus, during a test of tensile
designcatalogues. strength, the first sub-function-'load specimen'-must be satisfied before the
I.t may prove expedientnot only to set up task-specific 'measure deformation'-snn be de-
. functions,but alsoto other sub-functions-'measure force' and
elaboratethe function structure from geniraily viia sub-functions. ployed. The last two sub-functions,moreover, must be satisfiedsimultaneously.
The latter
recur in. technical systemsand may be helpful in the slarch Attention must be paid to consistency and order within the flow under
for a solution
inasmuchas they may lead to the discoveryof task-specific sub-functions consideration, and this is done by the unambiguous combination of the
(see
5.3.3)or as designcatalogues may list sorutionsfor them.Figure5.7, whichis sub-functions.
Logical relationships,moreover, must also be establishedbetween the inputs
lundoutputs of a particular sub-function. In most casesthere are several inputs
Characteristic Generally
valid Explanations and outputs whose relationshipscan be treated like propositionsin two-valued
functions Symbols (l)/0utput
Input (0) logic (for example, true/untrue, yes/no,in/out, fulfilled/not fulfilled, present/not
present) and expressedby Boolean algebra.
Type Change *z- Typeand
outwardformol We distinguish between AND-functions, OR-functions and NOT-functions,
I and0 differ rrnd also between their combination into more complex NOR-functions (OR
--K- rvith NoT), NAND-functions (AND with NoT) and storagefunctions with the
Magnitude Vary l<0
*E- t>0
help of flip-flops [5.10, 5.38, 5.44]. All these are called logical functions.
In the caseof AND-functions, all signalson the input side must have the same
validity if a valid signal is to appear on the output side.
Number tE*
Connect --<: Numberofl>0
Numberofl<0 In the caseof OR-functions, one signalonly on the input side must be valid if a
valid signal is to appear on the output side.
-=- In the case of NOT-functions, the signal on the input side is negated so that
Place Channel Placeofll0
--tr] Placeoll:0 thc negated signal appearson the output side.
All these logical functions can be expressedby standard symbols.The logical
virlidity of any signal can be read off from the truth table shown in Figure 5.8, in
Time Store *KIF Timeofll0 which all the inputs are combined systematicallyto yield the relevant outputs.
I'lre Boolean equations have been added for the sake of completeness.Using
Figure 5.7. Generally valid functionsderived from the characteristicstype, magnitucie, Iogical functions it is possible to construct complex switchings and thus to
number, place and time in respectof the conversionof energy,material and
sigials incrcasc thc safety and reliability of control and communication systems.
Figurc -5.c.) shows two mechanical clutches with their characteristiclogical
basedon a suggestionby Krumhauer[5.30],on our own teachingexperience 'l'ltc
and luncti<lns. w r t r k i n g so f t h c c l u t c h o n t h c l c f t c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e db y a s i m p l e
on a numberof familiarproposals
15.26,5.44,5.50], givesa list<ifgenerally
valid A N I ) - l u n c t i o n ( s i g n a ln r u s tb c s c n t i l n ( l c l u t c l tc n g l g c c lb c f o r c t h c t t t r q u c c a n b e
functions. t r l n s r n i t t c d ) . ' l ' h c c t u t c l ro n t l r c r i g h t h a o b c c n s o c o n s t r u c t c dt h i t t , w h c n t h c
 I

lo .5 Cionceptual design 5 . 3 E s t a b l i s h i n gf u n c t i o n s t r u c t u r c s 77

Designation ANDJunction 0RJunction N0TJunction operating signal is given, the clutch is disengagedso that X1 must be negative if
(Conjunction) (Dislunction) (Negation) the torque is to be transmitted. In other words, only X2 may be present or
positive if the desired effect is to be produced'
x1
As our next example, we shall consider the catch mechanism of a car door
A1
Symbol
t7 A2
(Figure 5.10). Here, too, the logical relationship is a simple-AND-function,
b"iuur. the catch operating lever C can only be activated by the input force lc
/ l0 1 a c t i n go n t h e l e v e r A i f t h e l o c k i n g l e v e r B i s a t ' 1 ' . S h o u l d t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n
Truth
table / T-lo
Mechanism
Boolean
arge0ra y={2Ax1 y = x 1 ux 7 v.x
(Function)
A,B,C LCVETS
Figure 5.8. Logical functions 0 Baseplate
X i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e m e n t( s i g n a l ) ;Y d e p e n d e n ts t a t e m e n t 'l 0 ' , ' 1 ' v a l u e o f s t a t e m e n t e, g E spring
Spiral
'off', 'on' ot leverA
surtaces
0 , 0 , c , 0 Working
F Force
appliedtotheSystem

Kinematic
diagram
F
r 1 . lnputforce
inputvariable)
(First
x2 of locking
Positron B
lever
(Secondinputvariable)
t; Positron leverC
of catchoperating
(0utput)

of thesystem
lunction
Logical

X t - 1 l o rF > 0
x 1 =0 l o rF : 0
x1
y=x1A),7 'v = y' . 'n\ 'y' -/ X 2 -0 LeverB prevents rotation
^? of leverA
X ? - 1 Posltion ol leverB
allowsrotation of leverA
ol1 Y = 0 Doorcatchclosed
y . x1 A xt
Y - 1 DoorcatchoPen
}/(Torque
transmitted)
l r i g r r r c5 . l ( ) . ( ' i r l c l rr r r c c h l r r r i sor rl rl r c u r t k x r t i t l l e t 1 5 .l f r l r v i t l rt t t c c h t t t t i s t tkti.l t c t l t l t t i t
F i g u r c 5 . 9 . l , o g i c a ll i r n c t i o r ro f t w o c l u t c h c s r l i i r g r l r r irr r t r lh r g i c l r l t t t t c l i r r tttt l t l t c s v s l c l t t
72 5 Conceptualdcsign
5 . 3 E s t a b l i s h i n qf u n c t i o n s t r u c t u r e s | _')

contain further demands affecting the logical connection, then the function
5.3.4 Physicalconsiderations
structure will grow correspondinglymore complex [5.16].
Figure 5.11 shows a logical system for monitoring the bearing lubrication Apart from logical considerations,the demands and wishes of the specification
system of a multi-bearing machine shaft involving AND- and OR-functions. also reflect the physical relationships of the conversion of energy, material and
Every bearing position is monitored for oil pressure and oil flow by a comparison signals. These must be represented by an appropriate function structure (see
of a specifiedor target value with the actual value. However, only one positive Figure5.12).
value for each bearing position is needed to allow the system to operate. ol {low:
Types
t
anddirection
Flowof energy
M
Flowofmaterial
anddirection
Bearing
1 Bearing
2 Bearlng
3 Bearing
4 s anddirection
Flowofsignals
Pt v, Pt i) Pt v3 Pt vL
System:
boundary
System
Function:
Figure5.12.Symbolsfor Mainlunction
representingsub-functions
in a
functionstructure iL i- - - l Auxiliary
function

It is useful to begin by establishingthe main flow of a structure,if clearly

Figure5.11.Logicalfunctionsfor monitoringa bearinglubricationsystem.A positive
signalfor everybearing(oil present)sufficesto permit operation.Monitor pressurep;
monitor oil flow V
Our examples make it clear that:
- Logical relationships are derived directly from the corresponding requi
ments of the problem (specification). Such requirements may conce
present.Once a simple function structurewith its most important relationships
hasbeenfound, then it is mucheasier,in a furtherstep,to considerthe auxiliary
l'lowswith their correspondingsub-functions,and also to proceedto a further
rrnalysis of complexsub-functions. At this point, it often helpsto envisagea
lrreliminary solution concept for the simplified function structure without,
however,prejudicingthe final solution.
Fisures5.13and 5.14showthe functionstructureof a tensiletestinsmachine
Lload E
Lde{ormalion

operation,safety,reliability or preventionof faults.They are determined

Specimen Specimen611o,r16
the constraintsof the system.
- It is helpful to inquire into the logicalcontentof demandsin the specificati c_
ul0rce

by meansof if-then' propositions. Sdeformation

- It is possibleto createthe prerequisitesfor different solutions.

- Experiencehas shownthat clarificationof the logicalrelationshipsfacilital
the searchfor solutions. F
Lload

- To decide whether or not a losical function structure mav help in the sea .t
for a solution, it is useful to estaLrlishwhich demands and wishes in t ,l
I M e a s u rl e
l
specification have logical contents. It is very important to determine whet to,
l'--l I deformationl-l-.-
rl
i
these logical contents can be satisfied by logical functions with the
AND, OR and NOT relationships alone,or whetherthey mustbe combi fdeformation

into more complicatedsystems.Only in the lastcaseis it usuallynecessary men

Speci Specimen6rlo,rr6
examinethe logical relationshipsfurther.
- Logical structuresare evaluatedand optimisedwith thc help of Bot D
l ; i g u , r c . 5 . 1( 3
) v. c r l l l f u n c t i o n( a ) a n ds u b - f u n c t i o (nnsr a i nf u n c t i o n s()b ) o f a t e s t i n g
alsebra. mrchinc
14 5 C o n c e p t u a ld e s i g n 5.3 Establishins function structures 15

F..
-auxrl E F,
-toss
t"gul----i-er,*rn
reotp,',
SF tarqet --li ---------Ll[il': l*r
l-;',;;1.
Dough Shaped
dough
Sarrrsa
- ;-- !':'lru$1 Additives
-t

E
I i- r----.i--L-qs--I
LLoad Changeenergy L_

intoforceand
s m0vement Dispense Separate Feedoul
o o @
L0a0 Fdelormation
Specimen specimen Waste V Waste

Figure 5.14. Completed function structure for the overall function set out in Figure 5.13

with a relativelycomplexflow of energy,materialand signals.In this type of

overall function, the function structure is built up step by step from sub-
functions,attentionat first beingfocussedon essentialmain functions.Thus, on
a first functional level, only suchsub-functionsare specifiedas directly satisfy
the required overall function. In addition, such complex sub-functionsas
'changeenergyinto force and movement'and 'load
specimen'are alsoformu-
latedat the start, becausethey help to establisha simplefunctionstructure.
In the problem under consideration,the energy and signalflows are of roughly
equivalent importance in the search for a solution, while the flow of material-
that is the exchange of specimens-is only essential for the holding function
which was added to Figure 5.14. Hence it is impossibleto specify just one main
flow. In Figure 5.14 an adjusting function for the load magnitudes and, at the
output of the system,the energy lost during the energy flow were added because
both clearly affect the design. The energy required to deform the specimen is
lost. Moreover, the auxiliary functions 'amplify measurements'and 'compare
target with actual values' proved indispensable for the adjustment of the energy
level.
As a further example let us consider the function structure of a dough-shaping
machine used, for instance,in the manufacture of biscuits. To satisfy the ove
all function of this conversion of material in accordance with Figure 5.15
appropriate or necessarysub-functions of the main flow have to be found
The most important can be deduced, often without great difficulty, from t
technology or manufacturing techniques of the processinvolved-in this ca
the manufacture of confectionery. For the rest, the function structure can
completed by asking appropriate questions. Thus a negative answer to
question 'May the waste be mixed directly with new dough?' introduces t lrrgure5.1-5.Overallfunctionandfunctionstructurevariantsof a dough-shaping
machine
necessarysub-function 'prepare'. The operation under consideration was fclu Ior the manufactureof biscuits(in respectof the mainflow only)
to involve seven sub-functionswhich could be combined into a number
function-structure
variants.Fieure5.15showsfurtherhow severalfunctions tlcsigrr. As an cxample. let us consider the function structure of a potato
be fused together to provide what are often simple and economic solutions. I t l t r v c s t i t t gt r r i t c h i n c .F i g u r c . 5 . 1 6 as h o w s t h e o v e r a l l f u n c t i o n a n d t h e f u n c t i o n
T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r ,s o m ep r o b l e m si n w h i c h v a r i a t i o no f t h c m a i n f l o w t l r u c t u r c b i t s c do n t l t c l ' l o wo l ' n t i r t c r i a l( t h c m a i n f l o w ) a n c lt h e a u x i l i a r yf l o w s o f
c i r n n o t l c a c lt o i t s o l u t i < t nh c c a u s ca u x i l i a r y f l < l w sh a v c a c r u c i i t l b c i r r i n qo n t c l l c r g y a n d s i g n i t l s .I n F i g u r c . 5 , l 6 / ) .b y c o r n p a r i x r t t .l h c l u r r c t i o ns t r u c t r r r ei s
 76 5 C o n c e P t u a ld e s i g n - 5 . 3E s t a b l i s h i n gf u n c t i o n s t r u c t u r e s 71

Potatoes Tasks
of valid
potatoes System
elements
system SubJunctions N0. Generally
Reject elements luncti
ons
Leaves
etc.
Soil, Iakeup FandS Accept
input Channel
flowol

Spindle
Turn -L* torque
ano
signal
1 energy
andsignals
Connect
energy
flowof
andsignals
( Passliquid Vary Connectflowof
I
h\ llow ? signals
andmaterial

t Std.S."-t
0usn
_l seal
Varyfiowof
material
Donotchannel
flow
fl It II 3
Locatespindle , liquid ofmaterial(stop)
)otatoes
rn Beari
ng tl
axially
and
heground bush Channel Channelflow
radially - I f* t,
J Reject - l-11J--tiouio of material
bear
Ing
Coarse bush
Sealbetween
housing
andspindle lll*,"* 5
Channelflow
ol energy
Leaves
Fineparticles Pass
ilquro
lilr--
II
I
I
n Housi
ng
srrrug,t-*--l
liquid I tl
Supporl -lrt t , r z # n z
Potatoes IT lff1'---!Ei.n
Reject
Coarse
Locate
spindle I
Threaded axially
and + l i r|l
| f'ril i"-
Leaves
Finepartlcles
beannq radially
bush
I
Provide ptrrrr,rl
axial
on sealing
bush i
:--#.
'
L--.- -- -t
D
I :igure5.17. Analysisof a flow control valvein respectof its functionstructure
Figure5.16.(a) Functionstructureof a potatoharvesting
machine
diagramwith generallyvalidfunctionsbasedon Figure5.7
(b) For comparison:
The function structure examined in Section5.9 shows clearly that the study of
Irrnction structures may prove extremely useful, even after the physical effect
represented by means of generally valid functions, to emphasise the clear lrrs been selected, in determining the behaviour of the system at a very early
',trrgeof its development, and hence in identifying the
interrelationship of the different flows. When generally valid functions are used, structurethat best suits the
the separation into sub-functions is as a rule more pronounced than it is in the problem under consideration.
case of task-specific sub-functions. Thus, in the present example, the sub'
'connect energ,y
function 'separate' is replaced with the generally valid functions .5.-1.5Practical usesof function structures
'connect').
with material mix'and'separate material mix' (the reverse of
Our next example is meant to illustrate the derivation of function structures \\'hcn cstablishingfunction structures,we must distinguishbetween original and
the analysisof existing systems.This method is particularly suitable f .rtLrptivcclcsigns.In the caseof original designs,the basisof a function structure
developments in which at least one solution with the appropriate functit rs tlrc .r7.rcci/'it'ution and the abstract .formulation of the problem. Among the
structure is known, and the main problem is the discovery of better solutit r l ( ' l l l i t r l ( lisr t t c lw i s h c s ,w c a r e a b l e t o i d e n t i f y f u n c t i o n a lr e l a t i o n s h i p so, r a t l e a s t
Figure 5.17 shows the stepsused in the analysisof a flow control valve (a typi l l t c s t t b - l t t t t c l i r l t si r l t h c i n p u t sa n c lo u t p r . r t os f a f u n c t i o n s t r u c t u r e .I t i s h e l p f u l t o
on-off switch). showins the individual tasks of the various elements itn(l I \ r r l t c ( ) t l ll h c l t r r t c l i o r r r lc l i r l i r l n s h i pi rsr i s i r r lgr o n r t h c s p c c i f i c a t i oinn t h c f o r m o f
s u b - f u n c t i o n ss u t i s f i c c lb v t h e s v s t e m . F r o m t h e s u b - f u n c t i o n s ,t h c t t t t t c t i r t ' t t t c t l c c si t t t t l t o i r r n u l l . l ct l t c s c i n l l t c r l r t l e ro l t l r c i r l r n l i c i l t i r t c ci rl n p < l r t i r n c<cl r i n
s t r u c t u r cc i r n l r c t l c r i v c c l r n c lt h c n v a r i c c lf o r p u r p o s c so l i t t t P r o v i n gt h e p r r l t l r r l n c o l l l c r k r g i c i r lo t t l c r ' ,
78 5 Conccptual dcsign
In the case of adaptive designs, the starting point is the function structure of
the existingsolution obtained by the analysis of the elements. It helps to develop
variants so as to open the path for other solutions, for subsequentoptimisation
and to develop modular products. The identification of functional relationships
can be facilitated by asking the right questions.
In modular systems, the function structure has a decisive influence on the
modules and their arrangement. Here, the function structure and that of the
assembly is affected not only by functional considerations, but also, and
increasinglyso, by manufacturing needs.
Anyone setting up a function structure ought to bear the following points in
mind:
1. First derive a rough function structure with a few sub-functions from what
functional relationships you can identify in the specification, and then break this
rough structure down, step by step, by the resolution of complex sub-functions.
This is much simpler than starting out with more complicated structures. In
certain circumstances, it may be helpful to substitute a first solution concept fot
the rough structure and then, by analysisof that first concept, to derive other
important sub-functions. It is also possible to begin with sub-functionswhose
inputs and outputs cross the assumedsystem boundary. From these we can then
determine the inputs and outputs for the neighbouringfunctions, in other words,
work from the system boundary inwards.
2. If no clear relationship between the sub-functions can be identified, the
searchfor a first solution principle may, under certain circumstances,be based
on the mere enumeration of important sub-functions without logical or physical
relationships,but if possible, arranged in order of increasingcomplexity.
3. Logical relationships may lead to function structures through which the
logical elementsof various working principles (mechanical,electricaletc) can be
anticipated.
4. Function structures are not complete unless the existing or expected flow of
energy, material and signalscan be specified.
Nevertheless,it is useful to begin by focussingattention on the main flow
because,as a rule, it determinesthe designand is more easilyderivedfrom the
requirements.The auxiliaryflows then help in the further elaborationof the
design, in coping with faults, and in dealing with problems of power transmi
sion, control etc. The completefunction structure,comprisingall flows and thei
relationships,can be obtained by iteration, that is, by looking first for t
structureof the main flow, completing that structureby taking the auxili
flows into account, and then establishing the overall structure.
5. In settingup function structuresit is helpful to know that, in the conversion
energy,material and signals,severalsub-functionsrecur in most structures
should therefore be introduced first. Essentiallv. these are the senerally
functions of Figure 5.'7, and they can prove extremely helpful in the search
task-specificfunctions.
C o n v e r s i o no f e n e r g y :
- C h a n g i n g c n c r g y - f o r i n s t a n c e ,e l e c t r i c a li n t o m c c h i t n i c a cl n e r g y .
5 . 3 E s t a b l i s h i n gf u n c t i o n s t r u c t u r e s
-Varying energy components-for instance,amplifying torque.
- Connecting energy with a signal-for instance,switchingon electricalenergy.
- Channelling energy-for instance, transferring power.
- Storing energy-for instance, storing kinetic energy.
Conversion of material:
-Changing matter-for instance, liquefying a gas.
-Varying material dimensions-for instance,rolling sheet metal.
-Connecting matter with energy-for instance,moving parts.
- Connecting matter with signal-for instance,cutting off steam.
-connecting materials of different type-for instance, mixing or separating
materials.
- Channelling material-for instance, mining coal.
-Storing material-for instance, keeping grain in a silo.
C o n v e r s i o no l s i g n a l s :
-Changing signals-for instance, changing a mechanical into an electrical
signal, or a continuous into an intermittent signal.
-Varying signal magnitudes-for instance,increasinga signal'samplitude.
-Connecting signalswith energy-for instance,amplifying measurements.
- Connecting signalswith matter-for instance,marking materials.
- Connecting signals with signals-for instance, comparing target values with
actual values.
- Channelling signals-for instance, transferring data.
-Storing signals-for instance, in data banks.
6. From a rough structure, or from a function structure obtained by the analysis
trf known systems, it is possible to derive further variants and hence to optimise
the solution, by:
-Breaking down or combining individual sub-functions;
- Changing the arrangement of individual sub-functions;
- Changing the type of switching used (series switching, parallel switching or
bridge switching); and by making
Shifts in the system boundary.
Because varying the function structure introduces distinct solutions, the
sctting up of function structures constitutes a first step in the search for
solutions.
/ Function structures should be kept as simple as possible, so as to lead to
sirnple and economical solutions. To this end, it is also advisableto aim at the
( ()rnbination of functions for the purpose of obtaining integrated function
( lrrriers.There are, however, some problems in which discretefunctionsmust be
;rssignedto discrete function carriers, for instance, when the requirements
rlcrnandseparation, or when there is a need for extreme loading and quality. In
tltis conncction, the reader is referred to our discussionof the division of tasks
( s c c( r . 4 . 2 ) .
ti. f n tlrc scitrch lilr it solution, nonc l'tvl ltronti:;ittgJunc'tion structuresshould be
t t t l r o t l t r c c r l ,l i r r w h i c h p u r p o s c i t s c l e < ' l i t t tl tt r u t c a d r r r a( s c c . 5 . ( r ) s h < l u l c lb c
c t t t p k r y c d .c v c l r a l t h i s c i r r l y s t a g c .
u0 5 Conceptualdesigrr 5.3 Establishingfunction structurcs 81

I
I + t
r.l
H H t
H H
.

-;ril h1
{fl -11:j
I
rtl
lE= | I

H H H l--r

H E H
!*l
i=t*l-
l1
L--J
I I
I I

* 9{>

E >t?
.9
E .9p o="=!* .. s:-- E::E
E Eo : 93 = e 3=.=; I F-.',8 -= - 3 H
= = o . e . =

'''_ !
E 9o >* q a g-= E: x j4 -
.qo c -5 5
e A a = " ' - F
E gI I n . = E ts c;:: - fl 6 Er-cI?>
E > a Ee
E
6 Y.YE=
.=;..= = E =5x5EFS E
Y
-_ . r O
= -u E= ; R
c o -9-

2: o-E i 6RE ts - 'i

35 3 3.- E ggE;:F \

5T oI !=
& >:..o:h
q = 6 * a

j^9 6
o

_>
E=,==
= hi 6:
=! = =
"
c
:i
>9:Y
=
-ll

q @tLd

Figure 5. 1ll. Dcve krpment of a function structure for a fuel gaugc S l c p - b y - s t c pt t c v c l o p r r r c r sr tt i r r t i r r gl l . o r l t h c p r o b l c r nl i r l r r r u l i r t i o n

82 5 Conceptualdesign
9. For the representation of function structures it is best to use the simple and
informative symbols shown in Figure 5.12, supplemented with task-specific
verbal clarifications.
Function structures are intended to facilitate the discovery of solutions: they
are not ends in themselves.It dependsvery much on the novelty of the task and
the experience of the designer to what degree he will develop them.
Moreover, it should be remembered that function structures are seldom
completely free of physical or formal presuppositions, which means that the
number of possible solutions is inevitably restricted to some extent. Hence it is
perfectly legitimate to conceive a preliminary solution and then to develop and
complete the function structure and its variants by working through the process
as many times as necessary.
Let us return to the example of the fuel gauge(5.2.2). Figure 5.18 shows the
development and variation of a function structure in accordance with the
suggestionspresented in this section.
The flow of signals has been treated as the main flow. Associated sub-
functions are developed in two steps. Since the specification also provides for
measurementsin containers of different sizes,holding varying initial quantities
of liquid, an adjustment of the signal to the respectivesize of the container is
expedient, and is accordinglyintroduced as an auxiliary function. Measurements
in containers of various unspecified shapes will, in certain circumstances,
demand the correction of the signalas another auxiliary function. The measuring
operation may require a supply of external energy, which must then be
introduced as a further flow. Finally, consider the system boundary. If existing
indicating instruments are to be used, the device will have to emit an electric
output signal. If they are not, then the sub-functions 'channel signal' and
'indicate
signal' must be included in the search for the solution. An important
sub-function that must be satisfiedfirst, and on the working principle of which
the others clearly depend, is 'receive signal'. The solution to this will largely
decide to what extent individual sub-functionscan be chansed round or omitted.
5.4 Searching for solution principles to fulfil the
sub-functions
Solution principles have to be found for the various sub-functionsand t
principles must eventually be combined. A solution principle must reflect t
physical effect needed for the fulfilment of a given function and also its
design features (2.1.5). In many cases,however, it is not necessaryto look
special physical effects, the form design being the sole problem. Moreover,
the search for a solution it is often difficult to make a clear mental distincti
between the physical effect and the form design features. Theoretical i
a b o u t t h c n a t u r c a n c lf o r m o f t h e f u n c t i o n c a r r i e r sa r c u s u a l l yp r e s c n t c db y
o l d i a g r a n t so r I r c c h i r n d s k c t c h c s .
a
5 . 4 S e a r c h i n gf o r s o l u t i o n p r i n c i p l e s
It should be emphasisedthat the step we are now discussingis intended to lead
to several solution variants (a solution field). A solution field can be constructed
by variation of the physical effects and of the form design features. Moreover, to
satisfy a particular sub-function, several physical effects may be involved in one
o r s e v e r a lf u n c t i o n c a r r i e r s .
The following aids and methods are useful in the search for solutions, not only
during the conceptual design phase, but also during the embodiment design
phase that follows. An attempted solution based on conventional aids may, if
necessary,be developed further by methods with an intuitive or a discursive
bias.
If, in what follows, we distinguish between conventional aids and methods
with an intuitive or discursive bias, we do so for purely didactic and systematic
reasons.The different approachesdo not exclude and, indeed, often comple-
ment, one another. Which precise path should be followed in individual cases
depends on the problem, the state of information and the nature of the
preliminary work.
5.4.1 Conventionalaids
I Literature search
I'or the designer, up-to-date technological data provide a wealth of important
information. Such data can be found in textbooks and technical journals, in
Patent files and in brochures published by competitors. They provide a most
rrsefulsurvey of known solution possibilities.Increasingly,this type of informa-
tion is fed into computer data banks and stored for future use.
2 Analysis of natural systems
l lrc study of natural forms, structures,organismsand processescan lead to very
rrscful and novel technical solutions. The connections between biology and
tt'chnology are investigatedby bionics and biomechanics.Nature can stimulate
tlrc creative imagination of the designer in a host of different ways
[5.21].
I'cchnical applications of the design principles of natural forms include
lr{lrtweight structures employing honeycombs,tubes and rods, and the profiles
,rl ircroplanes, ships etc. Of great importance are lightweight structuresin the
Irrr'111 ,r1 thin stems (Figure 5.19). Another technical application is sandwich
t'ottstruction.Figure 5.20 shows a few derivations of the natural principles that
lrrrvcprovcd useful in the building of aircraft.
'l'ltc
ho<lksttf a burr provided the solution incorporated in the Velcro fastener
( l ; i g u r c s. 5 . 2 1a n c l- 5 . 2 2 ) .
Anulysisof existingtechnicalsystems
..1
'l'hc
anitlysisof cxisting tcchnical systcm$is onc of thc rnost irnportant mcans of
ncwor improvcdsolutionvrrlrnb rtcp by titcp.
3cneruting
u4 -5 ('onceptual design 5 . J S c r r c h i n gI o r s o l u l i o np r i n c i p l e s 85

^t\

F i g u r e5 . 1 9 .W a l l o f a w h e a t s t e m [ 5 . 2 1 ]

+ Transverse
direction F i g u r e5 . 2 1 .H o o k so f a b u r r .a f t e r[ 5 . 2 1 1 Figure -5.22.Velcro fastener,after [5.21]

lil
ill .YY)
,\,\..\
tt ll
\,2\,2\,/
ttl /)Yil identification of the physical effects involved which, in turn, might have
suggestednew solutions principles for corresponding sub-functions.It is also
lil \,2\./\,/o,
lll
o
)\ \\))
possibleto adopt solution principles discoveredduring the analysis.

E

Existing systemsused for analysismight include:
- Products or methods of competing companies.
- Older products and methods of one's own company.

ltlill
o

lll'il w\ry
L A -T-J- a - Similar products or assembliesin which several sub-functionsor parts of the
function structure correspond with those for which a solution is being sought.

tlilitq.qJLE}
Layeflng Extruded Layeflng
Becausethe only systemsto be analysedare those having some bearing on the
ncw problem as a whole or on parts of it, we may call this method the systematic
cxploitation of proven ideas, or of experience.It will prove particularly helpful
n0neyc0m0 irr finding a first solution concept as a starting point for further variations. It
rrrust,however, be said that this approach carries the danger of causing the
tlcsigner to stick with known solutions instead of pursuing new paths.

{ Analcgies

c
Figure 5.20. Sandwichconstructionfor lightweight structures[5.22]
(a) A few honeycomb structures(b) Completed honeycombstructure (c) Sandwichbox
girder
This analysis involves the mental or even physical dissection of fin
products. It may be considereda form of structure analysis(2.2.I) aimed at t
discoveryof related logical, physicaland form designfeatures.Figure -5.17sht
a n c x a m p l c o f t h i s t y p e o f a n a l y s i s .H e r e , s u b - f u n c t i o n sw c r c d c r i v c c lf r o m
c x i s t i n g c o n l ' i g u r l l i ( ) n , I i r o m t h c r n , f u r t h c r i t n i l l y s i sw o u l d h i t v c l c d t o
l n the search for solutions and in the analysis of system properties it is often
rrscl'ul to substitute an analogous problem (or system) for the one under
considcration, and to treat it as a model. In technical systems,analogiesmay be
o l r t r r i n e d ,f o r i n s t a n c e , b y c h a n g i n g t h e t y p e o f e n e r g y u s e d [ 5 . 4 , 5 . 5 2 ] .
Artirkrgieschosen from the non-technicalsphere may prove very useful as well
( s c c. 5 . 4 . 1 . 2 ) .
llcsiclcshclping in the searchfor a solution, analogiesare also most helpful in
tlrc stuclyttl' thc l'rclritviourof a systcm ch.rringan early stage of its development
h y l t t c i t n s< t l ' s i t t t u l i t t i oann c lr n o c l c lt c c h n i t l u c s i,r n c li n t h c s u b s c q u e n itd e n t i f i c a -
l i o n t t l ' c s s c t t t i i t ln c w s u b - s o l u t i o n su n c l / t t rt h c i r r t r t x l u c t i o no l ' c a r l y o p t i m i s a -
Iton$,
fl(r 5 Conceptualclcsign
If the model is to be uppii.O to systemsof markedly different dimensionsand
conditions, a supportive similarity (dimensional) analysisshould be undertaken
( s e e7 . 1 . 1 ) .
5 Measurements and model tests
Measurements on existing systems, model tests supported by similarity analysis
and other experimental studies are among the designer'smost important sources
o f i n f o r m a t i o n [ 5 . 2 ] . R o d e n a c k e r [ 5 . a 3 ] i n p a r t i c u l a r l a y s g r e a t s t r e s so n t h e
importance of experimental studies, arguing that design can be interpreted as
the reversal of physical experiment.
In the precision engineering and mass production industries, experimental
investigationsare an important and establishedmeans of arriving at solutions.
This approach has organisational repercussionssince, in the creation of such
products, experimental development is often incorporated within the design
a c t i v i t y( 1 . 1 . 1 ) .
5.4.2 Methodswith an intuitive bias
The designer often seeks and discovers the solution for a difficult problem by
intuition-that is, the solution comes to him in a flash after a period of search
and reflection. As ProfessorJohn Galtung of the International PeaceResearch
Institute in Oslo has put it: 'The good idea is not discoveredor undiscovered;it
comes, it happens'. It is then developed, modified and amended, until suchtime
as it leads to the solution of the problem.
Good ideas are always scrutinisedby the subconsciousor preconsciousin the
light of expert knowledge, experienceand the task in hand, and often the simple
impetus resulting from the association of ideas suffices to force them into
consciousness.That impetus can also come from apparently unconnected
external eventsor discussions.Frequently, the designer'ssudden idea will hit the
bull's eye, so that all he need do is to make changesor adaptations that lead
straight to the final solution. If that is, indeed, the caseand a successfulproduct
is created,then the designerhas followed an optimum procedure and can rightly
be satisfied. Very many good solutions are born in that way and successfully
developed. A good design method, far from trying to eliminate this process
should rather serve to back it uo.
An industrial concern should neverthelessbeware of exclusiverelianceon t
intuition of its designers,nor should the designersthemselvesleave everythi
to chance or rare inspirations. Purely intuitive methods have the followi
disadvantages:
-The right idea does not always come at the right time, since it cannot
forced.
- C u r r c n t c o n v c n t i o n sa n d p e r s o n a lp r e j u d i c e sm a y i n h i b i t o r i g i n a l
nlcnts,
5 . 4 S e a r c h i n gf o r s o l u t i o n p r i n c i p l e s 87
- Because of inadequate information, new technologies or procedures may fail
to reach the designer'sconsciousness.
These dangersincreasewith specialisation,the division of tasks and with time
pressure.
There are several methods of encouraging intuition and opening new paths by
the association of ideas. The simplest and most common of these involves critical
discussionswith colleagues.Provided that such discussionsare not allowed to
stray too far and are based on the general methods of persistent questions,
negation, forward steps etc (2.2.1), they can be very effective and helpful.
Methods with an intuitive bias such as brainstorming, synectics,the Delphi
method, Method 635 and many others involve group-participationtechniquesto
generate the widest possible range of ideas.
Most of these techniques were originally devised for the solution of non-
technical problems. They are, however, applicable to any field that demands
new. unconventional ideas.
I Brainstorming
Brainstorming can be describedas a method of generatinga flood of new ideas.
It was originally suggestedby Osborn [5.34] and provides conditions in which a
group of open-minded people from as many different spheres of life as possible
bring up any thoughts that occur to them and thus trigger off new ideas in the
minds of the other participants [5.63]. Brainstorming relies strongly on stimula-
tion of the memory and on the association of ideas that have never been
considered in the current context or have never been allowed to reach
consciousness.
For maximum effect, brainstorming sessionsshould be run on the followins
lines:
Composition of the group
- The group should have a leader and consist of a minimum of five and a
maximum of 15 people. Fewer than five constitute too small a spectrum of
opinion and experience, and hence produce too few stimuli. With more than
15, close collaboration may decline because of individual passivity and
withdrawal.
The group must not be confined to experts.It is important that as many fields
and activities as possibleare represented,the involvement of laymen adding a
rich new dimension.
The group should not be hierarchicallystructured but, if possible,made up of
cqr.ralsto prevent the censoring of such t'houghts as might give offence to
s u p c r i o r so r s u h o r t l i n a t e s .
I tudershilt rt.l'thc grotrlt
'l'hc
l c a d c r o l ' t h c g r o u l ' r s h o u l d o n l y t t k c t h c i r r i t i i r t i v ci n c l c i r l i n gw i t h
o r g u n i s u l i o n u lp r o b l c m s ( i n v i t a t i o n , a o m p o t i t i o n . d u r i t t i o n a n d c v l l u i r t i o n ) .
 5 (irnceptual design
88
Before the actual brainstorming sessionhe must outline the problem and,
during the session, he must see to it that the rules are obsefved and, in
particular, that the atmosphereremains free and easy. To that end he might
itart the sessionby expressinga few absurd ideas, or mentioning an example
from another brainstorming session. He should never lead in the expression
of ideas. On the other hand, he can encourage the flow of new ideas
whenever the productivity of the group slackens. The group leader must
ensurethat no one criticisesthe ideas of other participants.He should appoint
one or two participants to take minutes.
Procedure
-All participants must try to shed their intellectual inhibitions-that is, they
should avoid rejecting as absurb, false, embarrassing,stupid or redundant
any ideas expressedspontaneouslyby themselvesor by other members of the
group.
--No participant may criticise ideas that are brought up, and everyone must
refrain from using such killer phrasesas'We've heard it all before','It can't
'It will never work' and 'It has nothing to do with the problem'.
be done',
New ideas are taken up by the other participants, who may change and
develop them at will. It is also useful to combine several ideas into new
proposals.
-All ideas should be written down, sketched out, or spoken into a tape
recorder.
- All suggestionsshould be concrete enough to allow the emergence of specific
solution ideas.
-The practicability of the suggestionsshould be ignored at first.
-A session should not generally last for more than 30 to 45 minutes.
Experience has shown that longer sessionsproduce nothing new and lead to
unnecessaryrepetitions. It is better to make a fresh start with new ideas or
with other participants later.
Evaluation
- The results are reviewed by experts and if possible classified, graded in order
of feasibility and developed further.
- The final result should be reviewed with the entire group to avoid possible
misunderstandingsor one-sided interpretations on the part of the experts.
New and more advanced ideas may well be expressedor developed during
sucha reviewsession.
Brainstorming is indicated whenever:
-No practical solution principle has been discovered.
- The physical process underlying a possible solution has not yel
identified.
- T h c r e i s a g c n c r a l f c c l i n g t h a t d e a c l l o c kh a s b c c n r c i l c h c ( l .
- A r a d i c a ld c p a r t u r c l r o t r r t h c c o n v c n t i o n a la p p r o u c hi s r c q u i r c t l .
5 . 4 S e a r c h i n gl o r s o l u t i o np r i n ei p l e s
Brainstorming is useful even in the solution of sub-problemsarisingin known or
existing systems. Moreover, it has a beneficial side effect: all the participants are
supplied with new data, or at least with fresh ideas on possible procedures,
applications,materials, combinations etc, becausethe group representsa broad
spectrum of opinion and expertise (for instance, designers, production en-
gineers, salesmen, materials experts and buyers). It is astonishing what a
profusion and range of ideas such a group can generate. The designer,for one,
will remember the ideas brought up during brainstorming sessionson many
future occasions. Brainstorming triggers off new lines of thought, stimulates
interest and representsa break in one's normal routine.
It should, however, be stressed that no miracles must be expected from
brainstorming sessions.Most of the ideas expressedwill not be technically or
economically feasible, and those that are will often be familiar to the experts.
Brainstorming is meant first of all to trigger off new ideas, but it cannot be
expected to produce ready-made solutions becauseproblems are generally too
complex and too difficult to be solved by spontaneousideas alone. However, if a
sessionshould produce one or two useful new ideas, or even some hints in what
direction the solution might be sought, it will have achieved a great deal.
An example of a solution obtained by brainstorming will be found in 5.9.2,
which also shows how the resulting ideas were evaluated and how classifying
criteria for the subsequent search for solutions were derived from them.
2 Method 635
Brainstorming has been developed into Method 635 by Rohrbach [5.45].
After familiarising themselves with the task and after careful analysis, each of
six participants is asked to write down three rough solutions in the form of
kcywords. After some time, the solutions are handed to the participant's
rrcighbour who, after reading the previous suggestion, enters three further
solutions or developments. This processis continued until each original set of
thrce solutions has been completed or developedthrough associationby the five
rrther participants. Hence the name of the method.
Method 635 has the following advantagesover brainstorming:
A good idea can be developed more systematically.
It is possible to follow the development of an idea and to determine more or
lcss reliably who originated the successfulsolution principle, which might
prove advisable for legal reasons.
'l'lrc
problem of group leadership hardly arises.
l h c r c l a t i v c d i s a d v a n t a g eo f t h e m e t h o d i s :
llccluccclcrcativity by the individual participants owing to isolation and lack
ol stinrulirti<ln i n t h c a b s e n c eo f o v e r t g r o u p a c t i v i t y .
J l)clphi method
I n t h i s m c l h o d . c x p c r t s i n t ; r a r t i c u l a rf i e l d u r c u s k c d k r r w r i t t c n o p i n i o n s 1 5 . 9 1 ,
90 5 Conccptual design
The requeststake the following form:
First round: What starting points for solving the given problem do you
suggest?Pleasemake spontaneoussuggestions.
Second round: Here is a list of various starting points for solving the given
problem. Pleasego through this list and make what further
suggestionsoccur to you.
Third round: Here is the final evaluationof the first two rounds. Pleasego
through the list and write down what suggestions you consider
most practicable.
This elaborateproceduremust be plannedvery carefullyand is usuallyconfined
to generalproblemsbearingon fundamentalquestions or on companypolicy.In
the field of engineeringdesign,the Delphi method should be reservedfor
fundamentalstudiesof long-termdevelopments.
4 Synectics
Synectics is a technicalneologismand refersto the combinationof variousand
apparentlyindependentconcepts.Synecticsis comparableto brainstorming,
with the differencethat its aim is to trigger off fruitful ideas with the help of
analogiesculled from non-technicalor semi-technical fields.The methodwas
first proposedby Gordon [5.18].It is more systematic than brainstorming with
its arbitraryflow of ideas.For the rest, both methodscall for completefrankness
and lack of inhibitionor criticism.
A synecticsgroup shouldconsistof no more than sevenmembers,lest the
ideas expressedrun away with themselves.The leader of the group has an
additionaltask: he must help the group to developthe proposedanalogiesby
guiding them through the following steps:
- Presentation of the problem.
-Familiarisation with the problem(analysis).
- Graspof the problem.
- Rejection of familiar assumptionswith the help of analogiesdrawn from
other spheres.
-Analysis of one of the analogies.
- Comparisonof the analogywith the existingproblem.
-Development of a new idea from that comparison.
-Development of a possiblesolution.
If the result is unsatisfactory,the processmay have to be repeated with a
different analogy.
An examplemay help to illustrate this method. In a seminarset up for the
purposeof discoveringthe best method of removing urinary calculi from tho
human body, severalmechanicaldevicesfor gripping, holding and extracting
these stones were mentioned. The device would have to stretch and open
inside the urethra. The keywords'stretch' and 'open up' suggestedthe idea of
umbrellato one of the participants(Figure5.23).
Qirestion:how can the umbrellaprinciple (a) be applied?lly (b) dril
5 . - l S e a r c h i n gl o r s o l u t i o np r i n c i p l c s 91
throughthe stone,pushingthe umbrellathroughthe hole and openingit up? Not
very feasible.By (.) pushinga tuLrethroughthe hole andblowingit up (balloon)
behindthe stone?Drilling of hole not feasible.BV (d) pushingthe tube pastthe
stone?When the tube is withdrawn the resistancemay seriouslvdamagethe
,{
^,7A*'.
til
tllil
/ \ \\
-'.i
',' \ --
J- v
tl
\J U2
obc
Figure5.23.Step-by-stepdevelopmentof a solutionprinciplefor the removalof urinary
calculibasedon an analogy
urethra. By (e) adding a second balloon as a guide and by (f) embedding the
stone in a gel between the two ballons and then pulling it out? This was found to
be the best solution (Figure 5.24).
Characteristic of this approach is the unrestricted use of analogieswhich, in
the case of technical problems, are selected from the non-technical or semi-
technical spheres. Such analogieswill generally suggestthemselvesquite spon-
taneouslyat the first attempt but, during subsequentdevelopment and analysis,
they will generally be derived more systematically.
I i g u r e5 . 2 4 . developedin Figure5.23
5 (lombination of methods
,,\ny one of these methods taken by itself may not lead to the required goal.
l ' . r p c r i e n c eh a s s h o w n t h a t :
'I'hc
group leader of, or another participant in, a brainstorming sessionmay,
whcn the flow of ideas dries up, introduce synectic procedures-deriving
irnirlogics,systemzrticnegation etc-to releasea new flood of ideas.
A ncw idca or an analogy may radically changethe approach and ideas of the
8roup.
- A surnmary of what has been agreed so far may lead to new ideas.
'destroystone'
I n t h c s c m i n a r w c n r e n t i o n e d ,t h e p r c s c n t a t i o no f t h e i d e a
producctl a host ttf ncw suggcstions such as tlrilling, smashing, hammering,
Ultraronic disintegrution and so on. Whcn ths flow of idcas cvcntually dricd up,
92 5 Conceptualdcsigrr 5 . 4 S c a r c h i n g 1 ' o rs o l u t i o n p r i n c i p l e s 93

'How doesnature destroy?'which immediately evoked a

the group leader asked,
number of new suggestionsincluding weathering, heating and cooling, decay,
putrefaction, bacterial action, ice expansion and chemical decomposition. A
'clasp stone' and 'destroy stone' provoked the
combination of the two principles
question, 'What else?'. This produced the answer'contact', which in turn threw
up such new ideas as sucking, glueing, and applying various contact forces.
The different methods should be combined so as best to meet particular cases.
A pragmatic approach ensuresthe best results.

5.4.3 Methods with a discursivebias

Methods with a discursive bias provide solutions in a deliberate step-by-step
approach. Discursive methods do not exclude intuition, which can make its
influence felt during individual stepsand in the solution of individual problems,
but not in the direct implementation of the overall task.

I Systematicstudy of physical processes

If the solution of a problem involves a known physicaleffect representedby an
equation, and especially when several physical variables are involved, various
solutions can be derived from the analysisof their interrelationships-that is, of
the relationship between a dependent and an independent variable, all other
quantities being kept constant. Thus, if we have an equation in the form y : /
(u,v,w) then, according to this method, we investigatesolution variants for the
I iulrre-5.25.Schematicrepresentationof four viscometers,after [5.421
r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I r: f @ , y , w ) , y 2 : f ( u , v , w ) a n d y 3 : f ( u , v , w ) , t h e u n d e r l i n e d
/ ('ontainer; 2 gear pump; ,l variable drive; 4 pressuregauge;5 fixed capillarytube; 6
quantities being kept constant. , rrpillarytube with variable diameter; 7 capillary tube with variable length
Rodenacker has given several examples of this procedure, one of which
concernsthe development of a capillary viscometer[5.42]. Four solution variants ,r,'cdcd to release a threaded fastener:
can be derived from the well known law of capillary action q * Ap'/l(V't)
( t h e y a r e s h o w n s c h e m a t i c a l l yi n F i g u r e 5 . 2 5 ) . r : pl(dt2) tan(Q"- 0) + @t2)pl (1)
1. A solution in which the differential pressure/p servesas a measure of thc llrc torque given by equation (1) is made up of the following components;
viscosity: rl 6 lp (V,r and / : const.).
I r i c t i o n a lt o r q u e i n t h e t h r e a d :
2. A solution based on the diameter of the capillary tube: q 6 / (V,/p and / =
c o n s t .) . Tt* P(dl2) ano,: P(dl2')p, (2)
3. A solution based on changesin the length of the capillary tube: ry cr lll (/p.V
rrlrerc tan@,: ptllcos(ol2): p,
and r : const.).
4. A solution based on changesin the volume flow rate'.n cr IIV (Ap.r and I = I r i t ' t i o n i r lt o r q u e o n t h e b o l t h e a d o r n u t f a c e :
c o n s t .) .
T,i: P(Dl2) tan@t: P(Dl2) p1 (3)
Another way of obtaining new or improved solutions by the analysis of
physicalequationsis the resolution of known physicaleffects into their lrrrli l ( t ' l c l r s ct o r ( l u c o l t h c t h r e a d d u e t o p r e - l o a da n d t h r e a d p i t c h :
vidual components. Rodenacker, in particular, has used this approach in tho
design of new devices or the development of new applications for cxisti 1 ' ,- I'(dl2)rln (-/l) - P . lL (4)
clcvices.
I l y w a y o l c x i t n r p l c ,l c t u s l o o k a t t h e c l c v c l o t . l r n c rot l i r l r i c t i o n i r l t h r c ll, t l r r c i r rpl i t c h ./ , . l r c l i xi r n g l c .r / * r n c i u rl h r e i r t l( t ) r l i i r r n c t c r/.' . . - p r c - k r i r r l .
l o c k i r r gt l c v i c c . b l r s c t lt l r r t h c i r r r l r l y s i so l l l t c c t l t t t t l i o t tg r t v c t t t i r t g l l t c l o r l, r r r el r r l r r e c( | ) t l i r r r t r t ' l c,rr.r , v a [ l u i l (l v ) c o c l l i c i en t o l l t i c t i ( ] ni n t l r c t l r r c l r t l .
t)4 -5 Conceptualdesign 5 . ' l S e a r c h i n gl b r s o l u t i o n p r i n c i p l c s 95

It : actual coefficient of friction in the thread,lr : coefficient of friction on the lor

criterion
Classifying
head or nut face, a : flank angle, Q : angle of friction). thecolumns
labelling
To discover solution principles for the improvement of the locking properties Classifying tor
criterion
labelling
therows
of a threadedfastener, we must analysethe physicalrelationshipsfurther so as to
identify the physical effects involved.
The individual effects involved in equations (2) and (3) are:
- The friction effect (Coulomb friction)

4: ! ' P a n df i : P 1 P
- The lever effect
Tt: Ft dl2 and Tt: \ Dl2
- The wedge effect
p,, : prlcos (ctl2)
Classifying
criterion
for
The individual effects in equation (4) are: labelling
therows
- The wedge effect
F, n P tan(-B)
- The lever effect

Tr:
An examination of the individual physical effects will yield the following
solution principlesfor the improvement of the locking properties of the fastener:
- Use of the wedge effect to reduce the tendency to loosen by decreasingthe
helix angle B.
- Use of the lever effect to increasethe frictional moment on the head or nut
face by increasing the mean face diameter D.
- Use of the friction effect to increase the frictional forces by increasing the
coefficient of friction trr.
- Use of the wedge effect to increase the frictional force on the face by means of
conical surfaces(P.1r1lsin 7 with included angle : 27). This method is used
with automobile wheel attachment nuts.
- Increase of the flank ansle a to increase the virtual coefficient of friction
the thread.
2 Systematicsearch with the help of classification schemes
In 2.2.1 we showed that the systematicpresentation of data is helpful in t
respects.On the one hand it stimulatesthe searchfor further solutionsin vuri<
directions; on the other hand it facilitates the identification and combination
essential solution characteristics.Because of these advantases a numbcr
classificationschemes have been drawn uo" all with a similar basic strr.rct
D r c i b h o l z[ - 5 . 1 1h] a s p u b l i s h e da c o m p r e h e n s i vscu r v e yo f t h e p o s s i b l ci r p p l i c
l i < l n so f s u c h c l a s s i f i c a t i o ns c h c m e s
I ' h c r r s r r r rt lw o - r l i r r r c r r s i o l sn cl h c r n cc < l n s i s lrst l r o l s i r t t t l c o l t r r t t l tos l 1
n l c t c r sr r s e trl r st ' l r r s s i l v i ncgl i { c r i t r .I j i g r r r c5 , 1 6i l l u r t r n l c rl h c g c r t r ' r ' lsr tl r r r c l t r r c
F, dl2
Figure 5.26. General structure of
classificationschemes,after [5. I 1l
r'lassificationschemes(a) when parameters are provided for both the rows and
thc columns and (b) when parameters are provided for the rows only, because
thc columns cannot be arranged in any apparent order. If necessary, the
, llssifying criteria can be extended by a further breakdown of the parametersor
,lrrrracteristics(Figure 5.27), which process,however, often tends to confusethe
r'('ncrAlpicture. By allocating the column parametersto the rows it is possibleto
r r;ursformevery classificationschemebasedon row and column into a schemein
rrlrich only the row parameters are retained, and the columns are merely
r r r u n b e r e d( F i g u r e 5 . 2 8 ) .
Srrchclassificationschemeshelp the design processin a great many ways. In
l , , r r l i c u l a r ,t h e y c a n s e r v e a s d e s i g n c a t a l o g u e sd u r i n g a l l p h a s e so f t h e s e a r c h
j(,r 'r \olut'on, and they can also help in the combination of sub-solutionsinto
r , \ t ' r i r l ls o l u t i o n s ( s e e 5 . 5 . 1 ) . Z w i c k y
[ 5 . 6 5 ]h a s r e f e r r e d t o t h e m a s ' m o r p h o l o -
r ' r , ; rrl r u r t r i c e s ' .
l lrc clroicc ol classifying criteria or of their parameters is of crucial import-
. t t t t t ' I l l c s t i r b l i s h i n ga c l i t s s i f i c a t i o ns c h e m e i t i s b e s t t o u s e t h e f o l l o w i n g
r t r ' p- l r y - 5 t c 1y.tl r o c c c l u r c :
5 l r ' p l : S o l r r t i o np r o l - r o s a lasr c c n t c r c c li n t h c r o w s i n r a n d o m o r d e r .
\ t r ' p . l : l l t r . ' s c p t o p r r s l t l s l r r c l n l r livr sr tcht cl l i g h l o tl h c r n l r i n h c a c l i n g s ( c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s )s t r c l ti r s t v l ) eo l c t t c r g v .t t ' p c o l r r r o t i o nc t c ( s c c F i g u r c s5 . 2 9 u r r c l
.s..1()),
'l
lltt'p l; l t t ' \ ' i r r c el i r s s i l i tel i r r r r c c o r d u t t gw
c a l h l l r er c l r el r r l i r r t s .
 96 5 Conccptual clesign 5 . 4 S e a r c h i n gf o r s o l u t i o n p r i n c i p l c s 9l

Classilying
criteria:
Types physical
of energy, etfects
andoutward
appearances
Headings. Examples;
Mechan
ical intertia,
Gravitation, centrilugal
torce
Hydraulic Hydrostatic,
hydrodynamic
Pneumatic Aerostatic,
aerodynamic
Electrical Electrostatic,
electrodynamlc,
inductive,
piezo-electric,
capacitative, transtormation,
rectlfication
Maqnetic Ferromagnetic,
electromagnetic
0ptical Rellection,
relraction,
diffraction,
interference,
polarisation,
infra-red,
visible,
ultraviolet
Thermal Expansion,
bimetal
effect,
heatstorage,
heat
heat
transfer, heatinsulation
conduction,
Chemical Combustion, reduction,
oxidation, dissolution,
combination,
translormation,
electrolysis,
exothermic reaction
andendolhermic
Nuclear Radiation,
isotopes,
source
ofenergy
Biolog
ical putrefaction,
Fermentation, decomp0siti0n

I'igure5.29. Classifyingcriteriaand headings(characteristics)

for variationin the physical
searcharea

Figure -5.31provides a simple example of a search for a solution to satisfy a

Figure 5.27. Classificationschemewith further subdivisionof parameters.after [5. ] 1l sth-function Here the answer was obtained by varying the type of energy
rrsainsta number of working principles.
Figure 5.32 is an example of variation based on motions. Here, the complex
2 3 4 5 Irrnction'coat carpet with syntheticbacking material'involves the two sub-
R1 I r r n c t i o n s ' m o v ec a r p e t ( s t r i p ) ' a n d ' m o v e a p p l i c a t o r ' f o r w h i c h v a r i o u st y p e s o f
R2
rrrotion and their combination serve as classifying criteria. Thanks to its
C1 R3
R4 \ ()lnprehensivenature the scheme covers every conceivablepossibility and can
,rlsobe used as a model for similar tasks.
R1 As an example of the variation of motions in three dimensions, let us now
R2 (()lrsider the function'form support wires for concrete reinforcing rods'. The
c2 R3 ''lrrrpeof such support wires is shown in Figure 5.33, and
R4
the possiblemotions of
t l r e l i r r m i n g t o o l s i n F i g u r e 5 . 3 4 a - c .T h e w i r e s a r e f o r m e d b y t h e c o - o r d i n a t e d
R1 rrrovcmentsof two tools (punch and die). By variation of the basic motions
R2 rlr.wn in (a) it was possible to correlate 20 punch and die motions (b), and by
C3 R3 ,'rrrpkryingthe motions in and round all the co-ordinates to finish up with 239
Figure5.28.Modified R4 p r r c l i c i r b l cc o m b i n a t i o n s ,s o m e o f w h i c h a r e s h o w n i n ( c ) . F i g u r e5 . 3 5s h o w st h e
classification
scheme,after [5.11] r r ' l c c l c r sl o l u l i o np r i n c i p l e s .
l i i g t r r c , 5 . 3 ( rs h o w s t h c v a r i a t i o n o f t h c s u r f a c e si n t h e d e s i g n o f s h a f t - h u b
This procedure not only helps one to identify comDatiblecombinations t ' o t t t t c c t i t t t l s . ' l ' l t i t t t kl s< l s u c h i l r r i l n g c n r c r ) t st .h c r n u l t i p l i c i t yo f s o l u t i o n s
m o r c i m p o r t a r r ts t i l l , c n c o u r a g e st h e o p e n i n g u p o f t h c w i c l c s tp o s s i b l cs o l u t o h l i r i r r c dl.i r r i n s l i r r r c bc y l h c n r c l h o do l ' l o r w l r t l s l c l l s( s c c 2 . 2 . F i g r r r c2 . 7 ) . c i r n
l'ic Itls. I t c l t t t t i l t l o r l r r l c r i u r t l c o r r r p l lec t l .
 9t3 - 5 C t r n c c - p t u i rdl c r i g n 5 . 4 S e a r c h i n gf b r s o l u t i o n p r i n c i p l c s 99

Classilying
criteria Typeof energy
Surfaces, andprincipal
motions properties
material '
principle
Workinq
mechanical hydraulic electrical thermal
Surtaces J Flywheel , Hydraulic
reservoir
Batlery lVlass
Headings Exanples. h. A o.Bladder ns
1 \ L)) | | b Pislon ,Fl
Type Point,
line,surface,
body p c.Membrane .+ lV,+l f-?^.,.1
Shape (rot.) ' (Pressure
energy) 77777777.
Curve,
circle,
ellipse, parabola
hyperbola,
Triangle,
square, pentagon,
rectangle, hexagon,
octagon
Moving t,T, _ , Liquid vdpdLr tul
Cylinder,
cone,rhomb,
cube,
sphere 1
t tr+-|fesefvOtf
Symmetrical, MASS (electr.
field)
asymmetrical 7 (pot.enerr Heated
liquid
f' ,IC
Position Axial,
radial,
vertical,
horizontal t __,_,t_
Parallel,
(transl.
)
sequential
Size Small,
large,
narrow,
broad,
tall,low Pol
ln-l
-=-l Magnet Superheated
Number Undivided,
divided energy Flowing
Simple,
double,multiple
3 h liquid (magn.
field) steam

Motions
??r+
Headings Exanples Metalspring
Type Stationary,
translati0nal,
rotatr0nal t, '!:1 F

Nature Uniform,non-uniform, lating

oscil tr
Planeorthree-dimensional
Direction In x.y.z ard/oraoouly.y,z
direclion axis
Magn
itude Velocity
5
Number 0ne,several,
composite
movements
r0t.+transl.+oot
Principai properties
materiai Othersprings
Headings Examples (compr.against
State Solid, gaseous
liquid, 6 fluid+ gas)
Behaviou
r Rigid, plastic,
elastic, viscous l.fl-ap,nz
Form Solid grains,
body, powder,
dust
lrigure5.31.Differentworkingprinciplesto satisfythe function'storeenergy'byvarying
tl)etypeof energy
Figure5.30.Classifyingcriteriaand headings(characteristics)
for variationin the form
designsearcharea
Preference should be given to such main sub-functions as determine the
principle of the overall solution and for which no solution principle has yet
If solutions to severql sub-functions are sought, then it is advisable to start by bcen discovered.
treating
uEdLrllB these
rucss sub-functions
suD-il.lncuons as
as the 'l'he ('lussifying criteria and associated parameters (characteristics) should be
Ine classifying
classlrylng criteria
cnterla for
lor the
the rows.
rows. The uppropri.
appropri
ate columns are then filled with possible solution principles and their characteris rlcrived from identifiable relationships between the energy, material ancl/or
tics, in numericalorder. Figure5.37 showsthe basicstructureof this tvoe signal flows or from associatedsystems.
classification
scheme.In the rows,solutionss1iare assigned
to the sub_functir ll thc physical working principle is unknown, it should be derived from the
d. Depending on how concrete a level the search for solutions is conduc physical cffccts and, for instance, from the type of energy. If the working
thesecan be physicaleffects,working or solution principles,function carric principlc has bccn determined. appropriate form design features (surfaces,
selectedcomponents, or merelycharacteristics of individualsolutions.Variati t t l o t i o t t si t n c l I n i t t c r i a l s )s h o u l d b e c h o s e na n d v a r i e d . C h e c k l i s t ss h o u l d b e
is usuallyfollowed by the combinationof solutionprinciples.combinati t r s c dt o s t i r n u l i r l cn c w i c l c a s( F i g u r c s- 5 . 2 9a n c l- 5 . 3 0 ) .
methodswill be discussed in sreaterdetail in 5.5. ( ' l i r s s i l i c i t t i t sl tct l t c n t c s h o u l r b l c b u i l t u l ) s t c l )b y s t c p l r n c a l sc < l m p r c h c n s i v c l y
To sum up: the searchfor solutionprincipresfor sub-functionsshoulcl i r s p o s s i l r l c .l r r c o r r r l l i r t i b i l i t i cssh o u k l b c t l i s c t r r t l c r li .r n r l < l n l vl h c r n o s l 1 t r < l n r i s -
b a s c do n t h e f o l l < l w i nlsi n c s : i t t g s o l u l i o t l ' p r o p o s i r l sp u r s u c t l . I n s o d o i n g , t l r c t l e s i g r r c rs l r o t r k l t r y t o
100 5 Conceptualdesign 5 . 4 S e a r c h i n gI o r s o l u t i o n p r i n c i p l e s 101

.+

o
,.8
"tJ

Figure5.33.Supportwire for
concretereinforcingrods[5.23]
rz lower rods
b upperrod
c supportwire

F
determine which classifying criteria contribute to the discoveryof a solution,
and to examine further variations of these.
-The most promising solutions should be chosen by

,N .N
tl
I
a special selectionproce-
d u r e ( s e e5 . 6 ) .
,.9
ffit -The same procedure should be followed
for other important sub-functions,
.l+nrl
'Er attention being paid to their incompatibility with previously elaborated
sub-functions.
-Solution principles should be combined in
accordancewith 5.5.
If possible, the most comprehensiveclassificationschemesshould be drawn
o
up, that is, schemesfor repeated use, but systemsshould never be built for
,o
systematics'sake alone.
c,)
E
'l'he
.l use of design catalogues(manuals)
c

-E
-Y
I
| )csign catalogues are collections of known and proven solutions to design
<?
l,roblems. They contain data of various types and of distinct levels of embodi-
0)
rrrt'nt. Thus they may cover physical effects, solution principles, solution
tr |.nccpts, machine elements, standard parts, materials, bought-out components
t lt. In the past, such data were usually found in textbooks and handbooks,
F-l Oci
( r)nll)'rnycatalogues, trrochuresand standards.Some of these contained. aoart
<.9
lool
lool lr,rrr purely objective data and suggestedsolutions, examples of calculation,
lool r.l1;1i1v11
Fo methods and other design procedures. Design catalogues should
6i lrtrviclc:
- c cio ' ()trickcr, more problem-orientated accessto the accumulated
= c
c
s -! solutions or
@.9
io
6= @+ o;+ r)d tlrrlir.
c '5 O^
l ' h c n r o s tc o n r p r c h c n s i v er a n g e o f s o l u t i o n sp o s s i b l e ,o r , a t t h e v e r y l e a s t ,t h e
'ti
o a t t t o s tc s s c r r t i i rol n c s , t o w h i c h t h c r c s t c a n l a t e r b e a d d e d .
'l'ltc
g r c i r t c s lp o s s i b l er i r n g c o f i n t c r d i s c i p l i n a r ya p p l i c a t i o n s .
l ) i r l i r l t l r c ( ) t l v c t l t i ( ) r l i rcl l c s i g r tp r o c c d u r c s i t s w c l l i r s l i l r c o r r r p u t c r - a i c l c c l
mclltrxls,
102 -5 Conceptualdesign 5 . 4 S e a r c h i n gf o r s o l u t i o n p r i n c i p l e s 03
basicmotions
Possible
Rotation O andTranslation
. : diefixed
No. S o l u t i opnr i n c i p l e No principle
Solution
(a)
.-.-------\
Variants 11 l

Numberol 2 3 L 5 6
basic
motions
,] Punch motion
1 basic -.
Diefixed

2 Punch2 basic
motions
I
Diefixed . ._
't,] 17-2

3 Punch motion
I basic
Die1 basrc
motion ._

t, Punch2 basic
motions
Die1 basic
motion ^ <)

5 Punch2 basicmotions
Die2 basicmotions .------ _ 7=
a> a)
(b)
No. 11.-1 11-? 1 . 1 .3 1.7.-1 17.-2 1 2.- 3

,L,.4, A ,A.,
l zz

1
rl' I
,-\, --\,
21 1
31-7 3 . 1 .3- .l J.- | 33 2

.4, ,-K,
l zz
rl' fl ' nl rt3 3 3 -2
3 Y

I
L\L

4L I
,-\,
1 , . 5 ,1
,rrtt-&t
4 . 6 . 1-
t
*'gt
lt [r h
ll+ |-|+
1
,-sQ, ,4,
51,1
^g'lr(,
ll n'

5 . 2 .1- 5 . 4 .1-
I
Lii ui

r-+
,A ,ffi, t-{
lz
ilt lt n' 5 . 71
5 ?lr
,-r\r, \ffi
/n\
ffi
F{*:*}L
Figure 5.34. Variation possibilitiesfor motions of tools for forming support wircs for
concretereinforcing rods, after [5.23];
( a ) P o s s i b l eb a s i cm o t i o n s
ffi
(b) Classificationschcme for possiblcrnotior.rs of purrchanrl rlic r c 5 . . 1 5S . c l c c t c t ls o l t t l i o t tp r i n c i p l c sl i t r l i r r r r r i r rsgu l ) l x ) r tw i r c s t i r r c o l c r c t c
( c ) S o n r co l t l t c p r r r c l i c i t l l l c o r t r b i r l r t i o nos l 1 - r u r r cl nht l c l i cr n o l i o r r s o t c t l t St r t t l r o t t l l t e l r i r s i so l t o o l r r r o l i o r risr r l C C o r d n t r cwc i t h l r i g u r c5 . . 1 { c l,r t t c r
l5,l.j
r04 -5 Conceptualdesign 5 . 4 S e a r c h i n gf o r s o l u t i o n p r i n c i p l e s 105

Variant design phase, for instance, it is advisable to select as classifying criteria the
7 3 l- 5 6 functions to be fulfilled by the solutions. This is because the conceptual design is
Characteri
stic
basedon the underlying sub-functions.For classifyingcharacteristicsit is beit to
Shape
@@@@@ &w choose generally valid functions (5.3), which help to elicit the most product-
independent solutions.

@@@ M
Further classifying criteria might include the type and characteristicsof energy
Position (mechanical, electrical, optical etc), of materials or signals, of surfaces, of

Size
wffi motions and of physical effects. In the caseof design cataloguesintended for the
embodiment design phase, useful classifying criteria include the properties of
materials and the characteristics of particular machine elements, such as
Number
@@& @ couplings and clutches.By contrast, characteristicsof solutions, such as dimen-
sions, noise etc, should not be used as classifyingcriteria becausethey are of
different importance to different users of the catalogue.
Fisure 5.36. Variation of surfacesfor shaft-hub connections,after [5.441 In the actual solutions column, it is possible to include physical equations,
sketchesof solution principles, layout drawings,names of materials,illustrations
etc, depending on the complexity of the catalogue.The type and completeness
g'q;;trdT 2 m
of the information given once again depends on the intended application.
1 F1 Srt Srz Sri Stt Great importance in the choice of solutions attachesto the columns covering
2 F2 Szr szz 52j s;; the selection characteristics.Such characteristics may involve a great variety of
Figure5.37.Basic properties-for instance, typical dimensions, reliability, response, number of
structureof a clementsetc. They help the designerin the preliminary selectionand evaluation
F, Sir srz sl sm classificationscheme of solutions and, in the caseof computer-basedcatalogues,they can also be used
with the sub-functions
rn the final selection and evaluation.
of an overallfunction
q and associated Another important requirement of design cataloguesis that they should have
n ,Fn Snt Snz Sni "nm
solutions rrniform and clear definitions and svmbols.
The more concrete and detailed the stored information, the more direct but
;rlsothe more limited is the application of a catalogue.With increasingdegree of
The construction of design catalogueshas been studied, above all, by Rot
t'nrbodiment, data for a given solution become more comprehensive,but the
and collaborators [5.46, 5.51]. Roth suggeststhat a design catalogueof the typ
t lurncesof arriving at a complete solution spectrum decreases.Thus it may be
shown in Figure 5.38 is most likely to satisfy all the demands listed above'
Roth also attaches utmost importance to classifying criteria. They influen lrossibleto provide a full list of physical effectsfulfilling the function 'channel',
lrtrt it would hardly be possibleto list all the potential embodiments of bearings
the easewith which cataloguescan be handled and reflect the level of complexit
{thanelling a force from a rotating to a stationary system). Ewald [5.12] has
of particular solutions, and also their degree of embodiment. In the conceptu
I'rrblisheda collection of design cataloguescompiled by himself and by other
turrlhors[5.46,5.51]. There are several cataloguescovering generators,transfor-
nr('r.s.gears, bearings, shafts, couplings and springs. Koller has published
erlrrlogues of physical effects to fulfil the functions'change type of energy',
type of signal'and 'vary physicalmagnitudes'15.271.
lrrrrrgc
lrt what follows we include just a few examplesof, or extractsfrom, available
lay0ut signcataktgues.
Assessmenlor
drawrngs, descnption lrigurc -5.39shows a catalogueof physicaleffectsassociatedwith the functions
physical ol thesoluttons ngc cncrgy'ancl'varycncrgycomponent'. It is basedon Koller 15.27land
ons,
equati 0r elemenls 'l'he
etc
sketches ttiltirucr[.5..1{)1. cirtaloguc
mlkcs it possibleto derivetheseeffectsfrom
Figure-5.38. Basic c l l s s i l ' y i n gc r i t c r i i r .t h a t i s , ' i n p u t s a n c lo u t p u t s ' .T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i cosn w h i c h
structureof a clesign s c l c c l i o n i s b l s c d r n u s t b c c l c r i v c dl ' r o m t h c t c c h n i c a ll i t c r a t u r e .
l ronr[ 5.'161
catalog,uc, F'igurc.5.4(lshowsa catnkrgucol mcchlnicalsolutionprinciplcsto f'ulfilthc
 5 Conceptualdesign 5 . . 1 S e a r c h i n gf o r s o l u t i o n p r i n c i p l e s

Physical
ellects
Equation for
E^",n y ,4 t^,,n F00ke locking direclion I
- (Tensioni
1,,' l- compTessionl
a n ds l i d i ndgi r e c t i o
Sn
0en0nq)

\ / PI
-
t=
to
-
na . s i n @ .c o s @ -
-atl,L
I 0 nq - l r
-IRT-"1
I+L I
'o

lrt..llt E
O

E
o
l-v1-
-L \, / e\
-d I .E '-
= 6,
-'\ \l--
9
6
- \'')f
f6)
+

-=
'd
L:

FI
t1tt1
.=
1-plt/ll

= . = s= l 1 1 / 1 3 )
;
.E
F ttFc 6

E
lrt..IA,

- P)tona l , !- 1
' l o n c z - l r|\ / +
loia-p1\ -
l l
c
r9#3
-v2n*tt -'---tzl
.
41 iona.prl o
',1N, E
.9
I
= 6
'o
; p,< Ian a
113<.117:117<111
E
,l ;>
6 e

;l .
I
lllton d
lona
t,
pr\"
lJ I tan a p.\ -
/1? to^a,ir)',
E
.=

li
L:
u,lt/lt l,
', t. 1 1 ,! , t , ,, ,),
1 p,l,/1,| !,' I,F1'1' t1 '-
S, 1
,,.ffi1,.hn t1
fu,tlr ut hl 2
L o c k i ncqo r d i t i o n
(without friction): i

_ s l f& . .a
f< J-)sinBf
EE
- :r/2
wedge.1) cq
=

J l r ', Fl o n a , l +
tcn(r(l 4j pt) pr , >o
h gE
-.=
lljr(ll)a-Y I
lnt tt ll 1t,1t,),p,,1t,'
F i g u r e- 5 . 3 9D . e s i g nc : r t a l o g u eo f p h y s i c a cl f f c c t sb a s c t lo n 1 5 . 2 7 5. .j t ) l f i r r t h c g c r r c r ; r l l y
a p p l i c a b l et u n c t i o r r s ' c h : r n gccn c r g y ' a n c l ' v a r vc n c r g v c ( ' n l l ) r r n c n t A ' .l s o l r p p l i c 5 J ( l l l x t r i r e tl t o t t l 1 1 1 s 1 gt '1r t1t r t l o g t tocl t l t c l r r t t c t r o n ' P r ( ) \ , r (ol rcr c - w l r v
axirrl
fkrw ttf sigttlls r r r ' , l t o r r1r5 , { h l
108 5 Conceptualdesign 5.5 Combining solution principles 109

function'provide one-way axial motion'. In this, unlike the previous catalogue, The identification of compatiblesub-solutionsis facilitatedif:
the solutions are concrete enough, thanks to the specification of the form design - The sub-functionsare listed in the order in which they occur
in the function
features, for the embodiment design phase to start with a scale layout drawing' structure, if necessaryseparatedaccordingto flow of energy,material and
signals.
- The solution principles are suitably arrangedwith the
help of additional
column parameters,for examplethe type of energy.
- The solution principlesare not merely expressedin words
5.5 Combining solution principles to fulfil the overall but also in rough
function sketches.
- The most important characteristicsand propertiesof the solutionprinciples
are recordedas well.
The methodsdescribedso far were primarily intendedto help in the searchfor
This method of combinationis depictedin Figure 5.41. In Figure5.42 it is
solution principlesand in the constructionof a solutionfield for sub-functions.
appliedto the overallfunctionstructureshownin Figure5.16.The shadedareas
To fulfilihe overall function, it is now necessaryto elaborateoverall solutions
from the combination of principles (system synthesis).The basis of such
combinationsis the establishedfunction structurewhich reflectslogicallyand/or
-physicallypossibleor usefulassociations of the sub-functions'
The methodswe have beendescribing,and particularlythosewith an intuitive
bias.are intendedto lead to the discoveryof suitablecombinations, but there
are also special methods for arriving at such syntheses more directly. In
principle, they must permit a clear combinationof solution principles with the
iretp of the issociated physical quantities and the appropriate form design
features.
The main problem with such combinations is ensuring the physical and
geometricalcompatibility of the solution principlesto be combined,which in
i.r.n the smooth flow of energy, material and/or signals.A further of principles
Combinations
"nsures
problem is the selectionof technicallyand economicallyfavourablecombina' I igure5.41.combiningsolutionprinciplesinto combinationsof principles
iions of principlesfrom the large field of theoreticallypossiblecombinations. ( o n t b i n a t i o1n: S , , + S 2 2+ . . . + , S n 2
( o r n b i n a t i o2n: S , , + , S 2 +
This aspectwill be discussed at greaterlengthin 5.6. r . . . + Snr

r('l)resent the selected combination of principles, the sub-function ,separate

\l()r)cs'involves the application of two solution principles in succession
5.5.1 Systematiccombination [5.3].
lrurther examples of this method of combination will be found in 5.9 (Figures
For the purpose of systematic combination, the classification scheme to wl I { r l ' i -. 5 . 6 9 5
, .90 and 5.91).
'morphological matrix' (seeFigure 5.37) is particu
Zwicky [5.05] reters as the l'hc verification of compatibilities,too, is facilitated by classificationschemes.
ty useful. Hire, the sub-functionsand the appropriate solutions (solut ll trv. sub-functions to be combined-for instance, 'change energy, and .vary
principles)
- are entered in the rows of the scheme. nrcchirnicalenergy component'-are entered respectivelyin the column and row
If this schemeis to be used for the elaborationof overall solutions'then herrtlingof a matrix with their characteristicsin ihe appiopriate boxes, then the
least one solution principle must be chosenfor every sub-function(that is' rnPirtibility of the sub-solutionscan be verified more easily than it could be
every row). To provide the overall solution, these principles must then rc such examinations confined to the designer'shead. Figure 5.43 illustrates
com6ined systematically into a function structure. If there are rn 1 solul \ t y p c o f c o m p a t i b i l i t ym a t r i x .
principles for the sub-function Fr, mz for the sub-function F2 and so on,
-
ifter iomplete combination we have ly' tp1 . t z. ft4 nn thettreti ()ttly contbinccompatiblcsub-functions.
possibleoverallsolutionvariants. only pursucsuchsolutionsils meetthe demancls of the specification
and look
The mainproblemwith thismethodof combinationis to decidewhichsol likc fallingwithin rhc prop.scdbu<lgct(sccsclcctionpiocedures in 5.6).
p r i q c i p l c s a r c c O m p a t i b l e ,t h a t i s , t o n a r r o w d o w n t h c t l t c o r c t i c a l l y Concentrtttctln prontisingcornbinationsund cstablishwhy thcscshoulclbe
scarch ficld to thc pritctically possiblc search ficld. pttfcrred above thc rcst,
-rrrft!
110 5 Conceptual desig n 5.5 Combiningsolutionprinciples lI1

---__Change
1 ? 3 L
Vary Xetn, Electric
motor 0scillatingBimetal
spiral
in Oscillating
iubJunctions\ solenoid hotwater piston
hydraulic
nrecnan.
energy
\
c{)mponent \ I 7 3 L
Lift additional
leverlinkage
Chaindrive A il A capable
ol rolating slowmolion yes bulonlyfor ow
pislonspeeds

,lmu* '
slowrolati0n
onlythrough addlt
onal Gearsegments witlra rackand
Spurgeardrive B yes elemenls (frtrwheelin0 sutlice,
depending swivel, butonly
7 sitl elc.)dltlicull
ro on angleof rolalon for lowpiston
reversedireclion speeds

grid wheel - Lever

Sifting Sifting yes yes(when angieof withsliding
Itese
drive C lookoutlor see82 rolalon is small,lever blockbulonly
tor lowpiston
shockloads w lh sl d ngblock)
_/ speeds
3 Separate
leaves #;h (: Sb,4t/tt rctionwheel 0 yes
\./
see82
Largetorcesbecause
ol torque
dlringsiow
seeD3
Plucker rve movemenl imprecise
posllioning
.,./ \
| | | |
Separate very
oifricutt (doml pursue
l0 appiy
t l:J fu(her)
stones
f] mnontV
beapplied
under
certain
circumslances
(deler)

Irigure 5.43. Compatibility matrix for combination possibilities of the sub-functions

Sort byfriction tl checksize mass
cnecK 'change 'vary
5 p0tat0es by hand plane) { (holegauge)
(inclined (weighing) energy' and m e c h a n i c a l e n e r g y c o m p o n e n t ' , f r o m [ 5 . 1 1]

Sack{illing
6 Collect Conveyor devrce tron along with an optimisation-is quite out of place and can be misleading.The
ol principles
Combination
( \ceptions are combinations of known elementsand assemblies.for instance in
r:rriant design. In the case of purely logical functions, combinations can be
Figure5.42.Combination of principles for designing a potato harvesting machine in
accordancewith the overall function structure shown in Figure 5.16 1 , , ' r . f o r m ewd i t h t h e h e l p o f B o o l e a n a l g e b r a[ 5 . I 5 , 5 . 4 4 ] i n , s a y , t h e l a y o u t o f
.',rlctysystemsor the optimisation of electronic or hydraulic
circuits.
lrr principle, the combination of sub-solutionsinto overall solutions with the
In conclusion, it must be emphasised that what we have been discussingI S lrt'lp of mathematical methods calls for knowledge of the characteristicsor
generally valid method of combining sub-solutions into overall solutions. l'rrrllcrtiesof the sub-solutionsthat are expectedto correspondwith the relevant
method can be used for the combination of solution principles during l , r , r p c r t i e so f t h e n e i g h b o u r i n gs u b - s o l u t i o n sT. h e s ep r o p e r t i e sm u s t b e u n a m b i -
conceptual phase, and of sub-solutions or even of components and assembl grrousand quantifiable. In the formation of solution concepts, data about the
during the embodimentphase.Becauseit is essentiallya method of informat Itlrt'sicalrelationships may be insufficient, since the geometrical relationships
processing,it is not confinedto technicalproblemsbut can also be usedin Itr.rv lrave a limiting effect and hence may, in certain circumstances,lead to
developmentof managementsystemsand in other fields. Itrr'orrr;ratibilities. In that case,physical equation and geometricalstructure must
ftrsl bc rnatchcd mathematically, and this is not generally possible except for
llstcrrrs of klw complexity. For systemsof higher complexity, by contrast, such
5.5.2 Combining with the help of mathematical methods
f t n c l l r l i o n s o l ' t c n l r c c o r n ca m b i g u o u s , s o t h a t t h e d e s i g n e r m u s t o n c e a g a i n
Mathematical methods and computers should only be used for the combina
f h r x r s c b c t w c c n v i r r i a n t s .w c m a y , a c c o r c l i n g l ys, p c a k o f d i a l o g u es y s t e m si n
clf solution principles if real advantagescan be expectedfrom them. Thus, at t l r c l ) r ( ) c c s sr l l c o l n l r i n l r t i o nc t l n s i s t so l r r r i r l h c r r u r t i c lar ln c lc r c i r t i v cs t c p s .
fhich
r c l a t i v c l y i r b s t r i t c tc o n c c p t u a lp h a s e ,w h e n t h c n a t u r e t l l ' t h c s o l u t i o n i s n t l t
J ' l ' h i s n t i t k c s i l c l c i t r t l t i r t t h o u g h , w i t h i n c r c a s i n gp h y s i c i r lr c a l i s a t i o no r
f u l l y u n c l c r s l o o d .l t g u a n t i t a t i v c l a h r l r a t i o n - t h n t i s , u m t t l l r c n r i t t i c acl o m p h o d i m c n t o l ' u s o l u l i r t np r i n c i p l c . i t b c c o m c rr i m p l c r t o c s t l b l i s h q u a n t i t a t i v c
 5 . 6 S e l e c t i n gs u i t a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s
t12 . 5 C t t n c e p t u u ld e s i g n

combination rules, the number of properties increasesand with them the

number of constraints and optimisation criteria, so that the mathematicaleffort
required becomesvery great. Combining with the help of mathematicalmethods
c a l l sf o r t h e u s e o f c o m p u t e r s[ 5 . 6 ,5 . 8 , 5 . 2 6 ,5 . 3 0 ] .

5.6 Selectingsuitablecombinations
For the systematicapproach, the solution field should be as wide as possible.By
paying regard to all possibleclassifyingcriteria and characteristics,the designer
is often led to a larger number of possible solutions. This profusion constitutes
the strength and also the weaknessof the systematicapproach. The very great,
theoretically admissible but practically unattainable, number of solutions must
be reduced at the earliest possible moment. On the other hand, care must be
taken not to eliminate valuable solution principles, becauseoften it is only in
their combination with others that an advantageousoverall solution will emerge.
While there is no absolutely safe procedure, the use of a systematic and
verifiable selection procedure greatly facilitates the choice of promising solu-
tions from a wealth of proposals [5.37].
This procedure involves two steps, namely elimination and preference.
First, all totally unsuitable proposals are eliminated. If too many possible
solutions still remain, those that are patently better than the rest must be given
preference. Only these solutions are evaluated at the end of the conceptual
design phase.
If faced with numerous solution proposals, the designer should compile a
selectionchart (Figure 5.44).In principle, after every step-that is, even after
establishingfunction structures-only such solution proposalsshould be pursued
AS:
- are compatible with the overall task and/or with one another (Criterion
-fulfil the demands of the specification(Criterion B);
realisablein respect of performance, layout etc (Criterion C); and
-are expected to be within permissablecosts (Criterion D).
Unsuitable solutions are eliminated in accordancewith these four cri
applied in the correct sequence. Criteria A and B are suitable for
decisionsand their application posesrelatively few problems. Criteria C and
often need a more quantitative approach, which should only be used o
criteria A and B have been satisfied.
Since criteria C and D involve quantitative considerations,they may lead
only to the elimination of proposed solutionswith too small an effect or too
a cost, but also to'preferencesbased on large effects,small spacerequire
and low costs. r c 5 , 4 4 .S y s t c n r l t i cs c l c c t i o nc h a r t : a l , b l . c t c a r c s o l u t i o nv a r i a n t so f t h e p r o p o s a l s
if, arnongthc vcry largcnumhcrol'possiblc
solut c i n ' l ' a h l c . 5 . 1 , ' l ' h cc o l u n t r r c s c r v c r l{ i r r r c n l r r k s i l s l sl c i r s o n sf o r l u c k o f
A prcfcrcnccis iustificcl
i o no r c l i n r i n i r t i o n
thcrc urc $omcthlt:
-rjtr.-
114 5 Conceptualdesign
5 . 6 S e l c c t i n gs u i t a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s 115

- incorporate direct safety measures or introduce favourable ergonomic condi-

tions (Criterion E); or
- are preferred by the designer's company, that is, can be readily developed Solution principle Signal
with the usual know-how, materials, proceduresand under favourable patent
conditions (Criterion F). l. Mechanical, static
I.I. Liquid
It must be stressed that selection based on preferential criteria is only
a1 Weight of liquid Force
advisablewhen there are so many variants that a full evaluation would involve a2 Mass attraction Force
too much time and effort. a3 Use of solvent in the liquid Concentration
In the caseof function structuresand solution principles,criteria A and B will Residue (of
usually suffice. dissolved substance)
a4 Matter suspendedin the liquid Concentration
Only after combination of the solution principles need criteria C and D be
applied, followed, if necessary,by the application of criteria E and F. 1.2. Gas
If, in the suggested sequence, one criterion leads to the elimination of a b1 Gas-filled bladder on top of the liquid Displacement
proposal, then the other criteria need not be applied to it there and then. At Pressure (of gas)
DZ Volume of gas in sealed container Pressure (of gas)
first, only such solution variants should be pursued as satisfy all the criteria.
Sometimes, however, it is impossible to settle the issue because of lack of 1.3. Reproduction (Analogue)
cl Similar quantities of liquid in a container with
information. In the case of promising variants that satisfy criteria A and B, the similar cross-sections Force
gap will have to be filled (see 5.7) by a re-evaluationof the proposal, which will c')
Similar volumes of gas (similar cross-section) Displacement
ensure that no good solutions are passedover. Pressure (of gas)
The criteria are listed in the order shown above as a labour-savingdevice, and c3 Container-shapedbody with p j. p1iuu1,1 Force
Indication by:
not in order of importance.
Suspend by spring + displacement
The selectionprocedure has been systematisedfor easierimplementation and Attach source of light to floating body -
verification (Figure 5.44). Here, the criteria are applied in sequeneeand the displacement of light beam
reasonsfor eliminating any solution proposal recorded. Experience has shown
that the selectionprocedure we have describedcan be very quickly applied, that" 2. Mechanical, dynamic
it gives a good picture of the reasonsfor selection,and that it provides suitable 2.1. Liquid
Exploit the inertia of liquid (acceleration) Force (moment)
documentation in the form of the selection chart.
Oscillation of mass of liquid Frequency, time
If the number of solution proposalsis small, elimination may be bapedon the
interval
same criteria. but less formally recorded. Pump liquid from one container into another Time
The example we have chosen concerns solution proposals for a fuel gauge in Irleasure quantity pumped across Enefgy (electrical)
accordance with the specification in Figure 5.2. An extract from the list of Measure differences in the inflow and the outflow Quantityof
in the container rnatter(+)
proposalsis given in Table 5.2.
Tap the container and measure response Frequency
A further example is shown in Figure 5.45. The specification of a test r A t t a c h o s c i l l a t o rt o c o n t a i n e r- Time (oscillation)
for gear couplings demanded an axial displacementin the test coupling so t response dependent on mass of liquid
the forces which then appear could be measured. The possible position of t
2.2. Cas
Pump gas into a sealed container or pump out Pressure(of gas)
gas until a fixed pressure or a fixed quantitv of
gas is reached
Figure 5.45. Sketch showing the
principle of a test rig for gear
-1. F,lcctricul
couplings.
ll as ohmic rcsistance
l-it1u1.! (volumedependent) Ohmic resistance
1 drive; 2 gearbox;3 high-speed
Liquiclas diclcctric(volumedependent) Capacitv
shaft; 4 test gear coupling; 5
:
adjustable bearing block for
s et t i n g t h c a l i g n n t c n t ;6 d c v i c c f o f r r l t l c5 , 1 . l l x t r i r c t I r o r r rt h c l i s l o l s o l u t i o r rp r o p o s i r l sf i r r t l c s i g r r i r rugl i r c l g u t r g c
lpplying l()rquc
 ll6 5.7 Firming up into conceptvariants ITl
5 Conceptualdesign

displacement (classifying criterion of the rows) and the axial force input which, as experience has shown, almost invariably involves a considerable
(classifying criterion of the columns) were combined into the classification effort.
scheme shown in Figure 5.46. The various combinations were checked and The selection process may already have revealed gaps in information about
unsuitable variants were eliminated for a number of not immediatelv obvious very important properties, sometimes to such an extent that not even a rough
reasons. and ready decision is possible, let alone a reliable evaluation. The most
important properties of the proposed combination of principles must first be
given a much more concrete qualitative, and often also a rough quantitative,
Axialforce 3
\ input v
--lli:- ---T-- definition.
D<XI Important aspectsof the working principle (such as performance and suscepti-
Position \ hydrodyn. rolling Inerm. bility to faults) and also of the embodiment (such as spacerequirements,weight
of disolacemenlaxialbearing bearing expansion and service life) and finally of important task-specific constraints must be
1 Right-handI t1
-Fo known, at least approximately. More detailed information need only be
prnr0n
-*
l]-___*Jrn-$ T$ry
, !E* gathered for promising combinations. If necessary,a second or third selection
z
must follow the collection of further information.
2 Right-hand 1 2 ,,tv.
., The necessary data are essentially obtained with the help of such proven
sleeve

1d*___llhilfrs.
--tt l L
-w- +t-
lll.'
methods as:
-rough calculationsbased on simplified assumptions;
- rough sketches or rough scale-drawings of possible layouts, forms, space
3 Adlustable l3 requirements, compatibility etc;
shaft -preliminary experimentsor model tests to determine the main properties, or
tHHFili$ approximate quantitative statements about the performance and scope for
D
optimisation;
4 Lett-hand IL ,/,(t o. ,.,W \ -construction of models to aid analysis and visualisation (for example,
-
sleeve
:--
_l
_T t--
_FF +-
--l1.. r
rf
kinematicmodels):
#H_l-ht_l-$ ,8.-.. llt'
- analoguemodelling and systemssimulation, often with the help of computers;
- further searchesof patents and/or the literature with narrower objectives; and
5 lntermediateI5 25
shaft - market researchof proposed technologies,materials, bought-out parts etc.
With these fresh data it is possible to firm up the most promising combinations
t1fi F,H ffi
of principles to the point at which they can be evaluated (see 5.8). The
properties of the concept variants must reveal technical as well as economic
Figure 5.46. Systematiccombination and elimination of variantsthat are unsuitablein lcatures so as to permit the most accurate evaluation possible. It is therefore
principle
Combination 21: Fo too great (life of rolling bearingstoo short)
rrclvisablewhen firming up into concept variants to bear possible later evaluation
Conrbination23: 2 . Fo, hence life of rolling bearingstoo short criteria (see 5.8.3) in mind, the better to elaborate the information in a
Combination 22,24: Peripheral speedtoo great (life of rolling bearingstoo short) purposeful way.
Combination 31-34: Thermal lencth too small An example will show how it is possible to firm up solution proposals into
( ()ncept variants. To that end, we return once more to our fuel gauge.
Figure 5.47 shows a possible solution principle. Estimates of the weights and
5.7 Firming up into conceptvariants rrrertia forces form the basis of the firming up procedure.
'lirtal
force of 20 to 160 litres of the liquid (static):
The principles elaborated in 5.4 and 5.5 are usually not concrete enough to le
F , , ,:,6 . r . g . V : 0 . 7 - 5 x 1 0 x ( 2 0 . . . 1 6 0 ) : ( 1 5 0 . . . 1 2 0 0 )N ( f u e l )
to the adoption of a definite concept variant. This is because,as the searchtirr
solution is based on the function structure, it is aimed, first and foremost, at i\rlclitional lirrccs cluc to acceleration + 30m/s2 (only the liquid is taken into
f u l f i l m e n t o f a t c c h n i c a l f u n c t i o n . A c o n c e p t m u s t , h < l w c v c r ,a l s o s a t i s f y c r l n s i d c r a t i o)n:
c < l n c l i t i o t tl si t i d d o w r t i n 2 . 1 . 6 , a t l c a s t i n c s s c n c c .l i r r o n l y t h c r r i s i t l l o s s i h l e
c v i t l u a t c i t . B c l i r r c c ( ) l l c c p tv i r r i a n t sc l n l ) c c v i t l u u t e d .t h e y n r u s t l l c l i r r n e d F r r k=r n t ' o = ( 1 5 . . . 1 2 0 )x 3 ( X t ) = t ( 4 5 ( ) .. . 3 6 ( X ) ) N
118 5 Conceptual design 5.8 Evaluating concept variants 119

If the force is convertedinto movementit can be detected,for instancewith the special evaluation procedures to fill this need, all of them so constructedas to
help of a potentiometer. (The suppressionof movements resulting from lend themselves not only to the evaluation of concept variants, but quite
accelerationforces calls for considerabledamping.) generally of solution variants in every phase of the design process.
It is possibleto obtain the total force, and hence the quantity of liquid,
statically, either directly by measuringthree bearing forces or indirectly by 5.8.1 Basicprinciples
measuringjust one bearingforce (seeFigure5.47).
Result:developsolutionfurther, provide damping,seekappropriatesolutions An evaluatior is meant to determine the 'value', 'usefulness' or 'strength' of a
and firm them up by means of rough scale drawings.Figure 5.48 showsthe solution with respect to a given objective. An objective is indispensablesince the
result. Once the necessaryparts and their arrangementare drawn, the proposal value of a solution is not absolute, but must be gauged in terms of certain
can be evaluated. requirements. An evaluation involves a comparison of concept variants or, in
the caseof a comparison with an imaginary ideal solution, a 'rating' or degree of
4gl {'-_l approximation to that ideal.
Figure5.47.Solutionprinciplea1
Jt t \ l | -t: I An important element of design practice is cost analysis. h involves value
(Table5.2)measureweightof liquid F-tr-E A-----E analysis (VA) [5.19, 5.58, 5.61, 5.62], that is, the determination of 'function
(Signal= force) 3 force-measuring 1 force-measuring costs', by the assignmentof function carriers to the various sub-functions,and
devrces devrce the determination of their manufacturing costs. The main problem here is to
disentangle functions from components since a single component may carry
several sub-functions or a single function may be fulfilled by several compo-
nents, which leads to an ambiguous distribution of costs. Moreover, costing
Venlilalion
screw
presupposes the availability of considerable design documentation. Finally, if
the evaluation and choice of solutions is basedpurely on production costs,there
soldered
is the danger that essential technical criteria and other economic considera-
tions-for instance the market reaction to the product-which often cannot be
t;uantified in absolute amounts of money, will be ignored.
0 i lf i l l i n g Hence there is a need for methods that allow a more comprehensive
fordamping evaluation, or in other words cover a broad spectrum of objectives(task-specific
rccluirementsand general constraints).These methods are intended to elaborate
Flowrestrlctor rrot only the quantitative, but also the qualitative, properties of the variants, thus
rrrrrkingit possible to apply them during the conceptualphase, with its low level
,rl cmbodiment and correspondingly low state of information. The result must be
r t'liuble, cost-effective,easily understood and reproducible. The most important
rrrethods to date are use-valueanalysis* (UVA) based on the systemsapproach
l:.(r4l and the combined technical and economic evaluation technique specified
rrr (iuideline VDI2225 [5.60], which essentiallygoes back to Kesselring 15.24].
Gaslilling
(Pressurebalancing
duringtemperature
changes) lrr what follows, we shall outline a basic evaluation procedure incorporating
f lre conccpts of use-valueanalysisand of Guideline VDI 2225.

Figure5.48.Embodimentof the solutionprincipleshownin Figure5.47

5.8 Evaluating concept variants against technical and
economiccriteria
I n t h c n c x t s t c p . t h c s o l u t i o n p r o p o s a l s ,n o w f i r n r c r l u p i r r t o c o n c c l . l vt i r r i i r
t n u s t b c c v a l u a l c d s o i t s t o p r o v i c l ca n o b j c c t i v c b u s i sf o r d c c i s i o n s . ' l ' l r c r c
I ldentifying evaluation criteria
'l
lrc lirst stcp in any evaluation is the drawing up of a set of objectives from
wlrich cvalr.rationcriteria can be derived. In the technical field, such objectives
orc rnirinly l'rascclon thc rcquirements of the specification and on the general
C o n s l r i l i n l(s2 . I . 6 ) .
t ' l ' h cl c l t t ' u s c - v l l t r ci r n i r l v s i s ' ius d i r c c tt r l t t s l i l l i ( t lt l o r r tt h c o r i g i n a(l i c r n r a nt c x t . A
| | m i l n r ,l r u l n r o r cg e n c r ; r lt,c r r nl i r r t h i s t y l t co f t c c h n i q u ci s ' c o s t - b c r t c li r tr t l l v s i s ' .
t20 5 Conceptualdesign 5 . 8 E v a l u a t i n gc o n c e p tv a r i a n t s t21

A set of objectives usually comprises several elements that not only introduce evaluation criteria, (called objective criteria in use-valueanalysis),can then be
a variety of technical, economic and safety factors, but that also differ greatly in derived from the sub-objectives of the stage with the lowest complexity.
importance. Figure 5.76 gives a concrete example of such an objective system.
A range of objectives should satisfy the following conditions: Guideline VD|2225, on the contrary, introducesno hierarchicalorder for the
-The objectives must cover the decision-relevant requirements and general evaluation criteria, but derives a list of them from minimum demands and wishes
constraints as completely as possible, so that no essentialcriteria are ignored. and also from general technical properties.
- The individual objectives on which the evaluation must be based should be as
independent of one another as possible-that is, provisions to increase the
2 Weighting evaluation criteria
value of one variant with respect to one objective must not influence its values
with respect to the other objectives. To establish evaluation criteria, we must first assesstheir relative contribution
- The properties of the systemto be evaluatedmust, if possible,be expressedin (weighting) to the overall value of the solution, so that relatively unimportant
concrete quantitative or at least qualitative (verbal) terms. criteria can be eliminated before the evaluation proper begins. The evaluation
The tabulation of such objectives depends very much on the purpose of the criteria retained are given 'weighting factors' which must be taken into consid-
particular evaluation-that is, on the design phase and the relative novelty of the eration during the subsequent evaluation step. A weighting factor is a real,
product. positive number. It indicates the relative importance of a particular evaluation
Evaluation criteria can be derived directly from the objectives. Because of the criterion (objective).
subsequent assignment of values, all criteria must first be given a positive It has been suggestedthat such weightings should also be assignedto the
formulation, for example: wishes recorded in the specification [5.49], but that is only possible if such
'low noise' not 'loudnesslevel' wishes can be ranked in order of importance when the specification is first
'high
efficiency' not 'magnitudeof losses' drawn up. That, however, rarely happens at this early stage-experience has
'low shown that a whole series of evaluation criteria emerges during the development
maintenance not'maintenancerequirements'
of the solution, and that their relative importance changes. It is nevertheless
Use-value analysissystematisesthis step by meansof an objectivbstree, in which most helpful to include rough estimates of the importance of wishes when
the individual objectives are arranged in hierarchic order. The sub-objectives drawing up the specification, because, as a rule, all the persons concerned are
are arranged vertically into levels of decreasing complexity, and horizontally. available at that time (4.2.2).
into objective areas-for instance,technical, economic-or even into major and In use-value analysis. weightings are based on factors ranging from 0 to 1 (or
minor objectives (Figure 5.49). Because of their required independence,sub- lrom 0 to 100). The sum of the factors of all evaluation criteria (sub-objectives at
objectives of a higher level may only be connected with an objective of the next the lowest stage) must be equal to 1 (or 100) so that a percentageweighting can
lower level. This hierarchical order helps the designer to dete\mine whether or be attached to all the sub-objectives. The drawing up of an objectives tree
not all decision-relevant sub-objectives have been covered. Moreover, it simpli- Llreatlyfacilitates this process. Figure 5.50 illustrates the procedure. Here the
fies the assessment of the relative importance of the sub-obiectives. The objectives have been set out on four levels of decreasing complexity and
provided with weighting factors. The evaluation proceeds step by step from a
-
Areas
lcvel of higher complexity to the next lower level. Thus the three sub-objectives
Oq1, O12 and O1j of the second level are first weighted with respect to the
e.g.economrc ob jective 01 (in this particular case the weightingsare 0.5, 0.25, and 0.25). The
etficiency
of
engine srrrnof the weighting factors for any one level must alwaysbe equal to Zwl: 1.0.
I
' Ncxt comes the weighting of the objectivesof the third level with respectto the
_? low .,--1 lOw ,---\.' rrrb-objectivesof the second level. Thus the relative weights of O111and O112
runn
ing ( 012)repair ( 02,)
t' costs costs Y rvith respect to the higher objectives O11 were fixed at 0.67 and 0.33. The
I f
I r c n t i r i n i n go b j c c t i v c sa r e t r e a t e d i n s i m i l a rf a s h i o n .T h e r e l a t i v ew e i g h t i n go f a n
I ..f'' ,,^.. ohjcctivc at a particular level with respect to the objective 01 is found by
3 6@G6 @ r r r r r l t i p l i c a t i o no 1 ' t h c w c i g h t i n g f a c t o r o f t h e g i v e n o b j e c t i v e l e v e l b y t h e
w e i g h t i r t gl ' l c t o r s o l t h c h i g h c r o b j c c t i v c l c v c l s . T h u s t h e s u b - o b j e c t i v eO t r r r ,
consumption consumption w h i c h h a s i r w c i g h t i n g o l 0 . 2 . 5w i t h r c s p c e tt o t h c s u b - o b j c c t i v eC ) 1 1 1 r )t h f e next
I"igurc5.49.Slructurcof an objcctivcstrcc h i g h c rl c v c l . h u s i r w c i g h t i r r g o l 0 , 2 .x5 ( r . 6 7 x0 . 5 x | = 0 . 0 9 w i t h r c s p c c t o O 1 .

-*.,-
122 5 Conceptualdesign 5.8 Evaluating conccpt variants tz3

LevelI 6

1 e9=
=

= C . E E E E E E

t E

6:=

6:
s-- -
0.09 + 6 0 . 0 9 + 0 . 0+4 0 . 0 4 + 0 . 0+8 0 . 2 5 : X w:i1 . 0
0 . 2 5 + 0 . 1+
= 6F
E E
-
Figure5.50.Objectivestree with weightingfactors S >=

Such step-by-step weighting generally produces a realistic ranking because it is

much easier to weight two or three sub-objectives with respect to an objective on :69=
d =

tn- I
a higher level than to confine the weighting to one particular level only,
especially the lowest. Figure 5.76 gives a concrete example of the recommended o>
_>

procedure. S-

Guideline VDI2225 tries to dispensewith weightings and relies instead on = 3F -i

o
q)
F
evaluation criteria of approximately equal importance. Weighting factors (2x,
3x) are, however, used for pronounced differences. Kesselring [5.24), Lowka.
!
[5.31] and Stahl [5.56] have examined the influencesof such weighting factorson -= 69> C)
c;=
the overall value of the solution. Their conclusion was that they exert a
(d
significant influence whenever the variants to be evaluated have very distinct
properties, and whenever the corresponding evaluation criteria have a great
)s'
S
AS?

importance. C ;

\ =
o o
S E
O

3 Compiling parameters ol= -l= E

=
c

The settingup of evaluationcriteriaand the determinationof their importanceis

followed,as a next step, by the assignment to them of known (or analytically E oa
determined)parameters.Theseparametersshouldeitherbe quantifiableor, if L E EB
>F
c)
.sf
that is impossible,be expressedby statements framedasconcretelyas possible. ad += .-.
It hasprovedvery usefulto assignsuchparametersto the evaluationcriteriain >5 @6

an evaluation chart before proceeding to the actual evaluation. Figurc 5.5 =

N
= s 5
shows an example of such a chart for an internal combustion engine. '- " 2..1l
!
r
appropriate magnitudes entered in the relevant variant columns. The rcuclcr U
.9 .j
seethat the verbalformulationof the evaluationcriteriastronslvrcscnrblcs
t - c
E v?
of the parameters. 5 =5 =i
E >9 c-. qJ
EO
I n G u i c l c l i n cV D l 2 2 2 5 , b y c o n t r a s t ,e v a l u a t i o nf o l k r w si m n r c d i i t t c l yu p o n :U ad

( oo
s c t t i n gu p o l c v a l u a t i o nc r i t c r i i r . 2 IJ.
124 -5 Conceptualdcsign 5.8 Evaluating conceptvariants 125

values
4 Assessing
The next step is the assessmentof values and hence the actual evaluation. These
'values' derive from a consideration of the relative scale of the previously
determined parameters, and are thus more or less subjective in character.
The Valuesare expressed by points. Use-value analysisemploys a range from 0
to 10; Guideline VDI 2225 a range from 0 to 4 (Figure5.52). The advantageof
the wider range is that, as experiencehas shown, classificationand evaluation
Before anyone can assignpoints to the parameters of the variants, he must at
'value
least be clear about the assessmentrange and the shape of the so-called
function' (see Figure 5.53). A value function connectsvalues (v) and parameter
magnitudes(lz), and its characteristicshapeis determined either with the help of
the known mathematical relationship between the value and the parameter or,
more frequently, by means of estimates [5.20].
1,0 1.0

Value
scale
ysis
Use-value
ana I Guideline
UDI2225
Meanins lncreasing
linear
lunction Decreasing function
linear
Pts.
I Meaning I nr.l
0 absolutely
useless
solution 0 unsatislactory
veryinadequate
solution
2 weaksolution ,] justtolerable
3 tolerable
solution
L adequate
solution lncreaslng
exponential
function Decreasing lunction
exponenlial
7 adequate
5 satisfactory
solution l ; i g u r e5 . 5 3 .C o m m o nv a l u ef u n c t i o n sf ,r o m [ 5 . 6 4 1 ; :x m ; i , y : v ; i
goodsolution
with
6 It is useful to draw up a chart in which the parameter magnitudes are
fewdrawbacks 3 good
7 goodsolution t'orrelated step by step with the value scale. Figure 5.54 shows such a scheme,
B v. goodsolution rrrcorporatingthe point system of use-valueanalysisand also of YDI 2225.
All in all, therefore, the assignment of a value and the setting up of an
solution
exceeding t
very9000
9 therequirement (ideal) Figure 5.52. Points awarded in
10 idealsolution use-valueanalysisand guideline
Value
scale Parameter
magnitudes
vDr2225
Use-valueVOl2225 Fuel I Mass per I Simplicity Service
I consumptionunilpower components
anarysrs
I I lol I
Pts I Ptt s/kWhlkg/kwll km
are greatly facilitated by the use of a decimal system and percentages. The
rn3
advantagesof the smaller range is that, in dealing with what are so often no morc 0 400 3.5 extremely 7A
0 complicated
than inadequately known characteristicsof the variants, rough evaluationsare 380 3.3 30
sufficient and, indeed, may be the only meaningful approach. They involve the 7 360 3,1 40
complicated
following assessments: 3 3/,0 2,9 60
-far below average
{. 320 2,7 BO
-below average 2 average
- average 5 300 25 100
- above average 6 280 7,3 r20
3 simple
- far above average 7 260 2,1 140
It is useful to begin with a search of variants with extremely good ancl B 7 t0 1,9 200
q u a l i t i e sa n d t o a s s i g nappropriate points to them. Points 0 and 4 (or 10) sht extremely
7?0 1,7 300
simple
o n l y b e a w a r d e di f t h e characteristicsare really extremc-that is, unsatislitc r{1 100 I 'r s 0 0. 1 0 t
()r vcry gootl (itlcirl).Oncc thcse extremc ptlints ltitvc llccn rrssignccl,
r c n r i r i r t i t t gv i t r i i t t t l sl t r c r c l i r t i v c l vc a s v t o l ' i t i l t , 5,54.('hnrt corrclulirrg
parilmctcrmagniludcrwith vnlucscitlcs
 I -() 5 Conceptualdesign 5.8 Evaluating concept variants r21

assessmentschememay involve strong subjective influences.Caseswith a clear,

or even experimentally verified, correlation between the values and the para- o=>
o;s
=
E E

= =
E E
f
E E
* js
meters are few and far between. one such exception is the evaluation of \
machine noise, where the correlation between the value (that is, the protection E E E E
E E
'- > oq
of the human ear) and the parameter (noise level in dB) is clearly defined by
ergonomics. E E
oE E E
,E E
The values v;j of every solution variant established in respect of every >a \ E E F E
evaluation criterion are added to the list shown in Figure 5.51 (Figure 5.55).
Whenever the evaluation criteria are of different importance to the overall
value of a solution, the weighting factors determined during the second step i i :s >*-
>
j-
\ * =s
must also be taken into consideration.To that end, sub-valuv,; iS multiplied bv
t h e w e i g h t i n gf a c t o r w i ( w v i i : w r . v i ) . F i g u r e 5 . 7 7 g i v e s a p r a c t i c a le * a m p t . - .
>-r-
.g d> o<
ts>
5 Determining overall value
E
+-
E
-
E
The sub-valuesfor every variant having been determined, the overall value must
now be calculated.
For the evaluation of technical products, the summation of sub-valueshas
become the usual method of calculation but can only be considered accurateif
^
s ;'s=
6=
-_?>
ci = i Ss
the evaluation criteria are independent. However, even when this condition is
only satisfied approximately, the assumption that the overall value has an -- Ef j- S-
occ
additive structure seems to be iustified. E
!-
The overall value of a variant i can then be determined. o

sE- o
E vl
D
Unweighted: O V i' : \- v,;
i: l N s_
J;'9=
'<,=
N d o \ =S oo
nn l1

Weighted: O W V' 1 : I w r . r ; 1= I w v ; 1 O

i-f i:r
5"e
E ___
.s
l
6 Comparing concept variants N

O E
On the basis of the summation rule it is possible to assessvariants in several
-l =
= -t=
E
ways. 0

Determining the maximum overall value E

E o@

In this procedure that variant is judged best which has the maximum overull L 92]
>F
E
value'. =x cd
F C --.
a6
OVi---> max or OWV1-+ max
= O
<i
N
f f }-
what we have here is a relative comparison of the variants. This fact is madc I
a'l
s
o f i n u s e - v a l u ea n a l y s i s . Irl
io
;:l
(r, -
r;
Determining the rating
'f
"l E \4.
G - : c
=
ir, c
I f i t r e l a t i v c c o m p i t r i s o no f t h e v a r i a n t si s c o n s i c l c r c ct ol l t c i n s u f f i c i c n ti r n d O

i t l r s t r l u l cn r t i r t l o
4 l i t v r t r i l u . tht a s t o [ r c c s t a b l i s h c d ,t l r c r rt l r c o v c r i r l l v i r l u c r n r r s l
ri
128 -5 Cionccptual design
5.8 Evaluating conccpt variants t29
referred to an imaginary ideal value which results from the maximum possible
value. In somecasesit is usefulto derive the overallrating from thesepartial ratings
n and to expressit in numericalform, for instancefor computerprocessing.To
!rr..
L'll that end, Baatz[5.1] hasproposedtwo procedures,namely:
R, :
Unweighted: r=l -the straightline method,basedon the arithmeticmean
#:
n Rr+Re
Iw; .v1; R:
nWV, 2
W e i g h t e dW
: Rj: ""ir - i=1"

n
v-u".I,w1 and
f.o*. I l1r'i -the hyperbolic method which involves multiplying both ratings and then
reducing to values between 0 and 1:
If the available information about the properties of all the concept variants
allows cost estimates,then it is advisableto proceed to a separatedetermination R:VR,xR"
of the technical rating R1 and the economic rating R". The technical rating is
The two methods have been combined in Figure 5.57.
calculatedin accordancewith the rule we have given-that is, by division of the
Where there are great differences between the technical and economic
technicaloverall value of the given variant by the ideal value-and the economic
ratings, the straight-linemethod can be used to compute a higher overall rating
rating is calculated similarly, but by reference to comparative costs. The latter
than is the casewith low but balancedpartial ratings. Becausebalancedsolutions
procedure is suggested in VDI 2225, which relates the manufacturing costs
should be preferred, however, the hyperbolic method is the better of the two; it
determined for a variant to the comparative manufacturing costs C,,. In that
helps to balance great differences in rating by its progressive reduction effect.
case, the economic rating becomesR": (ColCvariant). It is possibleto put, say, The greater the imbalance, the greater the reduction effect on the lower overall
C, : 0 8 X Cadmissiblc or Co : 0.8 x C-ini-r. of the cheapest variant. If the values.
technical and economic ratings have been determined separately, then the
determination of the 'overall rating' of a particular variant may prove useful.For
that purpose, Guideline VDI 2225 suggests a so-called s-diagram (strength
diagram) with the technical rating R, as the abscissaand the economic rating R"
as the ordinate (see Figure 5.56). Such diagrams are particularly useful in the'
appraisal of variants during further developments, because they show up the
effects of design decisions very clearly.

1.0
l?r,;1'z
c ilh

t ou ",faT
4 E

n
c
\ 'rl
c nA 04

E
o
c
,<.

Bol
4\
jdvetopmen'
-o*,.uli
\
. sreps_ =--\

0.2

Figure 5.56. Rating cliagranrlroln 04

02 06 0B 10
vDr2225 ralittqfr' -----*
Tcchnical
02 04 06 0B 10
Tcchnical
raling
B, t l o v c r l t l l r l r t i r r gh v s l r l i g l t t - l i r r cl r r t t l l v p c r h . l i c t t t el h ' t l s '
I ) c l c r t t t i t t i r t i . to
 5.8 Evaluating concept variants 131
130 -5 Conceptualdesign

Rough comparison of solution variants to the different variants in neutral terms, for instance as A, B, C, rather than
as 'Smith's Proposal' etc, since otherwise unnecessaryidentifications and
The method we have described relies on differentiated value scales. It is useful
emotional overtones may be introduced. Extensive systematisationof the
whenever the 'objective' parameters can be stated with some accuracy and
procedure also helps to reduce subjective influences.
whenever clear values can be assignedto them. If these conditions cannot be - Comparison of variants by the application of evaluation
criteria not equally
satisfied, relatively fine evaluations based on a differentiated value scale
suited to all the variants. Such mistakes arise even during the determination
constitute a questionable and expensive method. The alternative here is a rough
of the parameters and their associationwith the evaluation criteria. If it is
evaluation involving the application of a particular evaluation criterion to two
impossible to determine the parameter magnitudes of individual variants for
variants at a time and the selection of the better in every case. The results are
certain evaluation criteria, then these criteria must be reformulated or
entered in a so-called dominance matrix [5.13] (Figure 5.58). From the sum of
dropped lest they lead to mistaken evaluationsof the individual variants.
- The evaluation of variants in isolation insteadof successively
by application of
the establishedevaluation criteria. Each criterion must be applied to all the
Varianl variants in turn (row by row in the evaluation chart) to eliminate any bias in
112 r 4lsl6l7 favour of a particular variant.
-Pronounced interdependenceof the evaluation criteria.
l 0 I 0 1 0 -Choice of unsuitable value functions.
,l
0 0 0 0 0 -Incompleteness of evaluation criteria. This defect
can be minimised if one of
1 I 0 l 0 the checklistsfor design evaluation appropriate to the relevant design phase is
0 0 0 0 0 f o l l o w e d ( s e e5 . 8 . 3 a n d 6 . 7 ) .
,l
I I
Procedure-inherentshortcomings of the recommended evaluation methods are
,l
0 0 0 0 the result of the almost inevitable 'prognostic uncertainty' arising from the fact
I 0 that the predicted parameter magnitudesand also the values are not precise,but
Sum 3 1 5 2 t 6 t 0 t 4 t 1 subject to uncertainty and to random variation. These mistakescan be greatly
rcduced by estimatesof the mean error (scatter).
Rank 1 1 2 s r 1 l 7 l 3 l 6 With regard to prognostic uncertainty it is therefore advisable not to express
lhc parametersin figures unlessthis can be done with some accuracy.otherwise,
1. better 0 . notbetter Figure5.58.Binaryevaluationof rt is preferable to use verbal estimates(for instancehigh, average,low) which do
s o l u t i o nv a r i a n t sa, f t e r[ 5 . 1 3 ]
rrot claim to be precise. Numerical values, by contrast, are dangerousbecause
the columns it is possible to establish a ranking order. If such matrices of t hcy introduce a false senseof certainty.
individual criteria are combined into an overall matrix, an overall ranking order A more detailed analysisof evaluation proceduresfor the purpose of judging
can be established, either by addition of the preference frequencies or by tlrcir reliability and also for comparative purposes has been carried out by
addition of all the column sums. lelclmann [5.13] and Stabe [5.55]. The latter has also provided an extensive
While this method is comparatively easy and quick, it is not nearly as I'ibliography. If there is an adequate number of evaluation criteria, and if the
informative as the other procedures we have discussed. rtrlr-valuesof a particular variant are fairly balanced, then the overall value will
lrt' sLrbjectto a balancing statisticaleffect, and partly too optimistic and partly
kro pcssimisticindividual values will more or less balance out.
7 Estimating evaluation uncertainties

The possibleerrorsor uncertainties

of the proposedevaluationmethodsfall i t Scarching for weak spots
two m_aingroups, namely subjective errors and inherent shortcomings of t
proceoure. Wclrk spots can be identified from below-averagevalues for individual evalua-
Subjective errors can arise through: llott critcriu. Carcful attention must be paid to them, particularly in the case of
- Abandonment of the neutral position, that is, through bias and partiality. t i s i r r gv i r r i i r r r t sw i t h g o o d o v e r a l l v a l u e s , a n d t h e y o u g h t i f p o s s i b l et o b e
bias may be hidden from the designer,for instancewhen he comparcshis t i t l c d d u r i n g l i r r t h c r c l c v c k r p m e n tT. h c i d c n t i f i c a t i o no f w e a k s p o t sm a y b e
d e s i g nw i t h t h a t o f a r i v a l . H e n c e a n e v a l u a t i o n b ys u ' c r u l p c r s o n s ,i f p r a t c d b y g r l ; r l r s o l ' t h c s u b - v a l u c s - l i r r i n s t a n c c , b y t h c s o - c a l l c c vl a l u e
from variuusdcpartnrcnts,
is alwaysadvisablc,
lt is cquullyinrportant
to illustrntcdirt liigurc.5..59,
In it. thc lcngth*ol thc barscorrcspond
to thc
l -)L -5 Conceptualdcsign 5.8 Evaluating concept variants l -tJ

value and the thickness to the weightings. The areas of the bars then indicate the VDI Guideline2225
Step Use-value analysis
weighted sub-values,and the cross-hatchedarea the overall weighted value of a
solution variant. It is clear that, in order to improve a solution, it is essentialto Identification of Construction of a Compilation of im-
improve those sub-values that provide a greater contribution to the overall value objectives or hierarchicallyrelated portant technical
than the rest. In Figure 5.59, this is the casewith the evaluationcriteria that have evaluation criteria system of design object- characteristicsand
for the evaluation ives (objectivestree) also of the minimum
an above average bar thickness (great importance) but a below average bar demandsand wishes
of concept variants based on the specification
length. Apart from a high overall value, it is important to obtain a balanced with the aid of the and other general of the specification
value profile, with no serious weak spots. Thus, in Figure 5.59, variant 2 is specification and a requlrements
better than variant 1, although both have the same overall weighted value. checklist
Analysis ol the Step by step weighting of Determination of
Variant
r I A N1. ]WV'
II: U WVI: Varrant2.
)WV:
2 evaluation criteria the objective criteria weighting factors
t for the purpose of (evaluation criteria) and only if evaluation

liqf 'n,,..
t-- determining their if necessaryelimination criteria differ
I- weighting to the of unimportant criteria markedly in importance
1l overall value of the
ll uy1.'..' wvz2 '
i solution. If necess-
lf ary, determination
I
l,t ,'ll:' t of weighting factors
" WVn. tyya: ...
'
I
Compilation ol Construction of an objec- Not generally
I
I t: parameters applicable to tive parameter matrix included
ll
I
t' llVql
./ ' '".) = the concept variants
]I Assessment of the Construction of objective Assessmentof
' ||vot ' ,wv62, . =-
parameter magnitudes value matrix with the helo characteristicsbv
10 l0 and assignment of values of a points system or points (0-,1 points)
of two variants()w, : l)
Figure5.59.Valueprofilesfor the comparison ((l-10 or (I-4 points). value functions; 0 10
polnts
There are also casesin which a minimum permissiblevalue is stipulatedfor al} Determination of the Constructionof a use D e t e r m i n a t i o no f a t e c h -
sub-values-that is, any variant that does not fulfil this condition has to be overall value of the value matrix with due nical rating by summat-
rejected, and all variants that do are developed further. In the literature this individual concept regard to the weightings; ion, with or without
'determination of satisfactorysolutions' variants, generally determination of overall weightingsbased on an
procedure is described as the [5.64].
by reference to an values by summation ideal scllution.If necess-
ideal solution (rating) ary determination of
a n e c o n o m i cr a t i n g b a s e d
5.8.2 Comparison of evaluationprocedures on manufacturing costs
Table 5.3 lists the individual steps in the evaluation procedures we have Comparison ol' Comparison of overall Comparison of the tech-
described and also the similarities and differences between use-value analysis (oncept varmnts use-values nical and economic
and Guideline VDI 2225, which are based on similar principles. ratings. Construction
of an s-(strength)
The individual steps of use-value analysis are more highly differentiated and
diagram
more clear-cut. but involve more work than those of Guideline YDI 2225. Tha
Ii.slitrtuliott of evul- Estimation of objective Not explicitly
latter is more suitable when there are relativelv few and roughly equivalc ttuliort tutccrtuinlies parameter scatter and included
evaluation criteria, which is frequently the case during the conceptual phasc ( use value distribution
5.S.3), and also for the evaluation of certain form design areas during ,\curclt .l?tr wcuk spots Constructionof use- Identification of
embodiment phase (see 6.7). l i r r t h c p u r p o s eo f value proliles characteristicswith a
i r r r l l r o v i n gs e l e c t c c l few points only
v ; r ti i r t t t s
5.8.3 Evaluation during the conceptualphase
'l'irblc
. 5 . 3s u l l l s u l ) t h c g c n c r a l c v u l u a t i o np r r l c c r l t t r cl.) r r r i t t gl h c c o t t c 1 l r l 1 .\ I l r r r l i l i t l r r l r ls t t ' p s i n t ' r ' : r l t r : r t i o r tn, t t r l t ' o t t t l r i t t i r r n rl r t ' t w t ' r ' r tt t s c - v ; r l r t ci t n i t l v s i sl r t t t l
p h i r s c .t l t c i t t d i v i t l t r r rsl t c p s s h o t t l t lb c i t s l i r l k t w s : Iurrlt'ltttt'Vl )l l.ll5
134 5 Conceptualdesign 5.8 Evaluating concept variants 135

I dentfy ing evaluation criteria Mainheadings Examples

This step is based, first of all, on the specification.During a previous selection
procedure (5.6) unfulfilled demandsmay have led to the elimination of variants Function Characleristics
ol essential
auxiliary
lunctioncarriers
thatlollowofnecessity
lromthe
that were found to be unsuitable in principle. Further information was gathered chosen principle
s0lution orfromthec0nceptvariant
subsequently by the firming up of solution proposals (combinations of princi- principle
Working Characteristics principle
ol theselected orprinciples
inrespectofsimple
andclear-cut
ples) into concept variants. Hence it is advisable, with all the newly acquired lunctioning,
adequateelfect,
lewdisturbing
factors
information, to establish first of all whether all the concept variants to be Embodiment Small
number ol components,
lowcomplexity,
lowspacerequirement,
n0special
problems
withlayoutorformdesign
evaluated still satisfy the demands of the specification. This involves a new
Safety Preferential
treatrnent
0f directsalety (inherenily
techniques safe),
noadditional
safety
yes/no decision-that is, a new selection. measures
needed, industria
andenvironmental guaranteed
safety
It is only to be expected that, even at the present, more concrete, stage,this Ergonomics Satislactory
man-machine
relationship,
n0strain
0rimpairment good
ofhealth, form
decision cannot be made with certainty for all the variants unless much further 0esrgn
effort is applied, which the designermay not be able to provide at this stage.At Production production
Fewandestablished methods,
noexpensive
equipment,
smaI number
of
the given state of information, it may only be possibleto decide how likely it is s mplecomp0nents
that certain requirements can be fulfilled. In that case, the requirements in Quality
control Fewtests
andchecks
needed,
simple procedures
andreliable
question may become evaluation criteria. Assembly Easy, andquick,
convenient nospecial
a dsneeded
A number of requirements are minimum requirements. It has to be estab- Transport Normal
means
ol transport,
norisks
lished whether or not these should be exceeded. If they should, further 0peration Simple
operation,
longservice
life,lowwear,
easy
andsimple
handling
evaluation criteria may be needed. Maintenance Little
andsimple
upkeepandcleaning,
easyinspection,
easyrepair
For evaluation during the conceptual phase, both the technicaland also the
Costs Nospecialrunning
orolher
associated
costs,
noschedul
ngrisks
economic characteristicsshould be consideredas early as possible [5.28]. At the
firming-up stage, however, it is not usually possibleto give the costs in figures.
Irigure5.60.Checklistwith mainheadings
for designevaluationduringthe conceptual
Nevertheless,the economic aspectsmust be taken into consideration, at least
'hase
qualitatively, and so must industrial and environmental safety requirements.
i
It has been suggested[5.37] that a seriesof headingsbe adopted in accordance
with the embodiment design checklist (see 6.2), and also in keeping with other
proposals, and that evaluation criteria be derived from them (Figure 5.60). l| t i ghting the evaluqtion criteria
Every heading in the checklist must be assigned at least one evaluation l hc evaluation criteria adopted may differ markedly in importance. During the
criterion. These criteria must, moreover, be independent of one another in (()nceptualphase, in which the level of information is fairly low becauseof the
terms of the overall objective, so as to avoid multiple evaluations. Consumer rt l:r{ive lack of embodiment, weighting is not generally advisable.
criteria are essentially contained in the first five and last three headings; It is much more advantageous,in the selectionof evaluation criteria, to strive
producer criteria in the headings'embodiment', 'quality control', 'assembly'and l.t ittt ilPProximate balance, ignoring low-weighted characteristicsfor the time
'costs'. l', irts. As a result, evaluation will be concentratedon the main characteristics
Evaluation criteria are accordingly derived from: .rrrrlhcnce be clear at a glance. Absolutely distinct features, however, which
l. Requirements of the specification t,rrrnot be ignored until later, must be introduced -with the help of weighting
- Probability of satisfying the demands (how probable, despite what difficul- l , t tt o r s .
ties).
- Desirabilityof exceedingminimumrequirements(how far exceeded) l',rt 11111i,,f puratneters
-Wishes (satisfied,not satisfied,how well satisfied). tl ltirs provccl uscful to list the identified evaluation criteria in the sequenceof
2. General technical and economic characteristics(to what extent prc lhc clrccklist hcadings (Figurc -5.60)and to assignthe parametersof the variants
how satisfied). t l l l ( ' r l l . W h i r t c v c r c l u a n t i t a t i v ei n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l ea t t h i s s t a g es h o u l d a l s o
(see Checklist headings for design evaluation during the conccptual t t t c l r r t l t ' cS
l .t t c l tr l t r i r t t l i l r r t i vccl a t ag c n c r a l l yr c s u l tf m m t h e s t e pw e h a v e c a l l e d
Figurc -5.60). l l F t l l ) t r l t ( )c o l ) c c l ) lv i t r i l u t t s ' .I l o w c v c r . s i r r c ci t i s i r n p o s s i b l et o q u a n t i f y a l l
I ) u r i n g t l t c c o n c c p l u i r lp h a s c ,t l r c t < l t a ln u r r r b c ro l ' c v i r l r r i r l i o n
c r i t c r i i rr r r u s l t ' l t l r r i t c l c r i s i i rcl st t r i r t gt l t c c o r t c c p l u i rplh i r s c l.h c t l r r l r l i t i r t i vi rcs p c c tssh o u l cbl c
b c l o t t l r i g l t t t t r t l 5 c r i l c r i i r i r r c u s u l l l y c t t o u g l t( s c c l r i g u r c 5 . ( ) 6 ) , i n l o w o r d s i r r r t lc o r r c l i r l c r lw i t h t h c v r l u c * - u l c ,
 r36 5 Conccptual clesign .5.8Evaluating concept variants r37

Assessing values t 2- 'u,nT,

rL 'fr(
Though the attribution of points raisesproblems, it is not advisableto evaluate
too timidly during the conceptual phase.
Those using the 0-4 system proposed in VDI Guideline 2225 may feel the
*'ilS
1)lowmaterial
2
J lLl
-T*

? 3
FI_T-I

t, L
il)
2
need to assignintermediate values,particularly when there are many variants,or costs
2)lowreassembll (2)
when the evaluatinggroup cannot agree on a precisepoint. It may prove helpful 2 7 I 3 3 3
costs
in such casesto attach a tendency sign ( J or t ) to the point in question (see
3)Shorttesting
Figure 5.96). Identifiable tendencies can then be taken into account when
time 2 2 t, 3 3 7
estimating the evaluation uncertainties. The G-10 scale, again, may suggesta
degree of accuracythat does not really exist. Here, argumentsabout a point are 't Possibility
ol
often superfluous. If there is absolute uncertainty in the attribution of points, manulacturi
ng
3 3
tn own
3 3 l 7
which happens quite often during the evaluation of concept variants, the point
w0rKsn0p
under considerationshould be provided with a question mark (seeFigure 5.96).
During the conceptual phaseit may prove difficult to put actual figures to the
Total s s l1 13 13 I

costs. It is not therefore generally possible to establishan economic rating R" ^ Total
"e 0.56 0.56 0.69 081 081 056
with respect to the manufacturing costs. Nevertheless, the technical and 16

economic aspectscan be identified and separatedqualitatively, to a greater or (1)Austenitic

shaft(2)Torque
measuring
shaft
must
bemoved
lesserextent. The'strength diagram'(see Figure 5.56) can be used to much the Irigure-5.62.
Economicevaluationof the remainingconceptvariants,seeFigure5.46
same effect (see also Figures 5.61 to 5.63 which are for the test rig shown in
Figure 5.45).
In many casesa classificationbasedon consumers'and producers' criteria has ttv
15t754
a l s op r o v e d u s e f u l .S i n c et h e c o n s u m e r s ' c r i t e r i au s u a l l yi n v o l v et e c h n i c a lr a t i n g s 0.8
while the producers' criteria involve economic ratings, it is possible to proceed

I
\ariant
tecnn\
cfltefla
,ffi ,iz_
-lL
-M
tl
0.4
Figure 5.63. Compari.cn of the
technical and economic ratings of
t ) S m a l l d i s t u ri l-) the concept variants in Figures
0ance0lc0up- 3 L L t 3 5.61and5.62
Iingkinematics 0.4 06 10
2)Simple
operation
3 L \ t, t, 3
3)Easyexchange
t,
t , , r r s i r n i l e rcr l a s s i f i c a t i o nt o t h e o n e m e n t i o n e da b o v e . T h e r e a r e t h r e e p o s s i b l e
of coupling 3 t, t, L
l rr rn t s o f r c p r e s c n t a t i o n ,n a m e l y :
4)Functional lcchnical rating with implicit economic aspects(seeFigures 5.77 and 5.96); or
salety 2 l t, 3 3 sr'prrratctechnical and economic ratings (see Figures 5.61 to 5.63); and
r r t l t l iilo n i r l c o m p a r i s o r o . tf c c l n s u m e r sa' n d p r o d u c e r s 'c r i t e r i a .
s)Simple 1)
2 ? 2 2 7 3 \\'hich onc is choscn depends on the problem and the amount of information
construction
'll lr;rilirtrlc.
Total l/. l7 17 17 16
^ Total )rtrrtrt i rri tt g rtyc rul I yuI rtc
", 07 0.55 085 085 0.85 0.80
20 t l c t c r r r r i n i r t i oonl t h e o v c r a l l v i r l r r ci s u n l i r t t c r< l f s i m p l e a d d i t i o n s ,o n c e
(1)Totque
chanqes ol pinion
withaxialdlsplacement s h r r v cb c c l r i r s s i l l n e dt o t h c c v i r l u i r t i o rct r i t c r i i ri r n r ll h c v i r r i i r n t s I. l ' . b c c a u s c
l r i g r r r c5 , ( r l . ' l c t l t t r i c rtr' lr ' r r l r r i r t i t r lrtrh c r c n u r i r r i n g c o n c ctp' itr t i : r t t l s c. c I r i g t r r c5 , J ( r l h c c v a l u i t l i o n u n c c r l i r i n t y .i t i s o r r l y p o s s i b l cl ( ) i l s s i l l ni r r i r n l l co l p o i t t t s t o
138 5 Conceptualdesign - 5 . 9 E x a m p l e s o f c o n c e p t u a lr l c s i u n r39

individual variants, or if tendency signsare used, one can additionally determine the probabilityandmagnitudeof the possiblerisk, especially
assess in the caseof
the possible minimum or maximum overall point number and so obtain the importantdecisions.
probable overall value range (see Figure 5.96).

Comparing concept v ariants 5.9 Examplesof conceptualdesign

A relative value scale is generally more suitable for purposes of comparison. In
particular, it makes it fairly simple to tell whether particular variants are
relatively close to or far from the target. Concept variants that are some 60 per
cent below the target are not worth further development.
Variants with ratings above 80 per cent and a balanced value profile-that is,
without extremely bad individual characteristics-can generally be moved on to
the embodiment design phase without further improvement.
Intermediate variants, too, may, after elimination of weak spots or an
improved combination, be releasedfor embodiment design.
If often happens that two or more variants are found to be practically
equivalent. It is a very grave mistake, in that case,to base the final decisionon
such slight differences. Instead, evaluation uncertainties,weak spots and the
value profile should be looked at more closely. It may also be necessaryto firm
up on suchvariants during a further step. Schedules,trends, company policy and
so on must be assessedseparatelyand taken into account [5.28].
Estimating evaluation uncertainties
This step is very important, especiallyduring the conceptualphase, and must not
be omitted. Evaluation methods are mere aids, not automatic decisionmechan-.
isms. Uncertainties must be determined by the proceduresexamined in 5.8.1.7.
At this point, however, only such informational gaps need be closed as bear on
the favourite concept variants (for example, variant D in Figure 5.96).
Searchingfor weak spots
During the conceptualphase, the value profile plays an important role. Variants
with a high rating but definite weak spots (unbalanced value profile) may provc
extremely troublesome during subsequent development. If, because of an
unidentified evaluation uncertainty, which is more likely to occur in the
conceptualthan in the embodiment phase, the weak spot should make itself fclt
later, then the whole concept may be put in doubt and all the developmentwork
may prove to have been rn varn.
In such casesit is very much less risky to selecta variant with a slightly lr
rating but a more balanced value profile.
Weak spots in favourite variants can often be eliminated by the transfcr
better sub-solutionsfrom other variants. Moreover. with better information. it
possibleto searchfor a replacementof the unsatisfactorysub-solution.
c r i t c r i aw e h a v e l i s t e c o l l a v e da n e s s e n t i arl o l e i n t h e s c l c c t i o no f t h e b c s t c r
v a r i a n ti n t h c p r o b l e r nc l i s c u s s ebdc l o w i n . 5 . t ) . 2( l i i g u r c . 5 . ( ) 6W
c v a l u i t t i o t tu n c c r ' l r i l l l i c sa n d i r l s oi n t h c s c : a r c ht i r r w c t t k s p o t s i l i s a c l v i s i r b l c
In this section we shall be examining examplesof conceptual design involving
the flow of energy, material and signals,and providing clear illustrationsof the
procedure and applications.
5.9.1 Rig for testing impulse torque loading of keyed connections
Step 1: Clarifying the task and elaborating the specification
The problem was the development in a researchinstitute of a test rig capable of
loading keyed shaft-hub connections impulsively with definite torques. Before
drawing up a specification,a number of questionshad to be answered:
- What is meant by impulse loading?
-What impulse torque loadings actually occur in rotating machines?
- What load measurements are possible and useful in the case of keyed
connections?
While the first question led through physical considerations to the impulse
concept and to the possibleeffects of the collision of two or severalmasses,and
rvhile fundamental studies,subsequentlypublished [5.32], helped to answer the
third question, the answerto the secondquestioninvolved considerableresearch
u,ork. Since the test rig was meant to apply and measureimpulse torque loadings
,rl defined magnitude and rate of increase (Figure 5.64), it was important to
torque
Steady
Decaying
torque
Iru,adlustable
Figure 5.64. Adjustable settings
sleeplall olf afterImax for impulse torque loading: rise
adjustable
rateol increase time, maximum value and
duration
,rrrrlvscthc torque loadings that occurred in practice in terms of the maximum
t.rt('sof incrcusc cllldt. To that end, the torque/time characteristicsof lathes,
(tirnc transt.nissions,agricultural machines and rolling mills were considered
'l'he
l\ \ f l. rnirxirnuntrilte of increasefor the caseof non-steadyoperationswas
f t r r r r rttol b c r l 7 7 c l l - l 2 - 5 x l 0 r N m / s a n d t h i s w a s u s e d a s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e t e s t r i g
'Ihus
; h ' rl r r r r n i r r r c c
A f t c r l l t c s c l t l c l i r n i t t i r r ys t u d i c s . i t w i r s p o s s i b l c l o c l n r w u p t r . s p a < ' i f i c u t i o n
). hcn csti ( l ; t g t r r c . 5 . ( r . 5 ) . ' l 'rlcr tcg r r i r c r r r c nl rtrsc i r r r i l n F c ti ln i r c c o r t l i r n cwci t h t h c g u i c l c l i n c s
d i r c u s s c di r r 4 , l . l ,
 5 C o n c e p t t r a ld e s i g n 5 . 9 E x a m p l e s o f c o r r c c p t u a lc l c s i g n r41
140

it lssue
10.6197

SPECIFICA'IION
SPECIFICATION TUBerlin
TUBerlin lnpulse-loading lesl tig
lor lmpllseloadln0
Ieslrlg Page2
D Requirements
)hanges W Resp.

Geonetry Signals
mustbeheldin positi0n
Testconnection D Measurements:
Torque
before
andaltertestconnection
Surface
stress
overlengthol c0nnecti0n
andkeyface
Drameterofshaft < 100mm
t0betested:
basedonDIN6885) D Measurements
to berecorded
(Keydimensions
direction W points
Measurement easily
access
ble
Hubsideloadtake-ofl in longitudinal
to bevariable
Saletyandergononics
Kinenatics
withshattstatlonary
to beapplied
Loading
W 0peration aspossible
ol testrigassimple qurck
(e.9. andsimple
reassembly
ofrig)
onlY
in onedtrection
Loading
W principle
Working ol rigenvironmentally
sound (littlen0se,dirt,vibration)
oPtional
direction
Loading
' inPut
Torque oPtional
lromthehubtotheshalt andqualitycontrol
Production
tothehub
ortromtheshaft D lndividual 0fallparts
manufacture
Forces D Quality
ofkeyed
shalthub to DIN6885 endsingear
andofshalt boxes,
electric
motors,
etc:to DIN748,Sheets
2 and3
D Loadinq bypure
ofshatl-nub t0rsi0n
andbending
byshear
(i.e.nolinfluenced moments) W Manufacture
ol testrigin ownworkshops
D Maximum t0 bemaintalned
torque 3s
toratleast W Bought-out
andstandard parts possible
wherever
D Frequencyof loading:small
(reason:measurement PrinciPle) Assembly
andtransport
W Suppress vibrations system
in shaft-hub-key aslaraspossible W Testrig:smalldimensions
to theload-
upto 15000Nmcorresponding lowweight
D Maximum torqueadlustable
capacity
carrying 0fa shattol 100mmdiameter W Nospecial
foundations
D Steeplallolfoftorque altermaximum mustbepossible
torque
dl/dl mu$ beadjustable andmatntenance
0peration
D Rateof increase in torque,
Maximum dTldt:125x 103Nm/s w Fewandsimple pans
working
D mustbereproducible
curve
Torque{ime W Minimum
maintenance
destruction
andif necessary mustbe
olc0nnecti0n
W delormatron
Plastic
Costs
Possible
Manufacturing DM(seeresearch
costs< 20,000 application)
EnergY
< 5 k[380V
consumption Schedules
Power
D Conclusion phase:
ofconceptual Juiylg/3
Materrals Herr
2 86 . 7 3 Conclusron phase:
ol conceptual 20July1973 Militzer
Shaltandhub:45C

Rcplaccs ssuo
oi

tc$lri8 l,(r5(colrlirructl)
Figure5,65.SJxcificnlionof irnpulsc-loldin8,
 5 Conceptualdesign 5 . 9 E x a r n p l e so [ c o n c e p t u a l t l c s i g n 143
t42

Step 2: Abstracting to identify the essentialproblems

Energy Mainenergy energy
Detormation
(mech.,
In accordancewith 5.2.2, the specificationmust be abstractedstep by step to electr.)Auxiliary
energy
L0a0
Energy
loss
identify the essential problems: Shaft shalthub
connection Shalt
lVlaterial Hub
Steps 1 and 2. Omit requirements (demands and wishes) that have no dirept torque
withdynamic Hub
Key andmeasureloading Key
bearing on the function and the essentialconstraints.
andstresses I(4 beloreshaflhub

1
Step 3. Transform quantitative data into qualitative data and reduce to essential Startof
Slgnals control .t connection
statements. sequence shatt-hub
I(0 after
Step 4. Generalisethe results of the previous step. Drive connecti0n
Step 5. Formulate the problem in solution-neutral terms. on-ofl o(x,y,z,t)on lhe
c0ntactsurfaces
T a b l e 5 . 4 s h o w s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e s es t e p s -
testrtg
Figure5.66.Overallfunctionof impulse-loading
in Figure5.6-5
Table 5.4. Abstractionand problemformulationbasedon specification - Store energy.
- Control load energy or load magnitudes.
- Vary load magnitude.
Resultsof first and second steps
- Channel load energy.
- Shaft diameter to be tested <100mm
- Apply load to specimen (shaft-hub connection).
Hubside load take-off to be variable in longitudinal direction
- - Measure load
Loading to be applied with shaft stationary
- Adjustable pure iorque loading of test connection up to 15000 Nm (max.) - Measure stress (strain).
- Torque to be maintained for not lessthan 3s In a step by step elaboration, the combination, change of sequence and
- Torque must be able to fall off steeply
addition or omission of these sub-functionsresult in several function structure
- Maximum possible rate of torque increase dTf dt : 125 x 103 Nm/s
- Torque-time curve reproducible
variants.Figure 5.67 recordsthese in the order in which they were developed. In
- Magnitudes of 16"1,,r",7r,,x",tlfld o to be measured and recorded this particular problem, the measurementtasksdo not determine the concept so
the function structure is developed for the flows of energy and material alone.
Resultsof third step liunction structure variant 4 is followed up in the search for solution principles
- Provide impulse torque loading for keyed shaft-hub connections adjustable in respect b c c a u s e i t i n c l u d e s t h e s u b - f u n c t i o n so f v a r i a n t 5 , w h i c h s e e m s e q u a l l y
\ 'change
of magnitude, rate of increase,duration and fall off promising. A finer breakdown of individual sub-functions-for instance
- Torque test to be conducted with stationary test shaft 'change 'channel 'change force back
ellcrgy' into torque into force', force' and
irrto torque'-will not prove helpful before the searchfor solution principles has
Resttlts of fourth step
lrccnstarted.
- Provide adjustable dynamic torque loading for component testing
- Allow measurement of input loading and component stresses Step 4: Searching for solution principles to fulfil the sub-functions.
lrr thc search for solution principles, the following of the methods listed in
Results of Jifth step \r'ction 5.4 are the most commonly used:
'Apply
dynamically variable torques with simultaneous measurement of loading itnd Arnclng conventional aids:
component stresses'. l . i t c r a t u r es e u r c h e s
Analysis clf an existing universal test rig
A r n o n g r n c t h o d sw i t h a n i n t u i t i v e b i a s :
Step 3: Establishing function structures llririnstorming
The drawing up of function structuresbegins with the formulation of thc ovcrall z \ r n o n g n r c t h o t l sw i t h a d i s c u r s i v eb i a s :
S v s t c r n l r t i cs c a r c hw i t h t h e h el p o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n schemes
function, which results directly from the problem formulation (Figurc -5.66).
V r r l r i r l i o t to l l h c t v l . l c s o f c r r c r g y , t l r t l t i t l t l s l t n c l s l trfaces
E,ssentialsub-functions to fulfil this complex overall functitln chicfly invt
I l s c o l i r r l c s i g r rc l t l i t l o g t t c o l l i r r c c t r i t t t s l i l r t l t l t t i on llrilrcilllcs
t l t c f k r w o f c n e r g y i t n c l ,f < t rm e a s u r e m c n t st,h c f l t l w t l l s i g n i r l s : 'Ilre
- - ( ' h t t r t 1 1i tct p t t l o t c r , q ' ,itn' t t l l t l a c l( t t l r t l t r c ) . l
s o l t t l i o t lt l r i r t c i l l l c sh t t st l i s c o v te e t l i t r c c o t t t l l i t t c tbl v t t l c l t t trsl l ' i tc l i r s s i l i c a -
( ' l t u n g ai t t ; t t t lc l t c r g V i t r l o l r t r x i l i i r r y( t t ( r ( . v l o r C o n t r r t l t t t t t ' l i o r l . l t o t r s e l r c r r r c( l r i g r r r c . 5 . ( r t { ) .l r r r r c { t r i ( t n lril l r p t t c c . o t t l v t l t c t l t t t s t i t t t p o r t l t l t t
44 -5 ConcePtual design 5.9 Examples of conccptualdesign 145
lttl
ll
tttl

otttl
llrl =E
s6
o ee*
Comments structure
Function -"-==
!=E

rn
\-|/ (soecimen)
//?\=>
\\:2_-19 T,rs g'fil,/l o r---f =
ll with
gyllow
Energy --i---
S, | --r- | !4' g lrits | E
E $TN
control
rols
signals.
'Change' 'control'
ffi =
E/ ll>l
/tvl
o
6 +,xI
E Fa-]
I
:-tNl
nge'and r if--lr l e o n t.r_ql ft [ 1 * 6 - l i t 1 t ' o s s ) il
=
=o-

Tl L;nanse
E!n#l,lX.t ffi . _specimenl-- L
o titiI c
! g5-
beinterchanged
can 0e il .- __[-----l !?
O>
Mi- -
I
s:
..tl
.9
E
c_- I

(i g-{d >-
Y-
gad= 3
q, \:,/ lM
nputenergy -T-- ---t -.-- !o

chanqed
;hangedint more
into -l il | .9
r
lablelntermedtate
control
;ontrollable --l i l-----l r lconr.or I f^---___lr l-ioaJ_-|i t,
Chanoe Hrnaqn,tuoe n urange !]
lnergy l'landlime r - ' L _specimen
[iri-] _ F* @ .z ns* o9p
l l .----,-*-trir,r'*'qy Eo
U i tl- | O a I fA{bl EE
1l GO O.= Y

/';\ _rl
il
{lC
IY vl
a./
IU': oc

rndprogramme
and I
energY
itoreadditional
Store
$r------l:.':::
t--- -,-- i
=./
-
.=
U
-
ll
o o
.E .1,
A-'
t l Ir .s2
-
qdd.'increase' lProsrl / c
Add.
'switch', r, l -r-- -_l_ | --)-y <o
dTt
O
o
E{ I d
\dd. i.e.
'elease energy __L_ __rEl-.t r '=
c
9^a ./
\
r i--__l t R ' i ' i l ] l l n"l::":l-*|
t""*l l C o n t rlo' t li '- i:, 6 ,/
( __Jif
raqn " 0 1L0a0I ,* .-l lv\
- " F-|'"::_:: ll-.-|,
nChanqe H "Store c o m p ll a r d t r f*l
o

I lenersv l t n eLl - l
d9 / e<,ti E U
,, !1"'-'" 1 l i .9
E/
il _l o ,^ l
a/ --.1\ t\
12 32
UU 5 /--4 >o
s
b
.!:
U
o
o
t
N

,O r\'I -SE
{ mt
! , ' !
a:
'./e T-'l r A
'lncrease'function tv
= lt lEN l I E
subdivided
s.i lstorel
f
----r :
I ;y ,/l--.r-l
'{t\- + / +\ E
3
o'_
N
=.1 '
: i-tr{f

;lu-m.q.ffi-mmffii'
j"i' i - - - - - p ; ' s ;
Sub-lunction'change' tr \-\ o =b E \11d -a:
I i /-
'load'to
belore
inserted - ,/> 5\9 OE
e

c
-.1 J

changethecontrolled
energyinto'torque ''f c
o.-
-6
9 c
c
't
9
6
E
o^
lc
6 I
EO-I o i
E I q 4T\
F E
= E
c

I G', ttl
l:l
=o

EOF:
o

f ( s) ==
o-
_= 1; ffi:
ii I- [ ernto
r al--1
nse -],,[5
L0a0 f--------;.-
it E
J fr Iog
:>4 (hE >g
-t
ru
il t r"
llorquel+ o
,1, | : lntn c B -l
'ENI

:.NIN I
.- c o{ ul
I L I V I \ \:.r / .9
^nN
E- ttl _ \!-/
:,j lt
o
g60l/\l
;- r----rl
oEor(:-): Et
e=- @ h\
E WE ll
I
tM', E o = Ll{.J at I E
>!: =lN
urrryur'
electr
Inputenergy
__F-_ t . U; Ia=
ill
a t-{ ii L
O
= 6

'Srore
t
-al control unanse r corp ll
L0a0 I l_ | l l n c r e a s el ul n a n Q e l m a o l l i - tr^
:_, X

prosram
llo
Irl
n ll f-] ,JlJi,,
l*l - [* 8-_-8 l *f >E-l
o E -rrl
thesystem S, i _l-
oulside oFi o co
]f- t "l E { l =--- l*

,-,.-' g o ii l/\i

lli
r;
: H-f EJ
Mt I l+ lA- t (ftroua
aOueq3 'l Yn. | |
(/) ..,I
c:oil
S s F , : , , i .s 3
5 . ( r 7 ,l i r n c t i o n s t r u c t u r ev i t r i i t t t t st t t r i l tt r t rs t c l ) - b y ' s l c p I. |J.
 5 . 9 E x a r n p l e so f c o n c c p l u u l t l c s i n r r
146 5 Conccptual design I4l

sub-functions and solution principles have been included. Solution principles principle
Solution
that are useless from the start are omitted from, or crossed out in, the 2 3 L 5 6 7 B I
Subjunction \
classificationscheme.Especiallywith mechanicalcontrol principles, it is possible

l\\ ,..T\
to derive new ones by systematic variation of surfaces and motions. In the 1 electr.-mech n
,/l
present example, energy provides an important classifyingcriterion with respect
to the solution principles fulfilling the sub-function
'change energy' and all the Z
c
o
electr.-hydr. i"\ \
I

other sub-functionsas well.

For the sub-function
'release energy', the solution principles involve various
clutches and locking mechanisms; for the sub-function
'load' they involved
3 c . -e c n l o
m e c nm
it. Nli -\. t2
.4v,

various shaft-hub connectionsand also rigid couplings;and for the sub-function

'measure',
which is not a concept determinant, they involve extensometerstrips
and inductive and capacitativetransducerswith electronic amplifiers.
t,

5 Storeenergy
m e c nh. -y d r . t!
I
".,1
\
'rv
. l

Nsl V
.1
\--
l:._\

6
Control
energy in resp.
b- <\ =::l:
'"\
Step 5: Combining solution principles to fulfil the overall function
The sub-solutionsobtained during the last step must now be combined into
l
of magn.andtime
varyenergy
component
"gz
i\\
A

overall solutions. In the present example, this was done with the help of the Figure5 '69. Combinationschemeshowingsevencombinationsof solutionprinciplesin
same classification scheme. From the field of solution principles, various accordance with Figure5.68
combinations of principles are derived by combining solutio\ to one sub-
function with solutions to the neighbouring sub-functions. Variantl:1.1-5.3-6.5-3.4-3.7 Variant5:6.7_1.2_7.3_3.7
Here, function structure variants 4 and 5 serve as the basis for the combina- V a r i a n t 2: 1 . 1 - 7 . 4 , 5 . 1 - 7 . 4 - 6 . 2 - 3 . 7 V a r i a n6t : 6 . 7 - I . 7 _ 7 . 3 _ 3 . j
V a r i a n t 3 :1 . 1 - 5 . 1 - 3 . I - 6 . 1 - 3 . 7 V a r i a n t T: 6 . 7 _ l . I _ 7 . 4
tion, the sequenceof sub-functions being slightly varied. In this process, the t : 2 . 1- 6 . 8 - 4 . 1- 3 . 2
V a r i a n4
compatibilities and technical possibilitiesare considered,not systematicallybut
by discussion.In this context it is often helpful to draw up compatibility matrices
(Figure 5.43). Figure 5.69 showsthe areasof feasiblecombinationsof principles. ('alculation steps:
Time needed to reach the maximum torque at the required rate:
Step 6: Selectingsuitable combinations \
15 x 10:
It was pointed out in 5.6 that, with a large number of variants, it is advisable, o': o ' 1 2S
tx * tor:
even before further firming up, to make a preliminary selectionso that detailed
design drawings and calculations are not made for other than promising Force at the end of the loading lever:
combinationsof principles. Figure 5.70 gives an example of this type of.selection
x
procedure: only four of the seven combinations are pursued after selection.
F n r u * : T : 15 10:: 1 7 . 6 x 1 0 : N
0.85
Step 7: Firming up into concept variants
lhe l.ading lever is treated as a weak cantilever spring with the end moving
Before the most promising concept variant can be discovered, the selcctccl l l t r t r t r g ha d i s t a n c eo f h : 3 0 m m w i t h a f o r c e o f F - o " l n s u c h a w a y
that th;
combinations of principles must first be prepared for evaluation. To that cnd. p t ' rr r r i s s i b l eb e n d i n g s t r e s si s n o t e x c e e d e d .
the designer will make a number of layout drawings (Figures 5.71to 5.74). l r r n g c n t i a lv e l o c i t y o f t h e c y l i n d r i c a l c a m :
Often a line diagram will not, however, be sufficientfor judging the functional
efficacy of a solution--calculations or model experiments may be needcclat f*: V'
lr ().l2
well. As an example, take the cylindrical cam and the flywheel in variant V2
u s c d t o p r o v i c l et h e i m p u l s e t o r q u e l o a d i n g . A n g u l i r i v c l o c i t y i r n c lr l t r n o l ' c y l i n c i r i c a cl i r r n :
( ' a n t h c c y l i t t t l r i c i r cl u r n s h o w n i n F i g u r c 5 . 7 5 p r o c l u c cl l t c r c t l u i s i t c l t
d ' l ' l t l t- - I 2 . 5x l 0 r N n r / s i r t r d t h c n l f l x a l l l u n l t ( ) r ( l u c (11"'
irrcrcirsc ol ,, :.1'.i,t, - 2.()r'tr/sr,, - -. r()rcv/rrirr
7 , u u . =l 5 x l ( l r N t r r ' l {}. ti) }r
'ift.-
 -5 Conceptualdesign 5.9 Examplcs of conccptualdcsigrr r49

TU Berlin SELECTION
CHART
lmpulse-loading
leslrlg

(Sv)evaluated
variants
Solution by
lVarksolutjon (Sv)
variants
S E T E C T ICORNI T E R I A : Testconnection
yes
(+) Pursue solution
n0
( - ) E l i m i n astoel u t i o n
Lackol inlormation
( ? ) C o l l e ci nt f o r m a t i o n
Check specifrcalion (re-evaluate solution)
! ) Check specification
I lask
withtheovera
Compatible

0l lhespecilicati0n
Fufilsdemands

Linkage

Inc0rp0rates measures
salety
direcl Figure5.71.Conceptvariant7, from [5.53]

by desiqneas
Preferred company
3-
Supply

Lol1uJ. og caalroVto.ule- bral<es probleaaht Cylindrical

cam

Hvolraul^cs rct- ye.f appLled

No cxFrae^ce-- wLEL lvleoJ rcForS li'
Poder Cle.^o,acl og u-cgne.| too grecC l Testconnection
2 I No experie*cs u'utt- hqristor cnlrol

l:isure 5.72. Concept variant I/2 from [5.53]

Pcriod of revolution:
2n
Lf
- - -
3 . 1 4s
a)

Sincc the switching time of electromagneticallyoperated clutchesfor connect-

rttgitncldisconnectingthe cam drive is somewherein the region of a few tenths of
rr sccor]cl,thcrc should be no problems in applying this principle. The magnitude
o t , r r r r rrl i l t c o l i n c r c a s ci n , t h e i m p u l s et o r q u e l o a d i n gc a n b e a l t e r e db y m e a n so f
I n l c r c h i u r g c i r b l cea n r sa n c la l s o b y v a r y i n g t h e p e r i o d o f r e v o l u t i o n .
S t c t r sI r l r c s t i n r l r t i n ul ' l v w h c c ll n ( ) l n c n to l ' i n c r t i i r :
( i s i i n t r r t co l ' r l r c c l r c r g yn c c d c r l l i r r t h c i r r r p u l s c( i r r r dI r c n c co f t h c c n c r g y t o b c
s t o r c d ) o t l l l r c i l s s u n l l ' t l i ( ) nt h a l t l l l o u d c a r r y i l U l p i l r t s t r r c c l i r s t i c a l l y
jigrrrc
l 5 . 7 ( 1S, c l c e t i o t ot l c o n r b i r u t i o n so l s o l u t i o np r i r t c i p l c (r v u r i t t r t t s ) dclirrrncd.
150 5 C o n c e p t u a ld e s i g n 5 . 9 E x a m p l e s o f c o n c e p t u a ld c s i g n 151

Testconnection Stored energy of flywheel:

\: | J y a t 2 : 1 5 9x 1 0 z J
-Rotational speed after the impulse:
Eafrer: Er - En'o" : 15 640 J

:
l2E*,""
--
@artcr : 125rad/s; flartcr: 1 190rev/min
V

The drop in rpm is thus seen to be very low. Hence all that is needed is a
,motor with a small output.
Figure5.73.Conceptvariant/1 from [-5.531
Step 8: Evaluating the concept variants
andpinon
Rack Having thus firmed up on the combinationsof principles, we can now evaluate
the concept variants with some confidence. In what follows we shall be
considering the four variants selectedduring Step 6.
Important wishes in the specificationprovide a seriesof evaluationcriteria of
varying complexity. These are assessedand elaborated with the help of the
checklist (Figure 5.60). Next, a hierarchical classification(objectives tree) is
drawn up to facilitate closer identification and better co-ordination of the
weighting factors and the parameters of the variants (Figure 5.76).
In Figure 5.77 parameter magnitudesand values assignedto the variants have
been set against the evaluation criteria.
It appears that variant V2 has the highest overall value and the best overall
rating. However, variant V3 follows close behind.
For the detection of weak spots, it is advisableto draw a value profile (Figure
-5.78).The figure shows that variant V2 is well balanced in respect of all the
important evaluation criteria. With a weighted rating of 68 per cent, variant V2
Figure5.74.Conceptvariantlz. from [5.531
thus representsa good starting concept for the embodiment design phase.
^ mcx
9 Result
lirrrther firming up by means of scalelayout drawings and also development and
t onstruction of the actual test rig were all based on concept variant V2. Figure
:.79 depicts the end result.
-,b-3cm mox

Figure 5.75. Development of 5.9.2 One-handedhouseholdwater mixing tap

c=d.x _250,r_ cylindricalcam
,\ onc-handed mixing tap is a device for regulating water temperature and
Stored energy at maximum impulse torque loading: tltroughflow with one hand. This task was sent to the design department by the
p l r r n n i n gd e p a r t m e n t i n t h e f o r m s h o w n i n F i g u r e 5 . 8 0 .
E.u* : iF.o*'h :260 J

This amount of energy is needed in the time interval At : 0.12 s Slcp l: ()larilying the task and elaboratingthe specification
- F l y w h e e ld i m e n s i o n s :
N t ' w t l i r t i tt t t t l i t t i n g s , s t a n c l u r c l s ,a f c t y r c g u l i r t i o n sa n c le r g o n o m i cf a c t o r sl e d t o
S c l c c t : M a x i l n t t m r p m , r l . r . r:r 1 2 ( Xr)e v / m i n ; r r r' l 2 ( rr i t t l / s
tltc rcplircctttctto t l ' t h c o r i g i n i r l s p c c i l ' i c l t i o nb y t h c r c v i s c d v c r s i < l ns h o w n i n
s l r ' : 0 . 2 n t i r n t l r r ' - ( ) ,I t t t . t l t e l l t ' r v h c c lr t t i t s s .
I . i r r I ' l y w h c c ld i r t t c r t s i o n o
l r i g u r c5 . l t l . ,
r r r l- l ( X l k g ,i r r r t lt l r c r r r o r r r c nolt i n c r l i i r .J 1 = l t n s r : - 2 k [ n r r .
52 5 Conceptualdesign 5 . 9 E x a m p l e s o f c o n c c p t u i r ld c s i g n 153

@ O @ o
il-4
N
@ @
@

N N
>=< ?' 5
6- s
>!.?
@
ei o
= O d d

la
E> od

= = c E c

E E E E

o it@
O o N
N @ N @
o
N
=:5
=
d o
o - s
s-- _'.^
*46
it ?
E> srl

= 3 = O o

E
il|13-
n? 0.084
E
!l .. @ O ti-^@
0.12 a
N
O
O
N
S-=
=: t\
Y

021 = d
a - +
0.09 S
ilY
S
E>
d \
s!, I

!
Reliable
and = =
simple
testing
C N O
= = =
E o
device
e", ll c6
@ o O N O @
@ S-?
;'s i @ N N >@
-=
tl
= O o O o Go(t

S-

ilo c)
I 6S
ts> sil
J

c
.E = = = o

E E
rvl3-v. I

=
E
I
004 c o
c E
c
0.06 E
O J

a? >a
I

E E >=
0ulckexchange L x:j e_> El! oEi 8.9
ol test = 6
E
=
E9 oo
ah o
c0nnectt0ns <-
.2 >a 3a E'
z o OY z cG- 66 <E
@ ':-o
= a
c; d d o O
O
d o
a
d
O i,j
I^l

Goodaccessibil E
!': 9 c ziz
ol measuring G
-- '64
systems -o .!? >6
E
rll
t' E E=
c
q o.E a;a
so
tr.t
tr-
EF" 6 E :g hdg
r9 ,:
it g >c^ !l

ilr }F *9r t3 E O*
)W= 1 AE -3 |.Ett 5 a :jE I}J (n 3a !

rigurc5.76.()bjcctivcstrcc for impulse-loading

tcstrig a q,
LL
 i

Conceptual design 5.9 Examples of conccptuulrlesitn

155
l
V2,0WV2: 6.82| Variant
Variant \. )WVs: 6.45
ii
=l= THDarmstadt SPECIFICATION
IhN.N --= for jne hdnded nixing lap
Page1
chansesl
il/ Requi
renents
Resp.
=
I| v./ a \\\l I] b D 1 Throughput
(mixed
flow)max10/minat 2 bar
I
[r.a
Y/,/./ ./,/,/././,/
N\.\ \\\\\N i
,,','rl l\\.\\\\\\\\\) |
t:- D pressure
2 Max. 10bar(test
pressure
15barasperDIN240,1)
D 3 Temp. 60.C,j00.C(short_time)
ol waterstandard
I r//j .,/,/ ./ ,/,///f\.\\\ \ .\\\\\\.].) t_-.s D 4 Temperature
setting
independent
ofthroughput
andpressure
i-, --_1-------.5S
, W 5 Permissible
temp +5"Cata pressure
fluctuation diff.of +5 barbetw
3enhotandcold
viz 10 9 I 7 6 5 4 3 ? 1 o r 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 ro I vie supply
Figure5.78.Valueprofilefor detectionof weakspots D 6 Connection:
2 x Cupipes,l0 x I mm,I : 400mm
D 7 Single-hole p 351fmm,basin
attachment 0 jB mm
thickness
(0bserve
basin
dimensionsDINEN3j, DINEN32,DINj368)
D B Outflow
aboveupper
edge ofbasin:50mm
D 9 Tofithousehold
basin
W 10 Convertible
intowallfittjng
D 11 Light (children)
operation
D 12 Noexternal
energy
D l3 Hard
water
supply (drinking
warerl
D 14 Clear
identification
0ftemperature
setting
.15
D Trade
markprominenily displayed
D l6 Noconnection
of thetwosupplieswhenvalve
shut
W 17 Noconnection
whenwater
drawn
on
D 18 Handle
nottoheatabove35.C
F i g u r e- 5 . 7 9F. i n i s h e di m p u l s e -
l o a d i n gt e s t r i g c o r r e s p o n d i n gt o W l9 Noburnsfromtouching
thefinrngs
concept variant Iz2,from [-5.-531 W 20 Provide protection
scalding if extra
costs
small
D 21 0bvious
operation,
simpie
andconvenient
handling
D 22 Smooth,
easily
cleaned
contours,
nosharp
edges
-handed
watermixino
tap D 23 Noiseless
operati0n
(<20dBasperDtN52218)
r red:one-handed
household
water tapwlththel0 lowing
mtxing characterlstics 24Service
life10years
at about300000
operations
Throughput 1 0l / m i n D 25 Easy
maintenance
andsimple
repairs.
Usestandard parts
spare
l\ilax.pressure 6 bar
D 26 Max.manuf.
costs
DM30(3000unitspermonth)
pressure
Normal 2 bal D 2/ Scheduies
frominception
ofdeveropment
Hotwater c0nceptual
embodrment
designdetail /pe
designprotot,
temperature 60"c desrgn
Connectorsrze 10mm alter2469 months
t0 bepaidl0 appearance.
ention Thefirm'strademarkl0 beprominently product
Finished
displayed. in twoyearslrm
t0 bemarketed
nufacturing DIV30 eachat a production
coslsnott0 exceed rateol 3000tapsperrnonth Repiaces
1stissue
of 12.6.j923

f'rgrn5
C. X 1S - l l r r r t l ertrl r i x i r r ;gr p
. p c c i l i c i r t i loi r ro r r e
i gurc .5.13( ). ( )nc-ltirrttlcd rrtixi rrg 1it1.r[ : x a n r p l eo f a n i t s s i g t t t t t c tsl t l g g c s t c (bl y t h c I
l l r u r i n gr l c p i r r t r t t e r t t
156 5 Conceptualdcsign 5 . 9 E x a r n p l e so f c o n c e p t u a ld e s i g n r57

Step2: Abstractingto identifythe essentialproblems unchanged-that is, the relationship V,lV,n must remain constantand indepen-
The basisof abstractionis the specification,from which it is possibleto arrive at d e n t o f t h e s i g n a lp o s i t i o n s i .
Figure 5.82. Simple householdsolutionsfor mixing taps suggested that the On changing the temperature 8n. V. must remain unchanged-that is, the
chosensolution principle must be basedon meteringout the water throug\a sum of V, + Vh: Vn,must remain constant.To that end the componentflows /.
diaphragmor valve. Suchalternativesasheatingand coolingby the introduction and V6 must be changedlinearly and in the opposite senseto the signalsetting s,y.
Problem tormulation:
Flowof hotandcoldwater Step 3: Establishing function structures
either
stoppedorsometered The function structures were derived from the sub-functions;
thatthemixedtemperature - Stop-meter-mix
canbeadiustedtoany
desiredvalue
regardless - Adjust flow rate
ofthethroughput. -Adjust temperature
The physical principle being well known, the function structurescould be
Functions varied and developed to determine the best system and its behaviour (Figures
--------5
Flowof materials
@ -5.84to 5.86). From the results, the function structure shownin Figure 5.86 was
@ Flowof signals chosen as the most satisfactorv.
@
FdFrl boundary
System
Figure5.i32.Problemformulationandoverallfunctionasper specification,
V : volumeflow rate;p : pressure;dl: temperature
Figure-5.81 I ,,,i..
lndex:c : cold,h : hot, m : mixed,o : atmosphere lo
of external energy through heat exchangersetc could be dismissed:they were
more expensive and involved a time lag. Whenever known solution principles
can be applied such '4 priori determinations' are frequent and permissible.
Next, the physical relationshipsfor the diaphragm or valve flow rate and the rl I
I
'
temperature of mixed flows of similar fluids were determined (Figure 5.83). l c

Temperature and flow rate adjustments are based on the same physical
principle-valve or diaphragm.
On changing the flow rate V^, the flows must be changed linearly and in the 100 20o 300 1,0o 500
same senseas the signal setting s9. The temperature rl.. however, must remain

Flowrate

h - p z = E ( a / 2 )G ; V : v A
.
v = aC ,Vt Ti Y h - P z

q"
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 L0
0sh: 0sc : 2.5 Oar :Y - : 2.5bar;p,, : 2 barjl-
Psrr
dh I r.*trrc5.114.Furrctionstructure for a one-hanclccl water mixinq tap baseclon Figurc -5.132.
Ym 8m : l/h. Oh + \ t c l r ' r ' i r r gl ' l o w@ l r r r t rl r t l j u s t i n gl c r r r P c l l r t r r r c s c y r r l l ; 1 1 1l .'c1iy, r . i r n i x i n ! rI.n t l i e g r l r y r h s .
@
I t t t t ' so l c ( ) l l s l i t l tttc n t p c r a t u r cl r n d c o r r s t i r r lr)tc l c c l r t i l A cl ' l o wn r t c h u v cb c c n p l o t t c c lf i l r
f l t v c t lt c l l l l ) c r i l t u r cs c t t i n g s( , r u ) i r n rlll o r v r i r t cs c t t i r r ; l (s. r i . ) , ' l ' l r r o r r gnhr u t u a lc f f c c l so l l h c
I l ( ' s \ t l r c so t l t l t c i r t l e t sl t @ r r r r t@ l t h c l c r r t l t c t ' l l t r r ci r r r t l k r u c l l r r i r c t c r i s t i cusr c n o t l i r r c i r r
r\('cl)t li)r tlrc sctting,Ti,- ().fll5. ittrd hctrCC OtCUnrui|ttblc lirr rrrrirlll'Lrrvnrtcs. At rr
llrr\sr!t'ctlillcrcrrcc[rctwccrrt]ic coldtnd hot wt||t ( i n t h i rc i t \ r/ , . r , / ) . , ( ) , 5
b i t r )r h c l i r r c s h i l t . ' lh c s c t t i n ptrtic n o l o n a t of rrch olltcrcvert litt tlte
samc fluid rcltrrrlr,ri. * {l t{25(dilgrtm on riSht) il
158 5 Conceptualdesign 5 . 9 E x a m p l e s o f c o n c e p t u a ld e s i g n 1-59

IVIETER
N4ETER
|7
B
IVETER
zl

I
I

stJ i I
t-.
Se

f 10
di

o oB s0f
B0t-
06 - +-
7n
0 70 400
60r
60
50
0.4 50f
40 401_
30 0.2 30F
70 20l-
10
0 10.1-
0 02 04 06
P s n: P s c = 2 . 5b a r
55 ps6: 2.5bar;p,, : 2 53t 0.2 04 06 0B 10 0 . 2 0 4 0 6 OB
Psn: Psc: 2.5bar itt- - 9v: 2.5bar;Pr,: 2 5ut
Figure 5.85. Function structure basedon Figure 5.82 in which the temperature rs set Figure 5.86. Function structure basedon Fig. 5.82, in which the temperatureand flow at
before, and the flow metered after, mixing. With equal pressuresin the supply pipes, the
each inlet is metered out independentlyand then mixed. Linear temperatureand flow
flow and temperature settings are independent of each other due to equal pressule characteristics.No seriouschangeseven at different supply pressurei.
differences aiross each temperature-flow-metering valve. The behaviour is linear. Witil
different supply pressures, however, the characteristic ceasesto be linear and is strongly
displaced, especially with small quantities, when the pressurein the mixing chamber
approximates the smaller supply pressure. If it is exceeded, then cold or (here) hot watcr
only will run out regardless of the temperature settrng. Solutions with separatemovementsfor v and 0 tangential to the valve seat
'[-he face
independenceof the 7 and r?setting is only guaranteedif each of the flow
rurcas of the valves is bounded by two edges running parallel to the
correspondingmovements. This implies that the movements must proceed at
Step 4: Searching for solution principles to fulfil the sub-functions irn angle to each other and in a straight line. Every valve setting thus has two
'vary two flt pairs of straight and parallel bounding edges(Figure 5.88). This ensuresthat
Brainstorming was used as a first attempt to solve the problem: when one setting is adjusted the other setting is not simultaneouslyadjusted.
areas,simultaneouslyor successively,in one senseby one movement and in l)istribution of bounding edges.Each of the componentsproducing the valve
opposite senseby a second, independent, movement'. This resulted frolrl tlow ureas must have at least two edges that face each other and lie in the
sub-function: 'meter flow rate and temperature' in accordancewith the fu t l i r c c t i o r ro f t h c m o v c m e n t .
structureshownin Figure5.86.The resultsare shownin Figure5.tt7. willr llrc 7 sctting. both valve areas must approachzero simultaneously.
W i t l r t h c r , ls c t t i r r g .o r r c l l r c a l r u s t i r p p r o a c hz c r o i r s t h e o t h e r a p p r o a c h e si t s
Analysisof brainstormingresults t t t i x i t t t t t l t t . ' l ' h i si r t r l t l i c sw
'fhc . i t h 7 s c ( t i n g s (. h l r t t h c l t o u n c l i n ge c l g c so n b c l t h
s o l u t i o n s s u g g e s t e d . d u r i n gt h e b r a i n s t < l r m i n gs c s s i o nw e r c c h c c k c d v i { l v c i t r c ; t st l l t t s t t l l ( ) v c t o w i r r c l sc i r c l t o l l t c r o r l r w i t v l r o n t c a c h o t h c r i n t h c
c s t i r b l i s h c rwl l r c t h e r t h c I / i r r r c il 9 s e t t i n g sw c r c i n ( l e l ) c t t t l c t t tA. r t i r t t a l y s i tst f \ i l l t l c s c l l s c . W i t h r ?s c t t i r t g s t. l t c l r r t t t t t t l i t tcgt l g c r r l r r t l r t , t $ ' ( )v i l l v c l t r c i t sl ) l g s t
c o n r h i l t c dn l ( ) v c l n c l l l ss t t g g c s l c ct hl c l i r l l o w i n g $ ( l l u t i ( ) tpl r i l l c i l l l c s : n r ( ) v ci n l h c i r p p o s i l cs c l l s c l ( ) c t c h o t h c r ,
160 pipe
dcsign
5 conccptual 5.9 Examples of conceptual design r67
cylindrical #*
A x i aml o v e m:eDn t J A
R o t a r y m o v e: tm
/ ent
4 A t,, -The seat face may be plane, cylindricalor spherical.
-Beam principre x )a
#] r rn - Solutions of this type can be effectedwith a singlevalve element,and seem
'il---E- vl
Inverse principre
olbeam p simple to design.
lc.
- Inverse
otcylpioe
.{YA' Flowarea
Nir
a_|!
r----- v, t-----"--\ ,------
s
/=,
fl
Twoptates (|\ lffi:3) GE// Movementsand
Figure5'88.
f -;- | -..- bounding edgesof valve positions
'ftJ
withptugs
Beam F+l to
- Ooposing
valves {,,*( P &
operated
bysc,ssor n fl *.nr=
orincip'e ^.r 2. Solutions with separatemovements for V and B normal to the valve seatface
andrackandpinon H frf ilH f-Tl' v
n 0 - This group includes all movements which involve lifting a valve from its seat
-Sliding
wedges+ slidingplates +
a W
Lr face. However, only a movement at right anglesto the seatface is possiblein
lnverse plates
ofsliding (asabove)
practice.
Ballsin pipesactivated -The independent setting of V and rl can only be achieved with additional
by conicalcam control elements (coupling mechanism).
-The design seemsto require greater effort.
- Rotatrng
valveplate
4i,
withaxialmovement lll , -F 3. Solutions with one type of movement for V and I tangential to the seat face
-' --' a+P2P'&t
(sharp
edges t0 ensure
correct mrxrns)a-m
rwo
wedqes _fl| -To guarantee the indepenclenceof the V and I settings, additional coupling
UU(ln elements are needed.
pump
lnjection (notpursued)
Throttle
flap VA - The solutions are similar to those listed under 2. They only differ in the shape

Mffi
- Twothrottle
flaps of the seat face and the resulting movement.
- Three-way
mixer
# 1. Solutions with one movement fnr i normal to, and one movement for I
- Chamfered r'Tt wTv
cylinder
-Pivotandswivel
ffi r#ry tungential to. the seat face and vice versa
These solutions do not, even with the help of coupling mechanisms,satisfy
- controllever thc demand for indepenclent 7 and r1 settinss. The overall function is not
- ball
central00re (tZ achieved.
eccentric
bore ._
Twotlexiblelubes *-.N\s-
..tr'::."Yt l)iscursive searches for solutions could be conducted with the. help of
(squeezewilhovat
Camorwedoe) wto
ffi
fw
fi
_TW
N
'16\
v
-t)
_al
A'
trr
V
t llssification schemesfor an independent setting of the flow rate 7 and the
I t ' n r p c r e t t u r re) .
Movewedge lwoapertures
belween
Jl t,., lrl
.4\ /,q
\aVqJ a\1,*'
rrV.U
l}irsed on the identified solution principles, the classificationcriteria were
- Membrane r" l i s t c c la s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 5 . 8 9 .
#.ut-ij=l.- tv 'I'hc
@ combination of the solutions thus discovered into a slngle scheme was
Twobasicpossibilities: torrnclto be inexpedient for the following reasons:
rigidcoupling/via
mechanisms S o l r r t i o r r sw i t h r n o v e m e n t sf o r I / a n d d t a n g e n t i a l t o t h e s e a t f a c e c a n b e
- lns irtlvirnlagcouslyvaried and classifiedby type of movement and form of valve.
SPhincter .\-" ( ( ' l r r s s i l i c a t i osnc h c r n eI s h o w n i n F i g u r e5 . 9 0 . )
Vortex \-\$, W i t l r s o l r r t i o n si n v o l v i n g a s i n g l c I n o v c r r c n t f o r 7 a n d r ) a t t h e s e a t f a c e
\$.v*
( i i r r r g c r r t i i rrll r r r o r r n l r l ) t, h c i r r r a n g c r r r c rot ll l l t c s c i r l l ' i r c c si t t r col f t h c c o u p l i n g
F i g u r e5 . t 3 7R . c s u l to f u b r a i n s t o r m i n gs c s s i o nt o d i s c o v c rs o l u t i o np r i n c i p l c sl i r r t h c
I r s s i g n n r c n t ' v i t rt vw o l ' l o wi r r c l s . s i n r r r l t l n c o u s lov r s t t c c c s s i v e l ivt ,t o t t c s c r t s cl r v o t t c r r r c c l r i t r r i s rl r irr si r r l c c i s i v cb c i r r i n go n l l t c s o l u l i o t t . ( ( ' l a s s i f ' i c i r t i osnc h c n r cI I
n l ( ) v c n rnel l r r t l i r r t l r c o p P o s i t cs c r t s cb v i r s c c r t t t r li .t t d c ; r c n d c t t lt l ( ) v e
tt'tcrtl' s h o w l t i n | i g u r c 5 . ( ) 1).
r62 5 Conceptualdesign
5 . 9 E x a m p l e so f c o n c e p t u a d
l csign r63

icatlon
Classif criteria parameters
Associaled
3
ilhN\ 7 L
Direction
of movement Tangential
toseatface
Normatosealface
Coupiing
of movemenl Twomovements
al ananglet0 eachotherlor t/andf -lI 1r
-.ii lvF .^-
vt-
0pp0srte K JL_ .,+-J
ilovement
notcoupled
ln Oned rect0nfor l/ andr?
A[Jrk\]F _l T,
f,Iovemenl
lilovement
couped J
-tlv il ,-
lv
Typeof movement Rotation
frc '^V,;l TU' .".'n\^
Formof valve
Trans
aton
p ate,wedge
Plane
In oneplane L
nn v!l
lrv
Cylnder
aranangle
i
(v/ j\%
Cone M a[7,^. .4- I
Sphere
2\r{' .:r' sh s K3 "V\
Special
shapes Figure 5.91. Classification
Elastic
bodles Scheme II for solutions to the
Arrangement
of seatfaces 0pposite one-handed mixing tap problem
I n o n ep a n e Movement tangential or normal
to the seatface
A1anange
Counled movement in one
Figure 5.89. Classificationcriteria for a one-handedmixing tap direition for I/ and r1

Step 6: Firming up into concept variants

Step5: Selectingsuitable solution principles
With the help of further research into possible setting or operating elements
Ihe solution principles fulfilling the demands of the specificationand promising which we have not discussedhere, the solution principles could then be firmed
,o be most economic were those found in the classificationscheme shownin up into concept variants (Figures 5.92 to 5.95).
Figure 5.90, and were therefore preferred.

Step 7: Evaluating the concept variants

il*q'
Irr accordancewith VDI2225, this step was taken with the help of an evaluation
trons./tro
ns. trons./rot. rot.
/rot.
ehart. In addition, evaluation uncertainties and weak spots were examined
7 3 ( F i g u r e5 . 9 6 ) .
-fhanks
planeplate A
i+rl"E ru to the balanced profile and the discernable improvement possibilities,
BJ' t+t Solution B (Figure 5.93) was found to be preferable to all others.
'l'he
ball solution D (Figure 5.95) would only have been consideredif further
cylinder B
d'i"
{ili' strrrlicsinto production and assemblyproblems had been undertaken and led to
p o s i t i v cr e s u l t s .
c0ne C

ll Rcsult
sphere 0 o
&r,, l ) r l r w i r r g so l ' S o l r . r t i o nI l w i t h i m p r o v e m e n t st o t h e o p e r a t i n gl e v e r i n r e s p e c to f
n c h e r n eI f o r s o l u t i o n so f t h c onc-hantlerlrnixing tirp proltlcm
F i g u r c 5 . 9 0 .C l a s s i f i c a t i o S r l l i r ( c r c r l t t i r c n l c n t s ,c i r s i c r c l c a n i n g a n c l r t u r n b e ro f p a r t s w e r e p r o d u c e d .T h e
M o v c n r er t t t a n g c n t i a tl o t l r c s c i t tf a c c l c v c l o l i n l o n n l l i o r t l i l r S o l u t i o r tI ) w l s i t t t p r o v c t lw i t l t i r v i c w t r l r c - c x l r n r i n i n gi t
'l'wo
irrtlcpctttlctttntovcnrcnlsitt iul irrrglclirr V nttd rl
f o r l ' i t t i r lc v i r l u i l l i o r t ,
 5 Conceptualdcsign 5 . 9 E x a m p l e s o f c o n c e p t u a ld e s i g n

$
u I.

THDarmstadt EVALUATION
CHART

lor One-handed
mixin0
tap Page7
ln lheorderof I P:presenl
varianl A B E F
l-eadings| (P):possib'e
lhechecklisl aflerrnproverenl
lNoI Evaluation
critenon P (P) P (P) P (P) P (P) ( P) P (P)

FunclI Reliabi
ityofstopping
llow 1 1 3 3 1
without
drips I
Work Reliable,
reproducible
setting 1 2 3 2 3 J
Princ (calcium-resistant
fewwearinq parts) I
mbo 2 Lowspace
requiremenl 1 3l 2 2 +

4 Fewparts 7 I 2 1 +
Prod I
5 I 7 3 2 /?
S i m p lm
e anufacture

ASSY 6 Easy y
assemb I 2 2 2l
J

7 Convenient
operation, I I J 2
.9 sensitive
setting
Figure5.93. E
Figure5.92. Easyupkeep I 4t 2 3 )
O 8
(easy
to clean) I
(wlthstandard
S mpe maintenance t0os, 1 1 3 2 7?
vlainr9
littings
neednotbedismanfled) J

il

l4
'26
? Evaluation
uncertain 4 16 24 (%, 2 1 2 3 20
Screw joint
or solder I Tendency:
better a+51 Rr 756
I Tendency:
worse Ranking 4 7 (1) 2 (3) 2)
(J),Weakspot(W),lmprovement
Justificati0n (l) of variant/criter
0n

8 1 Simplity
levermechanism
position
Indeterminate y
of ballduringassemb
9t lmprove
with84

Figure5.94.
Figure 5.94. Figure 5.95. ) 9 1 A l t ,irrrn n not l e v e r

'plate t , , ,,. u , , l P t u r i o s0 0 r u l | 0Bnw i l ni m p r 0 v e r e0nl (l 0 n l r 0e e m e r l s

Figure 5.92. One-handed mixing tap, solution variant A: solution with eccentric
| 5 0 l u0l n u L x a m i nper o d u c t ipo0ns s i b i l i t p i erse s ernet s tus i n 2 m o n t h s
and pull-and-turn grip'
'cylinder solution with lcvcr'
I ' i g u r c 5 . 9 3 .O n e - h a n d e dm i x i n g t a p , s o l u t i o nv a r i a n tB : lj,lr: n ro tJ,
' c y l i n c i c sr o l u t i o r rw i t h c n t l I
I ; i g u r c5 . 9 4 .O n e- h a n d e dm i x i n g t a p . s o l u t i o nv a r i a n t( ' :
v i r l v c si r n t li r r l t l i t i o r t i sr lc i r l i n g '
'ltlll solrrtion' litltlrc 5,t)6. ( )ttc'-h;uttlcttnlixilUttl;l livrlultir)n (rl conccl)t vlliiults A. Ii. (', I)
l r i g u r c 5 . 9 5 ,( ) t t c - l t i t n t l c trl r r i x i r r g
t l t P ,s o l t t l i o t tv : l r i i l t l ll ) l
 6 , I S t e p so f e m b o d i m e n td c s i g n r61

Embodiment design embodiment design phase. Instead, the designer may have to adopt a general
approach. Particular problems may demand deviations and subsidiarysteps,and
these can rarely be predicted in detail.
It is always advisableto proceed from the qualitative to the quantitative, from
the abstract to the concrete, and from rough to detailed designs,and to make
provision for checks and, if necessary,for corrections (see Figure 6'1).
1. Using the specification,the first step is to identify those requirements that
have a crucial bearing on the embodiment design:
Embodiment design is that part of the design process in which, starting from the -Size-determining requirements such as output. throughput, size of connec-
concept of a technical product, the design is developed, in accordance with tors etcl
technical and economic criteria and in the light of further information, to the - arrangement-determining requirements such as direction of flow, motion,
point where subsequentdetail design can lead directly to production (see 3.2). oosition etc: and
- material-determining requirements such as resistanceto corrosion, service
life, specified materials etc.
Requirements based on safety, ergonomics, production and assembly involve
6.1 Stepsof embodimentdesign special design considerationswhich may affect the size, arrangement (see 6.2)
and selection of materials.
Having elaborated the solution concept during the conceptual phase, the 2. Npxt, scale drawings of the spatial constraints determining or restricting
designer can now firm up on the underlying ideas. During the embodiment the e6bodiment design must be produced (for instance drawings showing
phase, at the latest, he must determine the overall layout design (general clearances,axle positions, installation requirements etc).
arrangement and spatial compatibility), the preliminary form designs(compo- 3. Once the embodiment-determining requirements and spatial constraints
nent shapesand materials) and the production procedure, and provide solutions have been established, a rough layout, derived from the concept, is used to
for any auxiliary functions. In all this, technological and economic considera- identify the embodiment-determiningmain function carriers-that is the assem-
tions are of paramount importance. The design is developed with the help of blies and components fulfilling the main functions.
scale drawings, critically reviewed, and subjected to a technical and economic The following subsidiary problems must be settled, due regard being paid to
evaluation. the principles of embodiment design (see 6.4):
In many cases several embodiment designs are needed before a definitivc Which main functions and function carriers determine the size, arrangement
design appropriate to the desired solution can emerge. and component shapesof the overall layout? (For instance,the blade profiles
In other words, the definitive layout must be developed to the point where a in turbo-machines or the flow area of valves.)
clear check of function, durability, production, assembly, operation and costs What main functions must be fulfilled by which function carriers jointly or
can be carried out. Only when this has been done is it possibleto prepare the separately?(For instance, transmitting torque and allowing for radial move-
final production documents. ment by means of a flexible shaft or by means of a stiff shaft plus a special
Unlike conceptual design, embodiment design involves a large number of coupling.)
corrective steps in which analysis and synthesisconstantly alternate and comple- 4. Preliminary layouts and form designs for the embodiment-determining
ment each other. This explains why the familiar methods underlying the seorch main function carriers must be developed; that is, the general arrangement,
Jor solutions and evaluatior?must be complemented with methods facilitating thc component shapesand materials must be determined provisionally. To that end,
identification of errors (design faults) and optimisation. The collection o.l it is advisable to work systematicallythrough the first three headings of the
inlrtrmution on materials, manufacturing processes,repeat parts and standards checklist (Figure 6.2). The result must meet the overall spatial constraints and
involvcs a considerableeffort.
'l'ltc thcn bc completed so that all the relevant main functions are fulfilled (for
c m b o d i m c n t p r o c e s si s c o m p l e x i n t h a t : instancc by spccifying the minimum diameters of drive shafts, provisional gear
- n l a n y i r c t i o n sh a v c t o b e p c r f o r m c c ls i n r u l t i r n c o u s l y ;
r a t i o s , m i r t i r r r u r nw a l l t h i c k n c s sc t c ) . K n o w n s o l u t i o n so r e x i s t i n gc o m p o n e n t s
- ' s o n l c s t c p sh a v c t < lb c r c p c i r t c ci lr t t r l r i g h c rl c v c l o l ' i n l i l r r n i r t i o ni;r n c l ( r c p c a t p a r t s . s t i r n c l a r dp a r t s c t c ) n r u s l l r c s h o w n i n s i m p l i f i e df o r m . I t m a y b e
- - i t t l t l i t i o t t si r t t di r l t c r i r t i o n si n o n c i r r c i rl r i r v cl c p c r c u s s i o n o
s n l h c c x i s t i n gr l c s i g r r usclul to stirrt working orr sclcctct[lrcits rlttly, conrhiningthese later into
itt rllhcrlrrcirs. p r c l i t r r i r t i t rlvl t y o t t l s .
l f c c i r t t s cr l l t l t i s . i t i s r r o t r r l u ' ; r v s; x r r r r b l g t r l d r n w u p i l s l r i c t p l i r r r l i l r t l r t . 5 . ( ) t t c ( t 1 t l l ( l r cs r t i l l r l r l cP t c l i t t t i l t ; r r r ' l ; t v r l tltl ll rt l $ ll ) c s c l c c t c t il t t l t c c r l r t l i t t t c c
168 6 Embodiment dcsign 6.1 Steps of embodiment design r69

II Headings
Function
Examples
ls thestipulated
Whatauxiliary
function
lulfilled?
functions
areneeded?
t
lnlormation
principle
Working Dothechosen
thedesired
working
effects
principles
produce
andadvantages?
I Whatdisturbing
factors
maybeexpected?
of spatial
scaledrawings
Produce constraints

embodiment-determining
ldentifv carriers
mainluncti0n
I
Definition
Layout
andformdesign Dothechosen
overall
layout,
comp0nent
shapes,
adequate

adequate
materials provide:
anddimensions

stability
(strength)
durability
permissible
deformation(stiffness)

freedomfromresonance
E; unimpeded expansion
Developpreliminary andt0rmdesigns
layouts acceptable
corrosi0nandwearwiththe
L - -
carriers
maintunction
fortheembodiment-determininq stipulated
service
lifeandloads?
Safety Haveall thefactors
alfecling
lhe
preliminary
layouts safetyof thec0mponents,
ol thelunction,
suitable
Select
ol theoperation
andol theenvironmentbeen
takenintoaccount?
Developpreliminary andformdesigns
layouts Creatlon
Erfnomics Havethemanmachine relationships
been
fortheremaining carriers
mainfunction takenintoaccount?
Have unnecessary
human stressor injur;ous
functions
to auxiliary
forsolutions lactors
beenavoided?
Search c
o
beenpaidto goodphysical
Hasattention layout?
E

torthematnfunction E Production Hastherebeen

a technological
and
Develop
detailed andformdesigns
layouts
carrlers
E economic ol theproduction
analysis procedure?
carriers compatibility
ensuring luncti0n
withtheauxiliary q
E
control
Quality Canthenecessary
checks
beapplied
E andafterproduction
during 0r at anyother
Devel0p andlormdesigns
layouts
detailed lunction
lortheauxillary required
time,
andhave
theybeen specif
ed?
and complete
carriers layouts
the0verall
Evaluation Assembly Canall theinternal
andexternal
E
cnecK assembly processes
beperformed
simply
and
Check layouts
theoverall
andrefine
- II Transport
in thecorrect
order?
Havethernternal
andexternal
transp0rt
criteria conditions
andrisksbeen
Evaluate andecon0mic
technical
aqainst
I intoaccount?
examined
andtaken
Decision

+
Creation
Onprrlinn Haveall thefactors
operation,
influencing
suchasnoise,
etcbeenconsrdered?
the
vibration,
handling,

Check factors
anddisturbing
lorerr0rs
c

E
c
+
Eval
uation
cnecK
Maintenance

Costs
Canmaintenance,

Have
inspection
beeasilyperformed
thestipulated
andoverhaul
andchecked?
costlimitsbeen
observed?
6

E
II Willadditional
operational
or subsidrary
costs
arise?
Schedu
les Canthedelivery
datesbemet?
I
I +
Decision
Arethere
design
mightimprove
modifications
that
thedelverysituation?

l " i g u r c6 2 . ( ' h c c k l i s tf o r e m b t t d i m c n tc l c s i g r r

l r i g r r r c( r L S t c p so l c r r t b o r l i t t t r , t' rl ct tr t g n
+
 6 2 Checklist for embodiment desisn NI
6 Embodiment desisn
170
15. Conclude the embodiment design phase by preparing a preliminary parts
and with the
with the proceduresdescribed in 5.6 (modified if necessary) list and preliminary production documents.
checklist(see6.2). 16. Fix the definitive layout design and pass on to the detail design phase.
for
6. PreliminarY laYouts and form designs must now be developed In the embodiment phase, unlike the conceptual phase, it is not necessaryto
considered
the remaining main function carriers thit have not yet been lay down special methods for every individual step.
until
becauseknown solutionsexist or they are not embodiment-determining The representation of the layout and form designs may be based on standard
this stage. drawing conventions or, if necessary,on simplified scale drawings, as suggested
as support'
7. Next, determine what essential auxiliary functions (such by Liipertz 16.122).
exploit known
retention, sealingand cooling) are neededand, where possible' The searchfor solutions for auxiliary functions and other subsidiary problems
solutions)' If this
solutions (such as repeat piitr, stundardparts, catalogue is based either on the procedure described in Chapter 5, but simplified as far as
the procedures already
proves impossible,s"ar.h ior specialsolutions,using possible, or else directly on catalogues.Requirements, functions and solutions
described(ChaPter5). with appropriate classifying criteria have already been elaborated.
carriersmust now
8. Detailed liyouts and form designsfor the main function The embodiment (layout and form designs) of the function carriers is based on
design rules and guidelines
'andin accordancewith thi embodiment
be developed
regulations, detailed the checklist and involves reference to the principles of mechanics and to
6.5), with due attention to standards,
i*" o: problem of compatibility structures and materials technology. It calls for calculations ranging from the
calculationsand experimentalfindings,and alsoto the
If necessary,divide simplest to complex differential equations or the method of finite elements
with those auxiliary functions that have now been solved. applied with the help of computers. For these calculations, the reader is referred
into assemblies or areasthat can be elaborated individually'
to tfe literature listed in 6.5.1, and for even more complex calculationsto the
for the auxiliary
9. Proceedto developthe detailedlayoutsand form designs sp/cial literature. In addition, fixed rules and principles, to be elaborated later,
parts. If necessary' refine the
fungtion carriers,addin! standardand bought-out must be followed.
all function carriersinto overall
designof the main funcii,oncarriersandcombine Because of the fundamental importance of the identification of errors (design
layouts. faults) in several of the steps, the reader is especiallyreferred to 6.6.
compatibility,
10. check the overall layoutsfor mistakesin function' spatial In the elaboration of embodiment designs,many details have to be clarified,
p.rfor-un"e, durability eic by reference- to the-.checklist(see 6'2) and the
confirmed or optimised. The more closely they are examined, the more obvious
Then refine step by step.
iault_eliminationmethod outlined in 6.6. it becomes whether the right solution concept has been chosen. It may appear
(see6'7)'
11. Evaluatethe layoutsagainsttechnicaland economiccriteria that this or that requirement cannot be met, or that certain characteristicsof the
to be put in more concrete
If a particular project requires several.concepts chosen concept are unsuitable. If this is discovered during the embodiment
embodiment process must not, of course, be
form piior to evaiuaiion,then the phase, it is advisable to re-examine the procedure adopted in the conceptual
of the variants demands' so that the final
prr.rrr"d beyond what the evaluation phase, for no embodiment design, however perfect, can hope to correct a poor
economicallyas
iayout designcan be determinedand elaboratedas quickly and solution concept. This is equally true of the solution principles applicable to the
various sub-functions.
is thus possible,in somecases,to take a
However, even the most promising solution concept can cause difficulties in
on carriershavereachedthe preliminary
detail .design. This often happens because various features were originally
:cisionwill haveto be deferreduntil after
'::'#ii treated as subordinate or as not in need of further clarification. Attempts to

ffi:'*:*::il:-:l;"H,Tffi solve these sub-problems compel the designer to reiterate the appropriate steps
while retaining the chosen solution concept.
evaluationis Possible.
72. Fix the PreliminarYlaYout'
13.optimiseand"o-pt"t"theformdesignsfortheselectedlayoutby
in the courseof the
elimination of the weak points that have been identified 6.2 Checklist for embodiment design
evaluation.If it shouldprove advantageous, repeatthe previousstepsand adopt
suitablesub-solutionsfrom lessfavouredvariants' Embodiment design is characterisedby repeateddeliberationand verification
1 4 . C h e c k t h i s l a y o u t d e s i g n f o r e r r o r s ( d e s i g n f a u l t s ) i n f u n c t i o n , s p a t i a(ls e e6 . l ) .
factors' Make what
compatibility etc (sel 6.\ anJ for the effectsof disturbing Evcry embodimentdesign is an attempt to fulfil a given function with
feasibilitymust bc
improvementsmay be needed.The technicaland economic appropriutelayout, componentshapcsand materials.Thc proccssstartswith
established at this point at the latest'
172 6 Embodiment design
preliminary scale layout drawings based on spatial requirements and a rough
analysis, and proceeds to consider safety, ergonomics, production, assembly,
operation, maintenance and costs.
In dealing with these factors, the designer will discover a large number of
interrelationships, so that his approach must be progressive as well as reiterative
(verification and correction). Notwithstanding this double character, however,
his approach must always be such as to allow the speedy identification of those
problems that must be solved first.
Though individual factors may be closely interrelated, the designer can derive
important checklist headingsfrom the general objectives and constraints(2.1.6)
which, moreover, provide him with a useful procedural order and a systematic
check of each step in turn. The checklist thus not only provides a strong mental
impetus, but also ensures that nothing essential is forgotten in the embodiment
phase (see Figure 6.2).
All in all, reference to the headings will help the designer to develop and test
his progress in a systematic and time-saving way. Each heading should be
examined in turn, regardless of its interrelationship with the rest.
The actual sequence is no indication of the relative importance of the various
headings,but ensuresa systematicapproach. For instance,it would be futile to
deal with assembly problems before ascertaining if the required performance or
minimum durability is ensured. The checklistthus provides a consistentscrutiny
of embodiment design and one that is easily memorised.
6.3 Basic rules of embodimentdesign
The following basic rules apply to all embodiment designs. If they are ignored,
breakdowns or accidentsmay occur. They underlie nearly all the steps listed in
6.1. When used in conjunction with the checklist (Figure 6.2) and with the
design fault identification method (see 6.6) they also help with selection and
evaluation.
The basic rules of clarity, simplicity and safety are derived from the general
objectives, that is:
- fulfilment of the technical function;
- economic feasibility; and
- individual and environmental safety.
The literature contains numerous rules of, and guidelines for, embodimenl
d e s i g n 1 6 . 1 2 7 , 6 . 1 2 8 , 6 . 1 4 5 , 6 . 1 5 2 , 6 . 1 1 0 1 .O n c l o s e r a n a l y s i si t a p p e a r s t h a t
clarity, simplicity and safety are fundamental to all of them.
Clarity, that is clarity of function or the lack of ambiguity of a dcsign.
facilitatesreliable prediction of the performanceof the end product and in mitny
casessavestime and costly analyses.
Simplic:ity generalty guarantees economic l'casibility. A smallcr nutrrbcr tll'
c ( ) r n p o n c n t si t n c ls i n t p l c s h i t p c si t r c p r o c l t t c c dn t < l r cq u i c k l y a n d c a s i l y .
6 3 Basic rules ol embodiment desisn n3
Safety imposes a consistent approach to the problems of strength, reliability,
accident prevention and the protection of the environment.
In short, by observing the three basic rules, the designer can increase his
chancesof successbecausethey focus his attention on, and help him to combine,
functional efficiency, economy and safety. Without this combination no satisfac-
tory solution is likely to emerge.
6.3.1 Clarity
In what follows we shall be applying the basic rule of clarity to the various
headings of the checklist (Figure 6.2):
Function
Within a given function structure, an unambiguous interrelationship between
the various sub-functions and the appropriate inputs and outputs must be
guaranteed.
W/rking principle
The chosen working principle must, in respect of the physical effects:
- reveal a clear relationship between cause and effect, thus ensuring an
appropriate and economical layout;
- guarantee an orderly flow of energy, material and signals.
If it does not, undesirable and unpredictable effects such as excessiveforces,
deformations and wear may ensue.For this reason alone, it is advisableto avoid
the so-called'double restraints', the more so as they can causefurther difficulties
during production and assembly.
By paying attention to the deformations associatedwith a given loading, and
also to thermal expansion, the designer can make the necessaryallowancesfor
possible expansion in a given direction.
The widely used bearing pairs, with a locating and a non-locating bearing
Figure 6.3a), avoid'double restraints'and have a clearly defined behaviour.
stepped bearing pair (Figure 6.3b), on the other hand, should be specified
ly when the expected changes in length are negligible or when the resulting
is permissible. By contrast, a spring-loaded arrangement, in which which
: operating axial force Fu must not exceed the pre-load Fo, will permit a clear
finition of the force transmissionpath (see Figure 6.3c).
Combined bearing arrangements often present problems. The combination
in Figure 6.4a consistsof a needle roller bearing which is intended to
nsmit the radial forces and a ball bearins which is meant to transmit the axial
forces. Hclwever,this particular arrangementdoes not clearly define the
transmission pathfor the radialforces,becausethe innerandouterracesof both
bearingsarc rcstraincdradially.As a rcsultthc scrvicelife cannotbe predicted
accuratcly. Thc arrangcmcnt shownin F'igurc6.4/r.rrnthc othcr hand,satisfies
thc <'/arity
rulc with thc sanrcclcnrcnts.providcdthc dcsigncrcnsurcs,during
t74 6 Embodiment design 6 3 Basic rules of embodiment design r75

If these data are not available, the implementation must be based on

reasonable assumptionsand the expected service life specified accordingly. In
any case, the embodiment must be such that the loads can be defined and
calculated under all operating conditions.
No impairment of the function or the durability of a component must be
allowed to arise.
Similarly, behaviour in respect of stability, resonance,wear and corrosion
must be clearly established.
'for
Very often one comes across double restraints safetl"s sake'. Thus a
shaft-hub connection designed as a shrink fit will not have a better load-carrying
capacity if it is also provided with a key as in Figure 6.5. The extra element
merely ensurescorrect positioning in the circumferential sense,but becauseof
the reduction in the area at A,the resulting stressconcentration at B and the
presence of complicated and almost incalculable stressesaI C, it decreasesthe
strength in a drastic and fairly unpredictablemanner. Schmid [6.185] has shown
that an axially pre-loaded taper joint for the transmissionof torque requires a
spiralling motion when the hub is assembledon the shaft in order to ensure a
religble shrink fit, and the use of a key would prevent this.
Figure 6.6 shows a housing adapter for a centrifugal pump which can be used
to provide various annulus profiles to fit different blade shapes so that new
Figure6.3 housings need not be constructed for each case. Unless the intermediate
Figure6.4
pressure in the gap between the adapter and the housing can be clearly

Figure6.4.Combinedrolling-element bearing:
(a) Transmission
pathof radialforcesnot clear;(b) combinedrollingbearingwith the
sameelementsasin (a), but clearidentification
of the transmission
pathsof theradialancl
axialforces
pressure balancing
assembly,that the right-hand race has enough radial play in the housing, thus t0 ensure
Passage,
making certain that the ball bearing transmits axial forces only. l.l7 rA
llal P;= Po
Figure 6.6
Layout and form design
F i g u r c 6 5 . ( ' o n r b i n c csl h i r l t - h u t r c o l r l t c c t i o r t b y n t c a n s o f s h r i n k f i t a n d kAenye x a m p l e
T h e l a y o u t ( g e n e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t ) a n d f o r m d e s i g n ( s h a p e sa n d r n a t c r i a l s ) o l n o t r r p p l y i n gt h c l l l i r r c i p l co l c l i r r i t y .
r c q u i r e a c l e a r d e f i n i t i o r ro l ' t h c m a g n i t u d c . t y p c , f r c q u e n c y a n d c l u r a t i o n o l \
klads. l r i g u r c( r , ( r ,I l o u s i t t gl t l u p l c r i t t i t c o l t l - w i t l c ll ) t l t t t l )
176 6 Embodiment design 6 3 B a s i c r u l e so f e m b o d i m e n t d e s i g n n7

regulated, or some other means of attachment is used, the adapter might travel then the enclosed condensate may evaporate and produce an unpredictable
upwards and damage the blades by rubbing against them' increase in pressure inside the valve housing. The result is either a ruptured
This is particularly true when similar fits (H7-j6) are chosen for the two housing or serious damage to the housing cover connection. If the latter is
locating diameters which are approximately the same size. This is because, self-sealing,serious accidentsmay ensuesince, in contrastto what happenswith
depending on manufacturing tolerances and working temperature, gaps may overloaded bolted flange connections,there is no preliminary leakageand hence
unknown
upp"u., tile relative size of which is unpredictable and which produce no warnlng.
intermediate pressuresin the space between the adapter and the housing. The The danger lies in the failure to specify clear operational and loading
solution shown in Figure 6.6 (detail) ensures, by means of the speciallydesigned conditions. Possibleremedies are as follows:
- Connect the inner chamber of the gate valve housing to an appropriate steam
connecting passageA (which must have a flow area roughly four to five times
greater thin the-maximum gap area that might appear at the upper locating pipe, operational conditions permitting (purru": ppip.).
-Protect the valve housing againstexcesspressure (puu1u.
Iiameter), a clearly definable intermediate pressure corresponding to the lower restricted).
- Drain the valve housing, thus avoiding collection of condensate (puulu"=
inlet preisure of the pump. As a result the housing adapter is always pressed
downwards when the pump is in operation, and attachments are only needed as Pe*t..nol).
-
locating aids for assemblyand to prevent any tendency of the adapter to rotate' Design valves in such a way as to minimise the housing volume (collection of
SeriJus damagehas been reported in gate valveswhose operational or loading condensatekept low).
conditions were not clearly defined [6.80,6.81]. When closed, gate valves Similar phenomena in welded membrane seals are discussedin [6.154].
separate, say, two steam pipes and at the same time close off the inside of the
Safetv
vaive housing. The result is a small, self-containedpressurechamber as in Figure
6.7. If condensate has collected in the lower part of the valve housing, and S e 6 b a s i cr u l e i n 6 . 3 . 3 .
steam appearson the inlet side with the valve closed so that the valve is heated,
Ergonomics
In the man-machine relationship, the correct operation must be ensured by the
logical layout of the equipment and of the controls.

Production and Quality Control

These must be facilitated by:
- clear and comprehensive data in the form of drawings,parts lists and
instructions;
- the designer's insistence on adherence to the prescribedproductionand
organisationalprocedures.

bly and Transport

uch the same is true of assemblyand transport. A planned assemblysequence
nting mistakes should be incorporated in the design (see 6.5.7).

O p eration and Mainte nsnce

ar installation intructions and the appropriate embodiment design must
ensure that:
the performance is easily checked; and
maintenance involves the smallestpossible variety of tools and equipment.

6.3.2 Simplicity
'sirnlllc' rncilns 'not
l j i g u l c ( r , 7 ,( i i r t c v l l v c w i t l t r c l i t t i v c l yl i r r g c For tccluticll applicationsthc wrlrcl complcx', 'casily
krwcr collc('linl nlcil u t t r l c r s t r x l tilu' t d ' c i r s i l yd t l r t c ' .
n8 (r Embodimcnt design
6 3 Basic rules ol cmboclitncnl dcsrgn t79

A solution seemssimpler if it can be effected with fewer components, because Ergonomics

the probability of lower production costs, less wear and lower maintenance is
The man-machine relationship should also be simple and can be significantly
then greater. However, this is only true if the layout and shapes of the
improved by means of:
components are kept simple. Hence the designer should always aim at the - sensibleoperating procedures;
minimum number of components with the simplest shapes[6.118, 6.144,6.154]. - c l e a r p h y s i c a ll a y o u t ; a n d
As a rule, however, a compromise has to be made: fulfilment of the function - easily comprehensiblesignals.
always demands a certain number of components. Cost-efficiency often imposes
a decision between numerous components with simple shapesbut with greater Production and Quality Control
overall costs, and a single and cheaper cast component with the greater
Production and quality control can be simplified, that is speeded up and
uncertainty it may entail in delivery.
improved, if:
Returning to the checklist: - geometrical shapespermit the use of well-established,time-savingmethods;
- the manufacturing methods involve short setting up and waiting times; and
Function
-shapes are chosen to facilitate the inspection process.
In principle, only a minimum number and a clear and consistentcombination of
Leyer, discussingchangesin manufacturingmethods [6. 119],usesthe example
sub-functionswill be pursued during considerationof the function structure.
of a sliding control valve approximately 100mm long to demonstrate how the
Working Principle replacementof a complicated castingby a brazed product made of geometrically
simple turned parts helped to overcome difficulties and paved the way for more
In selectingworking principles, only those involving a small number of processes
ecafromicalproduction.
and components; having obvious validity; and involving low costsare taken into
Pursuing his line of approach, we discover that further simplifications are
consideration.
'simpler' in individual casesdependson the problem and the possible (Figure 6.8). Step 3 helps to simplify the geometrical shape of the
What constitutes
central, tubular part. Step 4 (fewer parts) can be taken when the surfaceareasat
constralnts.
r i g h t a n g l e st o t h e v a l v e a x i s n e e d n o t b e r e t a i n e d .
In the development of the one-handedmixing tap (see 5.9.2) several solution
principles were proposed. One group (Figure 5.90) involved two independent
adjustments in directions tangential to the valve seat face (types of motion:
translation and rotation). The other group (Figure 5.91), though involving only
movements in one direction (normal or tangential to the seat face) required an
additional coupling mechanism to convert the two single adjustments into one
direction of movement. Quite apart from the fact that, in the secondgroup, the
pre-set temperature is often lost when the tap is shut off, all solutions
represented in Figure 5.91 involve a greater design effort than does the first
group. Hence the designer should always begin with a group such as that
depicted in Figure 5.90.

Layout and form design

Here the simplicity rule requires:
- geometrical shapes which can be analysed simply for strength and stiffness;
- symmetrical shapes which provide clearer identification of deformations
during production and under mechanicalor thermal loads.
In many cases,the designer can reduce the work of calculation and experi-
mentation significantly if he tries, by means of a simple design, to facilitate thc
a p p l i c a t i o no f b a s i cm a t h e m a t i c a lp r i n c i p l e s .
Safety
S c c u r r r l c r( r . 3 . 3 .
r e 6 . 8 . S i m p l i f i c a t i o no f a s l i d i n gc o n r r o lv a l v e ( a p p r o x 1 0 0m m l o n g )
[6.l l9].
rleted by steps3 and 4
Castin^gdifficult and expensive;2 Improvement by splitting into simple, brazed, parts;
simplification of central tubular part; 4 Further simpiificati*on possibility
A f u r t h c r c x i r r r r p l ei s p n l v i c l c cbl y t h e o n e - h a n d e dm i x i n g t a p d i s c u s s e de a r l i e r
c l c s i g no l ' t h c l c v c r i r r r a n g c n r c nst h o w n i n F i g u r c 6 . 9 i s e x p e n s i v et o m a k e
'l'hc
c l i l ' l i c u lt to c l c i r n( s l i t s ,o l l c n r c c c s s c s ) . o n c s l l r w n i n F i g u r e6 . l 0 i s m u c h
r l c r i t l t t l i t l s r tr l l t t r cs t t i t i r l l l cl i r r l r l r t g c rp r r l t l r r c t i r l lrtt r r t s . ' l ' h cl c v c r . w h o s cc n c l
C t t t ts l i t l c i l t l ( l r ( t l i t l ci r t : t c i t t ' t t r t t l c r c r l l i Ei r rl ' ( ) o v cr,' c t p r i r eisr s r r r i r l l crrr r r r r r b cort '
 6 Embodiment design 6 3 Basic rules ol ernbodiment design 181
180

F i g u r e6 . 1 1 .A d j u s t a b l e
sealing
r i n go f a n i n d u s t r i aslt e a mt u r b i n e a; d j u s t m e n o
t sn A i n
the samesenseproduceverticalmovement,adjustments at A in the oppositesense
producea rotationaboutB that approximates to a horizontalmouement
Figure6.9 Figure6.10
Figure 6.9. Proposedlever arrangementfor a one-handedmixing tap with translational
and rotational movements
Operation and maintenance
Figure 6.10. Simpler solution with improved embodiment (basedon Schulte) With respect to operation and maintenance, the simplicity rule means:
- the operation must be possible without special or complicated instructions;
-the sequenceof operations must be clear and simple, and any deviations
parts and avoids wear in areas that are difficult to readjust. All in all, therefore,
or
faults easily identified; and
this solution is by far the better. -maintenance must not be clumsy, laborious and time-consuming.

Assembly and transport

Assembly is simplified, that is facilitated, speeded up, and rendered more 6.3.3 Safety
reliable, if:
I Type and scope of safety techniques
- the components to be assembledcan be identified easily;
-the assemblyinstructions can be followed easily and quickly; fety considerationsaffect both the reliable fulfilment of technical functions
-no adjustment has to be repeated; and also the protection of man and the environment. The designerhas recourse
- reassemblyof previously assembledcomponents is avoided (see 6.5.7). safetytechniquesthat, following16.43],may be classified
as:
During assembiy,the sealing ring of a small steam turbine has to be adjusted direct;
vertically and horizontally with the turbine shaft already assembled,to ensure indirect;or
uniform clearance around the labyrinth seal. Doing this without having to warning.
remove the shaft several times for adjustment poses a problem which may bc In general, the designer should try to guarantee safety by the direct method,
solved by the design shown in Figure 6.11: the adjustment can be made at thc t is by choosinga solutionthat precludesdangerfrom the outset.only when
joint, roiation of the adjustment screws(A) in the same senseproducing vertical proves impossible should he have recourse to indirect safety methods, in
movement only, and rotation in opposite sensesproducing a tilting movemen( er words,constructspecialprotectivesystems(see6.3.3.3)[6.44].Warning
about pivot (B) that approximates to horizontal movement. The pivot itsell y systems, which merely point out dangers and indicate danger areas,
must, however, allow for vertical movement during the adjustment and also for ld be avoided by the designer and should only be used as a last resort and
radial heat expansionwhen the turbine is operating. l'his is achicvcclwith a fcw vcr ils a shortcut,
easily produ."d of simplc shal'rc. A suititlllc ilrrilngclncnt tlf lltc I n t h c s o l u t i o n o f r r t c c h n i c a lp r < l b l c r r t ,t h c c n g i n c c r i s l ' a c c d w i t h s e v e r a l
"1"-"nts c o n s t r i l i n t sn. o t i r l l o l ' w h i c h c i r r rI t c l t o p c l ( ) ( ) v c r c o l l l cs i r n u l t i r n c < l u s l y .
s u r f a c e s ,m o r e o v e r , g l ' r v i a t c st h c n c c t l t ( ) s c c u r c l h c p i v o t p i n w i t h i t c l c l i t i o n i t l
l o c k i n g c l c r r r c n l s :i t i s l o c i r t c r li n s r r c l ti r w r t y l l t t t l i t c t l n t t o tI ' i t l lr l t l t . I l c r t r u s t r r c v c r t h c l c s ss t r i v c t o p r o v i d c I t o l u l i o n l l t i r l c o r n c s l l c i l r c s t l o
t82 6 Embodiment design 6 3 Basic rules of ernbodimelrtclesign 183

The safe-life principle demands that all components and their connections be
satisfying all the requirements. A single constraint may, under certain circum-
constructed in such a way as to allow them to operate without breakdown or
stances,put the realisation of the whole project in doubt.
malfunction throughout their anticipated life.
Thus a high demand for safety can greatly complicate a design and, by
This is ensured by:
reducing the clarity, may even lower the inherent safety of the product.
- the clear specification of the operating conditions and envilonmental factors,
Moreover, safety provisions may also render a product uneconomic and lead to
such as the anticipated loads, service life etc; \
its abandonment.
-adequately safe embodiment based on proven principles and calculations;
Such cases,however, are exceptional becausesafety and economy generally
- numerous and thorough inspectionsduring production and assembly;
go hand in hand. This is particularly true of expensive and complex plant and
- the analysisof components or systemsto determine their durability when they
machines. Only smooth, accident-freeand safe operation can ensure long-term
Protection againstaccidentsor damage,moreover' goeshand are overloaded (load levels and/or running time) or subjected to adverse
economic Success.
environmental influences; and
in hand with reliability [6.48, 6.226] which makes it possible to operate a
-the determination of the limits of safe operation, due regard being paid to
machine to full capacity, even though lack of reliability does not necessarilylead
possible breakdowns.
to accidentsor damage. A11in all it is therefore advisableto achieve safety by
It is characteristicof this principle that it basessafety exclusivelyon accurate
treating direct methods as an integral part of the system.
qualitative and quantitative knowledge of all the influences at work or on the
There are four special categoriesof safety technology, namely:
determination of the limits of failure-free operation.
l. Component safety, which concerns the protection of components against
The application of this principle calls for a great deal of experience, or for
fracture, inadmissible deformation, instability etc. The durability of a compo-
costly and time-consumingpreliminary investigations,and for continuousmoni-
nent under given loads over a fixed time must be consideredin connection with
toring of the state of components. If a failure should neverthelessoccur, and if a
the materials and manufacturing method used.
safe life is essential.then as a rule there will be a seriousaccident. for instance
2. Functional safety, which concerns the safe operation and reliability of plant
the fracture of an aeroplane wing or the collapse of a bridge.
or machines designed for specific tasks by the appropriate combination of
The fail-safe principle allows for the failure of a system function or for a
assemblies and components. It involves the avoidance of dangerous and
component fracture during the service life by ensuring that no grave conse-
economically undesirable operating conditions.
quences ensue. To that end:
3. Operator safety concerns the safety of human beings, that is the protection
-a function or capacity, however small, must be preserved to prevent
of their physical and mental health while operating the plant or machine.
dangerousconditions;
4. Environmental safety concerns the safety of human beings not directly
- a restricted function must be fulfilled by the failing component or by some
involved in operating the plant or machine and the protection of the environ-
other component until such time as the plant or machine can be put out of
ment against harmful effects. Becauseof the growth of technology and popula-
operation without danger;
tions, this category has become one of acute importance.
-the failure or breakdown must be identifiable; and
For the designer, all four categoriesare intimately connected.Thus, compo-
- the effect of the failing component on the overall safety of the system must be
nent safety influences functional safety and operator safety. Functional safety
assessable.
may, under certain circumstances,affect component safety, and, in the case of
In essence,the impairment of a main function must be signalled. The signal
damage, all can endangerman and his environment in many ways. Therefore the
can take various forms-increasing vibrations, loss of sealing, loss of power,
designer should pay equal heed to all four categories[6'158].
slowing down-each without causing immediate danger. In addition, special
monitoring systems may be provided to indicate the incipient failure to the
2 Direct safety PrinciPles operator. Their layout should be governed by the general principles of protec-
tive systems.
Direct safety methods aim at achieving safety through systems or components
The fail-safe principle presupposesknowledge of the consequencesof failure
directly involved in the perforrlance of a particular task'
and provides a means for taking over the impaired function.
To ensure the safe functioning and durability of components, designerscan
By way of example, let us consider a spherical rubber element in an elastic
a d o p t o n e o f s e v e r a ls a f e t y p r i n c i p l e s[ 6 . 1 - 5 8 1B. a s i c a l l y ,t h e r e a r e t h r e e s u c h
c o u p l i n g ( F i g u r c 6 . l 2 ) . T h e f i r s t v i s i b l cc r a c k a p p e a r so n t h e o u t e r l a y e r b u t t h e
principles, namely:
- t h e s a f e - l i f ep r i n c i p l c ; f u r t c t i r l ni s n o t y c t i r n p a i r e c l( S t i r t c l ) . O n l y w h c n t h c n u m b e r o f r e v o l u t i o n s
- t h c f i t i l - s a l cp r i n c i p l c :i r r l c l u t r d c r l o i r c li s i n c r c i r s c r cl k l c st h c s t i l l r t c s sl r c F , i rtto r l c c r c i r s cw i t h a c i l n s c c l u c n l
- - t h c r c t l r t r t r l i t r t lcl vr i t t c i p l c . c l u r n g ci n t h c b c h i r v i o r r o l l t l r c c o r r p l i r r gw. l r i e hn l r n i l ' c s l si t s c l l ' ,l o r i n s t i r n c cb. y i r
184 (r Ernbodinreut
design 6 3 Basic rulesof ernbodiment design 185

without loss of essential information. Redundancy is often used delitrerately to

to : 30l/s allow for transmissionlosses,and hence to safeguardthe system [6.69].
Redundant safety arrangements lead to an increase in safety, provided that
the breakdown of a particular element of the system is not dangerous in itself
_ 1st crack and that other elements, arranged in parallel or in series, can take over its
function fully or at least in part.
- -l
^' rqo
@40mm
l

State
@

1stcrack layer
at edgeof rubber
r 50 0 0
N
^ lTlfi'l
I
- 1 00 0 0
C
Figure6.13.Fastening
of components:
coveringof the boltedconnectionmaintains
functionandpreventsbrokenpartsmigratingin the eventof bolt failure
6
s000

The provision of several engines in aeroplanes, of multistrand cable for a

high-voltage transmission line, and of parallel supply lines or generators, all
Noofrevsunder
Load ensure that, should a particular element break down, the function is not
Figure6.12.Fail-safe andstiffness
behaviourof an elasticcoupling:crack-state against completefy impaired. In that case, we speak of active redundancy, becauseall
n u m b e ro f r e v o l u t i o n s the components are actively involved. Partial breakdownslead to a correspond-
ing reduction in performance.
If reserve elements (for instance alternative boiler feed pumps)-usually of
lowering of the critical speed (State 2). With further operation, the crack grows the same type and size-are provided and put into operation during break-
larger and causesthe stiffnessto decreasestill further (State 3), but even if the downs, then we speak of passive redundancy.
crack went right through, there would not be complete failure of the coupling. If a multiple arrangement is to be equal in function but different in working
No sudden effect with serious consequencesneed therefore be feared. principle, then we have principle redundancy.
Another example is the behaviour of flange bolts made of tough material Depending on the situation, safety-enhancingelements can be arranged in
which, on overloading, relax. Their impaired function is indicated by the parallef (parallel redundancy), for instance emergency oil pumps, or in series
resulting loss in flange sealing but does not give rise to sudden failure. (seriesredundancy), for instance filter installations. In many cases,layouts in
Figure 6.13 illustratestwo safe methods of fastening components.The means parallel or serieswill not suffice and crossoverlinks will have to be introduced to
of attachment should be so designed that, even if the bolts begin to fail, the guaranteetransmissiondespitethe breakdown of severalelements(Figure 6.14).
mountings remain in place, no broken parts can migrate and the equipment In a number of monitoring systems, signals are collected in parallel and
continues to function to some extent [6.154]. c<rmparcd with one another. Selectiveredundancy (two out of three) and
T h e r e d u n d a n c yp r i n c i p l e p r o v i d e s a n o t h c r n l c i r n s o l ' i n c r c a s i r t gb o t h t h c utmpurative rcdundancy arrangementsare shown in Figure 6.14.
s a f e t y a n d t h e r e l i a b i l i t yo f s y s t c n r s . l i , c c l t t n c l i t n cl iyt y o u t sc a n n o t , h o w c v c r , r c p l a c c t h c s a f e - l i f eo r f a i l - s a f ep r i n c i -
I n c o m m o n u s a g c , r c c l u n c l a n c yn l c i l n s s t r p c r l l u i l y( ) r c x c c s s .l t t i t t l i r r n t i t t i o t t p l c s , ' l ' w oc i t b l cc i t r so l t c r i r l i n gi n l l i r r i r l l cwl i l l . l d r r r i t t c c l l yi n
, c r c a s ct h c r c l i a b i l i t y
t h c o r y , r c c l u n r l i r n cryc l er s t o t h i r l l ' r i r c l i o rot l u l n c r t u g c w h i c l t t t t i r yb c c l i l t t i n i t t c t l t t l p i r s s c l t g c t ' t r i t t t s p.r lbr ul t c o r t t r i l ) u l cn r l l h i r t gt o l h c l ) i l s s c n g c r s ' s i r l c t y . ' l ' h c
186 6 Embodiment dcsign 6 3 B a s i c r u l e s o f e m b o d i n . r e n td e s i s n r87

Noredundancy

lel-redundancy
Paral

Series-redundancy
Plant
SelectiveredundancY
(2 outof 3)
0uartet-redundancY
-f-l
U--
I
l
t --ii.^
Fr Switchollil signals
0uartet-cross- or
dilterent gure 6 15. Rotor-btade attachment of a helicopter basedon the principte of the division
redundancy Yjusione signat tasks (Messerschmitt-Bolkowsystem)
indicates
critical
i condltion
Principleredundancy Plant k. Complicatedjoints and shapes are avoided and a high safety level is
in parallel: Comparative redundancY tained.
working prtnciple
of A differslromB
Figure6.14.Redundantarrangements Indirect safety principles

redundant layout of aeroplane engines will not increase safety if any of the
engines has a tendency to explode and hence to endanger the system.
In short, an increasein safety can only be guaranteedif the redundant element
satisfies the safe-life or the fail-safe principles.
Adherence to all the principles we have mentioned-that is the attainment of
safety in general-is greatly facilitated by the principle of the division of tasks
(see6.4.2) and by the two basic rules of clarity and simplicity, as we shall now try
to show with the help of an example.
The principle of the division of tasks and the clarity rule have been applied
with great consistencyto the construction of a helicopter rotor head (Figure
6.15), and help the designer to come up with a particularly safe construction
based on the safe-life principle. All four rotor blades exert a radial force on the
rotor head due to the centrifugal inertia forces, and a bending moment due to
the aerodynamic loading. The rotor blades must also be able to swivel so that
their angles of incidence can be changed.A high safety level is achieved by thc
following measures:
- A completely symmetrical layout so that the external bending moments and
the radial forces at the rotor head cancel out.
- The radial forces are transmitted exclusively by the tr:rsionally flexiblc
member Z to the main central component.
- T h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t i s o n l y t r a n s m i t t c ctl h r o u g h p a r t / l a n c li s t i t k c n b y t h c
r o l l e r b e a r i n g si n t h c r o t o r h c a c l ,
As a rcsult. cvcry corrrp()ncnlciln bc optimally dcsigncdin itccortlittrccwitlt ils
irect safety methods involve the use of special protective systems and
ive equipment. They are applied whenever direct safety methods prove
adequate. In what follows, we shall be consideringprotective systemsonly-
a discussionof protective equipment, that is equipment to shield danger
(for instance,machineguards),the readeris referredto $.aa].
ve Systems
tective systems serve either to render endangered plant or machinery
ically safe, which generally means putting it out of action or restricting
flow of energy or material; or to prevent any plant or machinery in a
ngerous state from being put into operation.
Very often, direct and indirect safety methods are inseparable.Thus, control
regulation systemsare not protective systemsas such, but often make
:llent first monitors(primaryprotection)in a safetychain.In that case,the
trol and regulation systemsmust embody certain propertiesof protective
ms.
The properties of protective systems should, in principle, be used in all
ms, provided that they can be incorporated without unacceptableextra cost
t2'7\.
In the layout of protective systcms,thc ftlllowing requirementsmust be taken
to consiclcrrtti<ltt:
'aning
rrc it pr()lcclivcsystcrnpttxlttccschllnfcf in the wtlrking conditionsol' a

188 6 Embodiment design
plant, a warning must be given so that the operating or supervisingstaff can, if
not eliminate the source of the danger, at least take the necessarycounter-
measures. Surprise effects should be avoided as far as possible. If a protective
system stops or prevents the operation of the plant, it ought to indicate the
reason.
Self-Monitoring
A protective system must be self-monitoring, that is, it must not only be
triggered when the system breaks down, but also by faults of its own. This
requirement is best satisfied by the closed circuit principle because, with it, the
energy needed for activating the safety device is stored and any disturbance of,
or fault in, the protective system will releasethat energy and switch off the plant
or machinery. The closed circuit principle can be used not only in electronic
protective systemsbut also in systemsusing other types of,energy.
In a hydraulic protective system based on the closed circuit principle (Figure
6.16), a pump .1 with a pressure-regulatingvalve 2 ensures a constant pre-
pressure pp. The protective system with the pressure p, is connected to the
pre-pressure system by means of an orifice 3. Under normal conditions, all
outlets are closed, so that the quick-action stop valve 4 is held open by the
pressurep, to admit the energy supply of the machine. In case of a faulty axial
shaft position, the piston valve 5 at the end of the shaft opens, the pressurep,
drops, and further energy supplies are cut off by the quick-action stop valve 4.
The same effect is produced by damageto the pre-pressureor protective system,
F i g u r e6 . 1 6 .H y d r a u l i c p r o t e c t i o n
systemto prevent incorrect axial
shaft positionsbasedon the closed
circuit principle
Figure 6.i7. Safetyfence contact
layout: (a) not self-rnonitoringif
s p r i n gf a i l s l ( b ) e v c n i n t l ' r cc a s co 1 '
s p r i n gl ' : r i l r r rtch c c o r t t i r c its
b r o k c nb y o w n w c i g l r t l( c ) c i r c t r i t l)it(l
c l o s c t bl v l r r rr r rl i t 0 i n i r l r r c c o u t t itt s w c l l . l t i s t t o t i r l w i r y sc l c r r r . l t o w c v c r , t ( ) w h i r t c x t c n t i r l l < l w a n c c
E
6 3 Basic rulcs of ernbodiment dcsign I fi()
for example by pipe fracture, lack of oil or pump failure. The system is
self-monitoring.
Figure 6.17 shows layouts of safety fence contacts,for example for a machine
guard. closed contacts signal safety fence in position. In layout a, failure of the
spring would close the contacts and give an incorrect signal. Layouts b and c
solve this problem in two different ways.
Multiple, multi-principle and independentprotective systems
If human life may be endangeredor if large-scaledamagehas to be averted, then
multiple (at least double) protective systemsbased on different principles and
independent of each other (primary and secondaryprotection) must be used.
Because a single protective system may break down, its mere doubling or
replication ensures greater safety: it is unlikely that all the systemswill fail at
once. This is, however, only true provided that the replicatedprotective systems
do not all fail due to a common fault. Safety is considerably increasedif the
double or multiple systems work independently of one another and are,
moreover, based on different working principles. In that case?common faults,
for instance due to corrosion, will not have catastrophic consequences:the
simultaneousbreakdown of all such systemsis highly improbable.
This requirement is met in the control of steam turbines for example (Figure
6.18). In the case of overspeeding,the energy supply is cut off by two systems
differing in principle. Increases in speed first bring in the regulating system
whose speed measurement and regulating valve are independent of, and
different in principle from, the quick-action shut-off system. (The simultaneous
hydraulic supply on the closed circuit principle is permissiblebecauseit involves
a common self-monitoring effect in that pump failure closesboth valves.) The
triggering values are staggered so that the regulating system is brought into
operation first and only if it should fail is the quick-action system activated.
Figure 6.19 depicts two methods of guarding againstexcesspressurebuild-up
in a pressure vessel. Mere doubling of the protective system would not help
against common faults, for instance against corrosion, use of wrong materials
etc. The use of two different working principles makes simultaneous break-
downs more unlikely.
It ought to be remembered that, in protective systems, the simultaneous
occurrence of different types of redundancy is possible or even necessary(for
example in parallel and principle redundancy: Figures 6.18 and 6.19).
4 Designing for safety
Here, too, the checklist (Figure 6.2) can prove a great help. Safety criteria must
be scrutinisedin respect of all the headings listed.
Func:tiotrand wnrking principle
I t i s i r r t p o r t a n tt o c s t a b l i s hw h e t h e r o r n o t t h e f u n c t i o n i s f u l f i l l e d s a f e l y a n d
rcliirlrly lry thc choscttsoltttion. Likcly fatlts irntldisntrbin14 I'actorsmust be taken
190 ( r E r n b o c l i m e n td c s i g n 6 3 Basic rules of ernbodimcnt design 191

case of new techniques and their application. It has been argued that technical
risks must be no greater than the risks man must expect from natural causes
should,
t6.921.However, this must be a matter for discretion. The final decision
in any case, reflect a responsible attitude towards mankind.

Layout and form design

External loads produce stressesin components. By analysiswe determine their
magnitude and frequency (steadyand/or alternating loads). The various types of
stressproduced can be determined by calculation or experiment.
F i g u r e6 . 1 8 D o u b l e - P r i n c i P l e Materials technology provides the designer with limiting values of stressfor
closed-circuitprotectivesystem particular conditions (tension, compression, bending, shear and torsion),
,
againstoverspending beyond which the material will fail. Since these valuesare usually obtained from
I e
tests on specimensand not from tests on the component itself, the stressesto
which the latter is subjected should be kept well within the limits if adequate
durability is to be guaranteed.
The ratio of the limiting stresso1 of the material to the acceptableworking
stress oyu'in the component is called the safety factor, SF : oyloy.
The value of the safety factor dependson uncertaintiesin the determinationof
Figure 6.19 Protectivesystetnagainst the limiting stress,on uncertaintiesin the load assumptions,on the calculation
excessivepressurebuild up in pressure method, on the manufacturing processesused, on the (uncertain) influence of
Doubling working vessels:(a) two safetyvalves(not safe
different shape, size and environment, and also on the probability and importance of
p n n c r p l e s againstcommon faults); possible failures.
(b) safetyvalve and shearplate, double
0 0 principle protective system The determination of safety factors still lacks generally valid criteria. An
investigation by the authors has shown that published recommended safety
factors cannot be classifiedby type of product, branch of engineering or such
must be made for exceptional, purely hypothetical, circumstancesthat could other criteria as toughnessof material, size of component, probability of failure
affect the function. etc. Tradition, figures based on one-off and often inadequately explained
The correct estimation of the scope and likelihood of a risk should be based on failures, hunches and experiencesare often the basis of numerical data from
the successivenegation of each of the functions to be fulfilled and on the analysis which no generally valid statementscan be derived.
of the likely consequences(see 6.6). Sabotageneed not necessarilybe consi- What figures are given in the literature must therefore be treated with
dered in this context, although general safety methods are likely to decreaseits circumspection.Their application usually calls for knowledge of the individual
effects. circumstances and of the special practices or regulations of the branch of
What we have to consider first and foremost are failures due to possible engineering in question.
disturbancesof the structure, operation and environment of a machine, and Toughness, that is the ability to undergo plastic deformation before failure
what preventive stepsshould be taken. Harmful effectsnot due to technological and thus relieve stress concentrationscaused by unevenly distributed loads, is
factors (such as operator ignorance) cannot be eliminated by technical systems one of the most important safety features any material can have. The usual
but must be considered and if possible limited. overspeedspinning tests of rotors with the correspondinglyhigh stressesthey set
A further question is whether the direct safety technique we have been up, and also the required overpressuretests of pressurevessels-provided that
discussingis adequate, or whether safety should be increased by additional they are built of tough materials-are good examples of the direct safety
protective systems.Finally, we might also ask whether, should it be impossiblc technique aimed at reducing stressconcentrationsin finished components.
t o m a k e a c l c q u a t es a f e t yp r o v i s i o n si n a p a r t i c u l a rc a s c ,t h e w h o l e p r o j e c t s h o u l t l Becausetoughnessis a crucial safety-enhancingproperty of materials, it is not
bc al'rancklnccl. c n o u g h s i r n p l yt o a i m a t g r e a t e ry i e l d s t r e n g t h .S i n c e ,i n g e n e r a l ,t h e t o u g h n e s s
'f'ltc:tnswcr g l ' r r r l l c r i i r l s c l c c r c a s e sw i t h i n c r e a s i n gy i e l d s t r e n g t h ,i t i s e s s e n t i a lt o e n s u r e
c l c p c n c l so n t h c d e g r c ct t l l u r sb < ' < ' rutt t u i n e r l ,t l n t h c
" ; u . l t ' t . tlln(l
' t l t u ()ll
t lhc rttrrgrrilrrdctt.l tlrt n r i n i r r r r r rtror u g h n c s s < , l t h c r w i s ct h c b c t t c l i t s< l t ' p l t r s t iccl c f o r m t t t i o nt l r c n o l t l n g c r
pntbultilitl,tll'tttrltrevarttultlatlttrtrttliattr u<"<'iilt'tt,
1 r o . r l ; i l t<l a' ( n t . \ ( ( l u ( , t t ' t(, )r l.l j c c t i v c s t i u l ( l n f ( l rt r c ( l l : l c nl n c k i n g .p r r r t i c t t l i r r l ivr t t l t c S u i r r i u l i c c (. l
t92 6 Ernbodiment desrgn 6 3 Basic rules ol embodiment design 193

Dangerous too are those casesin which the material turns brittle with time or corrosion products can impede the functioning of machines, for instance by
for other reasons (for instance, due to radiation, corrosion, heat, or surface jamming valve spindles, control mechanismsetc.
coatings). This is particularly true of synthetic materials.
If the safety of a component is calculated merely by the difference between the Ergonomics
computed stressand the maximum permissiblestress,a vital point is missed. The application of ergonomic principles to industrial safety involves the careful
Of the utmost importance is the loading condition and the effect on the scrutiny of safety at work and of the man-machine relationship. A great many
properties of the material due to aging, heat, radiation, weathering, operating b o o k s a n d p a p e r s h a v e b e e n d e v o t e dt o t h i s s u b j e c t[ 6 . 2 6 , 6 . 4 6 , 6 . 7 3 4 , 6 . 1 6 3 ,
conditions and manufacturing processes,for instance welding and heat treat- 6.195]. In addition [6.43] specifies the basic requirements of general safety
ment. Residual stresses must not be underestimated either: brittle (fast) design, and [6.44] deals with protective equipment. Regulations by various
fractures without plastic deformation can occur suddenly and without warning. professionalbodies, factory inspectoratesetc must be scrupulouslyobservedin
The avoidance of a build-up of additive stresses,of brittle materials, and of all branchesof engineering, and so must a great deal of speciallegislation [6.68].
manufacturing processesthat encourage brittle fractures, is therefore an essen- In a book of this kind it is impossible to examine every aspect of industrial
tial requirement of the direct safety technique. safety, but operator ignorance and fatigue are two factors that should alwaysbe
If plastic deformation is monitored at a critical point, or can be used to impede taken into consideration. For that reason alone, machinesmust be designedon
the function in such a way that the danger can be noticed before man or ergonomic principles (see 6.5.1). Tables 6.1 and 6.2 list the minimum require-
machines are endangered,it becomes a fail-safe device [6.154]. ments for safe industrial desisn.
Elastic deformationr must not be allowed to disturb the smooth functioning of
a machine, for instance through loss of clearance. If this happens the force
transmissionpaths or the expansionscan no longer be determined with certainty with varioustypesof energy.
Table6.1. Harmfuleffectsassociated
and overloading or fracture may ensue. This is true of stationaryno less than of Mechanical Relative movement of man and machine,
m o v i n g p a r t s ( s e e6 . 4 . 1 ) . mechanicalvibrations. dust
By stability we refer not only to the basic stability of a machine but also to its Acoustic Noise
stable operation. Disturbancesshould be counteractedby stabilisingeffects,that Hydraulic Jets of liquid
is by automatic return to the initial or normal position. The designermust ensure Pneumatic Jets of gas, pressure waves
Electrical Passageof current through body,
that neutral equilibrium or potentially unstable statesdo not lead to a build-up electrostatic discharges
of disturbancesthat might get out of control (see 6.4.4). Optical Dazzle, ultra-violet radiation, arcs
Resonancesproduce increasedstressesthat cannot be accuratelydetermined. Thermal Hot/cold parts, radiation, inflammation
They must be avoided unless the vibrations can be sufficiently damped. This Chemical Acids, alkalis, poisons, gases,vapours
applies not only to the stability problem, but also to such associatedphenomena Radioactive Nuclear radiation, X-rays

as noise and vibration which impair the operator's efficiency and health.
Thermal expansionmust be taken into account under all operating conditions
if overloading and impairment of the function are to be avoided (see 6.5.2).
Inefficient seals are a common causeof breakdown or trouble. Careful choice Table 6.2. Minimum industrial safety requirements in mechanicaldevices
of seals, provision for pressure relief at critical sealing points and careful Protectiveequipmentregardlessof the operational speedis required:
attention to fluid dynamics help to overcome these problems. - for gear, belt, chain and rope drives
Wear and the resulting particles can also impede operational safety, and must - for all rotating parts longer than 50 mm, even if they are completely smooth
- for all couplings
therefore be kept within tolerable limits. In particular, the designer should
- in case of danger from flying parts
ensure that such particles do not damage or interfere with other components. - for potential traps (slides coming up against stops; components pushing, or rotating
They should be removed as near as possibleto their point of origin. against, each other); descendingcomponents (weights, counter-weights)
Uniform coruosion reduces the designed thickness of components and local - for slots. for example, at material inputs. The gap between parts must not exceed
c o r r o s i o n ,p a r t i c u l a r l yo f c o m p o n e n t ss u b j e c tt o c l y n a m i cl o a d i n g ,m a y a p p r e c i - [i mm; in the case of rollers, the geometrical relationship must be examined and, if
a b l y i n c r c a s c t h c s t r c s s c o n c c n t r i r t i < l ri r n t l l c i r d t < l l ' i r s t l l ' a c t u r e sw i t h l i t t l c ncccssary,special guards must be installed.
'l'ltcrc
clclilrttrirti<lrt. i s n o s u c h t l t i r t gi r sl ) c r t n i l l l c l l is l i r l ) i l i t yu n c l c rc < l r r o s i o n - t h c Iilectricul inttullution nrust always be planned in collaboration with electrical experts. In
l < l r r t lc i r l ' l i t c i t yo l c o r r r p o n c n t st l c c r c l s c s w i l l t l i n t c , l f o t l r r u r i l ' < l r r ri r r r r l k l c a l thc cirsc ttl uctttt,;ti< , cltctttiutl itntl nttliout li lc rlitttgct, cxllcrt itclviccntust bc sought for
t h c r c t l u i s i t cl ) l o t c c t i o n .
c r l r r o s i t l n( c i r r r s c se. l l e c t s t r r r t l l c r r r c t l i c r )t r r c d c n l t w i t h i l r 6 . 5 , 4 . l i i n i r l l y .
194 6 Embodiment design
Production and quality control
Components must be designed in such a way that their qualities are maintained
during production. To that end special quality controls must be instituted, if
necessaryby specialregulations. The designermust help to avoid the emergence
of dangerous weak spots in the course of manufacturing processes(see 6.3.1,
6.3.2 and6.5.6).
Assembly and transport
The loads to which the product will be subjected during assemblyand transport
must be taken into consideration at the embodiment design stage. Welds curiied
out during assembly must be tested and, where necessary,heat treated. All
major assemblyprocessesshould, whenever possible,tre concludedby function-
al checks.
Firm basesand support points should alwaysbe provided and marked clearly.
The weights of parts heavier than 100kg should be marked where they can be
seen easily. If frequent dismantling is called for, the appropriate lifting points
must be incorporated. Suitable handling points must be provided for transport
and marked clearly.
Operation
operation and handling must be safe [6.43,6.44]. The failure of any automatic
device must be indicated at once so that the requisite actions can be taken.
Maintenance
Maintenance and repair work must only be undertaken when the machine is shut
down. Particular care is needed with assemblyor adjusting tools. Safety switches
must ensure that the machinery is not started unintentionally. Centrally placed,
easily accessibleand simple service and adjustment points should be provided.
During inspection or repair, safe accessshould be possiblethrough the provision
of handrails, steps, non-slip surfacesetc.
Costs and schedules
Cost and schedulerequirements must not affect safety. Cost limits and delivery
dates are ensured by careful planning, and by implementing the correcr concepts
and methods, not by cutting corners. The consequencesof accidentsand failuies
are generally much greater and graver than the effort needed to prevent them.
6.4 Principles of embodimentdesign
The generalprinciplesof embodimentdesignhave been discussedat some
lengthin the literature.Kesselring[6.9tt]hasset out the principlesof minimum
manufacturing costs,minimumspacerequiremenltr minimumweight,minimum
losses,and optimumhandling(t,2.1). Lcycr 16.l20ldiccusses thc principleof
{ r 4 P r i n c i p l e so I e m b o d i m e n td e s i g n 195
lightweight construction. It is obviously neither possible nor desirable that all
these principles should be implemented in every technical solution-one of them
might be crucial, the rest merely desirable. Which principle must predominate in
a given case can only be deduced from the task and the company's general
objectives. By proceeding systematically, elaborating a specification, abstracting
to identify the crux of the problem, and also by following the checklist given in
4.2.2, the designer transforms the principles into a concrete proposal that
enables him to determine the manufacturing costs, spacerequirements, weights,
etc, and to compare these with the requirements in the specification.
The systematic approach also highlights the question of how, with a given
problem and a fixed solution principle, a function can be best fulfilled and by
what type of function carrier. Embodiment design principles facilitate this part
of the design process.In particular, they help with Steps3 and 4, but also with
Steps 7 to 9 as listed in 6.1 above.
For the relatively common task of transmitting forces or moments, it seems
'principles of force transmission'.
advisable to establishspecial
Tasks requiring changes in the type or variations in the magnitude of a force
are primarily fulfilled by the appropriate physical effects, but the designer must
also apply the 'principle of minimum losses' [6.98] for energy-conservationor
economic reasons,which he does by adopting a small number of highly efficient
steps. This principle also applies to the efficient conversion of one type of energy
into another, whenever this should be required. In that casethe designproblem,
in terms of generally valid functions, reduces essentially to one of channelling,
connecting and storing.
Energy storage problems involve the accumulation of potential and kinetic
energy, be it directly or indirectly through the collection of material. The
storage of energy, however, raisesthe question of the stability of the system,
and the consequent application of the 'principles of stability and planned
instability'.
Often, several functions have to be fulfilled by one or several function
carriers. Here the 'principle of the division of tasks' may be useful to the
designer. Its application involves a careful analysis of the functions and their
assignment to function carriers. This analysis of functions is also helpful for the
application of the'principle of self-help', when supplementaryeffects must be
identified and exploited.
In applying embodiment design principles, the designer may find that they run
counter to certain requirements. Thus the principle of uniform strength may
conflict with the demand for minimum costs. Again, the principle of self-help
may conflict with fail-safebehaviour (6.3.3), the principle of equal wall thickness
chosen for the purpose of simplifying the manufacturing process [6.118] may
conflict with the demand for lightweight construction, and so on.
These principles represent many strategies that are only applicable under
certain conditions. In using them, the designer must strike a balance between
compcting demands.To that end, the present authors have developedwhat they
c o n s i d c r t o b e i m p o r t a n t e m b o d i m e n t d c s i g n p r i n c i p l e s ,w h i c h w i l l n o w b e
t96 6 Embodiment design 6 . l P r i n c i p l e so f e m b o d i r n e n t d e s i g n
r97
presented. Most are based on energy-flow considerationsand, by analogy, they 2 Principle of direct and short force transmission path
apply equally well to the flow of material and of signals.
In agreement with Leyer
[6.11g] we consider the following principle of great
importance:
6.4.1 Principlesof force transmission If a force or moment is to be transmitted from
one place to another with the
I Flowlines of force and the principle of uniform strength minimum possible deformation, then the shortest
and most direct torcetransmis-
sion path is the best.
The problems solved in mechanical engineering generally involve forces and/or This principle ensures:
motions and their connection, change,variation or channelling,and involve the -minimum use of materials
(volume, weight); and
conversion of energy, material and signals. The generally applicable function - minimum deformation.
'channel
forces' includes the application of loads to, the transfer of forces This is.particularly.true if it is possible to solve
between, and the transmissionof forces through componentsand devices [6.18, a problem using tensire or
compressivestressesalone, becausethese stresses,
6.27, 6.118). unlike bending and torsional
stresses,produce smalrer deformations. when
In general, the designerwill try to avoid all sudden changesof direction in the a component is in compression,
however, speciarattention must be paid to the
flowlines of force, that is force transmission path, caused by sharp deflections danger of buckling.
'flowlines of force' aids the If, on the other hand, we require a flexibre
and abrupt changes of cross section. The idea of component capableof consid.erabre
elastic deformation, then a design using bending
visualisationof the force-transmissionpath (load path) through componentsand o, torrionir ,rr"rirris generally
the more economical.
devices, and is analogousto flowlines in fluid mechanics. The principte is illustrated in Figure 6.2o-the
Leyer [6.118,6.I20) has dealt with the transmissionof forces at some length, mounting of a machine frame
on a concrete foundation-where different
so that we can dispensewith a detailed discussionof the problem. The designer requirements Jemand supports with
different stiffnesses-This, in turn, has
is advised to consult these important texts. Leyer, moreover, emphasisesthe repercussionson the operationar be-
complex interaction between the functional, technological and production
aspects.
'Force transmission' must be understood in a broad sense, that is, it must
include the application, transfer and transmission of bending and twisting
moments.
The external loads applied to a component produce axial and transverse forces
plus bending and twisting movements at every section. These set up stresses,
direct and shear, and produce longitudinal, lateral (Poisson) and shear strains
(elastic or plastic deformations).
'mental
The section dimensions transmitting the forces are obtained by
dissection' of the components at the point under consideration.
The sum of the stresses over these sections produces internal forces and
moments which must be in equilibrium with the external loads.
The stresses, determined from the section dimensions, are then compared
with the material properties of tensile strength, yield strength, fatigue strength,
creep strength etc, due regard being paid to streJJconcentrations,surface finish
and size effects. 6.20.,Supportinga machine frame on
,I\ry1:: a concrerefbundation:
The principle of uniform strength 16.7,6.2051aims, with the help of appropri- t]cid supporr due to short force transmissron
l1l^i:ly path and low stresson the
ate materials and shapes, to achieve uniform strength throughout the device Daseplates:
(b) longer force transmissionpath,
over its anticipated operational life. Like the principle of lightweight construc- but still a rigid support with tubes or
box sections
undercompression:
tion [6.120], it should be applied whenever economic circumstancesallow.
supportwirh pronounced
bendingdeformati
This important consideration often misleadsthe designer into neglecting thc I:]..1:..s
l n v o t v e:l,tU r o n ( a s tiffer
i constructionwould
rg r c a t e r
u s eo f m a t e r i a l s ) ;
deformations (strains) associatedwith the strcsscs.It is, however, thcse very supnort
underbendins
srresscs:
11] :1:l*lj,.l,iblc
deformations that often throw light tln thc bchaviour of comprlncntsand tcll us rhcroacr
[,:l,l;il,ll;:;l]:;:ry::1,:::.'.*
l,:i:l;l,ilr,i.li''r'',,,'*n'its
uscrllilr irltcringthc ics.rrrancc intorsion.
rhiscan
be
what wc ncccl to know about thcir functionul cfflciency. char.ircic,risliris
198 6 Ernbodiment design 6 4 P r i n c i p l e s o f e r n b o d i m en t d e s i g n 199

haviour of the machine: different natural and resonant frequencies, modified 3 Principle of matched deformations
response to additional loads etc. The more rigid solutions are obtained with Designs matched to the flowlines of force avoid sharp deflections of the
minimum material and space requirements by means of a short support under transmission path and sudden changes in cross section, thus preventing the
compression; the most flexible solution by means of a spring, which transmits uneven distribution of stresseswith high stressconcentrations.A visualisationof
the force in torsion. If we look at other design solutions, we shall find many the flowlines of force, though very graphic, does not always reveal the decisive
examples of the same principle: for example, in the torsion bar springs of motor factors involved. Here, too, the key is the deformation of the affected
cars or in flexible pipes that rely on bending or torsional deformations. components.
The choice of means thus depends primarily on the nature of the task-that is The principle of matched deformations states that related components must
on whether the force transmission path must be designed for stability with be designed in such a way that, under load, they will deform in the same sense
maximum stiffness, or whether certain force-deformation relationships must be and, if possible, by the same amount.
satisfied first and stability can be treated as a subsidiary problem. As an example let us take solderedor glued connectionsin which the solder or
If the yietd point is exceeded, then the following facts have to be taken into adhesive layer has a different modulus of elasticity from that of the material to
consideration (see Figure 6.21): be joined. Figure 6.22a lllustrates the resulting deformation [6.129]. The
1. When a component is loaded by a force, it is invariably subjected to deformations and the thickness of the solder or adhesive lavers have been
deformation. If the yield point is exceeded,then the linear-elasticrelationship

Tmax: Tmean

Figure 6.21 Force deformation diagram of c

o
C

tough materials. Arrows indicate cause- c

F

effect relationship

between the force and the deformation no longer holds. Relatively small

Figure6.22 Figure6.23
re 6.22. Overlapping adhesiveor solder joint with strongly exaggerateddeformation
[6.12e1;
I ) Parts 1 and 2 deformed in the samesense
) Parts I and 2 deformed in the oppositesense

F u r t 6 c r r c ( l u i r c m c n t sa r c t h c u s c r l l t o u g l t t t t a t c r i i t l si t n c l t h c a v o i c l a n c co l ' i t
5 g i l l - u p 9 l ' i l u l t i - a x i a l s t r c s s c si l t l l t c s n t t t c$ c n l i c .U x l l t l t p l c si t r c h i g h l y - c l i s t o r t c d
s l t r i t t k t ' i t s .p r c l o i r t l c t l r o l t s i t l t d c l l r t t t ; l r ,
Figurc 6.23. Distribution of forces and shear stressesin overlappingjoints with laycr ot
a d h c s i v co r s o k l c r ,f r o r n [ 6 . 1 2 5 ] ;
( t t ) o v c r l a p p c t lo r t o r t c s i c l e( b e n d i n gs t r e s sI r c g l e c t c c l )
( h ) s l l l i c c t lw i t l t l i n c a rl y c l c c r c a s i n tgh i c k n c s s
(c) prortouncctl'tlcl'lcctionol thc flowlincs ol lirrcc' with tlclirrnrittionsirt thc oppositc
tcnsc (bcntlinF strcssncglcctctl)
 6 E , m b o d i m e n td e s i g n
strongly exaggerated.The load F, which is transmitted acrossthe junction of
Parts 1 and 2, produces distinct deformations in the overlapping parts, the
adhesive layer being subjected to particularly marked deformation near the
edges due to differences in the relative deformation of Parts I and2. While Part
1 bears the full load F at the upper edge of the adhesivelayer and is therefore
stretched, Part 2 does not yet bear a load. The relative shift in the adhesivelayer
sets up a local shear stressthat exceedsthe mean calculatedvalue.
A particularly unsatisfactory result is shown in Figure 6.22b where, as a result
of opposite and unmatched deformations of Parts 1 and 2, the deformation in
the adhesive layer is considerably increased.This example makes it clear why
provision should be made for deformations to take place in the same senseand,
if possible, to be equal in magnitude. Magyar 16.125)has made a mathematical
study of the relationships between load and shear stress:the result is shown
qualitatively in Figure 6.23.
The same phenomenon also occurs between nuts and bolts in bolted joints
16.2441.The nut (Figure 6.24a) is in compressionand the bolt is in tension, that
is they are deformed in the opposite sense.In the modified nut (Figure 6.24b) a
deformation in the same senseis set up in the leading threads,which gives rise to
a smaller relative deformation and hence a more even distribution of the load
borne by individual threads. Wiegand 16.2441hasbeen able to demonstrate this
effect by showing that such nuts have a longer service life. Paland [6.160] has
shown more recently that standard nuts are not as unsatisfactoryas Maduschka
Lifiit,fisA3i"drn*
PALAM
after
i
403020100
9o
Shareof load
borneby
individual
threads
Figure6.24. Nut shapesand load
distribution irfter | 6.2441
( a ) S t a n c l a r cnlu t : l i n r i t i r i gc a s ca f t c r
M i r r l u s c l r k1i r6 . 1 2 . 3I 1) i;r l i r n 1d 6 .l 6 0 l a l l o w i n g
lirr tlclirrrttirtirlrttlrrc to rrrorrrent/, . /r
( h ) M r x l i l ' i c dt t u l w i t l t r t t i r t c l t c t l
t l c k r r r t t n l i o n irn l l t c t c r r s i o rltt r r r t
6 4 P r i n c i p l c so l e n r b o d i r n e n tc l e s i g n
[6.I23] has suggested,becausethe moment F'h producesadclitionirloutwatd
deformations of the nut and thus relieves the leading threads of their loirtl. 'l'h!
load-relievingdeformation of the nut due to this moment and also to thc bcrr4ing
of the threads can be considerably increased by using material with l lrwcr
modulus of elasticity, for instance titanium [6.102]. If, on the other hancl, rlrc
load-relieving deformations are resistedby a very stiff nut or a very small lcvcl
arm h, then the type of load distribution describedby Maduschka would ensuc.
As a further example, let us take a shaft-hub connection formed by a shrink
fit. In essence,this, too, involves the deformation of two components (scc
[6 '82)) . In transmitting the torque, the shaft experiencesa torsional deformation
that decreasesas the torque is transferred to the hub. The hub, for its part, is
deformed in accordancewith the transmitted toroue.
Figure 6.25 shows that the maximum relative deformation occurs at A. In the
case of alternating torques, this may lead to fretting corrosion; moreover the
right-hand end, to all intents and purposes,contributesnothing to the transferof
the torque.
ryl
Figure6.25 Figure6.26
Figure 6 25 Shaft-hub connectionwith strong 'force flowline deflection'
l'6rsional
deformationsof shaft and hub in opposite sen-se
(yr : angle of twist)
Figure 6.26. Shaft-hub connectionwith graduat 'force flowline def'lection' Torsional
deformationsof shaft and hub in the same sense
The solution shown in Figure 6.26 is much better because the resulting
formations are in the same sense. The best solution appears when the
nal stitlness of the hub is matched to that of the shaft. The transfer of
rque then takes place along the whole length of the connection and hish stress
ncentrations are avoided.
Even if the shrink fit were replaced with a keyed connection, the layout
pictccl in Figure 6.25 would, becausethe torsional deformations are in
the
) s l t cs c n s c ,s c t u p v e r y h i g h c o n t a c ts t r e s s e isn t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o do f A . T h e
. r tr l c p i c t c ciln F i g u r c 6 . 2 6 ,o n t h e o t h c r h i r n c.l w i l l , b c c a u s ct h e d c f o r m a t i o n s
a r c i l r t h c s i u n cs c n s c ,c n s u r c i u ' lc v c n s t r c s st l i s t r i l l u t i o n
[(r.1331.
 6 Embodirnent dcsign 6 4 P r i n c i p l e so f e m b o d i m e n t d e s i g n

The principle of matched deformations can also be applied to bearings as in
Figlure6.27.
Mention must also be made of welded joints. Here the residual stresseswhich
occur on cooling and the stress concentrations caused by deflections of the force
transmissionpath can be reduced by careful design (see [6.8, 6.12]).
transmission path, and the right side a relatively low torsional stiffness because
of its greater path length. when the torque is first applied, the left wheel will be
set in motion while the right wheel remains stationary until the right hand part of
the shaft has twisted sufficiently to transmit the torque. The drive assemblyhas a
t e n d e n c yt o r u n s k e w .
It is essential to provide the same torsional stiffness to both parts of the shaft
so as to ensure an appropriate division of the initial torque. This can be achieved
in two distinct ways if the input torque is taken in one position only: either by
symmetrical layout (Figure 6.28b); or by adaptation of the torsional stiffness of
the appropriate parts of the shaft (Figure 6.28c).

4 Principle of balanced forces

Those forces and moments that serve the function directly, such as the drivins
rque, the tangential tooth force and the load torque in a gearbox, can, in
rdance with the definition of a main function, be described as functionally
ermined main forces.
Figure6.27.Forcetransmission in bearings:
In addition, there are many forces or moments that do not serve the function
(a) edgecompressionbecause of insufficient
adaptationof the bearingto the deformed
irectly but cannot be ignored, for instance:
shaft
(b) moreevenbearingpressurebecause of matcheddeformations the axial force produced by a helical gear;
(c) lackingadjustment
to shaftdeformation the force resulting from a pressure difference, for instance across the blades
(d) moreevenbearingpressurebecause of adaptability
of bearingbush of a turbine or across a control valve;
tensile forces for producing a friction connection;
The principle of matched deformationsmust be taken into account not only in inertia forces due to linear accelerationor rotation of components; and
the transfer of forces from one component to another, but also in the division or fluid flow forces inasmuch as they are not the main forces.
combination of forces or moments. A well known problem is the simultaneous Such forces and moments accompanying the main ones are called associated
propulsion of wheels that have to be placed at a considerabledistancefrom onc
and may either produce an auxiliary effect (see auxiliary function) or else
another, for instance in crane drive assemblies.In the layout shown in Figurc r merely as invariable concomitants.
6.28a, the left side has a relatively high torsional stiffnessdue to the short force Associated forces place additronal loads on the components and require an
ropriate layout or must be taken up by further surfacesand elements such as
iffening members, collars, bearingsetc. As a result, weights are increasedand
rther frictional lossesmay be incurred. For that reason, the associatedforces
ust, whenever possible,be balancedout at their place of origin, thus obviating
e need for a heavier construction or for reinforced bearins and transfer
lements.
As has been shown in [6.151], this balance of forces is essentiallyensured by
Figure 6.28. Application of the principle typesof solution:
t=11+!7 balancing elements; or
o f m a t c h e d ,h e r e e q u a l ,d e f o r m a t i o n s
in crane drives: symmetrical layout.
(a) unequal torsional deformation of Figure 6.29 shows how the associatedforces can be balanced in a turbine,
l e n g t h s1 , a n d 1 , l i c a l g c a r sa n d a c o n e c l u t c h , w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e p r i n c i p l eo f d i r e c t a n d s h o r t
( b ) s y m m c t r i c a l a y o u tc n s u r c sc c l u a l
t o r s i o n a lt l c l i r r r n a t i r l n
: c t r a n s r . r ' r r s s rpoant h . A s a r e s u l t . n o b e a r i n g p o s i t i o n i s a d d i t i o n a l l yl o a d e d
( c ) i r s v r t t n t c t r i c l li r y o u tw i t l r c r l u a l n c l t h c c l c s i g r risr r c h i g h l y c c o n o m i c a l .
t o r r i o t t t l d c f o r t t t i t t i t t lttl t l c t < t: t t l l t l l l i t t i o n W h c n i t c o l l l c st o l h c l ' l i r l a n c i n g of incrtia lilrccs,wc find that a rotationally
ol loniottul rlill ttcrrc;' n y n t r t t c t r i c il ti tl y o t t li s i r t h c r c n t l yb i r l a n c c c l . ' l ' hsci r n r cs o l u t i o np r i n c i p l ci s i r p p l i c d
204 6 Embodiment design 6.4 Principles
of embodiment
design XE

for reciprocating masses, as we know from automobile engineering. If the The concept of the flowlines of force should be consideredin conjunctiorrrvith
number of cylinders is too small to ensure a perfect balance, either special the following principles:
balancing elements, weights or shafts [6.168] are introduced, or cylinders are The principle of uniform strength which ensures, through the careful selccriol
arranged symmetrically, as for instancein opposed cylinder engines. of materials and shapes, that each component is of uniform strength irrrtl
contributes equally to the overall strength of a device throughout its servicelilcl
symmray0ul
The principle of direct and short force transmission path which ensures nrini-
balance
without element
balancing
(small
lorces) (med
!m forces) (large
lorces) mum volume, weight and deformation, and which should be applied particularly
if a rigid component is needed;
The principle of matched deformatlons which ensures the matching of de-
formations of related components so that stressconcentrationsare avoided and
C the function can be reliably fulfilled.
The principle of balanced forces which ensures, with the help of balancing
elements or a symmetrical layout, that the associatedforces accompanying the
main ones are reacted as close as possible to their place of origin, so that
material quantities and lossescan be kept to a minimum.

6.4.2 Principle of the division of tasks

I Assignment of sub-functions

Even during the setting up and variation of the function structure, it is important
I
to determine to what extent severalfunctions can be replacedbv a sineleone. or
hether one function can be subdivided into several sub-functions(5.3).
These questions reappear in the embodiment phase, when the problem is to
lfil the requisite functions with the choice and assignment of suitable function
rriers. We ask:
c
what sub-functionscan be fulfilled with one function carrier only?
- what sub-functionsmust be fulfilled with the help of several.distinct function
c carriers?
O
So far as the number of components and the spaceand weight requirements
concerned, a single function carrier fulfilling several functions would, of
rse, be the best. In respect of the manufacturing and assembly processes,
wever, this may prove disadvantageous,if only becauseof the complicated
forcesillustratedby meansol
Figure6.29. Fundamentalsolutionsfor balancingassociated ape of the resulting component. Nevertheless, for economic reasons, the
a turbine,helicalgearsanda coneclutch tempt should always be made to fulfil several functions with a single function

As a general rule (which, however, can be ignored if there are overriding Numerous assemblies and components can fulfil several functions simul-
reasonsfor doing so) balancing elementsshould be chosenfor relatively small or eouslv or successivelv.
medium forces, and a symmetrical layout for relatively large forces. Thus a shaft on which a gearwheelhas been mounted transfersthe torque and
All in all, we can say of the transmissionof forces (in the discussionof whiclr rotating motion simultaneouslyand at the same time takes up the bending
the physically undefinable but descriptiveidea of the flowlines of force is mosl ents and shear forces resulting from the normal tooth force. It also locates
helpful) that: thc cars irxially ancl, in the case of helical gears, carries the axial force
g
- t h e f l o w l i n e s o f f o r c c m u s t a l w i r y sb c c k r s c d i i r n r l c o n l p o n c l l t sl r o n r t h c t c c t h . I n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h c b o d y o f t h e g e a r w h e e l ,i t
- s l r i r r p c l c l ' l c c t i o nosl t h c t ' k l w l i n c so t ' l i r r c ci r t t r lc l t i r r t g cisr t t l t c ' r l c n s i t y ' < l l ' t l r t ' p n l v i r l c ss u l l i c i c n ts t i fl n c s st o c n s u r cc t l r r c c tr r r i r t i n o gl'thc tccth.
l i n c s r c s r r l t i n gl ' r o r r rs t r t l t l e rcr ' l r ; r n r l t i' tst c t o s s s c c l i r l t tr t t t t s tb c r r v o i t l c r l . A 1 t t 1 l cI ' l i t t t g c r l t t t t c c t i o trtt t i r k c sl l o s s i l r l cl l r c c o r r r r c c t i o inr n r ls c p i r r i r t i o no l t h c
 6 Embodiment design 6 4 P r i n c i p l e so f e m b o d i m e u t d c s i g t l 207
206

pipes, ensuresthe sealingof the joint and transmitsall forcesand momentsin shaft whilst maintaining the shortestpossibleaxial length on the output side
ini pipe resulting from residual tension, from thermal expansionor from [6.150].However,becauseof the forcei betweenthe geaiteeth,the transmission
unbalancedpipe loads. shaftmust be asrigid aspossible.Here the principleof th" diuisionof tasksleads
A turbine casingprovidesthe appropriateinlet and outlet flow areasfor the to the following arrangement:the gearwheelis fitted to a stiff hollow outer shaft
fluid, provides a mounting for the stationary blades, transmitsthe reaction with the shortestpossibledistancebetweenthe bearings,while the radially and
forcesto the foundation, and ensuresa tight seal. torsionallyflexible componenttakes the form of an inner torsion shaft (Figure
The wall of a pressuretank in a chemicalplant must combinea retainingwith 6.30).
a sealingfunction and staveoff corrosion,while not interferingwith the chemical
process.
A deep groove ball bearing, apart from its centeringtask, transmits both
radial and axial forcesand occupiesa relativelysmallvolume,for which reasons
it is a popularmachineelement.
The combinationof severalfunctionsin a singlefunction carrier may often
prove economicallyadvantageous,but may have certain drawbacks.These do
not usuallyappearunless:
- the capacityof the function carrier hasto be increasedto the limit in respect
of one or severalfunctions;or
- the behaviourof the function carriermust be kept absolutelyconstantin one
important resPect.
As a rule, it is impossible to optimise the carrier of several combined
functions. Instead,the designerhas recourseto the principle of the division of
tasks16.1551, by which a specialfunction carrier is assignedto every function'
Moreover, in borderline cases?it may even be useful to distribute a single
function over severalfunction carriers.
The principleof the divisionof tasks:
- allowsvery much better exploitationof the componentconcerned;
-provides for greaterload capacity;and
- unambiguousbehaviour, and hence fosters the basic clarity rlule
"trr1ttet
(6.3.1)
This is becausethe separationof tasksfacilitatesoptimum designin respectof
everysub-functionand leadsto more accuratecalculations.In general,however,
igure 6.30. Large gearbox with an output torsion shaft; the bearingforces are
the constructionaleffort becomescorrespondinglygreater. ansmitted over a stiff hollow shaft; the inner torsion shaft is radiaiv and torsionallv
To determinewhether the principle of the division of taskscan be usefully ible, from [6.150](Siemens-Maag)
applied, the functions must be analysedwith a view to determining if the
simultaneousfulfilment of several functions in one carrier introduces con-
straintsor mutual interference.If it does,then it is best to settlefor individual Modern pressure-fedboilers are built with a membranewall, as shown in
function carriers. igure6.31.The furnacemustbe gas-tight.Moreover,optimumheattransferto
water demands thin walls with large surface areas. Beyond that, thermal
pansion and pressure differences between the furnace and its environment
2 Divisionof tasksfor distinctfunctions ust also be taken into consideration, and so must the weight of the walls. This
Examplesfrom variousfieldsillustratethe advantage of the divisionof tasksfor mplexproblemis solvedwith the help of the principleof the divisionof tasks.
distinctfuncti<lns. tubularwallswith their weldedlipsconstitutethe sealedfurnace.The forces
asfound for instancebetweena turbineand a gcnerator,it
In largcgearhoxes. Iting from the pressuredifferencesare transferredto the specialsupports
is advisablc,hecauseof thermalexpunsion of the foundationsand bcarings,antl outsidcthe heatedareawhichalsocarrythe weightof the, usuallysuspended,
to usea radiallynnd torsiontrllyflcxiblc
ulsebccauscof thc tonional oscillations. walls. Articulatedarms betweenthc tubularwull and the supportsallow for
208
Figure 6.31. Sectionof boiler with membrane walls and
separatesupports (Babcock)
unimpeded thermal expansion. Thus every part can be designedin accordance
with its special task.
The clamp connection in a superheatedsteam pipe shown in Figure 6.32has
also been designedon the principle of the division of tasks.The sealingand load
carrying functions are assignedto different function carriers: the sealing function
is performed by the welded membrane seal, which is axially loaded by the
tension in the clamp. Tensile forces or bending moments should not be carried
by the seal, whose function and durability would thereby be destroyed, so the
l ; i g r r r c6 , 3 2 ,( ' l i t r t t Pc r t t t t l c c t i t t ti t l i t
iupctlrcnlc(l rlclrttt pipc ( Zikcsclt )
6 Embodirnent design P r i n c i p l e so f e m b o d i r n e n t d e s i g n 209
l-carrying function is performed by the clamp which, in its turn, is designed
the principle of the division of tasks. The clamp is made up of segments,
ich transmit forces and bending moments by means of a close tolerance fit,
nd shrink rings hold the clamp segments together by friction in a simple and
ffective manner. Every part can be optimally designed for its particular task
d is easily analysed.
The casingsof turbines must ensure a tight seal under all operational and
al conditions if they are to conduct the working fluid with minimum loss
turbulence. They must also provide an annular area and a support for the
ionary blades. During temperature changes,sectionedcasingswith an axial
nge have a particular tendency to distort and to lose sealing power due to
rrked changesin shape at the inlet and outlet [6.166].
This effect can be offset by a separate blade carrier, that is by a division of
The annular area and stationary blade attachment can be desisned
rdlessof the larger casingwith its inlet and outlet sections.The outer casins
n then be designedexclusivelyfor durability and sealingpower (Figure 6.33).
r e 6 . 3 3 A x i a l l y d i v i d e d t u r b i n e h o u s i n sf r o m [ 6 . 1 6 ( r l l;o w e r h a l f c o n v e n t i o n a lu; p p e r
w i t h s e p a r a t eb l a d e c l r r i e r
A further example is provided by the synthesisof ammonia, which involves
ing nitrogen and hydrogen into a container under high pressures and
atures. If the hydrogen were allowed to come into direct contact with a
ritic steel container, it_ would penetrate into and decarbonise the latter.
ucing decomposition at the grain boundarieswith the formation of methane
,72). The solution is again basedon the division of tasks.The sealingfunction
provided by an inner casing of austeniticsteel which is resistantto hydrogen,
3 support and strength are provided by a surrounding pressure chamber
tructecl of high-tensile ferritic steel, not resistantto hydrosen.
l n t h c c l c c t r i c a lc i r c u i t - b r e a k e ri l l u s t r a t e di n F i g u r e 6 . 3 4 , t w o o r e v e n t h r e e
t i r c t s y s t c n l sa r c p r < l v i d e d .T h e b r e a k c r c o n t a c t sl t a k e t h e a r c i n s c u r r e n t
r i l t g t l r c c k l s i n g o r o p c n i n g o f t h e s w i t c h , i r n c lt h c m a i n c o n t a c t s3 c a r r y t h e
r r c l t l t t l t t l c t ' t t o r t t t ci ttll l t t l i t i o t t s . ' l ' hl rcr c i r k c rc ( ) l t l i r c t/s i r r cs u bj c c l t r l b u r n i n q ,
2r0 6 Embodiment dcsiln
that is to wear and tear, and must be designedaccordingly,while the marrr
contactsmust be designedto carry the full working current.
The division of tasks is also illustratedin Figure 6.35: the Ringfedcr
connectorscarry the torque while the correspondingcylindricalsurfacesensur('
Figure6.34
Figure 6.34. Arrangement of contactsin circuit breaker (AEG)
1 breaker contacts;2 intermediate contacts;J main contacts
Figure 6.35 Ringfeder connector plus centralisingsurfaces
the central location and seating of the pulley, something the Ringfeder connec-
tor could not provide by itself.
A further example is provided by the design of rolling element bearings irr
which the servicelife of the locating bearing is increasedby the clear separatiorr
of the transmissionpaths of radial and axial forces (Figure 6.36). The outer racc
F i g u r c6 . . l t rl,. o c i t t i t rbgc l r i n gw i l h
rcpglolclrttnstrtissiott pittltslor
rldld und ttxinllirrccs
P r i n c i p l e so f e m b o d i m e n t d e s i g n 2II
the deep-groove ball bearing is not supported radially and hence transmits
ial forces only, while the roller bearing transmits radial forces only.
The principle of the division of tasks has been applied consistently to the
struction of composite flat belts. They are made up, on the one hand, of a
thetic material capable of carrying high tensile loads and, on the other hand,
a chrome leather layer on the contact surface which provides a high coefficient
friction for the transfer of the load.
Yet another example is provided by the rotor blade attachment in a helicopter
6.1s).
Division of tasks for identical functions
increasesin load or size reach a limit, a single function can be assigned to
ral, identical function carriers. In other words, the load can be divided and
recombined later. There are numerous examples.
The load capacity of a V-belt cannot be increased at will by increases ln lts
section (number of load-carrying strands per belt) because, for a glven
ley diameter, an increasein the belt height ft (Figure 6.37) leads to an
load-carryi
ng
strands
fabriccoating
Figure6.37.Crosssectionof
V-belt rubber
filling
ase in the bending stress. As a result of the ensuing deformation, the
r, which has hysteresisproperties and is also a poor conductor of heat,
overheated and this reducesits life. A disproportionally wide belt, on
other hand, loses the stiffness needed to take up the normal forces acting on
wedge-shapedsurfacesof the pulley. An increasein load-carrying capacity
, however, be obtained by dividing the overall load into part loads each
ropriate to the load limit and normal life of the individual belt (multiple
ment of parallelV-belts).
The coefficient of thermal expansion of superheated steam pipes made of
nitic steel is approximately 50 per cent higher than that of pipes made of the
I ferriticsteel.Suchpipes,moreover,areparticularlystiff.At constantinner
res and fixed materialpropertylimits, the ratio of outer to inner pipe
ter remainsconstantif the inner diameteris changed.However,whilethe
roughput at constant flow velocitiesvaries as the squareof the inner diameter,
bcndingand torsionalstiffnesses
vary asits fourth power.The substitution
of
pipc lincsfor a singlclargepipewouldadmittedlyleadto increased pressure
h c i t l f r t s s c sl i r r t h c s a l n c f l o w a r c a , b u t w o u l d r c d u c c b v l l z t h c s t i f f n e s s

212 6 Embodiment tltsr
resistingthermal expansion. With four or eight pipelines the individual reaclrrrtl
forces would then be no more than I or * of that present in a single pipe [6.3{1,
6.2061. In addition, the reduction in wall thickness leads to a reduction in
thermal stresses.
Gearboxes, and epicyclic gearboxesin particular, make use of the principlc ,rf
the division of tasks, or rather of forces, in the form of multiple meshing, whit lt
will increasethe transmissioncapacityof the gearbox, provided that the therrrrrrl
effects can be kept within reasonable limits. In the symmetrical layout ,tl
epicyclic gearboxesbased on the principle of balancedforces ( 6.4.I.4) even t lrc
bending moment in the shaft is eliminated because the forces produced by llrc
gearscancel out. However, the torsional deformation is increasedbecauseo1'Ilrc
greater load capacity (Figure 6.38). In large gearboxes,this principle is applietl
forces,from [6 2]
Figure6.38.Epicyclicgearboxwith balanced
to advantage in the form of multiple drives equipped with spur gears, which havc
external teeth only and hence are more easily manufactured. As Ehrlensprcl
[6.57] has shown, it is possible to increasethe load capacitywith the number of
force transmission paths, though not in direct proportion because each stcp
introduces a different flank geometry with a slightly greater flank loading. Basic
arrangementsare depicted in Figure 6.39.
One problem of the principle of the division of tasks is the uniforrn
participation of all the elements in the fulfilment of the function, that is thc
provision of a uniform distribution of forces or loads. In general, this can only bc
achieved if:
-the participating elements adjust themselvesautomaticallyto balance out thc
forces; or
- appropriateflexibility is speciallyprovidedin the forcetransmission paths.
In the caseof multipleV-belt drivcs,thc tangcntialforccsproducesliglrt
extensionsof the beltswhichhclp to ol'l'sct
nnydimensional crrorsin thc lcngtlts
of thc bcltsor in thc pullcysor uny lnck of parallelism in thc shaft.and thtt\
cnsurccqull loirdshirring.
a1t
of embodiment design
ztJ
the caseof the multiple pipeline discussedabove,the individual pipe loss
ts, the relationships between inflow and outflow, and also the geo-
of the pipe layouts must be kept similar, or else the individualloss
ients must be small and not very greatly affected by the flow speeds.
the case of multiple gears, either a strictly symmetrical arrangement must
equal stiffnessesand temperaturedistributionsthroughout the gearbox
Double Triple 0uadruple
6.39 Figure6.40
6.39.Basicarrangements
of multiplegears,from [6.150]
re 6.40. Balanced forces in multiple gearsby meansof flexible torsion shafts,from
I flexibleelements[6.58]must ensurethe equalparticipationof all the
nts.
re 6.40 illustrates a flexible arrangement.Further balancingcomponents,
as elasticand articulatedjoints, are describedin [6.58].
ll in all, the principle of the division of tasks provides for increases in the
imum load capacity or for wider applications. By spreading tasks over
al function carriers, we also gain a clearer picture of the relationship
n forces and their effects, and, what is more, can increase the output,
only that a balanced division of forces is maintained by adjustable or
-regulatingelements.
In general, the application of the principle of the division of tasks calls for
ter effort on the part of the designer, which must be offset by greater overall
or safety.
.3 Principle of self-help
Concepts and definitions
thc lastsectionwc discussed the principleof the divisionof tasksand showed
it couldhclp to incrcasckradcapacityand to provitJea clearerclefinitionof
214 6 E m b o d i m e n t t l er r l r r P r i n c i p l e so f e m b o d i m e n t d e s i g n 2t5

the behaviour of the components. To that end, we analysed the variorrr ral technical characteristics:efficiencv.servicelife. use of materials,tech-
sub-functions and assigned them to such function carriers as neither influerrt.' l i m i t , e t c . I t is defined as
nor interfere with one another. technical characteristic with self-help
The same analysis can also be used in conjunction with the principle t,l technical characteristic without self-help
self-helpto achieve, through the appropriate choice of systemelementsand the ir never the application of the self-help principle calls for a greater effort on
arrangement, a mutual supportive interaction that improves the fulfilment of tlrr' designer'spart, then it must bring clear technical or economic advantages.
'self help' provides 1or
function. Under normal conditions (normal loading), Identical design approaches may turn out to be self-helping or self-damaging,
greater effect or relief; in emergency situations (overloading), it provides 1t,r nding on the layout. Take the case of an inspection cover (Figure 6.42). So
greater safety.
In a self-helpingdesign,the overall effectis made up of an initial effect ancl rr
supplementaryeffect.
The initial effect setsoff the physicalprocessrequired by the solution but rs
insufficienton its own.
The supplementaryeffect is obtained from the functionally determined mairr
forces (gearbox torque, sealing force etc) andior from the associated forct':
(axial force produced by helical gears, centrifugal force, force due to thermirl
expansion etc), provided, of course, that the two sets of forces are clearl\ t-s
correlated. A supplementary effect may also be obtained from appropriat,
changes in force transmission paths. lD
The idea of formulating the self-help principle was first suggested by the
Bredtschneider-Uhde self-sealingcover, particularly suitable for pressure ves- I
s e l s [ 6 . 1 1 3 , 6 . 1 5 4 , 6 . 1 8 1 ] . F i g u r e 6 . 4 1 s h o w sh o w i t w o r k s . A r e l a t i v e l ys m a l l I
force provided by the central bolt 2, suffices to press the cover 1 against thc zlt 4-/ ll
metal seal 5. The initial effect of this force ensures that the parts make thc ng
sell-helpi selt-damaging ping
sell-hel sell-damag
ing
proper contact. With increasing operational pressure a supplementary effect is
re 6.42 Figure6.43
produced, thanks to whrch the sealing force between cover and tank is increaserl
appropriately. The internal pressure thus provides the required sealing forcc 6.42. Layout of an inspectioncover
automatically. i n i t i a le f f e c t ; S : s u p p l e m e n t aer yf f e c t O
; : overalleffect;p: internalpressure
re 6.43. Force diagram to Figure 6.42
forces; Fo : preload; ll: t : tensionscrew;subscript
changein tength; subscript
flangeiseal
2
3
4 as the pressureinside the tank is greaterthan the pressureoutside,the
ut shownis self-helping, becausethe pressureon the cover (supplementary
Figure 6.41. Self-sealingcover ) increases the sealing effect (overall effect) of the initial tension-screw
1 cover; 2 central bolt;3 crossmember; (initial effect).
5
4 element with saw tooth thread; The layout shown on the right, by contrast, is self-damagingbecause the
1
5 metal sealing ring; p : internal pressure; ssure on the cover dereasesthe sealingeffect (O) of the initial tenslon-screw
d: temoerature (1). If, however, the tank were kept at below atmosphericpressure,the left
t would be self-damaging, the right layout self-helping (see also Figure
It may be usefulto specifythe quantitativc contributionof the supplementary 43).
O in prodttcittg
thc dcgrccof self-hclp This example shows that the degree of self-help depends on the resultant
cl'fcctS to thc ovcrall effect
:t: in thc presentcasethe effect on the sealingforce resultingfrom the elastic
x=SlO-(f..,1 , irncln<lton thc simple addition <lf thc forcc exerted by the screw and the
'l'hc :c ilcling 0n thc c()vcr.
gnin l'rom scll-lrclpsolutionrcan ll| OrPrcmcdin tcrms ol' thc onc or

-r&,-
276 6 Embodiment desigl P r i n c i p l e so f e m b o d i m e n t d e s i g n 217

Figure 6.43 can also be considered as a force-deformation diagram of a bolterl
connection with a preload and a working load. The conventional bolted flangt'
connection may be called self-damaging inasmuch as, under operational condi
tions, the overall effect-that is the flange sealing-becomes smaller than thr'
preload. Also the loading of the bolts is increased at same time. If possiblc.
therefore, only such self-reinforcing arrangements should be chosen as increase
the overall effect, while reducing the loading of the bolts (Figures 6.44 a-l
illustrate such arrangements.)
This group of self-helpingsolutionsis the most common. Under part-load
itions, it ensures grealer service life, l e s s w e a r . h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c y e t c ,
use the components are only loaded to an extent needed to fulfil the
tion at any particularmoment.
As a first example, let us consider a continuously adjustable friction drive
6.4s).
12

1,0

Adlustment
x 7 0 8t
I
I

I
/ l,=oz 7 0,6x
I

/,'. s
0./-
Lz 7 F.l
0,2

0
0,2 0.4 0,6 0,8
boe r/r
c0 re 6.45 Figure6.46
Figure6.44.Self-reinforcing
boltedconnections
(a) multiple disc clutch with adjustment ring; (b) force acting on the adjustment ring; frictiondrive
adjustabte
re 6.45.Continuously
(c) adjustable disc of two-disc friction clutch; (d) crown wheel attachment,symmetrical load spring; b: drive shaft; c: cup wheel; d: conewheel; e.'roller follower;f cam
take-up of forces on the cup wheel; r. radius on which F, and F,,act

6.46. Degree of self-help (x) and i n i t i a l ( / ) , s u p p l e m e n t a r y( S ) a n d o v e r a t l( O )

For practical purposes, it is useful to classify self-helping solutions
against the relative torque Z/T.u* for the friction drive (Figure 6.45)
accordancewith Table 6.3.
Table 6.3. Summary of self-helping solutions The preload spring d pressesthe freely movable cup wheel c on the drive shaft
Normal load Overload against the cone wheel d, thus providing the initial effect. Once a torque is
ied, the roller follower e attached to shaft b is pressed against the cam /
Type of self-help self-reinforcing self-balancing self-protecting
d on the cup wheel c where it produced a normal force F" that can be
Supplementary main and associated associatedforces altered force lved into a tangential force F, and an axial force F, which, for its part,
effect due to forces transmissionpath
s the contact force F. applied to the cone wheel in a fixed proportion to
Important main or associated associatedforces force transmission appliedtorgue T: Fn: Tl(r'tan a).
features forces act in the act in the opposite path altered by
same senseas other
The force Fu representslhe supplementaryeffect gained from the torque. The
senseto main elasticdeforniation;
main forces forces limitation of rall effect is obtained from the spring preload force Fo, plus the axial force F,,
function ich varies as the torque Z (c/Figure 6.46). The tangential driving force F6 on
permissible cone, which determines the transmittable torque, is therefore
Fa:(Fp+F^).tt
2 Self-reinforcing solutions
t h c c l e g r e eo f s e l f - h e l px : S I O : F ^ l ( F p + F ^ ) .
I n s e l f - r e i n f o r c i n gs o l u t i o n s .the supplcmcntilry
effcctisubtaincddirectlyfrom ir It is obvious that the contact pressure between the wheels, which helps to
main or associatedforce and addsto thc initiuleffectto proclucc a grcatcrovcrlll r r n i n c t h e w c a r a n d t h e s e r v i c el i f e < l f t h e d r i v e . m u s t n o t e x c e e dw h a t i s
cffect. i c l l v r r c c c s s i r r vA. c < l n v c n t i o n asl o l u t i o l t ( n o s c l l - r c i n f < l r c c m c n tw) o u l d h a v e
278 6 Embodiment desigrr Principles of embodiment design 219

demanded an axial force produced exclusively by the spring preload correspond-

ing to the maximum torque, and therefore maximum pressure being applied to
the contact area under all loads. As a result the bearings, too, would have had to
carry a considerably greater load, which would have led to a reduced service lifc
or demanded a much heavier construction.
trghtening
before
A rough calculation shows that if the actual loading is, say, 75 per cent of thc
nominal maximum load, then the bearing load would be reduced by about 20 per
cent which, because of the exponential relationship of service life to load, can
lead to a doubling of the life of the bearings. In that case, the self-help gain in
respect of the service life becomes:
altertightening
Life with self-help /r-rn np\ n 0
TL: : l-"'' | :L253:2
Life without self-helo
\ctP I
Figure 6.44 shows various self-reinforcing layouts of contact surfaces loadecl
by bolts, in which the frictional forces are increased by the operational forces
while the bolts themselves are off-loaded.
The application of the principle of self-help in the design of self-reinforcing
brakes has been describedby Kiihnpast [6.113] and Roth [6.176].Depending on
the application, even self-damaging,and in this case self-weakening,solutions
Figure 6.47. Self-reinforcing
can prove interesting, inasmuch as they reduce the effect of variations of the seals;
coefficient of friction on the braking moment 16.62,6.1761. (a) setf-sealingwasher; (b) tubeless
Self-reinforcing seals (Figure 6.47) provide us with further examples. In them. tyre; (c) radial-shaftseal; (d) sleeve
the operating pressure against which the seal has to be applied is used to produce seal; (e) sliding-ringseal
the supplementary effect. 05
Finally we must mention one case in which the supplementary effect is N
produced by an associated force. In hydrostatic axial bearings, the centrifugal mm2 ^s-/
\o/

inertia effect leads to an increase in oil pressure which, at high revolutions, will 04 \l

help to improve the load-carrying capacity, provided the heat can be removed s/
(see Figure 6.48). The supplementary effect leads to an improvement in the I 03
load-carrying capacity due to the increased oil pressure resulting from the I
centrifugal effect alone, the overall effect is due to the load-carrying capacity of oo2
I
the combined static and dynamic pressures.According to Kiihnpast [6.113] it
should be possibleat, say, 166 revls and x :0.38, to obtain a gain in self-helpof
0,1
/' 99' \
v:1.6.
The supplementary effect of another associatedforce, namely that caused by n-A
the effect of temperature on the shrink-fitted rings of a turbine, is disiussed in \
0
510 20 30mm38
[6.1s4].
\ 12 13

3 Self-balancing solutions Figure6.48.Self-helpeffectin hydrostatic from [6.113]

In self-balancing solutions, the supplementary effect is obtained from an
associatedforce, and offsets the initial cffcct to produce an improved overall
effect.
A simple examplc is providcd by turbo-machincr. A bludc uttachcd to a rotor
axialbearings,
iect to a bending stressdue to the tangential force acting upon it and also to
axial tensile stressdue to the centrifugal inertia force. The two are additive
, becausea certainstressmust not be exceeded,the transferabletaneential
is rcduccd(Figurc6.49).lf, howevcr,the bladeis attachedat an ansle,a
220
supplementary effect is produced: an additional bending stress due to tlrr.
centrifugal force acting on the offset centre of gravity of the blade opposes tlrt.
original bending stress and thus allows the application of a larger tangentirrl
force-that is a greater overall effect. How far this balancing process can l)(,
carried depends on the aerodynamic and mechanical conditions.
6 Embodiment clcsrll ples of embodiment design 22r
rcular, we try to protect componentsthat are frequently subject to slight
. If special safety arrangements,for instanceto limit the load, are not
ial, then a self-protecting solution may prove advantageous. It will
timesbe simplicityitself.
'-protecting
solutions derive their supplementary effect from an additional
transmissionpath that, in caseof excessloading, is generally created after
:n elastic deformation has taken place. As a result, the distribution of the
ines of force is altered and the load-carrying capacity increased. Admitted-
in that case,the functional properties associatedwith normal conditions may
me altered, limited or suspended.
: springsshown in Figure 6.51 have such self-protectingproperties. In case

'Es h o c k

M c : F Bl : F c e.
Fe:Fcsin(o-t)

-f-
),,*oo
a
CG: Centreofgravity T1t o4
Fr: Tangential F,: Centrifugal
lorce; force;
o6r: Bending duetoF1;o. : Axial
stress duetoF6;ouc: Bend
stress rrl
stress
duetoF6;Fa: Axlal ofF6;FsBending
component component
olF6 ],,
b
Figure6 49 Self-balancing solutionfor turbineblades; F
(a) conventionalsolution;(b) leaningof the bladeproducesa balancing supplementar,v I
effectdueto the additionalbendingstresses producedby the centrifugalforce(os,) whitlr I
opposethe bendingstresses causedby the tangentialforce(ou,); (c) diagramof forces

A self-balancing effect can also be produced by allowing thermally inducctl

forces (stresses)to oppose other forces (stresses);for instance those resultirru
from excessor other mechanical loads (Figure 6.50). tr5
All the examples we have given are intended to encourage the design ol
technical systemsensuring that: 0 a
- the forces and moments with their resultingloads cancelout as far as possible: re6.50 Figure6.51
or that :6.50. t{oop stressesin a thick-walledcylinder due to the internal pressureonnand
- additional forces or moments are produced in a clearly defined way so that rt :rllure differcncesat nearly steadyheat flow o6,n;
is possible to balance them out. n o t t - l t i t l i t t r c l tst go l t t t i o l t ,t h er r n a ls t r e s si s a d d e dt o t h e m a x i m u mm e c h a n i c asl t r e s so n
l l l n c l s u rl i t c c :
t r c l l - h ; 1 1 ; 1 1 1 t ' l l l g s o l t l l i o t t . lsl t rccr sr ns uo lp p o s c s m a x i m u m r n e c h a nsi tcraels s o n t h e
4 Self-protecting solutions s t t rl r r c c

I n g c n c r a l , i n t h c c v c n t o f i r n o v c r l o l t l . w c ( l ( t l t ( t t w i l r l t c o r n l ) ( ) r l c l l l st o l r r ' c { r ' 5 1 S c l l ' 1 l l ( ) t c ( ' t ist togl t t l i o titt rs l l t i t t g s(;l r )t r r ( t l ) l o r c ' ct r ' : r r r s r n i s s i o r r
llrrth
d c s l r o y c r.l u n l c s s r, r l c o r r r s ct.h c v h l r v r ' l t ' c t t l c l i l r c r i t tl ev t l t ' s i g t t c;rrl sw e ; r kl i r t k t i c r l ,t l l t ' t l r r t t t t ;fttlt t t t ' t t r litrt r r t s l t t ' t t t l ro' rt ll i r r r i t c ti ln r ' l r s o
c l c r c c s sl o l r t l r r i g
222 6 Embodiment dcsilrr Principles of embodiment design 223

of excessloading, the spring elementswhich are normally subject to torsional trr .4 Principles of stability and planned instability
bending stresseswill transmit the additional force directly. The same effect mrrv
mechanics, we know the concepts of stable, neutral and unstable
also be produced if the springs are shock-loaded(Figure 6.51b).
ilibrium, as illustratedin Fieure6.53
Figure 6.52 shows the layout of elastic couplings in which restriction of thc In elaborating solutions, the designer must always consider the effect of
spring movements provides additional force transmission paths with consequcnt urbances and try to keep the system stable by devising means whereby
loss of flexibility but with increasedload-carrying capacity. In Figure 6.52a, the disturbancescan be made to cancel out, or at least to mitigate one another.
load-carrying capacity of the bar springs is altered inasmuch as, besides th,'
normal bending, a powerful shear force between the two halves of the couplirrl stable Afterdisturbance,the Upondeflection,
the
system returns potential
energyol the
appears with overloads. automatically
to itsold deflected
bodyincreases
positionandequilibrium andimposesa returntothe
state position
original

Afterdisturbance,
the Upondeflection,
the
syslem adoptsa new potential
energyremains
positionwithunchanged constant
equilibrium
state

After
disturbance,
the Upondeflection,
the
systemadopts
a new potential
energyol the
r e6 . 5 3 position
andequilibrium dellected
bodydecreases
racteristics of
SIAIC andimposesa newposition
uilibrium states

isturbances are self-reinforcing, we have unstable behaviour. This effect 1 S

irablein certainsolutions, in which case we speak of planned instability.
I [ ilp
0b
of stability
Figure6.52.Self-protecting solutionin couplings;changeof forcetransmissionpathswith
lossof elasticpropertiesin caseof overloading;(a) bar springcoupling;(b) elastic applyingthis principle, the designertries either to ensurethat disturbances
couplingwith coilspringsandspecialbuffersto takeup the forcesin caseof overloadinr I out or else to reducetheir particular effects.
uler 16.167lhas discussed this subjectat lengthand we shall now look at
of his examples.
Figure 6.52b shows a coupling that, strictly speaking, may be considereclit the designof pistonsfor pumpsor regulatingdevices,the main objectiveis
borderline case between a division of tasks and a self-protectingsolution. Tlrc achieve stable behaviour and minimum friction.
buffers will only take up forces in case of overloading. The characteristic of thc igure 6.54a shows the layout of a piston with unstable characteristics.
spring elements remains unchanged. However, the force transmissionpath is rbances due, say, to inaccuraciesin the cylinder bore can tilt the piston
altered after a given elastic deformation has taken place. tly and produce pressure distributions over the piston that encourage
Kiihnpast [6.113] alse mentions cases in which there is an uneven strcsri tilting (unstable behaviour). Stable behaviour is ensured by the layout
distribution over a cross-sectionand where plastic deformation can then be usctl in Figure 6.54b, which, however, has a disadvantage:the piston rod inlet
for purposes of self-protection. In such cases, however, sufficiently touglt to be sealed off on the pressureside.
materials and adequate dimensional stability are needed. According to [6.167], the layout shown in Figure 6.54a canbe stabilisedby the
I t i s h o p e d t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l c o f s c l l ' h c l p b a s c d o n s c l f - r c i n f o r c i n g ,s c l l ' res shown in Figure 6.55 a-d. They ensure that a disturbance will itself
b a l a n c i n ga n d s e l f - p r o t e c t i n gs o l u t i ( ) n sw i l l c n c o u r a g ct h c c l c s i g n c rt o c x i t n t i t t c iatc suchprcssurcdistributionsas tend to correctthe misalignment.
every conccivahlc arrangcnrcnt in un cffort lo urrive ttt an cffcctivc itntl Anothcr exilmplcis thc wcll known cirscof hydrostatic bcaringswith oil
c c o n o r n i c i t sl o l t t t i t l n . s distributcrlirrounclthc pcriphcry.whcn thc bqrring is loaclccl.
rhc
114 6 Embodimenttl.'r of embodiment design 22s

leakage path below the load is reduced with the result that pressurebuilds up in similar approach is used in the design of taper roller bearings.Thus, in the
the affected oil pocket and decreases in the opposite one. Thanks to tlro shown in Figure 6.57a, heating of the shaft, by excessiveloading for
combined effect, the bearing can take up the load with very small shrrfl :, will tend to rincrease
rrwrv4rv the
L r r w rload
vau even
L vLrl further
l u t L r t g l because
uE;LduSE of
u I the
t r r c texpansion
s)xpalrslult of
o l
displacement. shaft due to the increasedfrictional heat. The arrangementshown in Figure
The stuffing boxes and sealsof turbo-machinery must always be designecll,rl rb, by contrast, will lead to a load reduction.
In the caseunder consideration.
thermo-stable behaviour 16.1671.The seal of a turbo-charger shown in Figrrrr..
6.56 is a casein point. In the thermo-unstablelayout (Figure 6.56a) most of llrc
frictional heat generated by contact forces will flow into the rotor which will ht'rrt \
up further, expand, and hence increase the contact forces. In the stalrlc
arrangement (Figure 6.56b), by contrast, the frictional heat will cause tlrc
contact forces to be reduced. A disturbance thus produces a self-limiting eflcr t
6.57.Taper roller bearings in which the shaft heats up more than the housing;
Figurg6 54, Pistonin cylinder, thermal expansionleads to increasedloading and hence to unstablebehaviour
tilteddue to a disturbance.from thermal expansionleads to reduced loading and hence to stablebehaviour
16.1,671;
(a) resultingpressuredistribution
producesan effectthat increases reduction must not, however, be allowed to reach the point where one of the
the disturbance(unstable ings becomes unloaded, because the shaft at that point would then not be
behaviour); radially and the bearings easily damaged.
(b) resultingpressuredistribution nother interesting example of thermo-stable behaviour is provided bv the
producesan effectthat opposesthe elical gearsused in marine gearboxes16.2391.
disturbance(stablebehaviour)

ple of planned

some cases, unstable or bistable behaviour is positively welcome. This

when,on reachinga limit, a clearlydistinctstateor positionis required
no intermediate state is acceptable. The requisite instability is initiated when
ected physical quantity reaches a limiting value and then introduces
inforcing effects.
Figure6.55.Measures for improvingthe resultingpressuredistribution,from [6.167]; well known application is in the design of safety and alarm valves [6.l6jl
(a) unstablebehaviourmitigatedby pressure-equalising grooves; , on reaching a limiting pressure, will spring from a completely closed to a
(b) stablebehaviourthroughconicalpiston; letely open position. This avoids undesirable settings with a low flow rate
(c) throughpressure pockets; tter and wear of the valve seat (see Figure 6.126).
(d) throughjoint fittedabovecentreof gravityof the piston
ure 6.58 illustrates the solution principle.
Up to the limitingpressure p: p.r,the valveremainsclosedunderthe preload
the spring. If this pressureis exceeded,then the valve head will lift off verv
ly. The result is an intermediate pressurepi,rhe valve head throttling the
t. This intermediate pressureacts on the additional surface,4uof the valve
and produces a supplementary opening force that offsets the elastic force of
springF, to suchan extentthat the valveheadlifts rapidly.In the openstate,
nt intermediate pressurep' is set up and keeps the valve open. To close
valve,the pressuremustbe reducedconsiderably belowthe limitingopening
becausc,in the openstate,the pressureis appliedto a greatersurface
Figurc6.56.Scitlin turtr<t-
chsrgcr.fronr16.l67l One applic:rtionis thc prcssureswitchfor monitoringbearingoil pressure
in l"'igurc(r,59,ll'thc bctringoil prcssurc
dropsl'rcklwl ccrtainvalue,the
 226 6 Embodimcntdcsisrr 6.5 Guidelines for embodirnent design
227

piston jumps open and the pressure inside

the safety system is reduced with
consequent shut-off of the endangeredmachinery.
T h e - p r . i n c i p t eo f p l a n n e c li n s r i b i l t t y
,
s h u t - o f f d e v i c e si n w h i c h a s t r i k e r p i n
h =h, gravity slightly offset from the centie
o
h=0 angular speed is reached, the striker
p r e l o a d . T h e r e s u l t i n gi n c r e a s ei n t h e
e
to an increase in the centrifugal force
ar
without
w i l h o r r t any
e n r r further
frrrrLo-:-^-^^^^
increase iin the .'
ang,
Figure6.58 Figure6.59 the rate of increase in the centrifusai
g r e a t e rt h a n t h a t o f t h e o p p o s i n g
Figure 6.58 Solution principle for a valve with an unstable opening mechanrsm spiin,
pin begins to move. The forces -uit
d: precompression of spring; s : stiffness of spring; { : spring force; /z : lift of valve Ui
head;p : pressureon valve;p, : limiting pressurejust sufficientto open the valve; can be achieved provided that dF"/dr>
pr : intermediate pressure on opening of valve ; p' : pressure after opening of valve; once it has been displaced to th" outside,
the pin strikes a catch which, in
pe: atmosphericpressure;Au: valve-openingsurfacearea;Au: additional surfacearc;r turn, activatesthe rapid shut_off mechanism.
Valve closed: F,: s' d> p' A,. h--0
V a l v ej u s t o p e n : F,: s -d { A. A,, h:0
Valve opening fully: F,= s(d + h) < p . A, + pi. At. h-,->h,
Valve fully open: F,: s(d + hr) : p'(A, + A^), h : fu (newequilibrium positiorrI
Figure 6 59. Diagrammatic sketch of a pressureswitch to monitor bearing oil pressure.
6.5 Guidelines for embodiment design
from [6.167]
1 main oil system pressure;2 orifice,3 safety system activating rapid shut-off valles ; 4 5.1 General considerations
drainage(no pressure);5 bearing oil pressure
addition to the three basic rures (clarity, simplicity
and safety) derived from
general objectives (g:1, the designer
. must also follow a number
rurtruvl ofl
u
s guidelinesbasedon ih" generarconstraints
set
r v l vout
u r \in 2.r.6
n dP:j]T:tt,q:sign
L tL 'r'\)
+$/' the checklist in Figure 6.2.
$7 These guidelines cover the respective
constraints and requirements
and are in
ping with the basic rules. In what follows
we shall cover what we considerto
t!9 most important of them
lrrLru without
wru_r(rLil_
making
rnaKlng any
any Clalms
claims to
to completeneSs.
comDreteness.
n dirn y o.witrrvinenLv u- ^ u.t* or special
:i 1",:have
counts f :::: l':l' l_1I:,0.: to
been published, . which
"1 the reader will ".,
withm rrr,2>s, be referred.
Designing for durability (stressrequirements):
unstablebehaviour the designeris ,li.r."oto tt.
startlng
fromcu: ar, eraturecoveringmachineelements
[6.6i, 6.7g,6.I0g,6..*5, O.iOl,6.2071.
He shouldHqJ
pay rpvLr.r
specialdrrtrr'u'
attentionto changes
ro cnanges in loadrng
ln loadingconditions
conditionswith
with rime :r
time and
the correct estimates of the level and
type of the resulting stresses.
amage-accumulationcriteria help to improve
service-life predictions
1 9 1 ,6 . 2 0 9 1 . [6.79,
In.determining stresses,the designer must
Figure6.60 Figure6.61 take stressconcentrationsandior
ultiaxial axiarsrress conditions inri account [6,.25,6.r.4r, s.ii)",-i.2ts,6.240].
I l i g u r c ( r ( r 0R a p i d s h u t - o f f p i n l i n s h a f t - ] w i t h c c n t r cgor li r v i t y C G o f f s e t b y c a n c l s p r i r r l sscssmcnts of durabilitymustbe basedon the materialprop".ir.,
2 I r o l t l i r r gt h c p i n i n t h c n o r n r a lp o s i t i o n ,f r o r t r1 6 ,l ( r 7 l and the
l p p r . ; r r i i r rfci r i r u rccr i t e r i [a6 . 2 2 . 6 . 7 6 , 6 . g 6 , . 6 . r 3 g , 6e..2i r0i ,2o, . z z o , 6 . z 2 r l .
: I)csignirrg t0 iril.w
l i i g t r r c( r . ( r l ( i r t r l l h o l s p r i n gl i r r c c i r r r t tl ' t ' r r t r i l r r g ilrol t r ' c ; r gr i r r r tt l t c t l i s l l l l r c c n t c rrr to l l l r t . f<tr dij orrnatictn.,stahility anrJresonance:'the
designer is
c c t l t r co l g r i r v i t yo l t h c r a p i d s l t u t - o l lp i n ( l J i g u r c{ r , { { l ) ,e - c c c c r r t r i c i t oy l c c n t r c o f ' ,:l]r]l,lll1i.rc
c.tcur.1i.ns
in nrcch.rrics
,,,,,i,,,u.ii,,"ctynamics:
g r ; t v i t y :r / - s P r i n gJ r r c c o r n P r c s s i orl,rr;, l i n t r t t r t ln n l u l n t r r ; x c t lh c y o r r rw l h i c l rt h c l l i r r l i l t ,
Ij:1,::1
l ' c c h l r . ::'
i c s.ill:
. i r ' st lr r c r r g t h . p r . b r c r r rr sv . o l , t , 6 l l 7 .
lo. 6 .r 9 2' ,,6
, ,."2i 10 .r,l .lv, i, r1r r i r t i r l r r
oll p r o h l 1 , l 1l (sr\, l ( ) 6{, r l J i l : s t i r b i l i t p
y r o l r l t , r rlr(rr l ( ) l l ; , , , , , 1 .l tirritc
228 6 Embodimeutrlcslr' G u i d e l i n e s f o r em b o d i m e n t d e s i g n

elements [6.250].In 6.4.1 we have dealt briefly with the problems of designirrrr nate axis only, while the coefficient of cubical expansion defines the
with due allowance for the deformation caused by the transmission of forces tive change of volume per degree of temperature rise. For homogeneous
Designing to allow for expansion and creep, that is temperature phenometr;r, its value is three times that of the coefficient of linear expansion.
will be discussedin 6.5.2 and 6.5.3, and designingagainst corrosion in 6.5.4 loefficients of expansion should be understood as mean values over the
Wear poses an extraordinarily complex problern that is currently beirl icular temperature range/0^; they depend not only on the material but also
examined from many sides. The reader is referred to the literature [6.5, 6.lt t the temperature. At higher temperatures, the coefficient usually increases.
6 . 1 0 56, . 7 t t ,6 . 1 6 26, . 2 3 4 1 . Figure 6.62 gives the coefficients of linear expansion of distinct groups of
Safety problems are treated at some length in 6.3.3. ineering materials. It shows that with commonly used combinations of
General ergonomic problems are discussedin [6.96, 6.140, 6.764, 6.1]'' ls, for example of 35C carbon steel with austenitic (I\CI18% Cr-Ni-Nb)
6 . 1 8 7 ,6 . 1 8 8 ] .T h e e r g o n o m i cu s e o f e q u i p m e n ti s d e a l t w i t h i n 1 6 . 4 6 , 6 . 4 ,16 . e \
. o n i t o r i n g a n d c o n t r o l a r e c o v e r e di n [ 6 . 1 . 1i
6 . 1 I 2 , 6 . 1 1 7 , 6 . 7 7 3 , 6 . 7 7 4 , 6 . 1 8 4 ]M
.-lnvar (64%Fe,36%Ni)
6.I72, 6.I89]. The harmful effects of noise and their mitigation are examineclrrr
[ 6 . 6 5 , 6 . 8 3 , 6 . 8 4, 6 . 1 1 4, 6 . 1 8 6 , 6 . 2 7 r, 6 . 2 1 7, 6 . 2 2 5 ] .
The form design of technical products involves special rules which 31s ssf oLrl
i n [ 6 . 5 6 ,6 . 1 0 3 ,6 . 2 1 . 8 ] . .- Tungsten
Design for production and assembly (including quality control and transport) s .- Molybdenum
dealt with at some length in 6.5.6 and 6.5.7. Designing to standards(see 6.5 .t - Chromium
helps with this aspect and also in reducing costs and improving schedules.
The problems involved in design for operation and maintenance depend vcrr ..- Vanadium
-
m u c h o n t h e p r o d u c t a n d i t s u s e . T h e r e a d e ri s r e f e r r e d t o [ 6 . 4 5 , 6 . 9 3 , 6 . 1 ( ) s Greycastiron
.- 13%Chromium (10C/13%
Steel Cr)
6.I35,6.2461 and also to the literature listed under ergonomics above.,
.- Titanium,
35CCarbon steel

6.5.2 Designing to allow for expansion - Pureiron

- - Gold
Materials used in technical systemstend to expand when they are heated. Tlrt'
resulting problems must be taken into considerationnot only in the design ol _ Austenitic steel(10Cl1Bk
stainless Cr-Ni-Nb)
thermal devices in which higher temperaturesmust be expected as a matter ol Copper
course, but also in high-performance engines and devices in which frictionrrl + Bronze 60 ._ Polycarbonate
h e a t i n gc a n o c c u r a n d s p e c i a lc o o l i n g i s e m p l o y e d .A s a r e s u l t ,s e v e r a la r e a su i l l - Brass
be affected by local heating. Moreover, deviceswhose environmental tempcr;r. *- alloy(cast),
Aluminium Tin g0 .- (homopolymer)
Polyacelal
ture fluctuates significantly will only work properly if the physical effects ol
thermal expansion have been allowed for in the design [6.154].
Apart from the thermal effects of linear expansion, the designer must also
consider the purely mechanical expansion of parts subjected to heavy loading ..- Aluminium - 66
Nylon
.- Magnesium
Alloy
=- Nylon
6
I Expansion .- (copolymer)
Polyacetal

E x p a n s i o nh a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c to f a h o s t o f s p e c i a ls t u d i e s .F o r s o l i d b o d i e st l r , ' - Leao
- N y l o6n1 0
cocfficicnt of linear expansion is defined as
e: ,411U..40,,,)
w l r c r c , , l / : c I l r r r g ci r r l c r r g t [ ( c x l l i r r r s i o r r ) t l rlrot .l r l ( , n l l ) c r i l t r t rrci s c < t 1t | 0 , , , .
/ - t h c l c n g t l rr l l t l r c c t l r r r p o n c nl ln r ( l c tr ' o t t s i r l c n r t i o rnr.r r t l D
. 1 1 / , ,- ,- n l c i r nt e n ' l l ) c r l r t r r r r . ' t l i l l r ' t cl no cwc l t i c l rt l r c l r o t l vi s s t r b j c c t c t l . l V t ' i r ttt' o r ' l l i c i c rot ll l i n c l r c x p t r n s i olror r v l r ri o r r sr r r i r t ci ar l s l( a ) n r c t a l l i c
'l'ltc
r ' o r ' l l i r ' i r ' r tot l l i t t c l r tc x l l t t t r i o s tt l c l t n c r l l t c c x p ; t t t s i o tot t l r s o l i r ll r l o r r Fr lr r r t '
 230 6 Embodimentti, lines for embodiment design zJl

steel, or of grey cast iron with bronze or aluminium, great care must be takcrr re 6.63a shows a body clamped at one point with no degreesof freedom.
allow for relative expansions because of the sisnificant differences in r al expansion it can expand freely from this point along the various
coefficients of thermal expansion. with larse dimensions. even the relatrrr. Figure 6.63b shows a plate that can be rotated about the z axis and thus has
small differencesbetween, say, 35C carbon steel and 13 per cent chromium sr ee of freedom. As shown in Figure 6.63c, this singledegree of freedom
(10C11,3%Cr) can cause serious problems. simply removed by means of a slide. were this plate to expand under
Metals with a low melting point, such as aluminium and magnesium. temperature increases,it would have to rotate about the z axis. for the
greater coefficients of thermal expansion than metals with a high melting
such as tungsten, molybdenum and chromium.
Nickel alloys have different coefficients depending on their nickel conl(.nt,
Very low values occur in the range of 32-40 per cent by weight, with .l()';r
Ni-64% Fe (known as 'Invar') having the lowest coefficient. -)
Synthetic materials have significantly higher coefficients of expansion
metals. '/,/ Delees of treedom
r =0 . R
=0

2 Expansion of components

To calculate changes in length, /1, the designer must know the temperatrrrc
S = .90.Z-9m
distribution (position and time) in the component and hence the mean tempt'rr.
ture change with respect to the initial value. Degrees of lreedom "A
I = 0 ,R = 0
If the temperature distribution does not change with time, we speak oi tg
steady or fixed expansion. If the temperature distribution changeswith time. rvc
speak of an unsteady or fluctuating expanslon.
L"= r",
In the case of steady expansion, the physical ouantities on which tl "u
expansion of the components depends are obtained from the basic equations:

cd
/l: a. l' /0n /o-:t7l'nour*,
o* 6.63 Expansiondueto steadyuniformtemperature
distribution;continuous
line:
state;brokenline: highertemperature
state;
The change in length /l which concerns the designer is therefore dependent orr! body attachedto a fixed poinl
- t h e c o e f f i c i e n to f l i n e a r e x p a n s i o nc : plate can rotate about the z axis; that is. one degree offreedom
-the length / of the component; and plate as tn
Plate (b) but
in (D) Dut wlth
with slngle
singledegreeof freedom removed by an additional sliding pivot
-the mean temperature change A0^over this length, plate as in (b) but allowing for expansionwithout rotation. it would also be possible
le simple slideswhich might equally well be arrangedalong the x axis as along a line
and can be determined accordinslv. the z axis inchned attan E = lyll,
The value thus determined has a direct bearing on the desisn: evt
component must be clearly located and must only have as many degrees t does not lie in the direction of the expansion that results from the change of
freedom as are necessaryfor its proper functioning. In general, a point is fixcd h in the x and y directions..If the slide allowed only translational movement
and the requisite translational and rotational movements are set by approprirrrc did not also act as a pivot, then jamming would occur. By fitting the slide in
guides, for example slides, bearings etc. A body in space (a satelritc or direction of one of the co-odinates(Figure 6.63d) it is possibleto avoid the
helicopter) has three translational degreesof freedom in the x, y and z directiorrr i < l no f t h e c o m p o n e n t .
and three rotational degrees of freedom about the x, y and z axes. A sliclirrg fter deformationdue to thermalexpansiongeometricsimilaritywill only be
p i v o t ( f o r e x a m p l e t h e n o n - l o c a t i n gb c a r i n go f a s h a f t ) p r o v i d e st w o d e g r c c s. [ ttaincd if the followingconditionsare met:
f r c c d o m - o n e t r a n s l a t i o n a la n c l o n c r o l a t i o n i t l , A b o d y c l a m p c c la t o n c p o i r r l Thc c<lcfficicnt of cxpansiono must be constantthroughoutthe component
( l i r r c x a n t p l c a b u i l t - i n h c a r n ) , o n t h c ( ) t h c r h u n d , h u s n o c l c g r c c so l ' l ' r c c c k l r r , (isotrophy),whichcanbe takenfor grantedin practiceprovidedthat ontyone
l.ityouts lritscd tln thcsc coltsidctltaont rlonc do nol. howcvcr. allow lor kirul of mrtcrial is uscd and that thc tcmpcraturcdiffcrcnccsare not too
cxpulrsiorrnutonrlticirlly. ils wc shttll now domonrtrute, 8rcilt,
 232 6 Embodiment tlLrr lines for embodiment design
233
- T h e t h e r m a l s t r a i n s e a l o n g t h e xy,, z a x e s m u s t b e s u c h t h a t * : y: e z : a . , l symmetry line of the deformed state should, in the first instance.
be
[6.131]. tt both along the symmetry line of the component and also along that of
If a is constant throughout a component, then the mean temperature incrcr the
mposedtemperaturefield. However,asFigure6.646shows,tf,issymmet-
must be the same for all three axes, so that we have: may not be easilyidentifiablefrom the componentshapeand temperature
/l*: 1*'a'/0^ bution, so that the ultimate state of deformation must also be taken
into
llr:lr.a./0^ nt. Ihat state, as we said earlier, may also be causedby external loads.
To
Zlt: lr'a' /0^ extent' our remarks also apply to guides of components subject to
large
nical deformations.An examplewill be found in
and for the x and y axes: 16.12l.
following examplesmay serveas further illustrations:
al. 1., gure 6-65 is the plan view of a device whose temperature decreases
from the
t a n c '0 : J : J re to the periphery. It is supported on four feet. In Figure 6.65a one
/l* l* of the
waschosenasthe fixed point. If the deviceis not to ,oLt. o,
iam, the suide
The component must not be subjected to additional thermal loads, which rirll re 6.65. Plan view of a devrce.
not happen if, for instance, it is completely surrounded by a source of hr.:rl temperature decreasesfrom
[6.131]. rcentre to the periphery, mounted
As a rule, however, different temperaturesare measured in a single comp.. four feet:
Designatedfixed point on one
nent. Even in the simplest case, with the temperature distribution changing
; simple slide along a line that is
linearly along the x axis (Figure 6.64a), a change in angle is produced whicli. the symmetry line of the
rature field
lmaginary
maginary fixed point in the centre point
fixed
device formed by the
ion of the lines of expansron b

Figure 6.64. Expansion under non-uniform temperature distribution, here decreasing
linearly along the x axis:
(a) Plate correspondingto Figure 6.63d; non-uniform temperaturedistribution product
deformation shown by broken line; sliding pivot required
(b) Guide placed on symmetry line of deformed state so that a simple slide can be userl
again, can only be taken up by a guide with a sliding as well as a pivoti
movement. A simple slide, which allows translational movement with r
degree of freedom, can only be used if the guide lies along the line of symmct
of the deformation (Figure 6.64b).
If this conditionis not fulfilled, a furtherdegreeof freedommust be allowc{.
Hencewe obtainthe rule that guidesthat take up thermalexpansionand hirvc
one degreeof freedomonly must lie on a line throughthe fixed point, and tlrir
line must be the symmetryline of thc dcformcdstate,
The deformed state can be causcdby loud-depcndcntancl tempcraturc.
depcndcntstresses,in aclditionto thc exptndon itsclf, Sincc thc strcsslntl
tcmpcraturcdistributirtnalso dcpcndr on thc rhape of thc conrponcnt.tlc
only be placed along the symmetry line of the temperature field, that is
on
opposite foot. Figure 6.65b shows a method of providing guides along
netry lines, without a designated fixed point. The intersection of the linei
gh the guides constitutes an imaginary fixed point from which the device
expand evenly in all directions.In that case,two guides,for example I and2,
ld be omitted.
gure 6.66 shows the location of inner casings in outer casings
when a
mon centre must be maintained as, for instance,in turbines. If the deformed
pe of these components is not completely rotationally symmetrical, then
the
les must be placed on the symmetry lines to prevent jamming of guides
-Such due
say' oval deformation of the casings,(see Figure 6.66:D. oval
rmation is causedby temperaturedifferences,especialryduring the warm-
phase.The imaginaryfixed point lies on the longitudinalaxisof tie casingor
ft.
Figure 6.67 shows an austenitic steel high-temperature steam inlet pipe
a
tich must be fitted into a ferritic steel outir casing b while protruding into
a
tic steclinnercasingc. Because
of markeddifferences
in thL two coeificients
expansion and also because of the considerable temperature differences
wccn thc componcnts; particular attention must be puia to relative expan-
An imaginaryfixcd point is provided by the rotationallysymmetrical
1n.
c s . i l n i l r r i l n g c m c n t c n s u r i n g t h e u n i m p c c l c de x p a n s i o no f t h e a u s t e n i t i c
p o n c n l t k l n g u n y l i n c t h r o u g h t h c i n r i r g i n u r yf i x c d p o i r r t . B c c a u s c
thc
aa i
L JL+ 6 Embodimentclcsrlrr Guidelines for embodiment design 235

the fixed point of the inner casing are not identical and no definite
rature distributionscan be assignedto the components.The double
e of freedom is obtained with the help of the piston-ring seal e which
ts the independent axial and radial movements of the inlet prpe.

lative expansion of components

far, we have been considering expansionin a relatively stable environment.

ry often, however, the relative expansion of two (or more) components has to
taken into account, especiallyin the caseof mutual loadingsor when certain
ces must be maintained. If in addition the temperature varies with time,
)n the designeris faced with a very difficult problem. The relative expansion
00 the two componentsis:
F i g u r e6 . 6 6 . L o c a t i o no f i n n e r c a s i n g si n o u t e r c a s i n g s :
(a) Arrangement of guidesdoes not allow for expansion;oval deformation of the d r . t : G 1. 1 1 '/ 0 ^ 1 1 1 1 - a z . l z . / 7 n z ( t ) .
h o u s i n g sc a n c a u s eg u i d e st o j u m
(b) Arrangement allowing for expansion;guideslie along symmetry lines; no jamminr te relative expansion
with oval deformation
relative mean temperature difference does not vary with time, and if the
:ients of linear expansion are identical, then all that has to be done to
ise the relative expansion is to even out the temperature or else to select
rials with different coefficients of expansion. often both are necessary.
s can be seen in the case of a flanged connection consisting of a steel stud
an aluminium flange (Figure 6.68). Because the aluminium has a higher
icient of expansion, a temperature rise will increasethe load on the siud,
:h may lead to failure. This can be prevented, on the one hand, by increasing
\i/
__-u--
length of the stud and using a sleeve and, on the other hand, by usine

/l\

Figure 6 67 Inlet pipe a of a steam turbine made of austeniticsteel that takes the stearn
through the ferritic steelouter casingb to the inner casingc. Expansionplanesthrough
g u i d e w a y sr / d e t e r m i n ea n i m a g i n a r yf i x e d p o i n t . P i s t o nr i n g s e a l sa t c p e r m i t t h e a x i a l
a n c lr a c l i i rcl x p a n s i o no f t h e e n d o f t h e i n l et p i p c ( B B C )

tclnpcrilturc
distribution at that pointis l'airlyunilitrm,thc rcspcctivc raclialirrrrl
l r c 6 . ( r l l . . ( ' o r r n c c t r obny n r e a n so f a s t e e ls t u d a n d a l u m i n i u mf l a n g e
axiillcxpilnsions producca rcsultingcxp[n$i()n ulongthc indicatcdlincs. [6.147]:
ttlud crtdirrt.gcrcrl bccauscalurrriniunrflaugc has gre:rterexpansion
lly crlntrasi,tlrc inscrtiolrol'tltc inlet pipe into thc inncr casilrgnlustilll()w i n c r l r p o r l t t i o ttlt l l n v i t t c x 1 ' r i t n s i osnl c c v cw i t h l r c ' o c l f i c i c r irltf c x l r u p s i e nc l o s ct o ( . 1
indcpcndcrtlcxplrtsionillon!llw() uxci. bccttnc thc fixcd point ol'tlrc irrlct;ri;x' ! i l o b i r l i r r r c tch c r c l l t i v c c x p t r n s i o no l t l t r r r g ct r r r tsl l r r t l
 Guidelines lor embodiment design
6 Embodiment dcsrlrr

components with appropriate coefficientsof expansion.If relative expansion r\ everywhere display the same temperature-depenclentproperties. This can
be remedied if the expansions are kept under control by the carefully
to be avoided altogether, then we must have:
ned introduction of appropriate cooling or heating.
dr"r: 0 : ar' lt'/0^t-Gz'lz'/0-z- a3'\'/0^3
teady relativ e expansion
With /1 : lz* lz and,t: l2l\the relative lengthof sleeveto flange becomes:
the temperature changes with time, for instance during heating or cooling
a3'/06- c\'A0^1 )cesses,we often find a relative expansion much greater than that which is
1:
c1'/0^1- a2'/0^2 in the steady,final state. This is becausethe temperatureof the individual
ponents can differ considerably. In the common case of components of
With steady-state expansion, /0^t: /0^2: /06 and with s t et ' l
rl length and equal coefficients of expansion, we have:
( a r : 1 1 x 1 0 - 6 ) ,I n v a r ( a 2 : 1 x 1 0 - 6 ) a n d a l u m i n i u ma l l o y ( a z : 2 0 x 1 0 6 ) r r s
t h e c h o s e nm a t e r i a l s( a s i n F i g u r e 6 . 6 8 b ) ,w e h a v e 7 : l z l l t = 0 . 9 .
CIl: (12: C and \: lr:1
The designer will be familiar with the complicated expansion problerrrr
associatedwith the pistons of internal combustionengines.Here, the tempcrrr d . e r: G ' I ( 2 0 ^ 1 ( t ) - / 0 ^ x r ) .
ture distribution over and along the piston differs even in the near-steadystrrtr'
The_heating of components has been examined by, among others, Endres and
and, what is more, differences in the coefficientsof expansion of piston urrtl
r l m [ 6 . 5 9 , 6 . 1 8 0 ] .N o m a t t e r w h e t h e r w e a s s u m ea s t e p o r l i n e a r t e m p e r a t u r e
cylinder must also be taken into account. One solution is the use of iul
nge in the heating medium, the heating curve will be characterisedby a time
aluminium-silicon alloy with a relatively smallcoefficient of expansion (smallt'r
stant. If, for instance, we consider the temperature change /0^ of a
than 20 x 10-6), of expansion-inhibitinginsertsthat are also good heat conclrrr'.
ponent dunng a sudden temperature increase/0* of the heatins medium.
tors, and of a flexible piston skirt. The bimetal effect provided by steel inscrts
, u n d e r t h e a d m i t t e d l y a p p r o x i m a t ea s s u m p t i o nr h a t t h e s u r f a c ea n d m e a n
also helps to match the shape of the piston skirt to that of the cylinder [6.12t'l:
peraturesof the components are equal-which, in practice, is approximately
Fisure 6.69.
only for relatively thin walls and high thermal conductivity-we obtain the
shownin Figure6.70, with:
Z0^: /0* (l - e-ttr)
/ is the time and Z is the time constant such that:

f :c'm
Figure 6.69. Piston of internal h.A
combustion engine made of an re:
aluminium-silicon alloy with steel specific heat of the component;
insertswhich inhibit circumferential mass of the component;
expansion ; moreover the bimetal effect
heat transfer coefficient of the heated surface of the component: and
ensures optimum adaptation of the
piston skirt to the cylinder (Mahle heated area of the component.
design)from [6.126]
te the simplification involved, this approach may be considered fun-
tal.
If, on the other hand,the choiceof materials is restrictedin practice,then thc ith two componentshaving different time constants,we obtain temperature
designermust rely on temperatureadjustments. In high-powergenerators.l()r 9s that, at a given critical time, will have a maximum difference. At this
instance,large lengthsof insulatedcopperrod must be embeddedin the steeI we have maximum relative expansion, and must provide clearancesto
rotors.For insulation purposes alonethe absolute and relativeexpansions lnu\l thc expansionor run the risk of excessivestressesbeyond the yield point.
trc kcpt as smallas possible. Here thc onlysolution is to keep the tempcralrrrc l idcntical tcmperature curves appear if the time constants of the two
lcvcl to a minirnumlry cooling[(r.ll6. 6.23.51, Morcovcr,if thcscfast-rurtrtirtg t n c n t sc a n b c c q u a l i s e d .I n t h a t c a s e ,t h e r e i s n o r e l a t i v ee x p a n s i o n .T h i s
rotorshilvc largcdimcnsions, thcrmll imbuluncclt may ()ccurtcvcn thoughthe i v c c i r n n o t a l w a y s b c a c h i e v e d ,b u t i n o r d e r t o r e n d e r t h e t i m e c o n s t a n r s
tcrrrpcrilturcdistributionis rclirtivclyunaform, lhc rtltttr.bcclusc<ll'itsctlrttpli l x i n r i r t c l yc q u i r l . t h a t i s , t r l r c c l u c ct h c r c l i r t i v cc x p a n s i o n ,t h c d e s i g n e rc a n ,
cirlcdstruclurciurdlhc virriotrs rnrrlcrisltthrt
havegoncirrtoil. nrirynrlt irlwlrrr thc rclirtiolrship:
 6 Emhodiment desilrr Guidelinesfor embodiment desisn l.1e
238

v - n r zl - r
A 2n.rl 7

Holrow
shal +fA --a
,J
Z9^tlnox
tromoutside)t2' -____l/
(heated
lZ.Sn,-

Horowshar
6-A-
(heated
frominside)
\f__, _/
''L-'
Prare \-{-a], v tbt,
' A= t4 ='
on oneside) o
(heated
constantsof a step *:>_]
Fisure 6.70. The effects on two components with different time
te"mperaturechange, A8*, in the heating medium
V_ t b t - t
fi:|iro.rborhsides)
S \ A 2tb 2
vl
T : c ' o '-- ' - .
Ah
where
,ffi
V: volume of the component;
Brade !_ A,t_A"
e : density of the component,
r{
tr'
A CI C

- either adapt the ratio of the volume V to the heated surface area A; re 6 .7 | . Volume-surface area relationship of various geometrical bodies, arrows
- or else adjust the heat transfer coefficient h by means of , say, lagging. to heated surfaces
Figure 6.71 gives the relationship VIA for a number of simple but representrt-
tive bodies.

As a result, the clearance between the spindle and the sleeve will diminislt
dangerously.
fn a, tne sleevesare sealed axially but can expand freely radially. Moreovct,
their volume to area ratio is such that spindle and sleeveshave approximatclV
equal time constants.As a result, the clearanceremains more or less uniform lt
ali temperatures and can therefore be kept small. The surface of the valvc
spindleind the inner surfaceof the sleevesare heated by steam leaks, so that rvc
have:
(VlA)rrin6": rl2 00
(VlA),t".u": (ruz- rl)12r,; rc 6 72. Spindlc sealsof steam valves;
l i x c t l s l c c v cr c r l r r i r c sr c l i r t i v c l yl a r g cs p i n d l cc l c i r l i r r . r cbce c a u s ei t h a s n o t b e e n
w i t h r ; : r a n c l ( 7 / , 4 ) , n ; , ' , 1: 1 "( V l A ) , t e c \ cw
. c hilvc
I t l t o i r l k r wl o r c x p r r n s i o n
rl2: (rri - r2)l2r r : r r l i r r l l lvr c c l r r r t lr r x i l r l l vs c l r l c rsl l c c v cP c l r t r i t ss l t t i r l sl l t i t t r l l c l c i r n r n c cb c c i r t r s sc p i n t l l c
r l c c r c l t ; r r cl r c c r tr l c r i r r t c t ll o l t i r v ct l r e s l r r r r r . ' t t i lcco l l s l i l l t l
/n- r' V2
 6 Embodimentdesirrr Guidelines for embodiment design 247

Figure 6.73 showsvarious steam turbine housings.With appropriate design it ence a gradual plastic deformation that, after a given period, may lead to
is possible to adapt the volume to area ratio of the housing and also the hcrrt re. The ensuing time-dependentfracture stressis much lower than the 0.2
transfer coefficient and size of the heated surface to the time constants of thc cent proof stress at the same temperature determined by short-term
shaft, and thus keep the blade clearancesapproximately constantwhen startirrl riments (see Figure 6.74). Critical temperature and creep strength depend
(heating) the turbine. ly on the materials used and must both be taken into consideration.with
s, the criticaltemperaturelies between300' and 400"C.

casing
Single Separate blade
statronary (partial)
carrier N
mm2

I
II \-
Double
casing
Figure6.73. Steamturbine housingswith differenttime constants
Separate
stationary (full)
bladecarriet
h t\
There are several well known methods for reducing the heat translt'r
coefficient of a component (for example by insulation) and thus for slowing
@
fino
Heat treatment
t h 930'C/0il
+ 2n730clan
\r \
down the heating and reducing the relative expansion. I og

The ideas we have just put forward are applicable wherever temperaturcs 200
I \\
change with time, and particularly wherever relative expansion goes hand rn
I \\
hand with clearance reductions that are likely to endanger the functioning ol' o62(105)
turbines, piston engines and machines operating in hot environments. I temperature
Critical
1
I

Ot (1osl
6.5.3 Designing to allow for creep and relaxation 400 0c 600
Temperature
I Behaviour of materials subject to temperature changes '
re 6 74. Characteristic values determined by high-temperature tensile strength and
When designingcomponents subject to temperature changeswe must take into :p experimentswith 21Cll 5% Cr-Mo-V steel at various temperatureslcritical
account not only the expansion effect, but also the creep properties of tlrc perature is the intersectionofthe curvesof0.27a proofstress and the stressfor 0.27c
materials. The temperaturesinvolved need not necessarilybe very high, thoLrglt strainin 105hours
they usually are. However, there are some materials that will, even at temperir.
when working with synthetic materials, the designer must allow for their
tures well below 100"C, behave in much the same way as metals do at very high
asticbehavioureven at temperatures
below 100"C.
temperatures.
In general, the modulus of elasticity changesinversely with the temperature
Beelich [6.9] has examined this subject at some length and in what follows u'c
re 6.75a). The smallest changesoccur with nickel alloys
shall base ourselveslargely on his findings.
As the modulus of elasticity drops, so does the stiffnessof the components,
Materials in common use, pure metals no less than alloys, have a polv-
of synthetic components in particular (see Figure 6.75b).In their case,the
crystalline structure and a temperature-dependentbehaviour. Below a crilicul
igner must know the temperatureat which the modulusof elasticitydrops
t e m p e r a t u r et,h e s t a b i l i t yo f t h e i n t c r - c r y s t a l l i n cb o n d s i s l a r g e l yi n d e p e n d c n lo l
nly to rclativelylow values
t i m c , a n d t h c y i c l d p o i n t c a n b c u s c c lt o c l c t c r m i n ct h c s t r c n g t ho f c < l r n p o n c r r l s .
C o m p o n c n t s a t t c m p c r a t u r c sa t t o v c t h c c r i t i c t t lt c m p c r i l t u r c a r c s t r u n g l y i r t l ' l r t -
Crcep
c n c c d b y t h c t i n r c - d c p c n d c r r t r c h i r v i o u ro f t h c m a t c r i n l , I n t h i s t c n r p c r a t r r r c
r i l n g , c , r r r a t c r i i r l sw i l l . u r r t l c r t l r c i r t l l u c n c c t t f k l u d . l c n l p c r i l t u r c i u r d t i r r r e , p o t l c n l st l r i t l i t r c P u t u n ( l c r l t l a d sl i r r k r t t gp c r i r x l sa t h i g h t c n r p c r l t u r c sw i l l ,
a Aa
6 Embodimentdesign 6.5 Guidclines lbr embodiment design
at1

in addition to the strain given by Hooke's Law (e : ol E), also experienceplastic

deformation (eo1u,,) with time. This property of materials, which is known as
'creep', depends on stress,the effective temperature 6 and time.
t.rl
We say a material creeps if the strain of the components increasesunder -l
al
constant stress[6.9]. The creep curvesof various materials are well known [6.64. "'l
6.eol. I

2.10s #:ffi81'ffi 10(

N N N i-Thermoplasticr
mm2 ' I c-rt*r2 mm2
\ l-.-rnermosets
. , lr'rirr*
Ir, -T- t l0l (ol*

N p
L!
bl\
\
1t . .^q
q Ilu-

; i,lilf
E
-
=
E
=r
=
,, i
b_"t
l n ' 3 LD-polyethvlene
4 Epoxy resin(pur tl',.
5 4 + g l a s s r e i cnnf og \
\
/irl

100
I o\1/
0 100 200 300 0c 500 -100 0 100 2000c 300
t -... -
TemPerature Temperatu
re Primary Secondary Tertiarycreep
r e . 6 . 7 . 6S. t r a i n( a ) a n d c r e e pr a r e
creepregroncreepregion region
(Accelerated
0 b w r t n d u r a t t o no f l o a d ( s c h e m a t i c (Transitional
(Steadycreep)
creep)
Figure6.75 Relationship of modulusof elasticity to temperature,
of variousmaterials ntatron) ; characteristics of creep)
( a ) m e t a l s( b ) s y n t h e t im
c atcrials varlous creep phases
b

'.t':"]sanrtevenausteniticsteelsshowvarying
,:t:?^::'.1:-r_1*lt degreesof
Creep at room temperature on,length of operationandworking,"-;;;;i;.
,1.^l.r11g
st turai.n*;:
-.: ?1."i: ruc
Before we can design componentsloaded to near the yield stress,we must kno\\' #;,,i; try ere
:*:i:,,1".": T: :,"1,. " vated
how they react in the transition region between the elastic and the plastic statcs
:l*::-3:l..11a1sform1tions may leadtJ u .urr.J t",iil*";;;
[6.90]. With persistent static loads in this transition region, we can expect
rependence of I properties
:9-"n:"-of-the of themateriurr, *;i;hlr r.iTtr" .#"'r,l,il
primary creep in metals even at room temperature (see Figure 6.76). Thc s [ 6 . 1 0 7 ,6 . 1 3 2 ] .
resulting plastic deformations are small and merely affect the dimensional
above the critical temperature
stability of a particular component. In general. steels show little creep when
s u b j e c t t o s t r e s s< 0 . 7 5 ' q y 2 o r < 0 . 5 5 ' o F , w h e r e a s , i n t h e c a s e o f s y n t h e t i c this temperature region, mechanicalloads
wilr causedeformations in metals
materials, a reliable assessmentof the mechanicalbehaviour can only be madc j::"?"f: lT:f::t'll,"..y,..Jd,rt..neir,,inatis thematerials willcreep. rn
by consideration of the temperature and time-dependent characteristics. :ral,thisprocess
canbe dividedintoihreeff,ur". 6.g7l(FiCr*;i;6;l
16.g0,
changes,*reueginnin d ;f i?" tertiary
Creep below the critical temperature :. phase
lln:.T:mustbe consider"d dung".our.
"1n;:,:*J,,::1"1i,_"_,e l..rlJirr";;"i;t..; ffiru,:i
Previous studies 16.90,6.971of metals have shown that the customary calculir s at approximatelyl per centpermanentstrain.Fig"ure
o.zzlir"*, the 10s
t i o n s , b a s e d o n h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r ey i e l d s t r e n g t h a s t h e m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l t ' crcep strengthso1o7n1111s
at 500"C of various steels.
s t r c s sf o r s h c l r t - t e r ml o a d s .a c l d i t i o n atl h c r m a l l < l a c las n c ll o a d v a r i a t i o n s ,s u f f i c t
t u pt o t h c c r i t i c a lt c n r p c r a t u r c . Rcluxation
W i l h c o t r r p o n c n t tsh a t r l r u s th i r v c l r i g l rt l i r n c n s i o l t i sr lt i r b i l i l y ,h o w c v c r . t h t '
c h t r r l c t c r i s t i cosl l h c r r r i r t c r i ; t l c i c l r r r i r t c hr lv c r c c p c x p c r i n r c r t t rst t r r s ltr l s o l r t ' I t l i t t l c d s y s l c n l s ( s p r i r r g s ,b o l t s , t c n s i t l n w i r c s .
shrink l'its), thc ncccssary
t i r k er r i r r t ot ' o l r s i t l t ' l r t i o rcrv, c r rr t n t r x l ( ' t n l c l hVi p h l c t t t l ) c l t l t t t ( ' sI ,l t u r l l o v c rrlt t t r l l i r t l p r o t l u c c si r r t o v c r i r l l s l r i r i n r , ( c k r r r g l r t i o r r
, l / ) . l l c c i r u s co l . c r c c p i r n r l
244 f r E , m h o d i n t e ndt e s i g r t Guidelinesfor embodiment design 245

300
N
mmZ
250

I 200
I
I
b tsn
g
ot Critical
temperature
ol
17Cl1 (cast
5o/"Cr-lVo-V
100
M12steelbolts/nuts C/l 5o/"Cr-lvo-V
0 o-.-o 45C/10C
.---{ 34C11"/"
Crl3SC
* -----+ 42C
I 1okCr-Mo/35C
10 2 t, 6 8102 ? L 6 8101 b x-x 21C 1 5"/" Cr-Mo-V/25Cl1oio
Cr-
in N/mm2
Stress
correspondingto a lVo permanent strain of various steels after 105
Figure6.77.Stresses 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 5500c 600
hoursat 500'C[6.1461 Temperature
: 6.78. Remaining pre-load stressoo,"(103)after 1000h in bolted joints at the
settling of the material due to plastic flow at the bearing surfaces and split lines. iling temperature. Preload : 0.2o/oinitial strain [6.242]
the ratio of plastic to elastic deformation gradually increases.The phenomenort
'relaxation'
of decreasingelastic strain at constant overall strain is called [6.60, in which the appropriate yield point is not reached even with superimposed
6.24t,6.2421. operational stresses.
Loaded components are usually preloaded at room temperature. Becausethc In the short term, high initial pre-loads (initial clamping forces) give rise ro
modulus of elasticity varies with the temperature (Figure 6.75), the preload higher residual clamping forces. ln the longer term, the residual clamping
decreasesat higher temperatures even without a change in length of the loadecl forces become relatively independent of the initial preload (Figure 6.79).
Joints that have already undergone relaxation can be tightened up if the
toughnessof the material permits. As a rule, creep of about 1 per cent, which
leads to the tertiary creep region, must not be exceeded.
If joints are subjected to an alternating load in addition to the static preload
(Figure 6.80), then, as experiments have shown, the amplitudes tolerated
during relaxation-dependentdecreasesin the mean stress are considerably
super-imposed stresses(normal or tangential to the surface). Studies of thc greater than those tolerated at constant mean stress.However, relaxation-
relaxation of bolted flanges [6.60, 6.241, 6.242) have shown that plastic dependent decreasesin the mean stresswill often lead to a loosening of the
deformation also occurs at the split lines and bearing surfaces(settlement) and irt
the threads (creep and settlement). hen using bolted joints made of synthetic materials, the designer tries to
To sum up, we can say that, with metallic components: advantase of their small electrical and thermal conductivities, their
- The drop in preload depends on the relative stiffness of the parts loadetl ance to corrosion, their hieh mechanical damping, their small specific
againsteach other. The more rigid the connection, the greater the drop in thc ts etc. In addition, such joints must, of course, have the appropriate
preload due to plastic deformation (creep and settlement)' h and toushness.
- Although settlement can be appreciably offset during the tightening of boltctl Specialattentionmust also be paid to preloaddecay, lest the functioning of
flanges or the assemblingof shrink fits, the designershould, where possiblc, jointsbe seriouslyimpaired.
provide for few but accurately machined surfaces (split lines, bearipg S p e c i asl t u d i e s[ 6 . 1 3 6 ,6 . 7 3 7 ,6 .2311have shown that in svnthetic.unlike
surfaces). l l i c .m a t c r i a l s :
- T h e r e i s a t e m p e r a t u r el i m i t b c y o n d w h i c h t h e m $ t e r i o lc a n n o t b e p r o p c r l r ' the prcltlad rcmainingaftcr a givcn timc ilnd at room tcmperaturcis
u s c d ( F i g u r c 6 . 7 f t ) , I n a d c l i t i o n ,t h c d c s i g n e rt h o u l d t l w t t y s c h o o s c m a t c r i i t l r dclcrmincdhy thc nratcrillitsclfand its tcndcncyto ubsorhmoisturc:and
 246 6 E t n b o c l i r n e n td e s i g n 6 5 Guidelines for embodirnent design 1t?

110
N
M l 2B o l3t 4 C l 1 C
" kr mm7 lm!lo
M 1 2N u 3t 5 C 120 F^
Testtemperature "' tAe
450'C
Relaxation
static A s -Fu
"AB
TI
dynamic +o. N/mm2
o35 =
.90 E
. 100
6

Fp.lt9 99^ltrengthand^durability
of boltedconnections
arexperimental remperature
of 450'C[6.2a|l;sizeMt2; boft34alt%Cr sreel;nut35Csteel;'staiil stress
N/mm2; fie'load 3.5-5
(a) creep experiment (b) alternatingfatigue (wohler) experiment (c) fatigue
relaxation
expenment (seeFigure 6.79)

No of loadapplicatjons
iV*
0
10-2 101 _ 100 10, h-----?
l l f T l 0I -
Figure 6'79. Effect of different levelsof initial joint pre-load on the residualctamping
force with time, for both static and alternating(fatigue) loading

- continual changesin the absorption and releaseof moisture have a particular--

ly deleterious effect.

4 Design features

In order to increasethe potential life of componentssubject to long-term loacls.

the designer must familiarise himself with the behaviour with time of the
material involved. According to [6.90], it is dangerousto use short-term valuc\ Figure6.81.Austenitic-ferritic
steelflaneed
to predict Ioad responsesfor periods of l0s hours or longer. joint for operatingremperaturesof 000"i
It is impossible to avoid thermal stressesin all componentsby specifying tht. [ 6 . le e l
use of highly alloyed materials. Appropriate clcsign features are often m()rc
u s e f u l t h a n c h a n g e si n t h e m a t e r i a l . - insulatit'r' or cooling of the component as in steam turbines
and in gas
T h c c l e s i g nm u s t b e s u c h a s t o k c c p c r c c l l w i t h i r rp c l n r i s s i b l cl i n r i t s .w S i c h c i r r r t u r l ' r i n c s( s c c F i g u r e 6 . 8 2 ) :
bc clonc ['ly rncansof: - t h c i r v . i d i r n c co f m a s sc o n c e n t r a t i o n s
w h i c h , i n u n s t e a d yp r o c e s s e sm , ay lead
- : t h i g h c l i t s l i cs t r i t i l tr c s c r v c ,w h i c l r l t c l p r l o t o i l r c r c i r s c rt!h c r n r a l l < l a c l i n ga; n c l
k e c p d o w n i r t l t l i t i o n l rflt 1 r t l st l u c t o
l c n l l ) c r i l t r r r lc' l r r c t r r i r t i <(tsncsc l r i g r r r c6 t { l } ; -' tltc
l ) r c v c l l t i ( ) no l c t ' c c P i t t t t t t w i r n t c dr l i r c c l i o l r sw l r i c h c a n c i r r r s cl u n c l i < l n a l
248 6 Embodiment desigrr
5 Guidelinesfor embodiment desisn

In-other words, the part which is moved during dismantlingshould not pr..iccl
5
ially beyond the fixed part [6.154].

Designing against corrosion damage

often happens that corrosion can only be reduced, not completely avoided;
)reover the use of corrosion-proof materials may not be economical.It follows

Causes and effects of corrosion

'hile
the formation of metal oxide layers in dry environments and at higher
mperaturestends to increasechemicalresistanceto corrosion, relativelv weak
trolytes are formed in conditions below the dew point and these generally
Figure 6.82. Double casing steam turbine with shrink rings that hold the inner casing to electrochemicalcorrosion [6.r9i). corrosion ii also fostered bv the fact
together. Relaxation of the shrink rings is reduced by cooling with exhaust steam. As the at different components have contacting surfaces with different properties, for
machine increasesits output, the shrink rings exert an increasing pressure thanks to stance due to the inclusion of various noble or base metals, to differencesin
growing temperature differences between the steam inlet and outlet. The shrink rings are talline structure, and to residual stressesset up, for instance, by heat
Jeated on heat-inhibiting segments which, with the help of shims, permit the original
tment and welding. In addition, wherever the design calls for slits or holes.
shrink fit to be restored after relaxation (BBC design)
ere appear local ditt.erencesin electrolyte concentrationeven in the absence
of
rences in electric potential resulting from the use of different materials.
failure (for instance the jamming of valve spindles) or dismantling problems
Accordingto [6.89,6.r93,6.r94,6.20g,6.212]we mustdistinguish between
( s e eF i g u r e 6 . 8 3 ) .
iform and locallyconcentrated
corrosion.The latter has a variety of causes
In Figure 6.83a the material of the cover creeps into the relief groove. Thc
d effects, so that we must further distinguish between corrosion in crevices,
cover, which heats up more quickly, pressesagainst the centering surface an(l
ntact (bimetallic) corrosion, transition zone corrosion corrosion
also creeps at point y. The cover shown in Figure 6.83b is a better design since, [6.ri7),'erosion
trgue, stress corroslon cracking and corrosion accompanying
despite the creep, it can be dismantled easily. In addition the cover has been and
vitation.
made hollow so that it cannot exert a significant radial force on the centering
The preventive measures depend on the respective causesand effects. various
surface.
a m p l e sa r e g i v e n i n 6 . 5 . 4 . 4 .
force
Sealing
Uniform corrosion

presenceof moisture (weak electrolytes) combined with oxygen from

the
e n t , particularly below the dew point.

F i g u r e6 . 8 3 .C e n t e r i n ga n d s e a l i n go f a c o v c r l 6 l 5 4 l l rtensivc, uniform corrosion of the surface;in steel, for instance,approximatelv

(af Dismantling is impeclcclbccauscthc nrltcriitl c'rccgts,into lhc rclicf g,rtxlvcatrd at.l' I m m . p c r a n n u m i n a n o r m a l a t m o s p h e r c . S < l m e t i m c sm o r e ' p . o n o u n . . o
Cunuc* r",,li'rg ccigc provirlcs il t)cttcr scitl with tmtllcr clttmping ftlrccs.('rccp docs
it.rj :rlly, cspccilllyin zorrcskcpt l'rcclucntly
below thc dcw point arrclhcncc
not inrpcdc tlisnrlntling tltlrtks ttl irrrprrlvctl tlclign
250 6 Embodiment desigl Guidelinesfor embodirnent design 251

subject to moisture concentration. Uniform corrosion is fostered by greater Local corrosion

activity of the medium, higher flow velocity, and intensive heat transmission.
I corrosion is particularly harmful because, unlike uniform corrosion. it
ces very hrgh stress concentrations and also because it cannot alwavs be
Remedies ticipated. For that reason, the zonesin question require specialattention right
- m the start.
Provision of uniform service life by means of appropriate wall thicknessesancl
materials. roston tn crevrces
- Design based on a concept that obviates corrosion or makes it economicallr
acceptable (see Example 1 below).
- The use of small and smooth surfaces involving geometrical shapes with rr ost often, the accumulation of acidic electrolytes(moisture,
aqueous
maximum volume to surface area ratio (see Example 2 below). dium), followingthe hydrolysisof corrosionproductsin crevicesetc.
In rust_
-The avoidance of moisture traps (Figure 6.84). acid-proof steels, there is a breakdownof passivitydue to
depletionof
- The avoidance of local temperature differences by good insulation antl ygen in the crevice.
prevention of hot or cold bridges (see Example 3 belbw).
-The avoidance of flow rates greater than 2mls. ffects
- The avoidance of areas of high and differing thermal loads on heaterl ased corrosion in hidden areas.Increasedstressconcentration
in areasthat
surfaces. , ln any case, under greater stress.Danger of fracture or separtion
without
- The application of a protective coating, possibly in conjunction with cathodit or warnlng.
protection.
edies
The provision of smooth, crevice-freesurfacesand connections.
wr0ng righl wr0ng right
The provision of weld seams without permanent crevices;
the use of butt
seamsor through-welded fillet seams(Figure 6.g5).
The sealing of crevices, for instance by providing protruding
parts with
moisture-proof sleevesor coatings.

wr0ng right

IL--_-j L tr-tr
Drainhole
c
Figure 6.t14.Drainage of componentssusccptiltlct<lcttrrtlsion; r c 6 . 1 i 5E, x a m p l eosf w e l d e di o i n t s ;
(a) clcsignof l'klrlrscncouragingantl irrtllctlittgcorrttrittn , s u s c c p t i b l cl o c o r r < l s i o ni n c r c v i c e s
( l l ) w r o n g a r r dr i g h t i r r r i l t t g c n l c t totl s t e c ls c c l i o n r r) c o r r c c tt l c s i g na c c o r d i n gt o [ ( r .I 9 7 1
( c ) b r l c k c t s r u i r d co l c h i t t t n c sl c c t i o t tw i t h t l l n i n h o l e ) u c v i c e - l l c c w c l t l i r l gt l f ' p i p c s ;i t l s oi n t p r o v c sr c s r s t i u l c tco s t r c s sc o r r o s r g rcr r l c k i p g
252 ( r E , m b o d i r n e n td c s i r l
5 Guidelines for embodiment design t)_t

- The enlargement of crevices so that throughflow prevents the accumulation ol

moisture.

Cont act (b imetallic) co r r o sio n

Cause
The contact of two metals with different potentials in the presence of lrrr Endangered
efectrolyte 16.196,6.208). atea

Effects valve
to venting

The baser of the two metals will corrode more rapidly than the nobler round the
contact area, and the faster the smaller its surface area. Once again, the stress
concentration is increased and corrosion products may be deposited. Suclr
deposits have secondaryeffects of various kinds, for instancethe production ol
slime, contamination of the medium etc.
,ure6.86. Increasedcorrosion at the transition from the gaseousto the Iiquid state
197]due to concentrationof the m e d i u m i n the region of the water line oi a vertically
Remedies
anged condenser.This can oe re medied by raising the water level
- Use combinationsof metals with small potential differencesand hence a smlll
contact current.
- Prevent aetion of electrolyteson the contact area by providing local insulatiorr rosion fatigue
between the two metals.
- Avoid electrolytesaltogether. SE
- If necessary,resort to planned corrosion by introducing still baser materials irr ive attacks on a component subjected to mechanical fatigue loadins
the form of 'sacrificial anodes'. i a b l y r e d u c e i t s s t r e n g t h .T h e g r e a t e r t h e l o a d i n g .t h e m o r e i n t e n s et h !
rrosion and the shorter the life of the comDonenl
Transition zone corrosion
Causes
ure without distortion, as in fatigue failure. Because the corrosion pro-
Changesof state of the medium or its componentsfrom the liquid to the gaseous
phase and vice versa tend to increasethe danger of corrosion of metallic surfaccs , especially in slightly corrosive media, can only be seen under a micro-
in the transition zone. That danger may be increasedfurther by encrustations , this type of corrosion is often mistaken for normal fatisue failure.

[6.re]1.
Effects The minimisation of alternating mechanicalor thermal stressesand especially
avoidance of oscillatory stressesdue to resonancephenomena.
This type of corrosion is concentrated in the transition zone and is the more
The avoidance of stressconcentrations.
pronounced the more sudden the change of state and the more aggressivethe
The provision of compressivestresseson the surface by shotblasting,roller
medium [6.177].
burnishing, nitriding, etc to increasethe working life.
Remedies The avoidance of contact with corrosive media (electrolytes).
-The gradual input and removal of heat by a heating or cooling element. The provision of surface coating (for example rubber, baked enamel, hot dip
-The reduction of turbulence, and hence of heat transfer coefficients at tht' galvanisation,aluminium etc).
i n l e t o f t h e a f f e c t e dm e d i u m , f o r i n s t a n c eb y m c a n s o f g u i c l ep l a t e s . s,scorrctsio n crac kinp
- T h e p r o v i s i o no f c o r r o s i o n - r e s i s t i njga c k c t si r t c r i t i c l l l l o i n t s ( s c c E x a m p l c s i
and 4).
- T h c a v o i c l a n c oc l ' t r i r n s i t i o nz o n c p r o l l l c r t t sl t y l p p r < t p r i i r l cr l c s i g nI c i r l r r r c s
a i n s c n s i t i v cn t a t c r i a l st en d to develop trans- or inter-crystallinecracks if
Fiuurc (r.fi(r. i c t c l r s i l c s t r c s s c sc < l m b i n c w i t h a s p c c i l ' i ct r i g g c r , T h c s c r n a t c r i a l sa r c :
254 6 Embodiment
desirrr Guidelinesfor embodiment design 255

unalloyed carbon steels, austenitic steels, brass, magnesium, aluminium allors asurementsof the wall thicknesses, directly by mechanical or ultrasonic
and titanium alloys. ods andiorindirectlyby meansof corrosionprobes that can be scrutinised
d replacedat regularintervals.
Effects Corrosionshouldnever be allowedto proceedto the point where it threatens
Depending on the medium [6.197), various very fine and rapidly developinr ty (6.33.{.
trans- or inter-crystalline cracks appear in the component. Adjacent parts arc Finally, the reader is referred back to the principle of the division of tasks
not affected. 4.2), with the help of which even difficult corrosion problems can be solved.
, one component might provide protection against corrosion and provide a
Remedies
, while another provides support or transmits forces. As a result, the
- The avoidance of sensitive materials, which may not, however, be possible bination of high mechanical stresseswith corrosion stressesis avoided. and
becauseof other requirements. choice of materials for any one component becomeseasier [6.155].
-The substantial reduction or complete avoidance of tensile stresses on the
attacked surfaces, for instance by preloading or shgt-blasting.
- The reduction of residual tensile stressesby annealing. Examples of designing against corrosion damage
- The application of cathodic coatings ample I
-The avoidance of corrosive influences bv lowerins the concentration antl ye is used to absorbCO2 from a gaseousmixture under pressure,and the
temperature.
2-enriched lye is then forced to surrender much of its CO2 by expansion
neration). The position of the expansionchamber in a gas-washingplant is
Corrosion accompanying erosion, cavitation and abrasion
rmined by the following factors
Corrosion may accompany erosion and cavitation, in which casethe breakdown If the lye were expanded immediately behindthe washingtower (Figure6.8'7
of the material is accelerated.The basicremedy is the avoidanceor reduction ()l'
,
int A) the pipework to B would have to withstandlowerpressures and would
erosion and cavitation by hydrodynamic means or specialdesignfeatures. Only
when this is not possible should such hard surface treatments as metal spraying Preferred
location
or hard chrome coating be considered. forexpansion
in C02)
Abrasion spots can appear, for instance,as a result of thermal expansion, or
of pipes vibrating againsttheir supportsetc. In either case,the oxidic protection C02outlel
Gasunder
layer on the surfaces of the rubbing parts may become damaged. Exposecl pressure
metallic areas have a more negative electrochemical potential than thosc
covered with a protective layer. If the fluid medium is an electrolyte, thesc Figure 6.87. Influence ofthe
in C0r) point chosen for the
relatively small exposed areas will be broken down electrochemicallyunlessthc
expansion of COr-enriched
protective layer can be regenerated. lye on the choice of material
Pump for the pipework from A to B
Remedies
- Reduce the vibration of the pipes by reducing the flow velocity inside thenr ingly allow a saving in wall thickness. However, because of the release of
and/or change the distancesbetween the supports. the agressiveness of the lye permeatedwith CO2 bubbleswould increaseto
- Increase the gaps so that no rubbing contact takes place. an extent that the cheap-unalloyed pipe steel commonly used would prove
- Increasethe wall thicknessof the pipes, thus increasingtheir stiffnessand thc and hence have to be replaced with a more expensive rust and
tolerable corrosion rate. material. For that reason,it is far better to keep the CO2-enrichedrye
-Use pipe materials that readily accept protective coatings. pressureuntil it enters the regeneration tower (point B).

I n g e n e r a l ,t h e d e s i g n e rs h o u l d a i m a t e n s u r i n gt h e m a x i m u m a n d u n i f o r m l i l c
o f a l l c o m p o n e n t s[ 6 . 1 7 7 ] . I f i t s h o u l d p r o v e c c o n o m i c a l l yi m p o s s i b l et o m c c t desiqner has to choose between two methods of storing compressed gases
t h e s er e q u i r e m e n t sw i t h t h e a p p r o p r i i l t cc h o i c co f m a t c r i a l sa n d l a y o u t , t h c n t h c re 6.t3tt):
designcr must providc for thc rcgullr monitoring of all urens and comprtncnts ) 3(I cylindricalcontainers,each with a capacity of 50 litres and a wall
particularly pronc to corrosion. ftlr insluncc hy virual inspcction und rcgulirr thickncss of 6 mm:
 6 Embodiment dcsigrr 5 Guidelinesfor embodimetrt dcsign 251
256

Figure6.88.Influenceofcontainershapeon corrosion16.l77linthecaseof gasesstoredrrr

200bar:
(a) in 30 cylinderswith a capacityof 50 litreseach;
(b) in a spherewith a capacityof 1.5mr' re 6.89. Outlet of a
ner for superheated
and CO2 under
(b) 1 sphericalcontainer with a capacityof 1 .5 m3 and a wall thicknessof 30 mm.
Solution b is less prone to corrosion for two reasons: original design
-The surfaceexposedto corrosive attack is approximately 6.4 m2, and is aborrt
)
insulatedoutlet avoiding 1 lnterchangeableand/or
) 2 greater
wallthickness
five times smaller than it is in a. In other words, less material is lost througlr rt nsatlon
(depending
on losses)
corrosion to the same depth. ) other corrosion-resistant 3 moredurable material
- For an anticipatedcorrosion depth of 2 mm in 10 years, the loss of strength irr nts with separate
ponents L
a is such that the wall of the container must be increasedto a thickness ol
8 mm, while corrosion to a depth of 2 mm in the 30 mm wall of container b is Gos
relatively insignificant. The sphericalcontainer is therefore the better design
of the two.

Example 3
Figure 6.894 shows the original design of a container holding a mixture ol Region
threatened
super-heatedsteam and co2 16.1711.The outlet is not insulated and cooling bycorrosron
leads to the formation of a condensate with strong electrolytic properties
Corrosion will attack at the transition zone between the condensate and thc
gaseswith the result that the outlet may break away.
Figure 6.89 shows two solutions: a using insulation and b using separate ngmeorum
components made of more durable materials' 00
re 6.90.Corrosionin a heatedpipe[6 1771
Example 4 severecorrosion at the inlet due to suddentransition
In a heated pipe carrying moist gases,the inlet to the heated area is particularlv suddentransition avoided
prone to corrosion (Figure 6.90a). A lesssudden transition (Figure 6.90b) or art protective sleevecoverscritical zone and mitigatessuddentransition

extra protective sleeve (Fig. 6.90c) offer remedies.

x into simple problems. Thus, in the conceptual phase, the overall
nction is broken down into simpler sub-functionsto facilitate the searchfor
6.5.5 Designingto standards -f'r.rnr;tioncarriers or the use of design catalogues. In the embodiment
I Ob.jcctivcsof standardisatitllr p h i t s c . t o o . i t i s h c l l l l ' u l t o w o r k s e p a r a t e l yo n i n d i v i d u a l a r e a s o r a s s e m b l i e s
b c t i l r c r c c o r r r l t i n i n gt h c r r r i n l < l r r n o v c r i t l l l i r y o u t c l c s i g n .l f w e e x a m i n c t h i s
A n c s s c t t t i i tll' c i t t t t r c< l l ' t l t en t c t h t l t l sw c l t i t v cl r c c n d i r c t t s s i n gi s t h c h r c i l k t l < t w trtl l
258 6 Embodiment design 6.5 Guidelines
for embodiment
desien 259

approach in the light of the minimisation of effort, we are bound to ask to what they do so, they will find that standards are the indispensable foundation and
extent generally applicable function carriers can be determined and documented prerequisite of all types of design work.
so that the designer can have ready accessto tested solutions-that is, to known The following discussion of types of standard is meant to:
elements and assemblies. - draw the attention of systematic designers to this important method of
This question has also been raised in connection with standardisation which, acquiring an organised body of information;
according to Kienzle [6.100], can be defined as follows: -encourage them to make wide use of standards;
'Standardisation
lays down the definitive solution of a repetitive technical or - invite them to suggest new standards or, at the very least, to influence the
organisational problem with the best technical means available at the time. It development of standardisation;and
is therefore a form of technical and economic optimisation limited bv the time remind them of the crux of standardisation, namelythe systematicarrange-
factor.' ment of facts with a view to their unification and optimisationin the light of
Further definitions can be found in [6.33]: functional considerations.
'Standardisation
determines the best solution of recurring problems,' y their origin we distinguishbetween:
or in [6.36]: nationalstandards of BSI (BritishStandards
Institution)or the DIN (German
'Standardisation
is the systematic unification by those concerned of material StandardsInstitution);
and immaterial things for the benefit of the community.' European standardsof the CEN (Comit6 Europ6ende Normalisation)and
Standardisation considered as the unification and determination of solutions. CENELEC (Comitd Europ6ende NormalisationElectrotechnique);
for instance in the form of national and international standards (BSI, DIN. recommendations of the IEC (InternationalElectrotechnical Commission);
ISO), of company standards, or of generally applicable design catalogues,and and
also of data sheetsis becoming of increasingimportance in systematicdesign recommendations and more recentlyuniversalstandards by the ISO (Inter-
Here, the fact that the objectives of standardisationare to limit the range of nationalOrsanisationfor Standardisation).
possible solutions in no way conflicts with the systematic search for a multiplicity By their content we distinguish, for instance, between communication stan-
of solutions, because standardisation is largely confined to the determination of rds, classificationstandards,type standards,planning standards,dimensional
individual elements, sub-solutions, materials, computation and testing proce- dards, material standards, quality standards, procedural standards, oper-
dures etc, while the search for a multiplicity solutions and their optimisation is tional standards,test standards,delivery standardsand safety standards.
basedon the combination or synthesisof known elementsand data. Standardisa- By their scope we distinguish between basic standards,that is general and
tion is therefore not simply an important complement to, but the prerequisiteof, terdisciplinarystandards;and specialstandards,that is standardsused in
the systematic approach, in which various elements are combined as so many list fields.
building blocks. The level of a standard is determined by its breadth, depth and range of
It is, however, important to stressthe limitations of all types of standardisa- lication.
tion. As Kienzle stated: 'Standardisation. . . is a form of technicaland economic A full standard covers every possible aspect, a partial standard does not
optimisation limited by the time factor'. de all the details, and an outline standard provides a rough and ready
The data in standardsare time-dependentand must be continually updated to mework in areas where technical development might be impeded by full
reflect technological changes. ndardisation. It is usual to develop outline standards before partial standards
In what follows, we shall be examining the possibilitiesof, need for and limits these before full standards, which are, in any case, relatively rare. One
of, standards in the design process. In addition, the reader is referred to the rd can, and usual does, play several roles.
c o m p r e h e n s i v el i t e r a t u r e [ 6 . 1 3 , 6 . 3 3 , 6 . 3 4 , 6 . 3 6 , 6 . I 0 I ) . Besides the national and international standards we have mentioned. the
igner can also have recourse to the rules and regulations published by
2 Types of standard essionalengineeringorganisations[6.50, 6.2271.These are important as they
the way for further standardisationafter initial trials.
In technical devices, standards of various origin, content, range of application The designer can also have recourse to a variety of internal company standards
and complexity are used in the design of even the simplest components. Thus regulations
[6.3I, 6.5I,6.66,6.238].Thesecanbe classified
as follows:
B d n n i n g e r [ 6 . 4 ] h a s s h o w n t h a t n o l e s st h a n 3 0 s t a n d a r d sw e r e i n v o l v e d i n t h c compilations of representative standards, that is, a selection from general
d e s i g n o f a s i m p l e c o m p o n e n t f o r a p a r t i c u l u r p r e c i s i o n - e n g i n e e r i ndgc v i c c . standards that is applicable to the special requirements of a particular
D e s i g n e r sa v e r s e t o s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n( ' S t a n d a r d i r a t i o na s a s t r a i t j a c k e t ' 1 6 . 4 1 ) c<lmpany-for instance,stock lists and comparisonsof old with new standards
should considcr how many standarclsthcy uro unwlttingly in thcir daily work. lt' (synoptic stanclarcls)
;
 5 Guidelines Ior embodiment design 261
260 6 Embodiment desigl

-catalogues, lists and data sheetson bought-outparts, including their storage ton

and also data on the acquisition (ordering/supply) of raw materials, semi- the anticipated overall function or sub-function be fulfilled by the use of a
finished materials, fuels etc; ndard solution?
- cataloguesor lists of in-house parts, for instance machine elements, reperlt If it cannot, the problem (specification) and the chosen function structure
parts, assembliesetc; uld be re-examined before the search for a solution is besun.
- information sheetsfor the purpose of technical and economic optimisation, f<tr 'orking
instance on production capacity, manufacturing methods, cost comparisons principle
( s e e6 . 5 . 6 . 7 ) ; n existingstandardshelp the development of suitable solution principles or
- rules and regulations for the calculation and embodiment design of machinc pts?
elements, assemblies,machines and plant, if necessarywith a selection ol If they impede this development, then the consequencesof ignoring or
sizes and/or types; anglngthem or of introducing new standardsmust be sublected to a detailed
- information sheets on storage and transporr capacity lysis.
-regulations poncerning quality control, for example inspection and testinr
procedures; and form design
-rules and guidelines for the preparation and processing of information, fttt basicand specialstandards-especially
constructional,dimensional, mate-
instance of drawings, parts lists, numbering systems and electronic datrr and safety-must be fully taken into account. Testing and inspection
processing;and res also influence the embodiment.
-rules laying down organisational and working procedures, for instance the Standardsshould only be ignored in borderline problems.
updating of parts lists and drawings.
ery
blishedcomponent, work and environmental safety standards and regula_
3 Using standards
must be rigorously observed. Safety standards must always be given
Though there are no absolutely binding standards in the legal sense at the timc ce over rationalisation procedures and economics.
of writing, national and international standards are widely treated as regula-
tions, adherenceto which is of great advantagein the caseof legal disputes.This
is particularly true of safety standards 16.43,6.54, 6.68]. field of ergonomic standardshas not yet been adequatelyopened up, so that
In addition, all company standardsshould be consideredbinding within their designerwould do well to consult the general literature (6.5.1) and work in
sphere of application, not least for economic reasons. collaboration with production and safety engineers.
The sphere of application of a given standard is largely set by Kienzle's
definition (see above). A standard can only be valid and binding if it does not uction
conflict with technical, economic, safetyor even aestheticdemands.Even in thc , observance of production standards is particularly important and that of
case of such conflicts, however, the designer should guard against rejecting <lr ry regulationsis binding. The designershould only deviatefrom production
replacing the relevant standards out of hand, without assessingthe possiblc rds after a broad assessmentof all the industrial and relevant market
consequences. rchase and sales) aspects.
Moreover, he should never make such assessmentby himself, but shoultl 'ity
always consult the standardsorganisation and the head of his department. control
In what follows, the reader will find a number of recommendationsand hints standardsand inspectionrulesare essentialfeaturesof quality control.
for the correct use of standards.
First of all, we recommend adherence to national standards since tltc
preferred sizes laid down in them help to determine the dimensions of irll assembly must be ensured by the observation of standard tolerances.
c o m p o n e n t s .I f t h e s eb a s i cs t a n d a r d su r c i g n o r c d , t h e n u n p r e d i c t a b l el o n g - t c r t t t and fits, and also of test standardsand inspection rules.
c o n s c q u e n c c s( f o r i n s t a n c e ,i n t h c s p a r c p a r t s s c r v i c c ) ,a n d g r a v e t c c h n i c a li t r t t l
)ort
cconomicrisks may cnsuc.
J'hc usc ol' stlndarcls shoulcl bc exumlned uguinst thc chccklist in (r.l , insidcas well as outside the factory, is rendered safer, simpler and
itlrovc. cco!l()micali f t h c r c l c v a n t s t a n d a r d sa r c o b s e r v e d .
262 6 Embodiment design 5 Guidelinesfor embodiment design

Operation
Examples
The correct operation of engineering products involves the use of various
Lackof ambiguity
ensured
standards, for example, standard symbols and standard operating procedures. principle position
Market of theproduct
favourably
influenced
andformdesign Material
andenergyexpenditure
reduced Complexity
of the
Maintenance productreduced,
design worksystematically
improved and
simplified, partsfacilrtated
anduseof replacement
Standard symbols (for instance, circuit diagrams) should be used and servicc
standards should be provided. Salety
increased,
Clarity
of instructions
improved,
Psychological
and
aesthetic
conditions
improved.
Expenditure
Materials
handling,
storekeeping,
manufacturing
and
Costsand deliverytimesmust be minimisedwith the help of companystandards quality
control
lacilitated
Execution
of theorders
planning
simplified; production
improved; capacity
increased
The above list must not be consideredexhaustiveor universallyapplicable- Inspecti0n
andtesting quality
simplified; improved
the designer'swork is much too variedand complexfor that, and the rangeol Assembly
facilitated,
generaland companystandardsmuch wider than we havebeen able to cover in
andpacking
Transport simplified
our summary.By working his way down the checklist,fhe designercan tell fairlr
0peration
clarilied
quickly to what extent a particular standardfits the variousheadings.
It may also be helpful to searchspecialindexesfor the appropriatestandarcls of partsimproved,
Replacement sparepartsservice
and
maintenance
facil
itated
and rules. Fundamental principles for the application of standardsto thc
Costsot,and/ortimespenton,desigh,
workpreparation,
designer's work are alsoset out in a numberof specialcontributions[6.11,6.53. materialshandling,
manulacture,
assemblyandquality
6.eel. controlreduced,
Finally, we should like to refer the reader to the use of preferred numbers anrl Calculations
simplitied
dataprocessing
Electronic reduces
costsof slandardisation.
preferred series of numbers I6.L6,6.171in the graduation of sizesand in typc
rationalisation, especially in the development of size ranges and modular re 6.91 Evaluation criteria for the assessment
of standards
products (see Chapter 7).
:r it provides, by the degree to which it is generally acceptedand also by the
4 Developing standards s its development entails. Before he makes an evaluation, the standards
ineer or designer should therefore grade the importance of the various
Since the designer bears much of the responsiblity for the development, iluation criteria and discard those that may not apply. In much the same way
manufacture and utilisation of products, he should play a leading role in thc with the recommendationsin 5.8, there must be an adequatevalue rarlns to
revision of existing standards, and the development of new ones. To make a y the development of standards.
useful contribution to the development of standards, he must first determinc Finally and by way of summary, the following principles of developing
whether the revision of an existing standard or the development of a new neral, and particularlycompany,standards,can be enunciated:
standard is technically or economically justified. There is rarely a clear-cul Standardisationshould only be used if it is economicaland useful. There must
answer to this question. In particular, completely reliable assessmentsof thc be a need.
economic consequencesare seldom possible because of the complex effects of Standards must not contain any provisions that conflict with the law (for
in-house costs and market influences,and, in any case,would involve considcr- instance, with monopoly restrictionsor safety regulations).
able research. Standards must be unambiguous, framed in clear terms and under-
The evaluation criteria set out in Figure 6.91, once again arranged rrr stood.
accordance with the checklist, can prove of great help in the assessmentof Standarddimensionsmust, as far as possible,agreewith preferred number
existing or newly proposed standardsif they are used in conjunction with thc series.
u s u a l e v a l u a t i o np r o c e d u r e .N o t a l l t h e e v a l u a t i o nc r i t e r i a w e h a v e m e n t i o n c t l Standardsmust ensure the complete interchangeabilityof parts. If a standar-
a p p l y t o t h e a s s e s s m e not f i n d i v i d u a l s t a n d a r d s .T h u s , t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f : r discd product is modified in such a way that it can no longer be freely
d r a w i n g s t a n d a r di s i n f l u e n c e db y i t s c l a r i t y , b y t h c i m p r o v e m c n ti n c o m m u n i c l - intcrchangcdcvcn in respectof a singlefeature, its designation(identification
t i o n , b y t h c s i m p l i f i c a t i o no f t h c d c s i g no c t i v i l y a n d t h c o v c r a l l c x c c u t i o n( ) l ' t h c nurnbcr)must bc altcrcd.
 6 Embodiment design
6 5 Guidelines for embodirncnt desiqn

-All standardsmust be based on SI units. fulfilment of a given function and to the best solution from a production point of
- Matters of fashion and taste should not be standardised. Colours, for
view. Another step in the same direction is the application of general and
instance, should only be standardisedfor use in identification symbols. company standards (6.5.5).
- Standardsshould only be altered for technical,not for purely formal, reasons
- The development of new standards must be generally agreed by all thc
departments concerned.
Thus when a new standard is proposed, it should first be examined by a working
party, and then presented for wider discussion.The proposed standard thus
servesas a draft for the final standard. if adopted.
Task
clarilication
design
Conceptual
design
Embodiment
6.5.6 Designingfor production
design
Detail
I Relationship between design and production

The crucial influence of design decisions on production costs,production times

and the quality of the producl has been describedin [6.23,6.110]. Designingfot
production means designing for the minimisation of production costs while
maintaining the required quality of the product.
By production, we usually refer to:
- the manufacture of components in the narrow senseby acceptedprocesses
[6.3e];
- assembly, including transport of components;
- quality control;
- materials handling; and
- operations planning. manulacture
Component
The designer will accordingly do well to consult the checklist (6.2) under thc Assembly
h e a d i n g s ' p r o d u c t i o n ' , ' q u a l i t yc o n t r o l ' , ' a s s e m b l y 'a n d ' t r a n s p o r t ' . control
0uality
In what follows we shall first concentrate on the design of components or Figure 6.92. Flow of
assembliesin the narrower sense,while paying due regard to quality control and Product information
improvement of the overall production procedure. In 6.5.1 we shall thcn
examine design features for improved assemblyand transport. For an overview of the designer'sinfluence on the production procedure, and
Designing for production is greatly facilitated if, from the earliest possiblc the interdependenceof designand production, the reader is referred to Table
stage, the designer's decisions are backed up with data compiled by the . That table highlights severalgroups of problems with a direct bearing on the
standardsdepartment, the planning and estimating department, the purchasing ionalisation of production procedure [6.14], namely:
department and the production manager. Figure 6.92 shows how the flow ol Appropriate overall layout design which determines the production procedure
information can be improved by systematicmeans and the appropriate organisir' the breakdown of the product into assembliesand individual components
tional measures. In original designs of mass-produced articles, systemalic use or bought-out, new, repeat or standard).
procedures and exchangesof views are essential.Their use, however, shoulrl Appropriate form design of componenrs, which determines the production
also be encouragedin one-off and small batch production, especiallyin the cast' :cdure, the manufacturing methods and the quality of components.
of adaptive designs,where the designeris often forced to make decisionswithorrl Appropriate selection of materials, which detrmines the production procedure,
c o n s u l t a t i o n ,i f o n l y t o m e e t d e l i v e r y c l i t t c s . nranufacturing methods, the materials handling and quality control.
I ) c s i g n i n gf < l rp r o c l u c t i o nh u s b c c o n r ci r r ti n c r c i r s i r t g liyn t p r l r t a n ta c t i v i t y i n l h t ' Altpntpriutc ust'o.f standard and bought-out components, which influence the
w a k c o l ' g r o w i n g a u l o r r r a t i o nI.l y o b s c r v i t t gt l t c b i r s i cr u l c s < l l ' s i n t l l l i c i t yi r r r t l r t l u c l i o r rc i r l - l i r c i t yt h
, c s t o r a g ea n d t h e c o s t s .
'llrr'
c l i r r i t y ( 6 . 3 ) , t h c t l c s i g n c ri s i r l r c r r t l vp r o c c c d i n gr r k r t t gt l t c c r l r r c c tl i n c s . A l t l t n t l t r i u t ad o c t u r r t ' n ! u l i o rw r ,h i c h r n r r s tl r c i r r l i r p l c rtlo 1 h c p r o c l u c t i o np r o c e -
p r i r t c i p l c so l r ' r r r l l o t l i r r r ctrht .l ' s i g r( t( r , { ) , t r N r ,c t l t l l c r t ( l t i t t tt r r i t b c t t c t i t t t r ls l r l i ' r d i t r c . t ( ) l l t c r t l r r t r r f l t c l t r r i rnt rgc t h < l cllrsr r t lt o t l t c t l u l r l i t vc r l n t r r l l .
 266 6 Embodiment desitrr .5 Guidelines for embodiment design
267
Table 6.4. Relationship betweendesign and production conversely' such production limitations as the
capacityof machines,assembly
Design Production etc,naturallyhaverepercussions
on rhedesigner,s
choice
iJ:T:f"ll {i:.tlnt"t
the overall layout.
Overall layout - Assemblies - Production procedure
- - The appropriate sub-division of the overall layout
design Components Assembly and transport can give rise to diJJ.erentiar,
- :egral, composite androt buitding-broca
Bought-out parts possibilities methods of coristruction-
- Standard parts - Batch size of similar
- Joining and assembly components D iffe rential co nstr uctio n metho d
- Transport aids - Proportion of in-house and By differentialconstructionwe refer to the breakdown
of a component(a
of one or severalfunctions) into severaleasily manuru.t.,rlo'pu.ts. carrier
- Quality control bought-out items
- Quality control This idea
comesfrom lightweightengineering
Component form - Shape and dimensions - Production procedure [6.g7],where that appioac]r'ri,as
introduced
for the purpose of optimising
design: - Surface finishes - Manufacturing methods, _toia'-"u.yingcapacity. In both cases,we are
entitledto speakof the ,principle
- Tolerances machine tools of sub_di,iisionfo.'p.oJuil;,.
- Limits and fits - Measuring instruments As an example of the differential method let
us take the rotor of a
- In-house and bought-out Synch'onousgenerator (Figure 6.93).
components
- Quality control
Materials selection: - Type of material - Production procedure
- Treatment - Manufacturing methods,
- Quality control machine tools
- Semi-finished materials - Materials handling
- Availability (purchase,storage)
- In-house and bought-out parlr
- Quality control
Standardand - Repeat parts - Purchases
bought-out - Standard parts - Storage
components - Bought-out parts - Stock control
Production - Workshop drawings - Execution of orders
documentation - Parts lists - Production planning
- Data processing - Production control
programmes - Quality control
- Assembly instructions
- Testing instructions

rre6'93.Rotor of synchronous
generatorafter[6.r2] (AE,G-Telefunken);
asforgedpart
2 Appropriate overall layout design as dtsc constructionwith forged flanges
and with welded flanses
The overall layout design, developed from the function structure. determines
the division of a product into assembliesand components.
With the overall layout design the desrgner: The large forging shown_atthe top is divided
into several rotor discs consisting
- determines the source of the components, that is simple forged parts and two considerably
whether they are in-housr,. smalrer flanged ,rruiir, b. Each of
bought-out, standard or repeat parts; : Iattercould alsobe subdividedinto shait,disc
-determines the production procedure for instance supporinurg",-*o coupling
, whether the parirllr.l nge in the form of a welded construction,c.
The reasonfor this differentiar
m a n u f a c t u r co f i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n c n t sr l r l r s s c r l r b l i ciss p o s s i b l c ; ,nstrucrionmight be the market
situation (price, d"liu;;t Oaie; of turge
- t f c t c r n t i n c s t h c d i m a t t . s i r t n i. rsn c l
t h c r t g r l l r o x i r r r i r l ch u t c l t ; ; i z c , so l s i r r r i l l r r of.thesenerator to various
outputrequire_
c o r r r l l o n c n l si,r r r r li r l s <tl h c r n c i r n s< t l 'f u i t t i t t 1i r4t t t la . r . r c i l r / r / t ' ; Iillll,,;il"u"jl:. :1::,'.:1il,l:i:"
r:nrs(r.t.r sizcs) ancltypesof coupring. i fu.rtheradvantage
r, ir,t"in"T"ri,
s c l c c t ss u i l i r b l c/ i / . r ;i r n r l n .c *rrnul'rrcturccr
.s st.ck ancrnot nJcessariry
to a specifiE
i t t l l r r c r r t ' c tsl t t t t l i t t(' ( , t t t r ( ) ly r r o t . t . r l r l t . r , lhc illtrstrirli()ll
..;;; However,
irlso(lcrrronstrirlcs
thc Iir'itrrti.rrs'f'rlrc'cliffcrcniiu';n,r)l.l,lit-.
268 6 Embodiment dcsitrr Guidelines for embodiment design

beyond a certain rotor length and diameter, the machining costs become tot'
great and the stiffnessof the joints too problematical.
Figure 6.94 shows the magnet support of a large-scaleDC motor which carr
either be cast in one piece or else be built up from sheet metal and welded. Tht.
production costs of the second design are some 25 per cent lower than those ol
the first, and this despite the fact that the differential construction involvcs
several processes.However, the cost reduction is not constant but depends rtn
the relative market situation of castings,sheet metal and semi-finishedmaterial

lvagnet
support
duringassembly
castin I laminated
and
oneprece
I welded

procedure
Productron
1 Cast 2 Cast biock
magnet RoI block
support Stamp plates
plates
Stack 1953 1951 1956 1962
plates
Rivet Production
costsol laminated
Welhdousing asa percentage
support ol costsof castsupporl

Figure6.94.Productioncostsof a DC motormagnetsupportafter[6.104](Siemens) . g u r e6 . 9 5 .W i n d i n gm a c h i n e( E r n s tJ u l i u sK G ) :
) w i n d i n gh e a dw i t h i n r e g r a t eddr i v eu n i t
winding head with separatedrive unit
Another differential construction is shown in Figure 6.95. In the winding
machine a, the winding head is integrated with the drive unit on a common shalt.
reduction in component dimensionsallowing easier assembly
The differential solution b was developed to facilitate the parallel manufacturc and transport;
simpler inspection (smaller components urrd lu.g". batch
of drive units and winding heads to meet various requirements. In this way, it sizes);
small number of standard drive units can be combined with a large number of easier maintenance, for instanceby simple replicement of woin
pa.ts;
winding heads. easier adaptation to special requiremenis; and
reduced risk of missing delivery dates.
The replacement of forged and cast constructions with welded constructions
sadvantageo s r limital.ions:
incorporating suitable semi-finished parts provides a further example of tlris
greater machining outlay;
method.
greater assemblycosts;
All in all, differential designs have the following advantages,disadvantagcs
greater need for quality control (smaller tolerances,
and limitations: necessaryfits etc); and
limitations of function by joints (stiffness,vibration, sealing).
Advantages:
- u s e o f e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e a n d f a v o u r a b l y p r i c e d s e m i - f i n i s h e dm a t e r i a l s o r
ral const ruction metho d
s t a n d a r dp a r t s ;
-easier acquisiti<lnof forgecl and cnst purts; intcgralconstruction
we referto the combination of severalparts into a single
- c a s i c r a d a p t a t i o nt o c x i s t i n g f l c t o r y l a y o u t ( d i m c n s i o n s .w c i g h t ) l l n c n t , T y p i c a l c x a m p l c sa r e c a s tc o n s t r u c t i o n si n s t e a d
o f w e l d e d. o n r t r i . _
- incrctsc irr componcnt hatch sizcri c x t r u s i o l l si n s t c l d o l c < l n n c c t c cslc c t l o n s ,w c l c l c di n s t c a d
of bolted ioints
 6 Ernbodiment desigrr 6.5 Guidelines for embodimcnt clesign
:7t

etc. In lightweight engineering this type of construction is often used to avoi(l end discs. Variant c is an integral construction in that
two cast holkrw botlir.s
stressconcentationsand to save weight [6.87]. In.Variantd thecastconstruction
is splitup agairr(a
Figure 6.96 showsan example chosenfrom electricalengineering.Here, a casl l:?::lP_:l::d.,rc":her.
:n1::*,l3"ll:
show Ti I"":a,r,"ii,
",i;; ;ilffi il w:,dil':#;f;lll
and welded construction has been replaced with a single cast component
Though the castingis fairly complicated, it leads to a cost reduction of 36.5 per
.thattheintegral
-"tnoosaves
matert"iiir'in.'it"i,
ff;?l:;:T:illi 1)
was chosen because of difficulties in procuring large
castings.
cent. Naturally, this percentage will vary with the size of the batch and with The advantages and disadvantages of the integial
consf,uction method are
market conditions. easily determined by a reversar of the advantages
and disadvantagesof the
differential method.

Comp osite construc tion met ho d

By composite construction we refer to:
-_ the inseparable connection
of several, differently made parts into a single
component needing further work, for instance, the
combination of cast and
forged parts;
- the simultaneousapplication
of several joining methods for the combination
of components [6.ieS1; o.
-_ the combination of various
materials for optimal exproitation of their

Figure 6.98 gives an example of the first method: the

combination of caststeel
mponents and rolled steel sheet into a welded constnrction
Figure 6.96. End cover of Further examples are bogies with cast centres and
electric motor after [6.104] welded arms, and also the
Castandwelded Castcomponenl :lding of cast bar joints used in steel structures.
(Siemens);
( a ) c o m p o s i t ec o n s t r u c t i o n
construction Examples of the secondmethod are combinations
of adhesivesand rivets or of
(b) integral construction 0 D hesivesand bolts.

Another example is the rotor of a hydroelectric generator (Figure 6.97). Four

different constructionswith the same generator output and identical radial loads
were investigated. Variant a has numerous individual support discs and mlr'
therefore be considered a differential construction. In Variant b the degree ol
division is reduced by the use of cast-steelhollow shafts, two support rings antl

radialloads:
14poles
:63 108N

-+l

t]f; M.gnct whcel of

l'1," I a hydro-electricgenerator of compositeconstructronfrom
1 . |5( n I r ( ; ' l ' c l c l u n k c n )

S P r t l i l r r r l l c t ls t c c l s l r c c t
l r i A t r r t(' r , t ) 7 ,l t o t o r c r r r t r t r t r r ' l i o ltot t ; t l l t t l ; t 'r c l l t ' l t t r l r r t ' [ c ( ' l I t ( ' l l ( ' n ( r' ; r l r r t ( S i r ' r r r t . r r)r S t t l t p , r lt t : r r l s l t . c l
272 6 E , m b o d i m e n td e s i g t t 5 Guidelinesfor embodimcnt desisn 1-1

The combination of several materials into a single part is exemplified by

(D
synthetic components with cast-in thread inserts; by composite sound-absorption PS Guidelines Wrong Right
O:
panels which have two plates separated by a plastic core; and also by rubber/
metal components.
Another economical design of the composite type is the combination of steel
Pa Choosesimple
patterns
tor
shapes
(straight
andcores
rectangles)
lines,
C
w w
and pre-stressedconcrete 16.7al.
Pa patlerns,
Aimatundivided if C i ^q_l
B uildin g - b I o ck constructio n method possible
withoul (eg by
cores
meansofopen
crosssections) I
u
If the differential method is used to split a component in such a way that thc
resulting parts and/or assembliescan also be used in other products, then thel
can be considered as building-blocks. These are particularly useful if they arc
Pa tapers
Provide lromthespllfline 0
**'a*'*tu*^ q**ffi*
V F--r_r

cheap to produce. In a sense,the utilisation of repeat parts from stock may also Pa ribssothatpattern
Arrange canbe 0
be considered a building-block construction method.

3 Appropriate form design of components Pa

removed;

Ensure
avoidundercuts

accurale
location
olcores 0
ffi
% \ MLY)
af,^1
ffisw
With his form design of components the designer exerts a great influence oll
production costs, production times and the quality of the product. Thus his

tu%
Ca Avoid
vertical (bubbles,
sections 0
choice of shapes,dimensions, surfacefinishes, tolerancesand joints affects:
- the production procedure;
- the machine tools, inchtding bench tools and measuring instruments;
- the choice between in-house components and bought-otll components;
sections
andreduced
blowholes)
totherisers

Aimaluniform
cross-

wallthicknesses 0
i%
andatgradual
andcross-sections
- the selection of materials and semi-finished materials; and changes
ofcross-seclion;
select
-the quality control procedures. material
allowing
otadequate
wall
thicknesses
andcom0onentsizes
Conversely, production facilities influence the design features. Thus, thc
available machine tools might limit the dimensions of componentsand necessi-
Ma Setsplitlines
toavoid c
tate a split-up into several connected parts or the acquisition of bought-out andto permrt
misalignment easy 0 *{W* @S-=@*
uz#
llash'
components. removaloftheflash 16-^!+r
t!rz:r,li
There are special guidelines for designing for production, and these arc
Ma Arrange
caslings
toease C
d e s c r i b e da t l e n g t hi n t h e l i t e r a t u r e f 6 . 2 I , 6 . 2 4 , 6 . 1 2 8 , 6 . I 4 5 , 6 . I 7 0 , 6 . 2 1 3 , 6 . 2 3 1 , .-iq
machini
ng 0 l*t ffi.
6.248,6.2491.In keeping with the aims of this book, we shall be presenting thc F--n
F==-U+
reader with none but essentialdesign suggestionsarrangedsystematicallyin thc ::,ll -,tl
form of charts. Our classifyingcriteria will be the processs/eps(PS) used in thc
Mu
Ma Provide
adequate
supporl 0
manufacture of the component. In addition, we shall be assigningobjectives--
'reduction of costs'(C) and 'improvement of quality' (Q)-to the various desigrt
surlaces

Ma Avoidsloping
c
Mo
\Ns
machining
and C
guidelines. When designing components,the designer should always bear thcsc
processsteps and objectives in mind.
Ma
boring
surlaces

Combine processes
machining by
0

C
NSs
Form designfor primary shaping processes appropriate
arrangement
of fl /6-) f,ltal
The form designof components to be shapedby primary processes,for examplc
casting and sintering, must satisfy the demands and characteristicsof tlrc
machining
andboring
surlaces
u'g uu%
processesused. Ma Avoid
unnecessary
machining
by c
ln cast components (primary shapcs obtaincd from thc fluid statc) thc
designer must allow for the following pr()ccssstcps: /r(rtlenr(Pa), casting (Cal
and mac'hining(Ma). Figurc (r.99lists thc most important dcsign guidclincs.
'l'lrc
breaking
uplarge
surlaces
M
i i g u r c 6 . 9 9 , l ) c s i g ng u i d c l i n c sw i l h c x l n r p l c sl i r r c a s tc o m p o n e n t si,n a c c o r d a n c e
with
l i t c r a t u r c c i t c d c o r t t i t i n sf u r t h c r i n l i t r m u t i t l n . 6 . 7 1 ,6 . 11 8 ,6 . 1 4 5 .6 , t 7 0 . 6 . 2 4 7 1
274 6 Embodiment desigu 5 Guidelines for embodiment design 275

In designing sintered components (primary shapes obtained from the powder Design guidelinesfor drop forging have been collatedin Figure 6.101.They
state), the designer must allow for tooling (To) and sintering (Si). In particular. low for the processstepsof: tooling (To), forginS (Fo) and machining(Ma).
he must be guided by the latest findings of powder technology. The essential Figure 6.102listsdesignguidelinesfor the cold extrusionof simplerotationally
'mmetricalsolid and hollow bodies.They allow for the processstepsof: tooling
euidelines are shown in Fieure 6.100.
lo) and extrusion(Ex). It must be stressedthat only certaintypes of steelcan
: usedeconomically.Like all other cold forming methods,cold extrusiongives
PS Guidelines (D
-o=
Wrong Right
O=
TO andsharp
edges
Avoidrounded C r - PS Guidelines Wrong Right
angles 0 t3>

*w*
I
L

To Avoidundercuts, C *w*
Si edges,
Avoidsharp sharpangles
transitions
andtangential
0
rH@ t-ffi@
u+@ To tapers
Provide c
Si 0bserve limits
dimensional and 0

s
T\1zI F-T

o
relations: ..f -

c
HeightHAVidthW<25
l> 2 mm
Wallthicknesses
Holesd> 2 mm
dil --v
To Aimforsplitlines
height
height
atabout
half
perpendicular
tosmallest

Si small-toothed
Avoid Proliles 0 To Avoidbentsplitlines c
0

0 To Aimatsimple,if possible

ww
Si small
Avoidexcessively C
tolerances Fo rotationally
symmetrical,
Avoidgreat
parts
protusions, WW
Fo Aimatshapes
thatoccurdurrng C

KKK
Figure6.100.Designguidelines
with examples after[6.611
for sinteredcomponents,
pressing
unrestrained Forlarge 0
numbers tolinished
adapt shape

Form design for secondary shaping processes

The form design of components to be shaped by secondary processes, for
example, forging, extrusion, bending, must adhere to the guidelines listctl
Fo Avoidexcessively

-0 Avoid
large
thinsections

curvatures,
0

0
we
below. Special consideration for the design of ferrous materials can be found irt excessively
narrow
ribs,frlletsand
excessively holes
small
[6.37] and of non-ferrous metals in 16.a2).
With hammer forging (free forging), the designer need only allow for thc
actual forging process, since no complicated devices (for instance, dies) arc ;0 Avoid
sharp
changesincross 0 -a_*av&_*ffi *G=l*
involved. The following design guidelines should be observed: sections
andcross
sections
that rr w , v lL u l
- Aim at simple shapes,if possible with parallel surfaces (conical transitions arc
difficult) and with large curvatures(avoid sharp edges).Objectives:reductiort :o
project intothedie
excessively

split-lines
Stagger inthecase
ol 0
utu l
tu-
of costs, improvement of quality.
-Aim at light forgings, perhaps by separation and subsequentcombinatiort.
parts
cup-shaped of large
depth %i%"
ffi
Objective: reduction of costs. lia Select linesothat
thesplit C
--Avoid excessivedeformations or excessiveclifferencesin cross-sectionstltrc, misalignment
iseasilydetected
f o r i n s t a n c e ,t o t h e p r e s e n c eo f c x c c s s i v c l yh i g h a n d f i n e r i b s o r o f e x c e s s i v c l v andremoval
olllashissimple
n a r r o w i n d c n t a t i o n s .O h j c c t i v c : i m p r o v e m c n to f q u a l i t y .
- Try to placc bossesand indcnlrtiunr on on tidc only, Objcctivc: rcduction ol | u r c 6 . l ( f l . l ) c s i g ng u i r l c l i n e sw i t h c x a n r p l e sf o r c l r o p - f o r g e d
p a r t si n a c c o r d a n c ew i t h
cotits, 9 5 . 6 . t 7 ( ) ,6 . 2t 4 . 6 . 2 5I I
276 6 Embodiment dcsilrr Guidelines for embodiment design 211

I
I

PS Guidelines wr0ng Right S Guidelines Wrong Right

=>

ww ww
i ) ' -

TO Avoidundercuts 0 le Avoid bent

complex parts C
Ex c (material
waste);
rather
splitand
J0rn
Ex andexcessively
Avoidtapers
differences
smalldiameter
0
ww MM 3e Allow
forminimum
bending
values
radii(bulging
ol
inthe
0
I = | (l maleria
--- )

MWW wwM
c0mpresst0n
area and
Ex Providerotational
partswithout
lysymmetrical u
pr0trusi0ns,
overslretching
inthetenslonarea) ,
-r-. fi='r' ar
material llange
height
andtolerances
andjoin
split
otheruise
le Provide icient
suff distance 0
pre-pierced
between holes
and

ilwM tuwM
Ex Avoidsharp in cross
changes 0 bend
edges
sharp
section, andfillets

wwwwww le Aimatholes
andnotches to cross 0
Ex Avoid
small,
longorlateral 0
holes
andthreads
thebend
provide
whenit isnotpossible
theminimum gap
to
@d
Figure6.102.Designguidelines after[6.631
for coldextrusions,
with examples lo Avoidsloping
edges
andtapers
in 0

rise to work hardening, in which the yield strength is raisedwhile the toughness
of the material drops significantly. The designer must take this factor inltr to
theregion

Provide
ofthebend

clearances
atthecorners 0
&
consideration. The best materials for cold extrusion are case-hardeningarrrl
heat-treatablesteels.
For drawing, the following design guidelines are recommended in [6.170]:
whenallsides
aretobebentup
@fr [E
- Allow for tooling (To): Choose the dimensionsin such a way that the smallest 6.103.Designguidelineswith examplesfor bent parts,after [6.11
possible number of drawing steps is needed. Objective: reduction of costs.
-Allow for tooling and drawing (To/Dr): Aim at rotationally symmetrical 'machining
hollow bodies; producing the corners of rectangularhollow bodies leads to it with geometrically undefined cuts' (grinding). In addition we
high loading of the materials and tools. Objectives: improvement of qualitv, lbe considering separation by cutting as defined in [6.a0]. In all separating
reduction of costs. ;essesthe designer must allow for tooling (To), including clamping, and
- Allow for drawing (Dr): Choose tough materials. Objective: improvement of hining (Ma).
quality. ign for tooling involves:
'he
-Allow for drawing (Dr): For the design of flanges see [6.148]. Objectivc: provision of adequate clamping facilities. Objectives: improvement of
improvement of quality. uality.
Bending (cold bending) as it is used for the manufacture of sheet metirl \ preferential sequence of operations that does not necessitatethe re-
components in precision and electrical engineering, and also for casings, lamping of components. Objectives: reduction of costs, improvement of
claddings and air ducts in general mechanical engineering [6.1] involves twtr uality.
'he
separate steps, namely cutting (Cu) and bending (Be). The designer mtrsl provision of adequate tool clearances. Objective: improvement of
accordinglyallow for both. The designguidelinesshown in Figure 6.103 apply ttr quality.
the bending processalone; cutting is covered under the next heading. sign for machiningin all separatingprocessesinvolves:
The avoidanceof unnecessary machining,that is reductionof machined
Form designfor separution arcas, fine surfacefinishesand closetolerancesto the absoluteminimum
O f t h e s c p a r a t i n gp r o c c c l u r c sn r c n t i o n c d i n 1 6 . 3 9 1o n d [ 6 . 3 1 t 1w (protrudingbossesand cut-outsplacedat sameheightor depth are advan-
. c shall ortlv
' n r a c h i n i n gw i t h g c o n r c t r i c l l l y d c f i n c d c u t s ' ( t u r n i n l q ,b o r i n g , n r i l l i r r g ) tugcous),Objcctivc:reductionof costs.
cunsiclcr
 6 Embodimcnt clcsilrr 5 Guidelinesfor embodimentdesign 279
218

-The location of machined surfacesparallel or perpendicular to the clamping

(.)
PS Guidelines q)
Wrong Right
surfaces. Objectives: reduction of costs, improvement of quality' -) .=
-The choice of turning and boring in preference to milling and shaping To Aimforstraight
millrng
surlaces; C
Objective: reduction of costs. formtools
areexpensive;select
dimensionsforgang milling
Figure 6.104 represents the design guidelines for components machined br
turnlng; Figure 6.tOS tor components machined by boring; Figure 6.106 for
t0 Provide
runoutsforedge
mills; c
edgemilling
ischeaper
thanend 0 t+l

milling
PS Guidelines
(-)
-\ -=
Wrong Right
To Adaptrunout
tomilling
tool c
M,
To toolrunoul
adequate
Provide 0 diameterAvoid
longmillingcuts
byselecting
curved
surfaces(eg
slots).

TO toolshapes
Aimforsimple c
Ma Arrange ononeleveland
surlaces c
parallel
totheclamping, 0 f=-'f
To Avoidgrooves
andtight C @h
oninnersurlaces
tolerances 0

TO clamping,
loradequate
Provide 0
@ .mft_''*'
G j[ft."'-'
6.106.Designguidelines
ancewith [6.128,6.1701
with examples
for componentsmachined by milling, in

eg
machining,
Ma Avoidexcessive c
byseparate
highcollars
replace Aftrftirff,
Lu-il+*Jl
iomponentsmachinedby milling; and Figure 6.107for componentsmachinedby
parts wL-N_s
lrinding.
, In the designof cut-out components,the characteristicsof.the tools (To) and
Ma Adaptworking andsurface
length c ni a--l io
,f.thecuttingmethod(Cu) [6.85]mustbe takeninto consideration (Fig. 6.108).
function,
totherequired
finish
iorm design joining
for
Figure 6.104. Design guidelineswith examplesfor componentsmachinedby turning. in )f the joiningmethodsdiscussed in [6.a1]we shallonly considerweldingunder
aciordance with [6. 128, 6. 1701
he aboveheading.For separablejoints the readeris referredto 6.5.7.
, Welding involvesthree processsteps,namelypreparation(pr), wetding(We)
(D
Wrong Right nd finishing (Fi). The following designguidelinesapply:
PS Guidelines = > -Pr, we, Fi: avoid the imitation of cast designs;preferablyselectstandard,
L J :

To Wherepossible, tools
useborlng c easily obtainable or prefabricatedplates, sectionsor other semi-finished
holes
Ma onblind 0
% ffiffi materials; make use of compositeconstructions(cast/forgedcomponents).
Objective:reductionof costs.
To Provide flats 0
andfinishing
starting - we: adaptthe material,weldingquality and weldingsequenceto the required
Ma lorholes through
breakino
surfaces
angled
ffi@M ffi@M strength,sealingand shape.objectives:reductionof costs,improvementof
quality.
To holes,
Aimforcontinuous C - we: aim for small weldingseamsand small dimensionsto reducedamage
blindholes
avoiding
through heating and to simplify handling. objectives: improvementof
quality,rcductionof costs.
Figurc(r.l()5.Dcsignguidclincswith.cxirnr;rlcr fitr com;xrncnls by boring,in
ntilcltittcd -wc/Fi: minimiscthe amountof welding(heat input) to avoid or reduce
l c l ' o r d l n c cw i t h 1 6 I. 2 8 .6 . 1 1 5 6. . I 7 ( l l
280 6 Embocliment dcsrr:rr 5 Guidelines for embodiment desisn 281

distortion and corrective work. Objectives: improvement of quality, reduc-

PS Guidelines Wrong Right tion of costs.
=>
Further guidelines are given in Figure 6.109.
Io Avoid
edge
limitations 0
C
PS Guidelines o)
Wrong Righl
rEJ---tlEl
f---
flL+-rEr
L_F---_I- --=
Pr Preter withfewparts
solutions and c
TO Provide
wneet
s
forgrinding
runouts 0
+%r?
weldseams
4 4
ru mm
t)--@t

To grinding
Aimlorunimpeded by C
Pr Aimtoreasily
weldable il
seams c
We loadspermit
appropriate ofsurfaces
selecti0n 0 Fi

4 4
Pr Avoid ofweldmaterial
build-up C
To Giveprelerence
toequal
blend c We andintersecting
weldseams 0
Ma radii(ifnorunout
possible)
andto 0
equaltapers

We Reduce
residual dueto
stresses 0
F i g u r e6 . 1 0 7 .D e s i g ng u i d e l i n e sw i t h e x a m p l e sf o r c o m p o n e n t sm a c h i n e db y g r i n d i n g .i n byappropriate
shrinkage choiceof
accordancewith [6. 1701 weldseams andwelding
andalsoofconnecting
sequence,
(flexible
0l lowstiffness
secti0ns
tongues
andcorners)

(-)
c
PS Guidelines Wrong We Aimlorgoodaccessibllity
tr
O
Right
!>
O=
0
f,
c

w
prefer
TO Aimforsimple
angular
cuts,
corners,
avoid
curves
.GS posrtive
We Ensure location
ofthe 0

TO Aimforsharp-edged transitions
to C
v/ vr'
Fi
priortowelding
Fi components

Allowsufticient
material
lor 0
Wt I
Iolerance
facilitate
thecutting
ofthe 0 machining welding
atter
templateandtoensure easy
grindi
ng
6 . 1 0 9 .D e s i g ng u i d e l i n e sf o r w e l d e dc o m p o n e n t s i.n a c c o r d a n c w
e i t h [ 6 1 4 5 .6 . 1 7 (
6 2t3l
Cu Avoidwaste layout
bycareful ol C
partsonstandard
cut-out plate
widths
I Appropriate selection of materials and of semi-finished materials
[n optimum choice of materials and semi-finished materials is difficult to make
tecause of interactions between characteristics of the function, working princi-
Cu Avoid
sharp-angled
shapes
and 0
)le, layout and form design, safety, ergonomics, production, quality control,
excessively
tighttolerances F-rl
-1=- E lssembly,transport, operation, maintenance,costsand schedules.When expen-
Cu Preler permitling
shapes 0 live materials are involved, their careful selection is nevertheless of the utmost
subsequent
cutswithout
danger
of tconomic importance. In general, the designeris advisedto consult the checklist
damage.
,Figurc 6.2) and to evaluate the materials accordingly.
Thc selected material and the resulting processing and machining of the
liigurc6.1(llt,l)csigrrguirlclirtcs
l'orcut-outcomFrnonlr,In uccortllnccwith l().l?(ll : o n r p o n c n t s ,t h c i r t l u a l i t y a n d t h e m a r k e t c o n d i t i o n si n f l u e n c e :
282 6 Embodimentdesirrr Guidelines for embodiment desien 283

- the production procedure; 'es to show that minimisation

of weight, which often involves a great deal of
- the choice of machine tools, including bench tools and measuring instruments. gn and technical effort, does not necessarilylead to minimisatLn
of costs.
-materials handling, for example, purchasing and storage; over, even when the calculated cost reductions due to the incorporation
- quality control; and also of
finished materials and simplification in manufacturing methods are
-the choice between in-house and bought-out parts. nor
t, the actual savings may be much greater because of the consequent
The close relationship between design, production procedures and materials ction in idle time and time spent on operations scheduling.
technology calls for close cooperation between the designer, the productiorr
engineer, the materials expert and the buyer.
The most important recommendations for the selection of materials for
primary shaping processes(for example casting and sintering) and seconclarr
shaping processes (for example forging, extrusion etc) have been set out br
Illgner [6.91]. Few designers are completely familiar with the selection ol 1- 0 e20
Fo 520
materials needed for such new manufacturing methods as ultraS'onicwelding
electron-beam welding, laser technology, plasma cutting, spark erosion arrtl
electrochemicalprocesses.These topics are discussedin [6.28, 6.55, 6.88, 6.13().
6.1831.
Closely connected with the selection of materials is the choice of semi-finishcrl F i g u r e6 , 1 1 1E
. l e c t r i cm o t o r
materials (for example, tube, standard extrusionsetc). Becauseof the comm()rl housingof weldedconstruction
b (Siemens);
method of costing by weight, the designer tends to think that cost reductiorr
I platethickness 3 platethicknesses (a) currentdesign
invariably goes hand in hand with weight reduction. However, as Figure 6.111) (2 16mm) ( 5 ,1 0a n d1 6 m m ) (b) proposeddesign
makes clear, that belief is often mistaken.
re example also shows that, for the minimisation of production costs, the
ral production overheads must be considered in addition to the cost of
:rials and labour. Finally, it draws attention to another series of problems
the modern designerhas to solve: he must adapt his designsto the demands
= potential of numericallycontrolledmachinetools. Let us stay with the
L
l-cutting machine. with his decisionto reduce the numbei of plate
nesses,the designer opened the way for a computer-aided layout of the
Figure6.110.Costareasfor rial on the plates, and hence for the highly cost-effective introduction of
lightweightandeconomical lrically controlled flame cutting machines
[6.10].
from [6.2191
constructions, further example of the economic use of semi-finished materials is siven in
constructionconstruction re 6.r12 which showsthe plate-cuttingplan for a weldedmotor hous=ins.
To
The following examplethrows further light on this problem.Figure 6.111
showsa welded electricmotor housing.The old layout involvedeight different
platethicknesses to achievethe requiredstiffness
with a minimisationof weight
In the modifieddesign,however,the numberof plate thicknesses wasdeliber-
ately reducedalthoughthis increasedthe weight. This changein the design
involvedthe replacementof standardflame-cuttingby numericallycontrollcd L__

machines. The extraoutlaywasto be justifiedby keepingthe programmingantl

re-equipmentcostslow and by maximumutilisationof the plate matcriirl b
r e 6 . 1 1 2E . l e c t r i cm o t o r c
throughstackingbeforecutting.A costanalysis showedthat,despitean incrcasc housing,Weldedconstruction
in wcight due to oversizingof sonrcof the housingports,the new dcsignwirs i t h p l a t cp l a nf r o r n[ 6 . 1 1 5 1
chcaper than the old thanks to klwel labour costs and lowcr procluctiolr (Sicnrcns)
Plate-cutting
overhcuds.Adrnittcdly,lhc actuulsuvinj wm not very grcut, but this cxlmplc plan
 6 Embodimentclcsrr,rr Guidelines for embodiment design 285

allow the use of circular blanks for the end wall bearing shieldsd, the end wrllr rential construction will be more cost-effectiveand quicker to execute than
are made from four parts b, which are then welded together. The resultirrg integral construction. He must accordinglycombine the functional approach
aperture, even after machining, is smaller than the bearing shield made from l hc h an analysisof production and supply conditions anclwith careful costing and
blank. In addition, this arrangement provides the support feet c. evaluation. Ultimately, designingfor production means minimising costs

analysis
5 Appropriate use of standard and bought-out components arrive at the most cost-effective solution, the designer has recourse to value
The designer should always try to use components that do not have to lrc
ysis 16.222,6.228,6.2301.In the discussionand evaluationof the cost-
:tivenessof a particular solution, collaboration between the various denart-
specially manufactured but are readily available as repeat,standard, or boup,ltr
out parts. In that way, he can help to create favourable supply and storrrlc ts concerned-that is, exchangesof view between the salesteam, the buying
r, the design team, the production team and the costing department
conditions. Easily available bought-out parts are often cheaperthan parts mrrrlc lvatue
ysis team)-proves invaluable. The resulting pooling of expert knowledge
in-house.
The importance of standard parts has been stressedon several occasions- experienceprovidesa roundedassessment of the requirements,
layout aid
The decision whether components are to be made in-house or bought-orrt t designs,materials,productionprocedures,
stock-keepingprovisions,stan-
depends on the following considerations:
- number (one-off , batch or mass production);
-whether production is for a specific order or for the general market; how?
| why? how?
| why? ; why?
how? how?
- the market situation (costs,delivery datesof materials and bought-out parts );
1stlevel | 2ndlevel | 3rdtevel | 4thtevel C' I C, I C, I C, I C5| c6 I C; I C8
-the possibility of using existing production facilities;
-the manpower situation; and
- the available or desired desree of automation.
These factors influence not only the decision whether in-house production
to be preferred to sub-contract production, but also the designer's ovct
approach. Unfortunately, most of the factors vary with time. This means thirt
particular decision may be justified at the time when it is made but may'
longer be right if the market or manning situation and the production capac
have changed. Particularly in the caseof one-off or batch products of the hcrr
engineeringindustry, the production and market situation has to be re-examir
at regular intervals.

6 Appropriate documentation

The effect of production documents (in the form of drawings, parts lists
assembly instructions) on costs, delivery dates, product quality etc is olt
underestimated.The layout, clarity and comprehensivenessof such documc
have a particularly marked influence on highly mechanised and automir
production methods. They determine the execution of the order, product
planning, production control and quality control.

7 Costing and cost evaluation

Thc guiclclirres lirr prriluctionwill not hclp thc dcsigncrto nrlslc

of clcsigning
i r l l t h c c o r n p l c x p r o b l c n r s i r r v o l v c d u n l c r ; h c u l s o t i t k c s i n t o i r c c o t n t li t l l I
rclcvirrrtdirlir witlrorrtwhiclr lrc cunnrtlprcdicl willt ccrtirinlvwhcth('t il 6, I l.-1.
Assigrrnle
nt ol asscnrtrlies
andcornponents
to subfunctions
[6.22tt,6 230]
286 6 Embodimenttlrrrr:n Guidelines for embodiment desisn 281

dardisation and market conditions, and hence leads to more reliable and quickcl 115 gives the cost distribution of a synchronousgenerator[6.104].It showsthat
decisions than the designer could have arrived at by himself. mpts to lower the labour and overhead costs of the rotor shaft R1 by design
It also helps to split up the overall function into sub-functionsof decreasirrg ures alone are not likely to be very successful, whereas a reduction in
complexity and to assign these sub-functions to function carriers, that is lrt ight or the choice of economical materials will lead to a significant drop in
assembliesand components. (Figure 6.113illustratesthis procedure schematit:rl. ;ts. with the stator housing s3, on the other hand, a changeof design leading
ly.) From the calculated costs of componentsit is then possibleto estimatc tlre an alternative manufacturing method looks promising in view of the high
cost of fulfilling the required overall function and the sub-functions. Strr'h
'function
costs' provide a basis for the evaluation of design variants, covering rrt
they do market considerations(are all functions absolutely necessary?),dcsirlll
considerations(the choice of suitable function structures and solution concr'l)tr R1
and the sub-functions they entail), and production considerations (form desiln R2
of individual components). R3
For the minimisation of costs,it is advisableto proceed at the earliestpossilrlo R4
B5
stage to the optimisation of the economic factors and hence of the productlrl
R6
procedure. The choice of a suitable solution concept usually cuts produclrotl 92Jl
costs more significantlythan do direct production measures.Moreover c^^

changesin the designare deferreduntil the productionstage,they often ent;r 3ca

high alteration costs. Figure 6.114 illustratesthis point. In short, prorlrrc M1
optimisation should be begun just as soon as the available information pernrits, s4
Figure6 115.Coststructureof
s5
a synchronous generator,from
s6
s7
[ 6 . 1 0 4(]S i e m e n s ) s8
ExamplesR1: rotor shaft;R2: s9
rotor body;R5: rotor winding; M2
SJ:statorhousing;55:
bearing;56: spider;M2: 10
mountinssetc Production
costs

addition to the cost structure, the designer must also take into account the
ute costs of the components, materials, semi-finished materials. and of
rd and bought-out parts. The relevant figures must be prepared as quickly
accurately as possible by the estimatingdepartment, at leasi in the form of
O6 ive costs. Figures 6.116 and 6.117 show such relative cost comparisons.
of alterationcostson. tltc often suffice for arriving at decisions and have the advantage over abolute
Figure6.114.Influenceon costreductionby, anddependence
designand productionphases,from [6.22t3] computations that they fluctuate less and hence are more generally
cable over a longer period of time.
iable preliminary calculations are still no more than a dream of modern
Cost structure
rs, who are far too often left to their own devices. In view of the sreat
Useful aids to cost reductionare providedby estimatesof the coststru( ence of these decisions on the production costs, this state of affairs has
Without a grasp of the cost distribution-that is of the relative shitrc intolerable and should be tackled by the engineering industry at the
m a t c r i a l s , l a b c l u r , a n d p r o d u c t i < l nt l v c r h c a d si n t h c c o s t s o f a c o m p o n c t l t I possibleopportunity.
asscmbly-the dcsigncrcann()ttcll whut meo$uroshc must takc to l<lwcrI For the cconomical design of components and simpler technical artefacts,
costs.Hcnceit is importanttrl providcthc rolcvantdocumenlatiun: cstimittcs It)l suggcstsan evaluation procedure and gives a comprehensivelist of the
rlf old ollmrter for nditpiivcdcsigns.liigr
rlriginuldcsignslncl rccllcul:rtiotts i t n t t c c h n i c a la n c lc c < l l r < t m idca t u .
288 6 Embodiment desilrr Guidelines for embodiment design 289

plaleslaminate
I windI soak

Other
assemblies

Materials
Testing
Figure 6.116. Comparative costsof 30 mm round bar steel,from [6.1901
(a) Costsby weight (no requirementsas to strength and weight)
(b) Ratio of costsper unit weight to yield strength
(c) Machining coststo produce constantsurfacefinish
( S t e e lI : 2 0 C ; S t e e l2 0 : 1 6 5 C l l 2 % C r - M o - V ) 3 2 2 8 7 t , 2 01 6 1 2 I 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I I 1 0 1 1 1 21 3
Dellvery timein weeks Manufacturing
timein weeks
''' re 6.118. Production procedure of an electric motor from the series shown in Figure
I /
(AEG Telefunken)

e 1,1
o

i acturing the components and assembliesare indicated by the lengths of

horizontal lines. The diagram not only makes clear where improvements can
E
made by the choice of more quickly procurable raw and semi-finished
17
ials or by keeping these materials in stock, but also where different
facturingstepscould be taken in parallel. Thus by allowingthe stator
1l inations to be built up in parallel with the construction of the housing (two
-consuming operations), a significant reduction in the overall production
1.0 ule is possible.
breakdowns of the production procedure are now common practice in
project planning and control of all large companies. They facilitate the
ination of critical times and of possible design improvements [6.94,

. o m p a r a t i vceo s t so f b o l t e dj o i n t s ,f r o m [ 6 . 1 9 0 1
F i g u r e6 . 1 1 7C

Production time 7 Designing for easeof assembly

Accuratc production timc cstinrntcs hclp the dcsigner tu improvc <ln clclivcr
Types of assembly
datcs, Figurc 6.1 lfl givcs an cxnmpler the production sequcncc l'or il m c d i u r
'l'hc a s s c t t t b l yw c r c f c r t o t h e c o m b i n a t i o no f c o m p o n e n t si n t o a p r o d u c t a n d t o
powcr clcctric molor, tinrcr spnt on rcquiring thc mntcrial itntl oil
290 6 Embodiment desilrr Guidelines for embodiment design 297

the auxiliary work needed during and after production. The cost and qualirr General guidelines for ease of assembly
of a product depend on the type and number of assembly operations and orr
tional production involves the simplification and automation of the assemblv
their execution. The type and number, in their turn, depend on the layorrt
rcess[6.32, 6.236].
design of the product and on the type of production (one-off or batclr
It is advantageous,first of all, to standardisethe necessaryassemblyopera-
production).
rns. Such standardisation means using the minimum number of assembly
The following guidelines for designing for ease of assembly can therefore lr,,
niques and, above all, assemblytools. The designercan make a considerable
no more than general hints. In individual cases, they may be influenced,'r
tribution here, for example by choosingone bolt size to satisfyvarious load
overridden by reference to the following headingsof the checklist (Figure 6.lr
ditions even if some may be larger than he might otherwise specify.
function, working principle, layout and form design, safety, ergonomics, pr,,
A lurther requirement is the provision of simple assembly operationLs(6.3.2).
duction, quality control, transport, operation and maintenance.
rr instance, in one-off production it is advantageous to use standard tools
According to [6.3, 6.200, 6.224] the following essential operations rrrt.
her than expensivespecial tools. The cost of individual operations, however,
involved:
- Storing of parts to be assembled, if possible in a systematic m a n n ( ' r pends greatly on the available assembly equipment and the staff, so that it is
ible to make general pronouncements on what is simple and cost-
Automatic assembly further necessitatesthe programmed supply of p a r t s u r t l
connecting elements.
-Handling of components, including: If the designpermits parallel assemblyof different sub-assemblies.
then a
oidentifying the part by fitter or robot; nsiderablereductionin the overallproductiontime is possible.
o picking-up the part, if necessary in conjunction with individual s e l e c t i tr r t In general, the designer should always aim at a reduction in the number of
mbly operations. Since these operationsdepend on the number of individual
and dispensing;and
omoving the part to the assembly point, if necessaryin conjunction wirlr
ponents,he must try to:
decrease the number of identical components, for instance, by replacing a
separation, manipulation etc.
-Positionireg (placing the part correctly for assembly), and aligning (firrll large number of small bolts with a smaller number of larger ones;
combine several components into one larger component (integral
adjustment of the position of the part before and possibly after joining).
-Joining parts by the provision of appropriate connections. According rrt construction);
use pre-assembled (bought-out) assemblies; and
16.41],the following operationsmust also be includedhere: facilitate the combination of severaloperations by appropriate arrangement of
o bringing together,for exampleby inserting,superposing, suspending
locating surfacesand connectors, to ensure, for instance, the simultaneous
folding:
o filling, for exampleby soaking; tightening of several bolts (see Figure 6.tI9).
o pressingtogether,for exampleby bolting, clampingor shrink fitting; Even though the precisesequenceof assemblyoperationsis determined by the
o joining by primary processes,for example by fusing, casting irr oduction planning department and not by the designer, the latter should
rtheless try to provide for a logical sequence, thus obviating mistakes and
vulcanising;
o joining by secondaryprocesses, ring simple repair and maintenance.
for exampleby bendingor by auxilirr
components;and
o joining by the combination of materials, for instanceby welding, solder
Guidelines for improving assembly operations
or glueing.
- Adjustingto equalisetolerances,to restorethe requiredplay etc ease of assembly, the designer should consider each assembly operation
[6.2001.
- Securingthe assembled partsagainstunwantedmovements underoperatiorr rately.
loads.
- Inspecting. Depending on the degree of automation, various testing it
measuring operationsmust b e p e r f o r m e d ,p o s s i b l yb e t w e e ni n d i v i d u a la s s c r s operation, which is particularly important in automated assembly,is
bly operations. itated by the use of easily stackedcomponents.The appropriate design
Thcseopcrationsare involvcclin cvcry asscmbly
proccss,thcir imp<lrtirrrcc. asuresinclude:
scqucnccand frcqucncyclcpcndirrg on thc numberul' urrits(onc-ol'fasscrnl)l\., thc provision of compatible stacking surfaces;and
batchasscmbly)and thc dcgrccof uutrtmotlon(manunl.part:lut()nrilticor l'rrllv thc pr<lvisionclf shapesensuring the correct orientation of non-symmetrical
tuutomirlic
lsscnrbly). p l r t s ' ( h o l c s , p i n s , g r o < t v c sc t c ) .
292 6 E m b o d i m e ndt c : r r , r r 5 Guii d e l i n e s f o r e m b o d i m c n t d e s r s n 293

up
Guidelines Wrong Right ls olperation is particularly important in automated assembly.By appropriatc
lice of design features, the designer must:
Alml0rsimple
assembly
operations avol d the entanglement of individual parts;
prevent the nesting of individual parts; and
provide, if necessary,specialfeaturesto ensurepositiveholding of the
coml
component.
Aimlorfewassembly
operations
andsimplecomponents ovtnS
t e m covement of parts from the store to the assemblysite is greatly influenced
the size,
r weight and type (one-off, mass production) of the part. In general,
weve er, the designer should aim for:
lorparallel
Provide assembly
short't distances,for instance by appropriate splitting of the product into easily
A S S Embled
T modules:
good 7 ergonomic and safety provisions, for instance by avoiding visual
obstr ructions or potential danger spots; and also
stmplehandlingmethods,for instanceby the provisionof easilymanipulable
stmp
trans
transport joints.
equipmentor of easilyaccessible
re
e shape
shr of componentsmust accordinglybe designedfor easytransport.

Reduce
number
ol identical nonmg
tstttol
components rdres
resen[6.3] divides positioning into orientating and aligning. In both, the
signe
rer should:
a l mr .for symmetry if no preferential position is demanded;
Combine (integral
components distir
tinguish permissible or prescribed positions, for instance by surface marks
construction) or by
br the shape of the locating surfaces;
a l mr .for the automatic alignment of the joints; and if that is not possible
tvide adjustablejoints.
prov

tn8
trkl-.: /'V/r/;V for easy joining entails the appropriate choice of joining method and
H/&/ lors so that:
jointts that have to be disassembledfrequently, for instanceto replacewearing
Combine
several
operations bolldlrection parts s, are equipped with easily separable connectors;
only' those joints that are rarely or never disassembleduse connectionsthat
are e expensiveto separate, for example shrink fits or welded joints;
postt tioning is combined with joining where possible, for instance by means of
Figure 6.119. Design guidelineswith examplesfor easeof assembly,in accordancewitlr locat ting connectors;
[6 3l any lack of fit between stiff components is allowed for by the insertion of
'ble
flexil or compensating elements; and
Identfying in gcgeneral, procedures should involve a minimum number of simple opera-
Avoid muddlingsimilarparts, for instanccby thc usc of: tionsns and minimum tool use, provided, of course, that the function can be
- distinctshapes; full'il
Il'iIlccl.
- distinctdimcnsions of similarshope$tor itt.s(rtion of a part into the locating surfacesis facilitated by:
tc t,l.t
- clistinctfinishcs. ((1.$y
l.$Y (l('('('J.f t o t h c l o c a t i n g s u r f a c e ;
294 6 Embodiment rlr idelinesfor embodimentdesisn 295

-visual checks,for instance inspection holes;

-simple movements (for example translational) at the locating surfaces;
-short movements at the locating surfaces;
Guidelines Wrong Right
-special insertion
facilities, for instance, by chamfering; toring:
- avoidance of simultaneous fitting operations, for instance in stepped shaft
holes, by choosing locating surfaces of different lengths; and by . Easy
stacking
- avoidance of double restraints.
. clear
orientation
Adjusting
-provision of sensitive,repeatable adjustments; and
- avoidance of adjustments that affect previous adjustments: ling:
land
- rendering the results of adjustments measurable and controllable.

Securing
To lock the joints against unwanted movements due to operating loads,
advisable:
ldentitying
. Dysnape

bysrze
-TT[-
t--l--l
qJ
righlhdthread

-{-;iil:}-@-
-TTrr-
f-'r-l
LJ
left-hdthlead
tr u
Ef,
rTI,.l

l:L
-to chooseself-locking,for exampleappropriatelypreloaded,joints; or
- to provide suchadditionalform-fitting or frictional locksascanbe asseml Picking
up
. Nohidden
nesting
without greatcost.

Inspecting
Provision holes
otsteps,
By appropriate measures, the designer must also provide for:
- simple checks on critical requirements (for example air vents in rota
machines). Inspection rules without adequate inspection facilities Moving
. Possible
sliding
orrolling
pointless; and
- inspection and further adjustments without dismantling already a s s e m b l
parts.
Ease
ofmanipulation
Figure 6.120 gives examples of components designedusing these guideli
Further examples will be found in 16.223).

bsitioning:
4 Evaluating easeof assembly I
il noprelerred
| . Symmetry
The above design guidelines for ease of assembly are quite generally applica I Dosttton
I
Their importance, or in other words their practicability, is however stror | . Markingofpreterred
L# r#
influenced by the nature of the production process and hence by the naturr I Position ---1---

the assembly operation. Thus, storing, picking up and positioning are particu i, .
ly important in automated assembly plants for mass-produced articles, w Automatic
alignment
moving, positioning and inserting are of special importance in heavy enginc
ing. Another crucial consideration in all types of production is whether a gir . Ease
oladjustment
product is assembledonce and for all by skilled company engineers,or whct
its maintenance and repair call for rcpcatcd asscmblyoperations by lcss cx1)('
outsidestaff. 6. 120.Designguidelines with examples
for improvingassembly in
operations,
Even if the designguidclincswc huvc given arc scrupulously <lbscrvcd, a n c cw i t h6 . 3 . 6 . 2 2 3 1
spccialcharactcristics
ol'individuillcrscs
murl rtlllbc tukcnintu account.l.or
 6 Embodiment Coping with design faults, disturbing factors and risks
291

Evaluation criteria for assessingease of assembly

Simple executionof assemblyoperations

Joining: o Storing
method
Joining o Handling
. lorrepeated
assembly Identifying
Picking up
Moving
o Positioning
. if function
simple, allows Orientating
Aligning
o Joining
. combine positioning
and o Adjusting
l0rnrng o Securing
o Inspecting
. fortolerances.
Allowing for
instance
bycompensating
parts

lnserting
. goodaccessibility
Freedomfrom possibleassemblyerrors
Avoidanceof damageto components
.
Maintenanceof safeworking conditions
improved
lead-ins
Observanceof ergonomicstandards
Avoidanceof specialtraining of the assemblystaff

. avoidanceofsimultaneous
littingoperations

Securing: Coping with design faults, disturbing factors and

.
risks
if possible
simple, without
additional
elements
.1 Identifying design faults and disturbing factors
design process involves a series of creative and corrective steps. so far we
Figure6.120(continued) been dealing with the former alone. The designer, however, is forced to
amine his ideas and solutionstime and again, and to that end he makes use
lection and evaluation procedures.These facilitate the systematicsearchfor
evaluation of easeof assemblyit is helpful to consult the evaluationcriteria gi links. Even so, the designer can make mistakes, for instance by ignoring
in Table 6.5. faulty features as appear with progressiveembodiment. Now, it is essential
To begin with, all the components must be examined to determinc t ify potential faulty behaviour at the earliest possible stage and, more-
cost-effectivenessand scheduling. Next, the overall assemblyshould bc scr even in the case of satisfactory behaviour, evaluate the possible effects of
,
n i s e di n t h e l i g h t o f t h e g e n e r a le v a l u a t i o nc r i t c r i ag i v e n i n T a b l e 6 . 5 . E x p c r i c ing factors.
h a s s h o w n t h a t d e s i g nf o r e a s eo f a s s c m b l yc a n n o t b c q u a n t i f i c d a c c u r i r t c l y , idcntification of design faults and disturbing factors is facilitated by the
t h a t i t s c v a l u a t i o nm u s t , a s a r u l c , b c o f u q u a l i t u t i v ct y p c . l n p l a n n i n ga s s c r r r riite abandonment of the optimistic and creative approach in favour of a
for lnass-productiolt ()n I
tltc dcsigncrwill do better to buschis cvaluatir)ns I a n d c r l r r c c t i v eo n e [ 6 . 1 5 3 , 6 . 1 5 9 ] . T h i s c h a n g ei n p e r s p e c t i v ei s o f t e n
prtxluctionol' grrotolypcs, : u l t b c c a u s cs u b j c c t i v c i d e a s k e e p i m p e d i n g o b j e c t i v ee v a l u a t i o n s .
298 6 Embodimenr
il g with design faults, disturbing factors and risks 299

I Fault-tree analysis
h,:1!!y,
The influence of faults and disturbing factors can be determined systemati(
Pno* /,
by recourse to what is known as fault-tree analysis 16.73,6.1271.
o!-4r/
From the conceptual phase, the designer knows what overall function rr
individual sub-functions have to be fulfilled. The established function structrr
can thus be used to identify all the functions to be checked. These functions rr
line
now negated one by one-that is assumedto be unfulfilled. By reference to I
checklist(Figure6.2),lhe designercan seekout the possiblefaults or disr - ^^,--l
condition
0perating normal I lul I lldl -

bancescausingparticularfunctionalfailures.The OR or AND relationshilr

thesefaults and their effectscan then be examined. - cl0sed closed
Valvelunction
The conclusions will help him to improve his design and, if necessar\.
re-examine the solution concept or to change the rnethod of productit Faults - reaKage
assembly,operation or maintenance. Let us take a concrete example [6.t-st;
The design of a safety blow-off valve for a gas container (Figure 6.121) rrr
be checked for possible design faults during the conceptual phase. From r
00esnol 00esnol
o0en close
f 6.I22.Operating conditions, valve main functions and faults of the safety valve

pipe
Blow-ofl

Figure 6.121.Safety blow-off valve

for a gas container
specificationand the function structure,it is possibleto specifythe operar
conditions depicted in Figure 6.122. The blow-off valve is intended to open
the operating pressure,pop, eXCeds1.1 times the nominal working pressrl
pno-, and to close when the container is again at nominal pressure: The n
functions are therefore 'open valve' and 'close valve'. The overall function c
also be described as 'limit pressure'. Let us now assumea possible failure ol'
overall function, namely'valve does notlimit pressure'(Figure 6.I23). The vi
functions shown in Figure 6.122, and their timing, are negated. They havc
OR relationship with the overall function. Each fault thus identified is rrc
investigatedin terms of its possiblecauscs(Figure6.124).The fault wc
chosento investigatein more detail is 'doesnot open'.
An identifiedcausemav havcto bc ussociatcd with furthercauseswith whit
it has an OR or AND rclationship. tnd whlch mny hovc to bc
Figure6.123.Construction of
fault-treebasedon faults
identifiedfrom Fisure 6.122
ingly. On the basis of the information gained from fault-tree analysis,the
is able to revisethe specification(Figure 6.I25) before he proceedsto
embodiment phase. As a result, his design will be greatly improved and
tial faults avoided.
r second example concerns the embodiment phase. Possible faults of an
valve (Figure 6.126), are shown in Figure 6.127 and the appropriate
production,assemblyand operationremediesin Figure6.128.
that fault-treeanalvsismust.bv its verv nature,
must.however.be stressed
confined to important design areasand critical processes.What is essentialis
thc dcsigncrshouldlearn to usethis approachby rote. In other words,he
hlbitually ncgatcthe identifiablesub-functionsand look for potential
300 6 Embodiment dcsilrr Coping with design faults, disturbing factors and risks 301

Figure 6.126. Sectionaldrawing of an alarm valve

Figure6.124.Detailfrom
completedfault-tree(Figure6.123)
for the fault 'doesnot open' Valve
cone Blow-cff
blocked aperture
blocked
ication
Specif
tot blow-cffnlve
Salety Correctpressure Setting Erosion
dueto Covered
byother
unknown notmarked wrongmaterial components
Force/preload Settlng
too Corrosion B owoffpipe(if
miscalculaled easilymoved Seleclionol wrongmaterial present)
blocked
| ,9.73 headwithplanesealing
Valve (valve
surface without
taper) [,lovement of preloadscrew Inclusionol wrongmaterial
Vatve
seat
nolmeasured correctly Springsticks to block
blocked
W r o nsgp r i n g Seatdistorted bycreep
N0rigidj0intbetween
valveheadandspindie Temperature toohigh
Dimensional errors
in components Clearancetoosmall
Easy
maintenance
orexchange
0fsealing
surfaces fit
Faulty
Deformation of componenls

Figtre 6.127. Fault-tree analysisfor alarm valve (Figure 6.126)

25 Valve
liftlimited

26 Damping
of valvemovement
by reference to the headingsof the checklist, namely working principle,
27 Insta
lationin a c osed,ice-proof
area t and form design, etc (Figure 6.2).

28 frlction
N os l i d i nsge a l sa,v o i d
Influence of disturbing factors
29 fo01-pr00f
Ensure (eg diflerent
mounttng above approach should be applied not only to the examination of faults but
flange
sizesfor inletandoutlet) to the search for potential disturing factors. Failures are often due to the
r. According to Rodenacker [6.169], disturbancescan be causedby fluctua-
of the input values, that is by qualitative differencesin the flow of material,
x) Requirements
wererevlsed
afterconsttucti0n
0l rgy or signals entering the system. If these have a deleterious effect on the
laulttree result, they may have to be offset by special design features.
Di:;turbanceJ may also result from the function structure if the interrela-
ip l-rctwcensub-functions is ambiguous, or from the working principle if
plrysicirl cl'l'cct is not correctly anticipated. The selected layout and form
liigrrrc (r.125 I{cvision of sgrccilicltirrn irltcr fnttll.trcc rturlytis ,f.r irn(l tlrc associatcclmaterial propcrtv Iluctuatiottsand tolerqnccsneeded
302 6 E m b o d i m e n t t l es r r r l Coping with designfaults, disturbing factorsand risks 303

.2 Designing for minimum risk

ite provisionsagainstfaults and disturbingfactors,the designerwill still be
with gaps in his store of information and with evaluation uncertainties-for
nical and economic reasons?it is not always possible to cover everything
Blow-off h theoretical or experimental analyses. Sometimes all the designer can hope
aperture
blocked do is to set limits. Thus despite the most careful approach, some doubt may
ain whether the chosen solution invariably fulfils the function laid down in
A,R Testin D Provide
lockfor D Check choice A, R Check environment specification or whether the economic assumptions are still justified by the
setposition adjustment
screw of material ol valve
P,R Check
ly changingmarket situation.In short, a certainrisk remains.
on D,0 Forbid useof
production(choice pipe
blow-otf One might be tempted always to design in such a way that the permitted limits
of materials D Avoidcovering not exceeded, and to obviate any impairment of the function or early
D Desrgn andfits) holewithballor mage by running the equipment below full capacity. The practical engineer
P Production D,RFixtemp conefilter
A Assembly range A Install pointing
valve that with this approach he very quickly comes up against another risk: the
(useand
0 Operation 0, RCheck operating solution becomes too large, too heavy or too expensive and can no longer
Iemperature pete in the market. The lower technical risk is offset by the greater economic
matntenance)
D Spring mustnot
R Record
required stickto block

Figure 6.128. Various corrective measures as a result of the fault-tree analysis (Figure
6.127\
Coping with risks

d with this situation,the designermust ask himselfwhat countermeasures

can take-provided, of course, that the solution was carefully chosen in the
for production and assembly may not have the effects they were assume(l place and the appropriateguidelineswere scrupulouslyfollowed.
have. Finally, the influence of external disturbing factors such as temperatutc The essentialapproach, which we shall be examining in greater detail, is that
moisture, dust, vibration etc cannot be neglected,and measuresmust be take designer must, on the basis of the analysisof faults, disturbing factors and
to avoid potential faults. spots,provide a substitutesolutionagainstthe possibilitythat the original
tion misht not cover all uncertainties.
In the systematicsearch for solutions, several solution variants were elabo-
3 Procedure
and analysed.To that end, the advantagesand disadvantagesof individual
All in all, the analysis of faults and disturbing factors and their eliminat tions were discussedand compared. This comparisonmay have led to a new
should be conducted along the following lines: improved solution. As a result, the designer is familiar with the range of
-Identify, and then negate functions. ible solutions; he has been able to rank them and also to take stock of the
-Look for possible causesof faults in ambiguousfunction structures,such nomlc contralnts.
o imperfect working principles; principle, he will select the cheapestsolution, provided only that it has
o imperfect form designs: icient technical merit for, though it may be more risky, it will afford him
o imperfect material, energy and signal flows; ter economic leeway. The chancesof marketing the resulting product, and
o abnormal factors causing undesirable reactions of the system in respcct of judging the validity of the solution, are greater than those of marketing
s t r e s s e s .d e f o r m a t i o n s .s t a b i l i t y . r e s o n a n c e .w e a r . c o r r o s i o n . e x p a n s i r lier product, which might jeopardisethe entire developmentor, becauseof
s e a l i n gp o w e r , s a f e t y .e r g o n o m i c s .p r o d u c t i o n . q u a l i t y c o n t r o l . t r a n s p o r l 'riskless'
design, cannot provide information about performance limits.
operation and maintenance (Figure 6.2). While he is well advisedto adoptthis strategy,the designershouldassiduously
- Determine what conditionsmust bc mct for faults to ensue(for exilnll reckless developments that might lead to damage, breakdowns and a
AND or OR relationships). dcal of unnecessaryirritation. If risks cannot be eliminated by theoretical
- Introduccappropriatc dcsignrcmcdicsby improvingon theoriginalsolulion, or experiment in good time or with justifiable outlay, the designermay
<lr hy clcvisingchccksof production,arrcmbly, tr$nsport,opcratitln iutd f<rrccdto opt for the cheaper and riskier solution, but he should alwayskeep a
mnintcntncc.On thc wholc it in bcttor to lmprovcon thc origilralsohriion costly,lcssriskyaltcrnativein reserve.
304 C o p i n g w i t h d e s i g nf a u l t s . d i s t u r b i n g f a c t o r s a n d r i s k s 305

t could be obtained if forced convection was substituted for natural

To that end, he must develop the less cost-effective solution proposllr
vectioncooling(Figures6.I29b and 6.130).
elaborated in the conceptual and embodiment phases into a second or thirtl
This raised the difficult question of whether natural convection cooling would
solution reservedfor critical design areas,and ready for immediate use in casctrl
rtheless meet the required operational conditions and, if not, whether the
need. Provision for such development should be built into the chosensolution ll
elaborate and more costlv alternative with its additional cooling circuit
the latter should not meet all expectations,it can then be modified, if necessitrv
uld be accepted bv the customers.
step by step, without great outlay in money and time. 'minimum risk' decision-that is to construct the housing in such a way
The
ihir ryti"-atic approach not only helps to reduce economic risks for :r
t either cooling system could easily be used-helped the designer to gain
tolerable outlay, but also to introduce innovations one at a time, and to provitlt'
rience for only a small increase in cost.
a detailed analysis their performance, so that further developmentscan lrc
of
made with minimum risk and at minimum cost. This approach must, of cours(', /
be coupled with a systematic follow-up of the practical experiences gairr"l
I
through it. Hemp-packing
By designingfor minimum risk, the designerthus tries to balancethe technicrrl / c I
againstthe economic hazards and so presentsthe producer with useful experi' {fl-
l5'J
encesand the user with a reliable product. - Theory
Experiment
2 Examples of designing for minimum risk

I
Example 1 /
A study of possible improvements in the performance of a stuffing box shorr..'tl
that, tb inirease the sealing pressure and the iurface speed, the resulting
frictional heat on the shaft must be removed rapidly in order to keep tltC
1
d>
Figure 6. 130. Theoretical
temperaturein the sealingareasbelow the limit. and experimental
.Ib that the packingringsbe mountedon the shaft temperature
ttrat end, it wassuggested lL- determinations at the seal
as to rotate with it and rub againstthe housingrather than the shaft. The hc
+Fffi,
0
plotted against the
generatedby friction could then be extractedthrough the thin wall (Figtt _2-
.<
peripheral speed on the
e.ngd. Theorticaland experimentalstudiesshowedthat a markedimprov :-
shaft
(a) Layout as in Figure
b
h 6.I29a
(b) Layout as in Figure
-4
6.r29b
Figure 6.129.Cooled stuffing box (c) Conventional stuffing
in which the packing revolves box with packing
with the shaft. The appropriate ?3 m/s attachedto the housing
V4
designof shaft and pressring
ensures the internal connection
ofthe packing rings; a very short, ple 2
heat path facilitates good heat the development of a series of high-pressure steam valves operating at
extraction; peratures of more than 500"C, the question arose whether the customary
(a) heat extraction by natural
convection currentsin the
hod of nitriding the valve spindles and bushes should be retained despite the
surrounding medium, dependent that the nitrided surface expands with temperature (thereby reducing the
on the prevailing air flow ial clearance), or whether very much more expensive stellite hard facing
( b ) h c a t c x t r i t c t i o t lt r y f o r c c t l ld have to be substituted. When the problem first arose,there was a lack of
c(Ilvcclion tluc t() scpilriltc uatc information about the long-term behaviour of such layers at high
cortlingrir flow crtsuring 'minimum risk' solution adopted was to selectthe wall
hllhcr flow vckrcilics nnd
:raturcs.The
lncremcd hcnl cxt rtct ion krrcsscs of the valve spindleand bushesso that, if
and thc clinrcnsions
306 6 E m b o d i m e n t ( l e\ r t n Coping with designfaults, disturbing factorsand risks 307

necessaryand without changingthe other components,stellite-treated pirrtt

could be substitutedfor the otherswhenevernecessary. As it turned out, tlrc
operatingtemperaturerangewas considerablylower than had beenanticipaterl.
so that nitriding provided a satisfactorysolution and also helpedto identify tha
operationallimits. Once theselimits were known, the more expensivesolution
could be reservedfor more demandinsconditions.

Example3
Reliable design calculationsfor large machine parts, particularly in onc olf
production,dependon the analyticalmethodsand the postulatedconstraint\,
It is not alwayspossibleto predict all characteristics
with the necessary
degrt'c
of accuracy.This applies,for instance,to the determinationof the criti,rrl
whirlingspeedsof shafts.Often, it is impossibleto predictthe preciseflexibrlrry
of the bearingsandfoundations.However,the differencebetweenhighercritirul
whirling speedsin high-speedinstallationsis small in the rangeof flexibilitrtr Figure6.132 Figure6.133
normallyencountered. In the situationdepictedin Figure6.131,'minimumr isk' e 6.1,32. Support which, by selecting different spacers, allows the distancesbetween
designcan once again be applied to advantagebecausethe spacingo1 tho bearings to be varied.
rre 6.133. Plain bearingswith laminated springs1, allowing adjustmentsof
ibility (BBC). (Laminated springs also have good clamping properties thus narrowing
critical range)

g the many suggestionsput forward for a device to wind a strip into a

layeredring, two seemedparticularlypromising(Figures6.734a and b).
solutionshownin Figure 6.134ais the simplerand cheaperbut alsothe
ier of the two, becauseit is not certain whether the inner rotating mandrel 1
is invariably able, despite the increased friction produced by the knurling
-B the pressure of the springs 2, to move the strip 3 forward.
the pressurerollers
e solutionshownin Figure6.I34bis lessrisky, because
to the ends of the springs and the feed roller 5, which moreover can be
riven, make the advance of the strip more certain. This solution,
r, is the more costly of the two, and also more susceptible to wear
use of the greater number of moving parts
Theoretically Flexibility
of 'minimumrisk' solutionis that shownin Figure6.I34a,but with a feed-in
predicted
range bearings
and
whichcannot foundations r as in Figure 6.134b, and arranged in such away that, if need be, it can be
befurther n without alterationof the other parts (Figure6.134c).
re0uce0
is additional element proved essentialwhen the machine was tested, and
Figure 6.l3l. Critical whirling speeds(qualitative)for a shaft plotted againstthc readily available.
flexibility of bearingsand foundations

bcarings,which has a major influcrrccon the critical speed,can be acl.j
(Figurc6.132).Intcrposcdsprirrglaminations (Figurc6.133),morcovcr,llk
altcrationof thc cffcctivc l'lcxibiliticn.Both measurcs,takcn tugctlrcr
scpuratcly,will produccthc requircdcffcct to that thc sccondor third critir
whirlingspccdctn bc clinrinnlcdfnrm thooporrtln3ipccd rtngc ol'thc nrlclr
large electrical machines, fans attached to the shafts ensure the efficient
ing of the windings and the laminations.
quantity of air involved cannot, however, be predicted with accuracy
of thc uncertain inflow and outflow relationships.Hence, in the first
s. thc blaclcswcrc maclc adiustable to facilitate the correction of the air
308 6 Embodimentdcsrlrr 7 Evaluating embodiment designs 309

6.135.Blades of a coolins fan in an electricalmachine: the anele can be altered to

djust the air flow (AEG)
slot for balancing weights; b grub screw for fixing the blades; c rotor; d blade

7 Evaluating embodimentdesigns

63 5.8 we discussedthe subject of design evaluation. The basic procedures

tlined there apply equally well to the conceptual and to the subsequent
F i g u r e6 . i 3 4 . . As embodiment progresses,the evaluation will, of course, rest on more
(a) Proposedwinding device more concrete objectives and properties.
^1rotating mandrel; 2 pressuresprings;3 strip to be wound; 4 parts of the ejection In the embodiment phase, the technicalproperties must be evaluatedin terms
mechanism the technical rating, R,, and the economic properties separatelywith the help
( h ) P r o p o s e dw i n d i n gd e v i c e
1 rotating mandrel; 2 springswith pressurerollers;3 strip to be wound ; 4 parts of ejectit
the calculated production costs in terms of the economic rating, R.. The two
mechanism;5 feed-in roller loaded by spring and possiblydriven ings can then be compared on a diagram (5.8.1.6).
(c) Chosen solution The prerequisitesof this approachare:
1 rotatingmandrel;2pressure by
springs;3stripto be wound;5feed-inroller tensioned That all the embodimentdesignshavethe samedegreeof concreteness, that
spring6 and drivenby belt 7 is the sameinformationcontent(for instance,rough designsmust only be
comparedwith rough designs).In many casesit suffices,while keepingthe
overall perspectivein mind, to evaluateonly thoseaspectsthat show marked
throughput(Figure 6.135).With enoughexperience,it was then poSsiblc
differences from one another.Oncethat hasbeendone,their relationshipto
Here, asin Examlllc
and cheapercastconstuction.
substitutea non-adjustable the whole, of course, must be examined,for examplethe relationship
the possibilityof makingcorrectionsensuresa 'minimumrisk' solution.
betweenpart costsand total costs.
The sameapproachcan alsobe usedfor morecomplexventilationsystcrlls.
That the production costs (materials,labour and overheads)can be deter-
which the air quantities and pressurelosscscannot be predicted with accurir(
mined. If a particular solution introducessubsidiaryproduction costs and
All theseexamples are intendccl shouldmcct ri
to showthat the designer
demandsspecialinvestments, then, dependingon the point of view (produc-
not simplyby considcring thc l'irststcpbut ulsothc sccondor third, whiclrc
er's or user's),thesefactorsmustbe allowedfor, if necessary
by amortisation.
oftcn bc donc at rclativclysrnilllco$l, Expcricncchus shownthat cmcrgc
In addition,optimisationcan help to achievea minimisationof production
nlcasurcst() corrcct unlilrcsccnftrultr are mgny timcs morc costly itnd
und opcratingcosts.
consunring.
310 6 Embodimentdesirrr 7 Evaluating embodiment designs 311

If the determination of production costsis omitted, then the economic ratilrrl rs described in7.l. They are instancesof the common case in which what
can only be evaluated qualitatively, as it was in the conceptual phase. In tht' to be evaluatedis not the overall design but designvariants in chosendesisn
embodiment phase, however, costs should, in principle, be determined more Fisure 6.137 shows the three variants of the bearins bracket to be
concretely. aluated. In variant Vllhe bearing bracket is fitted directly to the front wall, as
As we mentioned in 5.8.1, the first step is to establish the evaluation criteritt welded construction. In that case, the rotor can only be assembledvertically
They are derived from: the top, which must be facilitated by the appropriate housing shape.
- the requirements of the specification:
o desirable improvement on minimum demands (how far exceeded); and
o wishes (fulfilled, not fulfilled, how well fulfilled);
-the technical properties (to what extent present and fulfilled).
The exhaustivenessof the evaluation criteria is tested against the headings t'l
the checklist (Figure 6.136), specially adapted to the level of embodimcrrt
attained.

Heading Examples
Function in accordance
Fulfilment withtheselected principle:
working
risk,susceptibility
efficiency, to disturbances
Layout
design requirements,
Space weight, fits,scope
arrangement, lor modifications
Formdesign Durability,
deformation,
sealing, life,wear,
operating
shockresistance,
stability,
resonance
Salety Direct methods,
safety industrial protection
safety, ol theenvironment
Ergonomics lVlan-machine
relati0nship,
handling,
aesthetic
considerations
Produclion Risk-free
methods, time,heattreatment,
setting-up surface
tolerances
treatment,
0ualitycontrol possibilities
Testing v3
Assembly Unambiguous, adjustable,
easy,c0mf0rtable, resettable 6.137.Design variants for bearingbracket. Simplified diagram (AEG-Telefunken)
Transport lnternal transportati0n,
andexternal means packing
of despatch,
0peration Handling, behaviour,
operational properties,
corrosion Variant I/2 consists of a separate bearing assembly of welded construction,
consumption
ol energy ich is bolted to the machine base. The rotor is assembledhorizontally, with
Maintenance Servicing, repair
checking, andexchange bearing bracket unbolted.
Costs Evaluated (economic
separately rating) In variant V3, the bearing bracket is incorporated in the end plate as a cast
Schedules Production
schedule date
andcompletion component which replaces the front wall, closes the lateral housing
rturesand is bolted to the housins.
The evaluation of the technical properties (technical rating) is made with the
Figure6.136.Checklistfor evaluatingembodimentdesigns
of an evaluation chart, Figure 6.138 (see also Figure 5.51). Since evaluation
At least one significant evaluation criterion must be considered for euch teria for such desisn areascannot be fullv derived from the specificationof the
heading, though sometimes more will be needed. A heading may only ltc ire machine, it is useful to consult the checklist (Figure 6.136). The following
ignored if the correspondingproperties are absent from, or indentical in, all tltc ings of the checklist apply to the case under consideration:
variants. This approach avoids subjective over-valuations of individual pro.
p e r t i e s .I t m u s t b e f o l l o w e d b y t h e p r o c c d u r a ls t e p so u t l i n e d i n 5 . 8 . 1 . tion- Lay o ut design- Form design
I n t h e c m b o d i m e n t p h a s e ,e v a l u a t i o nn l s r lc o n s t i t u t c sa n e s s c n t i a sl e a r c hl o r bearing spacing permits higher speeds,quieter running and shorter
wcak spots. ovcrallconstruction.
As an examplc of thc cvaluation of dc*i3nr ln thc embodimcnt phasc, wc shlll tligh stiffne.rsof the loaded areas of the bearing and housing reduces
c o n s i d c r t h c b c i r r i r r gb r i r c k c t l i r r u s c w i t h l h ! h o u * i n g o f t h c r i r n g c o l ' c l c c t n c dcformltionof thc air ventsand leadsto smootherrunnins.
JIL 6 Embodimenl rlcrrr,rr 7 Evaluating embodiment designs 313

Good damping characterlsllcsrender the machine less susceptible to damag-

ing vibrations.

Ergonomics
ll *
t
@ @
o
o O
O

O O =: s'=
L- Incorporatior? of the bearing into the housing reduces the danger of injury
through projecting edges and gives a more satisfactory form design.
S
@ S> ILS
ES
>_ ides minimising the production costs (which are assessed separately in
E
o
o
o = += o = rmining the economic rating) the designer should, because of limited
o O
E uction capacity:
il ll ^
try to make do with few productionfacilities; and
O O O
Sq ^i'F6 o-
=
S @ @ N
O
N

so aim for a high level of sub-contracting.

O O
=-
S ity contr ol-A ssembly-Tr ansp or t
@
=s .F= design of the bearing bracket influences the assembly of the rotors, the
E E tting and inspection of the air vent, and the assembly of the seals and the end
B = B E = trr
6

O o E
c
o E s of the housing. The rotor assembly, in particular, also influences the
E E
o sport facilities because of its great weight.
o , il^ oil Hence the desisner should aim for easeof assembly and inspection
=
=- s=
N N
O o o

s- n-Maintenance
l l i l N
E= @ N
>s
o
r= servicingof the sealsbetween housing and shaft, and also the inspectionand
ning of the motor windings, is affected by their accessibilityand the ease
E E
o
o = r=
E9
, =E o
h which they can be dismantled.
o
oo = B
o
= Hence the designer should aim for an easy exchange of seals and simple
E Ea =E

c E of the interior of the motor.

f E bo
'a -:qJ In Figure 6.138, the three designvariants have been evaluatedwith the help of
(D
o
c criteria, and the appropriate parameters values entered. Weighted values
a E O
E E
=
o obtained by means of weighting factors. The evaluation shows that the
o E E
'= c
L c
o oo
>6 o nical ratings impose the order V3-V1-V2, Vl and V2being relatively close
E=
E tqo
oYAta
o each other. Variant Iz3 has not only the highest technical rating but also the
o6= <6 c
@
t balanced value profile.
= N N O a o o
5-
The economic rating is obtained from an analysis of the production costs. To
O O O O O O o a i6o 'ideal
rr^ ll )= ate the ratings. the costs' were set at 80 per cent of the cheapest
o c 6
o
o,^
c c
ttt O
iant. Figure 6.139 gives the economicratings of the three variants obtained as
o c
c o o
F
E ooS
result.
E
c -E
o?- For a full assessment,the technical and economic ratings of the three variants
>R
U
E -
== >ll
('iJ EE
@6 .-PE I- ao

z N
Variants Vt V2 V3
Percentage
Figurc(r.139.Economic production
costs 106% r 0 0% 11t

ratingof the threedesign

variantsshownin Figure Economic
ratingfi.
0,75 0.8 0,16
6 .t 3 7
 3r4 6 E m b c l d i m c n tr l r s r r , r

have been incorporated in a rating diagram (Figure 6.140). The reader will sr.,.
that though variant 73 has the highest technicalrating, it is also the most cosrlr Developingsizerangesand modular products
In the case under review, the costs of the evaluated design area amount to ollr
5 per cent of the overall cost of the motor, so that the economic ratings of tlr,.
cheapestand most expensive variants alter the overall costs by no more thrrrr
about 3.3 per cent. Moreover, with variant v3 the cosis of the housing ,,,,.

t,0

.1 Sizeranges
V?
0,8
V1 1erangesprovide a rationalisationof designand production procedures[7.31].
For the manufacturer they have the following advantages:
I
| 0,6 The design work can be done once and for all and can be used for a host of
applications.
v3o The production of selected sizes can be repeated in batches and hence
0,4 becomes more cost-effective.
Higher quality is possible.
Figure6.140.Comparison is implies the following advantages for the user:
of the technicaland 0,2 competitive and high quality products;
economicratingsof the
designvariantsshownin short delivery times; and
Figure6.137 easy acquisition of replacement parts and fittings.
0 0,? 0,4 0.6 0,B 1.0 Disadvantagesfor both manufacturer and user are:
^ limited choice of sizes, not always with optimum operational properties.
4+
By size range we refer to technical artefacts (machines, assemblies or
slightly reduced. In view of the pronounced effectsof deformation and dampirrr: ponents) for a wide sphere of applicationsthat:
on the smooth running of the machine, variant V3 was judged to be the best ol fulfil the same function;
the three despite its relatively low economic rating, the more so as cast enrl are based on the same solution principle;
plates were known to produce good results in practice.
are made in varyingsizes:
involve similar production techniques.
If, in addition to the range of sizes, other associatedfunctions have to be
ted, then modular products (see 7 .2.2) will have to be developed side
side with size ranges. The development of size ranges may be original or
on an existing product but must, in either case, be carefully graded. We
to the initial size as the basic design and to the derived sizes as sequential
[7.31].
In the development of a size range, similarity laws play an essential, and
l-geometric preferred numbers a useful, role.

Similarity laws
lnrctric similarity ensuressimplicityand clarity of design.The designer
lws, howcver, that technical artefacts stepped up in geometric proportions
srl-callcdpantograph constructions)are not satisfactoryexcept in very rare
: s . l l t p i r r t i c u l a r ,p u r c l y g e o m e t r i c a lm a g n i f i c a t i o ni s o n l y p e r m i s s i b l ew h e n
t16 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e si i n d m o d u l a r p r o ( i r , I 7 [ Sizc ranges 317

;imilarity laws permit, which should always be checked. These laws are usr',| Table 7.2 lists important similarity relationships in the development of size
i,/erysuccessfullyin model testing 17.28, 1.30, 7 .32,'7.361.In general, howevt r anges for mechanical systems.They are by no means exhaustive and must be
lhe development of size rangeshas a different objective from model technologr, pplemented from case to case, for instance in bearing developments bv
namely to achieve: mmerfeld's number and in hydraulic machines by the cavitation number and
-the same level of material utilisationl pressureindex.
-with similar materials if possible; and
-with the same technology.
Table 7.2. Special similarity relationships
lt follows that, if the function is to be fulfilled equally well throughout the rani',
lhe relative stressesmust remain the same. Similarity Invariants Definition Description
We speak of similarity if the relationship of at least one physical quantitv rrr "O;Sry
Kinematic gr,9t
the basic and sequential designs is constant. It is possible to define bu'r,
similarities with the help of the fundamental quantities length, time, forr,'
F
quantity of electricity (charge), temperatureand luminous intensity (Table 7. I t atic 9r-.9t Hooke Ho: Relative elastic force
n'. r,
Iable 7.1. Basicsimilarities
Dynamic 9L' 9r' 9F Newton Nr: -!- Relative inertia
Similarity Basic quantity Invariants Q'vt'L'

Geometric Length Ho o. v2
E 1 , : L 1 lL 1 y C a u c h *y Ca:';;: Inertia force/elasticforce
Temporal Time 9t: tltt T
Force Force cpp: FJFl
E,lectrical Charge qo: QJQo
v2
Thermal Temperature E,1: $ylt)11 Froude Fr: Inertia force/gravitational
Photometric Luminous intensity gr
et:Jrllo force
E
NN ** E,lasticforce/gravitational
Thus we have geometric similarity if the ratio of all the lengths of any sequentnl e'8'L force
design to all the lengths of the basic design is constant. Here, the norr. L'''Q
dimensionalparameter to be held constantis gl: L1lLs, where L1 is any lengtlr Reynolds Re- Inertia force/frictionalforce
q
in liquids and gases
of the first member of the size range (sequentialdesign);and Ls the corresporrtl.
ing length of the basic design. In the same way, we can describesimilarities irr 9L,90 Biot Supplied or removed/conducte
time, force, electricity, temperature and luminous intensity. quantity of heat
If two or more of the basic quantitesare in constantproportion, then we hirrc
special similarities. Now, model technology has defined dimensionlessp:ur. 9 r ' 9 r po Fourier Conducted/stored
quantity of heat
meters for important and recurring similarities. Thus, in the case of sinrrrl-
taneous invariance of length and time , we have kinematic similarity , and in t lrr,.
caseof simultaneous invariance of length and force we speak of static similaritt , In some texts, we find Ca : v . t/ pt E . This is appropriate if Ca is intended as a velocity
relationship.
A very important similarity, namely dynamic similarity, appears whcrr ;r
constant force relationship is combined with geometric and temporal similrrr Not named.
ities. Depending on the forces involved, we arrive at different dimensiorrl,'sr
parameters. Thermal similarity deservesspecialmention because,in the case,'l
geometrically similar size ranges and the same utilisation of materials, it canrr,rl
Similarity at constant stress
be squared with dynamic similarity.
* F u n d a m e n t aplh y s i c aql u a n t i t i e a In heavy engineering systems,inertia forces (forces due to mass, acceleration
s r e a s l i s t c di n t h c o r r g i r r l (l l c l r l u n t c x t . ' l - h cl r ; r ' , r ,
p h y s i c aql u a n t i t i esse l e c t efdo r t h c S I s y s t c rtni i l l c rs l i g h l l vr r r t t l ,l o n gw i t ht h c i l b a s i ct r r r t . etc) and elastic forces resultinq from the stress-strain relationship play a
s h o w ni n b r a c k c t su,r c :l c r r g t h ( r r r c t r c t) il r r r t ' ( s r ' c o r trtul ); :r s(sk i l r r g t i t r tct l)c: c t l i ct ' r t t tr, l p r c t k l r r r i n a n tr o l e .
( q r n r l t c r c ) ;l h c r r l o t l V r r i r r r r itcc r r r l l c r ; r t r r r (ck c l v i r r l ; l t t t r l l t t t t t i t t o t t ist t t t ' t t s i t v( c l t t r l t ' l l r ) I l r ' l l ' t h c s t r c s s c sa r e t o r e m a i n c o n s t a n t throughout a size range, then
t l i l l c t c r t c c s t l o t t o l ; r l l r ' t ' tl l t u n t i t t c i D l r ' :r l t ' r t t t l r e t l 0-t'l:-cortstlrnl.
318 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e s a n d m o d u l a r p r o t l r r ,L Size rangcs 3le

In that case the stressparameter becomes: le 7.3. Similarity relationshipsfor geometricalsimilarity and cquirl strcsses: tlt'pcrrrl,
: of important quantities on length
,r^:o':1!: r th Ca: Qv2lE:constant and the same material, that is a : E :const f, : c()r.tst
os fo Eo
n the caseof geometricalsimilarity the following relationshipsoccur
W i t h t h e s a m em a t e r i a l , t h a t i s a t E p : E t l E o : 1 . we need:
t; : Speeds, n, rr.r
l, orup, : +
cp,: 111y: t, or cpzr: er nding and torsional critical speedsftr,, a",
z L t )L r
trains e, stresseso, surface pressuresp due to inertia and elastic forces, speeds y
With this so-calledCauchy condition, all changesin length must increasc rl 9r."
stiffnessess, elastic deformations A L (Ptt
.he same ratio as the appropriate lengths. The elastic force parameter th( r)
rarnss, stresses
o, surfacepressures
p due to gravity
)ecomes:
orces F
Q12
otAt rsP
(Ppp.: : ezt , with eo : gu.cPp,: I and cpt: g2y
-
ooAo eights W, torques I, torsion stiffnesses,s,
Qr."
M o m e n t sM
, , M,
l'he inertia force oarameter is:
nd moments of area I, J (Pra
fttIat QtVtat
- assmoments of inertia I' , J'
vFt: gts
rt0a0 QoVoao
te: The utilisation of the materials and safety level are only constant if the influence
of
with the dimensions on the material propertils can be ignored.

Qp: QrlQo: l, Ev : Vt/Vo: tlltt, : rtt

rnd Size ranges developed in accordance with these laws are geometrically similar
L{A et nd provide for the identical utilisation of the materials.Such deveioDmentsare
ible whenever gravity and temperature have no decisive influence on the
"^_ rrh_A
r sign. If they have, the use of semi-similar seriesis advisable(see 7.1.5).
ve have

Eet: ELlg2, Decimal-geometric preferred number series

A. dynamic similarity, that is a constant ratio between inertia and elastic forr* we are familiar with the most important similarity relationships,we still
vith geometric similarity, can only be attained if cp,: Ey: to determine the best method of choosing the individual steps of a size
nge. Kienzle [].24,7.251and Berg [7.5 to 7.9] have arguedrhat a decimal-
?pp: Qzr: Qpr: ELlrPt-: E2L tric series is the most useful.
.Ience the velocity ratio becomes: A decimal-geometric series is based on multiplication by a constant factor cp
is developed within one decade. The constant factor E determines the step
cg,: grlclt: qrlEr: I
of the series and can be expressedas:
With the same material, the same result can also be derived from the Cauclrv
rumber (Table 7.2), for when p and E remain constant then the dynarrrrc E : \EJ-q,: \,M
;imilarity will only remain constant if the velocity v also remains constant. re n is the number of steps within a decade. For 10 steps, the serieswould
For all important quantities such as power, torque etc, ancl u'itlr have a factor:
pr:ch:const. andcpr:gr:gn:9,: l , i t i s n o w p o s s i b l ct o c s t a b l i s ht l r . '
; i m i l a r i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p ss h o w n i n T a b l c 7 . 3 . ,o:Vlo:1.25
I t s h o u l d b e r c m c m b c r c c lt h i t t t l t c u t i l i s i r t i o r o t l t l t c r t t i r l c r i a l sl n c l t h c s i r t c t r i s c i r l l c cRf 1 0 . T h c n u m b e r o f t e r m s i n t h e s e r i e si s z : n * 1 .
c l t l t c r l i r n c n s i t ) n (s) l l t h c r r r l r l c r i , r l
c v c l o n l y r c r t t a i r tc ( ) n s t i r n ti l t l t c i r t l ' l u c r t c o 'l'lrblc
7 , 4 s c t s o u l t h c m : r i n v a l u c so f f o u r p r e f e r r e dn u m b e r s e r i e s[ 7 . 1 2 ] .
r l o p c r t i c sc i r r rl r c i u r r o r c t tl h r o r r g l r o r tr ltr c r i r c t i l n F c . 'l'ltc
t t c c t l l o t g c o t n c l t ' i cs c i r l i n gi s o t l c r r l i r u n c li n c l a i l y l i f c a n c l i n t e c h n i c a l
 7 Developing size rangesand modular 7 1 Size ranges JLl

t.4. Main values of preferred numbers [7.121 Diameter

d in mm (logscale)

50 12s 140 160 180 200 17+ zS0 zg0 315 355 400 450 s00
Basic series Basicseries
60
R10 R20 R40 R5 R10 R20 R 4t) 58
56
ct

1.00 1.00 1.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 52

1.06 4.25 50
t.t2 l.r2 4.50 4.50 48
1.18 4.75 46
lrl,
1.25 1.25 r.25 s.00 5.00 5.00 L7
r.32 5.30 /.0
r.40 1.40 5.60 5.60 38
1.50 6.00 36
34
37
1.60 1.60 1.60 6.30 6.30 6.30 6.30 30
1.70 6.'70 o 2B
1.80 1.80 1.rc 7.r0 5 26
1.90 7.50 2L
22
2.00 2.00 2.00 8.00 8.00 800 70
2.12 8.50 18
1 1A
2.24 900 9.00 to
l4
2.36 950
12
10
2.50 2.50 2.50 I
2.6s 6
2.80 2.80 L
3.00 7
3.15 3.15 3.15
3.35 ?LN
3.55 3.55 727
3.75 2io 340375
3bo
Figure 7. I . Frequencyof seal di ameters d of scraper rings for tu rbine shafts; continuous
:e. The resultingseriesconform with the Weber-Fechnerlaw which line: actual situation; broken line: suggestedsizerange
re physiologicalsensationproduced by a stimulusis proportional
hm of the stimulus. The use of preferred number series thus provides the following advantages
the [7.33] has shown how, in the development of friction drives, t .12):
er instinctively chooses the main dimensions by means of geomctrit Appropriate scalingleads to the selectionof nominal sizesin accordancewith
;. Our own work on turbine shaft oil scraper rings has confirmed tltt demand. The finer series have common numerical values with the coarser.
;s. In Figure 7.1, shaft diameters are plotted using a logarithmic str With proper gradation it is possible to approximate an arithmetical series.
t the number of newly designedoil scraperrings (or rings on order) ovt'r This facilitates jumping from row to row and hence provides the different
of 10 years. The results show that there were 47 diameterswith pcirkr steps needed for matching the distribution of the market requirement. The
r r l e s sr e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s ,w h i c h c l e a r l yd e m o n s t r a t e sa g e o m e t r i c asl c i r l i r r preferred number series contain both decimal powers and also doubles and
v e r , t h e n u m b e r o f n o m i n a l s i z e sw a s d i s t u r b i n g l yl a r g e - s o m e d i f f c r c t l halves.
f c w m i l l i m c t r c s a n c lg a v c r i s c t o v c r y s m a l l p r o c l u c t i o nb a t c h e s .[ - t r c k r -There is a reduction of the dimensionalvariants by the choice of dimensions
r r c 7 . 1 a l s os h o w s ,i l ' l l r c f ' c r r c cs li z c si t r c s c l c c t c cwl i t h t h c h c l p < l tt h c l { . bascd on prcferred numbers with a consequent saving in manufacturing
t l r c n u r r r h c l o l v i r r i i r n t sc i r n b c r c c l u c c t l o l c s s t l u t n I t i t l l , g i v i r r l r l i n l r r r c t i o n s ,c q u i p m e n t a n d m e a s u r i n gt o o l s .
c r i r l r l y n r o r c b i r l i r r r c c ti rl r r r lh i g h c r r c ( p l i r c n l c t l lp c r t t t t t t t i t t i tsl i z c . l l r r t l t h c - Sincc thc llrocluctsancl qr.roticntsof terms of the seriesare in turn terms of a
c r s c l r r l s c l sl r r c l rp r c l c r r c r l n u n r t r c r st l c l i b c r i r l c l y .u t l l u c ht t t r t r cs t t i t r t t r l rt 'r r c g c o r r r c l r i c i rsl c r i c s ,l r n l r l y s c si r n r lc i r l c u l l t i o n sr c c l u c cr n a i n l yt o m u l t i p l i c a t i o n
worrltlhlvc crttcrgctl ty itscll, l r r r r tl l i v i s i t r r rA s . r i s c t l n l i r i n c riln t h c l l r c t ' c r t c rnl t t n t b c rs c r i c sw i t l t a g o o c l
-)zL 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e s a n d m o d u l a r p r o d L r tr ' Size ranges 323

approximation, geometric gradation of component diameters will generatt. I

6.3
circumferences, circular areas, cylinder contents and spherical surfaces thlrt
5
are, in their turn, terms of the preferred number series.
- If the dimensions of a component or of a machine are terms of a geometricrrl I 3.r5
series, then linear magnifications or diminutions will give rise to preferrctl R
?.5
a 2
numbers in the same series provided, of course, that the magnification or t.0
diminution factor is also selected from the series. 1
- Automatic growth of the size range will be compatible with existingor futurr' 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 01 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 9 r 0 1 2 3 l . 56 7 8 9 1 0 r 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 01 2 3 i - 56 7 8 9 1 0
ranges. Termnumber *

Er l:i,Tlllflltrffiffi ffi
7.1.3 Selectionof stepsizes
In general, when trying to rationalise a product size range, the designer uill
El

8s
TypeA TypeB TypeC
trffiffi ffiffi
Type
D TypeE
select his increments once and for all. To that end he makes an approprilrrr. Figure 7.2. Step characteristicsofsize ranges[7.16]; (factors assignedto each step)
selection of step sizes, for instance in respect of power and torque. T-lt;rr
selection can be based on several considerations.First of these is the markcr In Type B, the lower part of the range is divided up coarsely (for instance
situation, which as a rule requires small incrementsso that the varied demarr,l. g:1.6 corresponding to R 5) and the upper part more finely (for instance
of customerscan be met most effectively. The second considerationis efficierrr :1.25 corresponding
to R 10). Suchdegressive
geometricalproduct ranges
design and production. For technical and economic reasons,the selected step should be used whenever a coarser grading for the smaller product sizes is
sizes must be fine enough to meet the technical demands (for instanct,. ically justifiable.If a degressive
gradingis ssed, it should alwaysbe
power), and yet coarse enough to allow large-batch production based on;r on the combination of several preferred number series with decreasing
simplified range. The selectionof optimum step sizesthus involves an integratt'tl ep factors and not on a constantly decreasingseries since, on the one hand,
approach to the'market-design-production-sales' system, and requircs at adaptations may be needed can be made accurate enough and, on the other
information about: d, adherence to the preferred number series is advantageousfor the reasons
-market expectations(sales)in respect of individual sizes;
have already set out.
-market behaviour in respect of simplified ranges and the resulting gaps,
Type C has a greater increment in the upper range and is used if demand is
-production costs and times of the various step sizes and the effect on thc
ncentrated on smaller sizes. It is also known as a progressive geometrical
overall production costs; and ge.
-properties of each product in the size range.
Type D has a smaller, and Type E alarger, step factor in the middle part of
Since the optimum selectionof step sizesmust be based on all the factors wo range.
have mentioned, it is not always possibleto opt for a constant step factor; mo16 For simplicity, we can generally take it that the size gradation must be the
often technical and economic considerations will demand the breakup ol r the greater the demand and the more precisely certain technical stipula-
particularrangeof sizesinto severalsets. s have to be met. A different gradation can be chosen whenever the market
If we define a characteristic
number N of a ranse suchthat: ands and without great design effort. Needless to say, the effects on
Greatest term of the ranse uction must be taken into account as well.
N: : rnn
In grading, a distinction must be made between independent and dependent
Smallest term of the ranse
uantities. As a rule, the task itself determines which sizesmust be treated as
wheren is the numberof the stepsin any particularrangeand z: n * I is tlro pendent and which as independent. For example, geometric grading of the
numberof terms,then the factor: output may be advantageous for market reasons and grading of sizes by
q:VN' ferred number series for production reasons. If the two are associated by a
Thc rangccan bc split up by mcansof a<'onstant r,>ravariublefac:tor,thirt ir, r law (Figure 7.3, curve a) then both can be graded by a preferred number
by stcps within and/or bctwccn coarscror fincr prcfcrrcd nunrbcrsclicr ics, cither with exponent p :1 (linear growth) or with p # 1 (non-linear
(R .5-R 4t)).1'hc rcsultingstcp charactcristics
arc shownin l-'igurc7.2, h) (see 1.1.4). In Figure 7.3, the dependent and independent quantities
'I'ypc
A hus u constuntfuctor (for instunccqt= 1.25corrcsponding to l{ l0; vc bccn plottcd logarithmically. If the preferred numbers have the same
ovcr thc cntirc rungc. rr. lhcn thc spacingis constant(Figure7.4)
324 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e sa n d m o d u l a r p r o d u r t Sizc ranges

stepped line for size relationships based on a power function (curve a ) and for
non-linear relationshipswhich are not governed by that function (curve b).
D5 Independent sizes In, Izs etc have been assigned to the geometrically graded
vI
I
Dqs part of the rangesDtDz, D2D3 etc. This correlation is obtained by replacingthe

=
n
u34
D4

D3
t; ri l DtDz, D2D3 etc with their geometric mean values Drz: \/il:D, and then
drawing the stepped line accordingly. This is preferable to fixing the line
intuitively, which is done far too often. It will be seen that the dependent
D relationships based on curve a once again result in a geometric grading of the
u23

r
R ). steps,while the non-linear relationshipsbasedon curve b do not (in other words,
D2
the 1'- values are not geometrically graded). Here the designer must again
D,, I decide for what sizesa gradation based on preferred numbers is still appropriate.
/ rf
Further deviations from strictly geometric gradings may, as we have already

2 t\z lb.""' l,o, l'ro

'" ,ro los
said, be imposed by manufacturing considerations.Practice has shown that it
may be more economical to provide arithmetic or even irregular incrementsfor
some component dimensions, so that, in a product size range, semi-finished
P Ne g q [ m m-]
materials, which are not usually geometrically graded, can be exploited more
Figure7 3. Gradingof independent (1)anddependent (D) quantities.
For a power fully, or the manufacturing processcan be simplified (see 7.1.5). Even though
functionthereis a linearrelationshipon the PN (preferrednumber)diagram(curverrI
grading based on preferred number series is generally advisable, the designer
for othersthereis a non-linearrelationship
should not use it rigidly, but decide each case individually after cost analysis.
Deviation from geometric grading will also occur if certain dimensions only
However, technical systems may not involve power relationships betu'crrt
have to be stepped, while others have to be adapted to specific customer
dependent and independent quantities. In that case, not all the sizes can l)c
mands. This is called a sliding arrangement [1 .15), and may prove most
geometrically graded. Here the designer must decide, depending on the trrsk,
ive when the special dimensioning involved does not lead to a significant
whether he grades the independent or the dependent quantities in accordantc
in production costs.Thus for the ball valve seriesdescribedin [7.15] the
with a preferred number series.
imensionsof the housing, drive shaftsand bearingsare firmly stepped,whereas
For economic reasons,it is often advisableto split the range into parts and lrr
e plugs and sealing rings have been given 'sliding' dimensionsfor hydrodyna-
replace several sizeswith just one for each part (semi-similar size range). hrrt
reasons. A similar approach is used in the design of turbines and thermal
care must be taken to ensure that the stepped line needed for such gradatiorrrl
uipment 17.261.
roughly equivalent to the continuous curve. Figure 7.3 shows the resultirrg

.1.4 Geometricallysimilar sizeranges

4..J'o the basic design, the choice of materials and the necessarycalculationsarc to

0 tr ^
-t'.--T-
lll4-lll4
nd, and if the nominal dimensions lie roughly in the middle of the intcndcd
range, then nearly all technicalrelationshipscan be expressedin the gcncral
(v,=ts-gxo=!t-!tY
Illxn
tona=l
| : cxP or logy : logc *plog,r.
l-T- F i g u r e7 . 4 . T e c h n i c a l Every preferred number (PN) can be expressedby PN: l)mtn oy'
t.0 +1 relationshipsin the PN
lg9rnr=n
d i a g r a m ;n s t c p n u m b c r r n log (PN) : mln
rl t h c f i n c s t u n d c r l y i n g/ ' N
1,25 3J54 63 I 1 0l ? s s c n c s ,c v c r y i l l l c r s c c l r ( ) r 'sr hcrc nr is the step number in the PN range and n the number of steps within

tttr
I p r c l c r r c d n u r n b c ro l t h i s
r c r i c s ; c v c r y i r r t c g irr l
c r l c c a d c . I l c n c c t h e t e c h n i c a lr e l a t i o n s h i pc a n a l s o b e e x p r e s s e db y :
I
n- c x l ) o n c n tl c l t l s b : r c kt o tfly
- ftl,.
'*lt m,.
^
lrt I l t t o l l t c t p t c l t ' rt c t l t t r t t t t l t t ' t il ntl
326 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e s a n d m o d u l a r p r o r l r r ,r Size ranges 321

The basic design is assignedthe index O, the first successivemember of tlr,' 560
s00
size range (sequential design) the index 1, the k-th member the index k.
All relationships can now be represented by straight lines in a doublr'
logarithmic graph, the slope of each line correspondingto the exponentp of llr,'
technical relationship (dependence) (Figure 7.4). For simplicity, we entcr tlr,'
preferred numbers instead of the logarithms and so obtajn a very practicalrl,'
visual tool for the development of size ranges,as Berg [1 .7,7.9] has pointed orrr ,I
E BO
Every intersection represents a preferred number, and is always produced l,r = 160

lines with integral exponents. If the abscissagives the nominal sizex, then llr,' ? 1t0

factor g*:xtlxo. In geometrically similar size ranges it is equal to the lenltlr

E rnn
factor cpy. Once the basic design has been fixed, all other magnitudcs
=80 I
dimensions, torques, power, speeds etc-can be derived from the knou rr E B
11
exponentsof their physical or technical relationships(see Table 7.3) and can 1,,' mm
drawn as straight lines with the appropriate slope (thus weight, ew: Et3, rrrll
o v J
6
=::
h a v e a s l o p eo f 3 : 1 ) .
l =
3U sll
As a result, the main dimensions of the product can be expressedin diagrrrrrr - r4n5 ,l
form without the need for further drawings (see Figures 7.5 and7.6). I *l= ll,5 l

Such data sheets enable the designer, starting from the basic design. trr -E _ 28 "
J:

provide the salesdepartment, the purchasingdepartment, the planning deprrrt - ti'

-- ?n E
I :]R
?
. 16
e 14
I t?s
'= 117

I s10

c
a63
-9
'71

5,6
; 63 80 100 125 160200 250 315 400 500
= R10 -t- R2A 4
-H! -1- H5---H6-l--H7 -- -1.-HB
63 80 10012s160
-u5. -1 v5--.1*x5 J x7 L-xB_
d1+
C l a sosf s h r i ntki Id t o rl d t d : 1 1 + 0 . 3 % "
dt_ r
gure 7.6 Data sheetfor the gear coupling sizerange in the nominal dianteter ritngc (r,
rrespondingto the basic designshown in Figure 7.5. Dimensionsgeometricallysimilar
ceptions: outer sleeve diameter D of the smallest member for reaions of stiffnessI
ndard module s m are not stepped in accordance with preferred numbers ; special
adaptatron of prtch circle diameter becauseof the demand for an integral, even number of
tccth. The classof shrink fit is shown under the abcissa

fit d:
Shrrnk w i t h4 n o :, a t . , = r i o , - 12 . r - 1 1 - 6 32-.115 = Z n n
nt and the production department with crucial information on every size in
ff=t r tosr" *S , , henceD:/5selecled-s=4mm J rangc.
fl==l?
frl,/,,/.
\r I /
I t s h o u l d , h o w e v e r , b e r e m e m b e r e d that the measurements cannot be
altsl.crrcclclircctly from the data sheetsto the drawings (which need only be
,'']"' r r l c o n c c i r r r o r c l c r h a s b e e n r e c e i v e d )unless the following factors have also
l , i g r r r e7 , 5 l l r r s i ct l r ' r r g rtr, r r l . l t ' l r(r' o u l ) l i n l \l r / ( , r . t t l l l ( .r,/ , - l { X l r r r r r r b c c t t l i r k c r ri n t o c o n s i c l c r a t i < l r r :
 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e s a n d m o d u l a r p r o r l r r ,r r I Size ranges 329

1 . Fits and tolerancesare not in geometric step with the nominal sizes,the sizc t rl
a t o l e r a n c eu n i t i f o r a d i m e n s i o nD b e i n g g i v e n b y j : 0 . 4 5 . l / D + 0 . 0 0 1 / ) ,
that is, the factor for the tolerance unit being determined by the relationshrgr
Qi: Qtll3.
Particularly in the case of shrink and interference fits but also of functiorr.
determined bearing clearancesetc, the tolerancesmust, becausethe eluslrt,
deformations tend towards er, be adapted accordingly. In other wor'(l\,
smaller dimensionsmake more, and larger dimensionsless, severe deman,ls
(Figure 7.6).
2 . Technological limitations often demand deviations. Thus a cast wall cannot lrt.
reduced below a minimum thickness, and certain thicknessescannot lrc
completely hardened by quenching. In all such cases,the limiting dimensi,,rrr
must be ascertained,as was done, for instance, with the smallestsleevc l.r
the gear coupling shown in Figure 7.6, which had to be strengthenedbr';rrr
i n c r e a s ei n t h e w a l l t h i c k n e s s( D : 7 I m m t o D : 1 5 m m ) . T h e s a m ep r i n c i l , l c
applies to measurement and machining provisions.
J. Overriding standards are not always based on preferred numbers, so tlrc
relevant componentsmust be adaptedaccordingly(seeFigure 7.6-fixing rhc
Display of a gearbox sizerange [7. l4] (Flender)
module).
4. Overriding similarity laws or other requirements may impose a more l)ro.
nounced deviation from geometric similarity, in which case semi-sintil;rt
s e r i e ss h o u l d b e u s e d ( s e e 7 . 1 . 5 ) .
Once the necessarydeviations from geometric similarity have been dctr
mined, if necessaryby checking drawings of the critical areas, they are entercd i
the data sheet. Production documents need not be prepared until actuir
needed. To illustrate the size ranqe. sav in catalosues or advertisemcnt
displays of the type previously reserved for technical drawings have come r
increasinguse [7.7, 7.25]. Figure 7.7 shows an example basedon a gearbox
range.
Figure 7.8 shows the basic design of a geometrical range of torque-limitc
providing for equal utilisation of materials. If the lining wears, the dro1.r
torque must be kept as small as possible.This is done by meansof a I
number of peripheralcoil springswith relatively flat characteristiccurves.
sizesof the torque-limiterfulfil the similarityconditionsmentionedin Table 7
relationships between forces are kept constant over the entire range ancl
utilisation of the material is constant.
Figures 7.9 a and b are the relevant data sheets.The identifiable deviatiorr
dimension B is determined by the overriding standardwidth of the chain whc r e 7 . U .B a s i cd e s i g no f a t o r q u e - l i m i t e r( R i n g s p a n nK G )
(bought-out parts); the deviation of ,4 by the use of standardscrewsand taps rr
also by technological factors (wall thickness). Figures 7.10 a and b show r
be realised. Significant deviations from geometrical similarity may be
s m a l l e s ta n d l a r g e s tm e m b e r o f t h c s i z c r a n g c r c s p c c t i v e l y .
posedby the followingfactors:
ovcrridingsimilaritylaws;
7.1.5 Semi-similar
sizeranges ovcrridingtaskrequirements; and
(ictlntctricallysirnilirrsiz.criutgcsburedon e decimal.gcornctric rtvcrritlingproductionrequirements.
scricscirrrrrol In rrll suchclscs,.roni-sitnilarsizerangcsmust be developed.
 7 Developing size ranges and modular protlut lr 7.1 Size ranges 33r
500 2s000
450 20000 neglected, then the relationships derived from the cauchy condition no longer
400 16 0 0 0 ly. This, as we have explained, is because,while the inertia and elasticforces
3s5 12500
315 r 0000 t constant speed depend on the length factor (gn: gpp:e2r), the weight
280 80 0 0 lncreasesas:
250 6 30 0
22t-
200
s000
4000 9 p * : p t . s - V r l @ o ' 8 - V i : g p g 3 r , a n d f o r c p o: l , as er*: e3r.
180 . 11qn
Table 7 .2 showsthat, if all other material propertiesand the speedremain
160 I tioo tant, length is the only variable dimension. If it does vary, the relevant
140 I 2000
125 | 1600 imensionlessparameter cannot remain constant-that is, the relationship of the
117 | 12s0
r00 | 1000 WD rcesmust change.Hence with similarcross-sections
the stresses
changeaswell
90 800 nd geometric similarity cannot be maintained. This is the case, for instance,
E 80
71 5 500 ith the construction of electrical machines and convevor svstems.
: 63 b= 400
56 l1q
'o influenceof thermalprocesses
; 50 ?50
//
45 ; 200 similar seriesof problems ariseswith thermal processes.Constanttempera-
5 /.0 E 160
b- - 125 ure relationships96 only apply when there is thermal similarity, regardlessof
q ! 100
J I,
W her the heat-flow is steadyor fluctuating.The first caseis representedby
?8 E80
= 25 so-calledBiot number, Bi:hLll U.201, where ft is the heat transfer
77 440 ient and /. the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the heated wall. Here
20
18 _? 31,5 it is obvious that, with approximately equal heat transfer coefficients (the
e75
t0 ity remaining the same) and with the same materials, only the length can
11 =20
12 o 16 ry, and indeed must vary in a size range. As a result the dimensionless
11, 17,5 rameter governing thermal similarity cannot itself remain unchanged.The
10 10
63 80 1001251602002s0 315 80 100125160200 me is true of fluctuating heating or cooling processes represented by the
Nominal D inmm+
dlmension D inmm+
dimension
Nominal r number:
0 b Fo = ltlksLz),
gure 7.9. Data sheetsfor torque-limiter shown in Figure 7'8
parts re ,t is the coefficient of thermal conductivity, c lhe specific heat and g the
I Dimensions adaptedto overriding standardsor the sizesof bought-out
torque T, weight W and moment of inertiaWD2 sity of the material. If the material remains the same, the time r and the
) Main parameteri:
h L are variable. For the Cauchy number to remain constant. the time must
ry as a function of the length. Once again we are left only with the length,
ich must be variable in a size range. Hence the Fourier number can only
in constant if:
(Pt:?Lt
o

o is, if the time varies as the square of the length.

e =e
e
I
All other thingsbeingequal, therefore,thermalstresses
due to temperature
b riationsincreaseas the souareof the wall thickness.
igure7.10. Layouts from the size range shown in Figure 7.9 (RingspannKG);
) smallest similarity relationships
) largest the function of a device is determined by physical processesthat do not involve
rtia or elasticforces, then the physicalrelationshipsmust be taken into
Overriding similarity laws siderationin all designsbasedon similaritylaws[7.18,7.30,7.32,7.36].
In a plain bearing,for instance,the operatingconditionsare set by the
{luenc'eof gruvity crfcld number:
incrtiil lirrccs.clilsticlirrccs:rndwcilhl rct lolclhcr. und il thc liltlcr cilnnothc So: pq4l(qco)
JZ 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e sa n d m o d u l a r p r o t l t t tl r .1 Size ranges JJ.'

'here p is the mean pressure, r/ the non-dimensional clearance, 17the dynantrc tasmuch as inputs and outputs may vary widely in size, as happens with paper
iscosity and @ the rotational speed. nd print products.
In a machine that otherwise obeys the Cauchy number, we have Figure 7.11 is a schematicrepresentation
of a rathe.Here, the size of the
an-operated controls cannot be increased with the size of the range; indeed
,ft,- - .^ -.2 I - I
.. - PtV2r\ottto me cannot be altered at all. Thus the operating height must always be adapted
!\9i-
U"f6r*,: to man, and there are some operations that require an exceptionally long turning
length or an exceptionally large turning diameter. In all such casesthe machine
With elastic forces we have ep:1, with weight we have gp: et', for the rcst,
'e have: as a whole must be designed on semi-similar principles, while individual
assemblies such as spindle drives, tail-stocks etc can be developed as geometri-
9v: 7, 9.: 7 1 9 Y ,c P n =1 a t I : c o n s t ' y srmrlarseries.
y'ith elastic forces, therefore, we have gs,,: eri with weight gs,,: El. 'lltr'

ommerfeld number increases with the overall size, the bearing becottt,r
rcreasinglyeccentric and, at a given size, may take up the clearancenecessiu\
i s u r e7 . I l . L a t h ew i t h m a i n
rr lubrication. nsions and controls
In a pipe with laminar flow, the loss of pressure is expressedby: wn schematically;the
meter/lengrh/heightrario
l p' : f ! . 9 r t : 3 2 n ! , y haveto be variedto suit
d2 d2
,here f : 641R" in the laminar region, R": dvpfry, / : length of I q,. * cp,,but if possible
: diameter of pipe, v : velocity in the pipe, e : densityof the fluid, = cpr,: I for ergonomic
: dynamicviscosityof the fluid. eo=* 9r=# 'p,=
-!:'
"0 ng " Da
With r7: constant,the pressurelossfunctionbecomes:
clzp: Q,lQr Overriding production requirements
'hus, development of a size range is aimed at high cost-effectiveness.within the
if the pressure loss is to remain constant, the velocity in the pipe nr
lcrease in proportion to the size. As a result, the Reynolds number n nge, especiallyif it is finely stepped,individual componentsand assemblies
tcrease to such an extent that the transition region for turbulent flow is reachc be more coarsely stepped to provide larger batch sizesfor even greater cost
r which case the above equations no longer hold. tiveness.
Electric AC motors that have a discretespeeddepending on the pole numl Figure7 .12is the datasheetof a geometrically
similarturbinerangeconsisting
annot be used to adjust the speed of a finely stepped range of machines (lr sevensizes.Stuffingboxesand locatingboltsare steppedmore coarselythan
rstance pumps) to maintain a constant Cauchy number. The consequenr rest, ensuringgreaterbatch sizesand greatereconomy.Figure7.13 shows
rould be varying stresses and different outputs and the remedy is a suititl increasein batch sizesfor an assumedsalesprojection.
d a p t e d s e m i - s i m i l a rs e r i e s . All these examples make it clear that it is not always possible to adhere to
:metricallysimilarsizeranges;instead,the designermuststrive,with the help
similaritylaws,to arrive at that sizerangewhich providesthe highestoverall
Overriding task requirements ilisation of the strength of every component. Depending on the physical
'he raints, each size will have to be individually selected.This is best done with
c h o i c e o f a s e m i - s i m i l a rs i z e r a n g e m a y b e i m p o s e d ,n o t o n l y b y s i m i l i r r i t help of exponential equations, as we shall now go on to show.
lws but also by overriding task requirements. This situation often arises irr
r g o n o m i cc o n t e x t . A l l c o m p o n e n t sw i t h w h i c h h u m a n b e i n g sc o m e i n t o c o n t
Adaptation with the help of exponential equations
n t h c c o u r s co f t h c i r w o r k - e s p e c i a l l y t h c c o n t r o l s ,h a n d l e s ,s t a n d i n ga n d s r t t i
, l a c c s ,a n d s a f c t y f c a t u r c s - m u s t f i t m i t n ' s p h y s i o l o g i c a ln c c d s a n d p h y s i c l l ponential equations are a simple means of dealing with the requirements
l i n t c n s i < l r t sI n
. g c n c r l l , n o n c o f t h c s c c o n r p r ) n c n t sc a n b c c h a n g c d w i t h t l r o n t i o n c d u n d e r 7 . 1 . 5 . 1 - 3 a n d o f d e v e l o p i n gs e m i - s i m i l a rs i z e r a n g e s .
rurminal
siz.crlf thc rangc, As wc havc pointed out, nearly all technicalrelationshipscan be expressedby
An ovcrriding rcquircnrcntrnily rlso rppcur for purcly tcchnicll rcils(ln\. rwcr l'uncti<lns.
 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e s a n d m o d u l a r p r o t l r t 't '
7 I Sizcranges 335
334

r000 expressedby preferred numbers starting from the basic design (Index 0):

800 wheeldiameter
Turbine !x: !ogr)"k i-xr:xugL'"k; rr: Zoer'"k
mm pipediameter
Exhaust
630 part:outletdiameter
Reaction where 91 is the chosenstep factor of the dimension chosenas nominal in the size
s00 Meanpistondiameter range' 10,x0, z0 are the appropriate values of the basicdesign,k is the k-th step,
Bnd y., Je and ze are the associatedexponents.
400
Since cp is a constant, we have for all elements ct : ci
3 1 5 .4
Couplingdiameter
250 Mainsealdiameter lu : locPtv.k: c(xocpy'"k)p"
(zlEtz"t{)e'
boxdiameter
Stuffing : C XqP"Z1.P' . EtG"ktt-+ z"k r,)
200 z Bearing frontPinion
diameter: llt
gearwheel
160 Bearingdiameter:
With ye - cxoP^zoP' we have:
'1 portdiameter
Transfer
25 IoEJ"u : Y,EtG.kt'+z"kr,)
100
? boltdiameter
Locating By equating the exponents, we obtain:
E 80 Flangeboltdiameter
Valvediameter Jc: xepxl Z"pr,
63
hich is independent of k.
50
Here y", x" and zc are the exponents to be determined, and p* and p, the
/.0 ysical exponents of x and z.
31.1 The exponent ye must be determined independently of xc and zc.
25 Let us now consider a practical example: the provision of sprung elastic
peline supports for a range of geometrically similar valves (Figure 7.14). The
20
400 llowing requirements must be met:
26s 710 the stress in the spring due to the weight of the valve must be constant
are geometricallysinrrl throughout the range;
Figure7.72. Data sheetfor turbine sizerange: main dimensions
deviations are determined by standards; stuffing boxes and locating bolts are in largcl the stiffness of the spring must increase as the bending stiffness of the pipe;
steps than the other comPonents the mean spring diameter, 2R, must preserve geometricalsimilarity with the
increasingvalve size (nominal dimension d).
forecast
Sales
What law must the spring wire diameter 2r and the number of active coils,
Type 265 315 400 s00 630 710 800 n, obey?
\umDer 6 I s 6 3 2 I First of all the appropriate relationships must be set down, so that the
boltsperturbine
3 locating exponential equation can be determined (the subscripte shows that only the
exponent of the corresponding quantity is involved):
)lZe 0 4 00 5 0063 6 1 1 0 8 0
a75 ,3',r5
Number1 8 77 77 r8 I 6 3 F: Cd3 (1) F,:3d" (1')
Fieure7.13.Salesforecastin respectot to
Comblned F.R
(2) r.: F. * R. - 3r":6 (2')
tuibine sizerange(Figure7.12)and the Size 0 3 15 050 o80 13nf2
associated bolts.Becauseof the large tq 1B
Number /q

stepsizes,largerbatchsizesarepossible Gra
.)-- (3) s" : 4r. - n" - 3R" (3',)
4nR3
T h u s a p h y s i c a lc ; u i t n t i t Yo f ' t h c k - t h m c r n b c r o f a s i z c r a n g c c a n t l l t c r l
[ . c t r / b c t h e i n d e p e n d e n tv a r i a b l e .
r e p r e s c n t c cbl y :
S i r r c c t h c s p r i n g s t r e s s m u s t r e m a i n c o n s t a n t , t h e f a c t o r ( p r : 1 , and the
I'l -- t'u1u/''-ul" xponcnt r" = 0. Thc stiffnesss of the spring must correspond to the bending
'l I l l i l l r r c s sr r f t l t c p i p c s .A c c o r c l i n gt o T a b l c 7 . 3 t h i s i s e n s u r e db y E , : E r S i n c et h e
1 c r l c p c r r t l u t l v i t l a i l h l c t , l n ( l t h c i t t t l c l t c t t t l c r t tv t r l i t t b l c s t l t t t t l ; c i t t t i t l w l t t r
36 7 Developing size ranges and modular ,)-)/

Substitutingequations(5') and (6') in equation(2') we obtain:

3 d " +d " - 3 r " : 6

L!
r.: (413)d" (7')
6
q S u b s t i t u t i n ge q u a t i o n s( 4 ' ) , ( 6 ' ) a n d ( 7 ' ) i n e q u a t i o n ( 3 ' ) , w e o b t a i n :
: 4rr- n"- 3d": 4.

ffi- +| n" : 4r, - 4d" = 4(413)d, - 4d" : (413)d"

Result: Spring wire diameter 2 r and the number of active coils n must
increase as d4t3.
In that case. the factor is:

Qr: Qn: qdt4/3

The spread of the individual sizes is shown qualitatively in the data sheet
r e p r o d u c e di n F i g u r e 7 . 1 5 .

Examples

ample 1
range of high-pressuregear pumps is to consist of six sizes giving delivery
umes ranging from 1.6 to 250cm3 per revolution at a maximum operating
of 200bar and a constantinput speedof 1500rev/min.In Figure7.16
steps laid down for the six sizesare plotted againstthe delivery volumes. The
l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p sa r e i n v o l v e d :
ABTO The pitch circle diameters (each pump size has only one) are graded in
Noninalsizeof valve a c c o r d a n c ew i t h R 1 0 w i t h a f a c t o r o f B u : 1 . 2 5 , t h e s i z e sd e v i a t i n g v e r y
tigure7 .1,4 Figure7.15 slightly from the preferred numbers by virtue of the constant.integral number
rigure7.14.Valvesupportedin pipe line by meansof coil springs
of teeth and also because the standard values of the modules rn differ very
rigure7.15.Data sheetfor semi-similar
coil springs slightly from the R 10 series.
The volume delivered per revolution resulting from the tooth geometry is

rasic dimension d of the valves i n c r e a s e sg e o m e t r i c a l l y ,e s : E 6 , s o t h a t V :2n dnmb, where b : gear tooth width.
)xponent of s becomes:
From one size to the next, and at geometrical similarity, the volume delivered
s": d" ( lore lncreasesas:
The loading is equal to the weight of the valve F; the weight dimcnsiorr : Qt3 : 1'253:2,
'elated to the basic size d by Qv : cPa,,cP^qt
E r : E u : . T h e e x p o n e n t o f F r e f e r r e c lt o , /
hcrcforc: the volume delivered doubles from step to step (Figure 7.16).
p u m p p ( ) w er P : A t t . I / i n c r e a s e sa s
/'' : 3d'
l l ' t h c n r c a ns l l r i n gc l i i r r n c t ci rs t r l i n c r c i r s ci n l l c ( ) n l c t r i c asli r n i l i r r i t yw, c Ep: E^p(EYlcP)
l i l v C V ' t { - - r 7 ' . 1{ ) f i

ll,. - r/" (t ' l V'rt, : I irnclt1, -_-I

]8 7 Developing size rangesand modular Size ranges 339

250 0 and the increasing bending mornents due to increasesin tooth width) with a
cm3/rev shaft of constant diameter, the three pumps with the greatest tooth width in
160,0 each size group must have their output pressure reduced. For overriding
1250
100.0 economic reasons (identical shaft diameter, identical bearings), the first two
800 pumps of each size group do not have their strength fully exploited.
630 - The delivery volumes of the top three pumps in any size group correspond
to
50,0 the bottom three of the next group up. A delivery pressure of 200 bar can
10,0 therefore be obtained over the entire delivery-volume range.
3 15
80.0 25,0 This particular size range was conceived as a semi-similar series with a small
r * l 20.0 number of housing sizesand severaltooth width sets, so that, at the same drive
50,0 160 speed and pressure over the entire range ('overriding task requirements') and
4 0 0 12,5 also at constant gear tocth size, constant gearwheel and shaft diameters per
31,5 1 0 0 housing size ('overriding production requirements'), the maximum possible
2 5 0 B,O
range of delivery volumes could be provided.
t20,0 6,3
16,0 5 0
I
B O 17,5 4.0 Example 2
m m 1 00 In Figure 7.r1 theoutput P of asize range of electric motors with varying pole
l s 0 8.0 numbers (speeds) has been plotted against the various product sizes (shaft
I "19
boJ 1.f,
6,3
5,0 heights H). The shaft heights are in accordancewith R 20 andhave a step factor
25 40
20 315 3'r50
PC1 PTz PC3 PC4 PCs KW
Product
size
2500
22t0
2000
't800
1600 B - p o t . mPo.x
1400
1250
igtreT .1.6.Data sheetfor a size range of high-pressuregear pumps: I/ volume delivt rt' r120
lr revolution; b gear-tooth width; do pitch circle diameter ot gears (Reichert, Hof) 1000
s00
800
ecomes: 710
t P p : c P v: 2 630
560
iecauseof the constant rotational speed, the torque is steppedup accorclillfl 500
-Every pump size has been provided with six tooth widths b, exccpl 450
smallestsize which has eight, so that smaller stepsin the volume delivcrctl t 400
b e o b t a i n e d . T h i s m e a n s t h a t f o r e a c h p u m p s i z e t h e g e o m e t r i c a lv ( ) l u 35s
c l e l i v c r e dV, = 2 n d 1 1 m b ,w i l l h a v e a f a c t o ro f 9 v , , : Q u : 1 . 2 5 , r d 1i t n c rl r t l r t ' t 3r5
'l'hc 280
c o n s t i r n ta n c lt h c c h o s c nt o t t t h w i c l t hf a c t t l rb c i n g c 1 t 5 :| . 2 5 ( R l 0 ) . p,trr
ctlrvc fi)r illlv ollc Dullll sizc tltcn lrcctltttcs: 750 Figure7 17.Outputdatasheetfor
/t\ an electricmotor sizerange(AEG
I ' r , , *| \ ' , . - { l - l ' 2 5 7r ) 0 T e l e f u n k e n[)7 . 1 ]
l'r'r ((10 /,50 500 560 6 3 0m m7 1 0
Io copc rvitI the nlcchllnicill sllcrr('r (terttlliltF Itrlttt lltc ittt'rt'irsittl.l ['r0(lri(;l (:;lr;|ll
:;t/(] l{) -
lrcirllrl -
 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e s a n d m o d u l a r p r o t l t t Lt 7 I Size rarrges 341

a: o,tJBbhtD.Ihttt
A : 1.12. The output of the electric motor is governed by P
at constant angular velocity o or speedn, current density -I and magnetic I I t rr
nsity B, the output is proportional to the conductor dimensionsb, h, / and itl', '
the distance Dl2 of the conductor from the shaft axis.
The output factor is therefore given by:
c P p : Q r 4: l . \ 2 4 : 1 . 6 ( R 5 ) .

ln the 4-pole motor (1500rev/min) the output range is therefore 500-3150k\\

Becausepower output varies with speed, and also becausethe dimensions"l
e conductor, the diameter of the rotors and the heat removed by ventilati,'rr t_a
''
ve to be varied, the slower 6-pole version must be reduced by three steps ( I
2240kW) and the S-pole version by a further two steps (280 to 1800kW)
To provide marketable and finer output increments and also to satisfv tlr,
'erriding production requirements, four outputs are provided per shaft hcir'lrt
motor size, so that the output curve assumesthe form of a steppecl lirr'
n a l l e r o u t p u t s a r e o b t a i n e d b y v a r y i n g t h e s i z e o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l l ya c t i v e p ' ' r t .
rd fitting them into the same size of housing. In contrast to what happenc,l rrr
r(ample1, the outputs for the different size groups (fixed pole number) clo tr,'l
r e r l a p ,( a l t h o u g ht h i s h a s b e e n d o n e w i t h o t h e r m o t o r d e s i g n ss o a s t o m a l r r l , r r r l
ficiencv).
Figure 7.18 showsthe welded housingsof the motor range in greatly simplili,'tl
rm. The stepped sizesof several important dimensions are entered in a tlrrlit
Leet(Figure 7.19).Itcan be seenthat the shaft height H,the housingheight i /tf
t DBlpns=9y)
I
rd the distance between the foundation bolts B and A are all stepped up by t 3 1 5 6a
c t o r E y : g H : 1 . 1 2 , R 2 0 . J u s t o n e h o u s i n gl e n g t h B C i s p r o v i d e df o r t h e l o \a
rtputs per shaft size (Figure 7.18). This is possiblebecausedifferent sizesol I
q-

ectrically active parts can be fitted easily into one housing size. Without tlri
b-
a
315 25.0a 900
rparationof the housingsfrom the electricalcomponents,the layout would ttr
I economic and several housing lengths would have to be provided for c;tt
+
2 8 0 | 22.t,
q

raft height l7 .271 I

Because of
'overriding similarity laws' on the electrical side (for instant't' 250 H.zo,o 710
q

:spect of the windings) the housing length step factor ps6 cannot be kc \n ?u. 18,0 630
)nstant over the entire range of the shaft heights. Figure 7.19 shows t
rcreasein step factor for BC with increasingshaft height, the step sizc tr 200 16,0 EAN I
,ru
f
rproaching R 20 for the last two housingsof the range. 'l I
14.0 500r--
Let us now look at a few detailed measurementsof this housing desiglr 3 5 5 400 450 500 560 630 710
aseplatedimensionsAA and BA have been graded by a singlestep factolur lr Figure7.19 Product
size
c s b c t w e e n R 2 0 a n d R 4 0 . T h i s w a s d o n e t o s a v e m a t e r i a lw h i l e m a i r r t i r i r t r
r c m i n i m u r n c l i r n c n s i o n sn c c d c c l f o r a s s c m b l yo f f i x i n g b o l t s . T h c b i r s c p
Figurc 7. lfi Housing for the electric motor sizerange (simplified) shown in Figure 7 17
r i c k r r c s sI I A l t a s b c c r r s t c p p c c l i n a c c o r c l a n c cw i t h t h c u s u a l s c m i - l i n i s h (AEG Telefunken);
r l t c r i i r lc l i r r r c n s i o nbsu, l l l y l r n c l u r g cl i r l k r w sI l 2 0 . [ ' o r t l t c s t r c n g t h c l t i nIgi l r r
r l r r i r tl h i c k n c s s/ l / : i s p r o v i t l c r lt i l r l o t r r l t o t t s i r t gs i z c s .O n l y l t l r l l t c l l r t l l , ' ( i r ) c r o s ss c c t i o n s (lt) elevation
o r r s i l t gi r r c t l t i c k c r r i b s r c t l r t i r c t l ,
l l c c l i t r s co l o v c l r i r l i r r gs i r r r i l l r r i t \l 'i r u ' s ,o v c t t i t l i r t g l ; r s k r e t l t r i r e l l l ( ' l l t.sr r r t l l r i g r r r c7 , l ( J ,1 ) r r t rsrh c c t t o r l t o r t s i n gr l i n t c r t s i o nosl t h c c l c c t r i cr t t o t o rs i z cr a n g ci n F i g u r e
7 , l 7 ( S v r r r l r o il rssi r rI ; i g u r c7 . l l l )
v c i r i r l i r r gl t r r r t l t r r ' l i ornt . t l r r i r t . r r r r ' r ti rl rt ,r l i r ' i r l t t it rl il t t t r ' t t s i o tittst t t lt t o t t t i t l l rrlt r , ' t
a Aa
J+L 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e sa n d m o d u l a r p r o d u ( l \ 7.2 Modular products 343

may have to be stepped in accordance with laws that differ from those leading ttr whenever possible. Since in a modular system the overall function results from a
geometric similarity. In every case, however, the designer must, in the first combination of discrete units, the development of modular products demands
instance, aim at size ranges based on the appropriate similarity laws and th(' the elaboration of a corresponding function structure and this calls for greater
preferred number series and only deviate from them after careful consideratiorr design effort during the conceptual and embodiment phases than does a pure
of the costs involved. size range development.
The modular system can provide a favourable technical and economic solution
whenever all or some different products are required in small batch numbers
7 .1.6 The developmentof sizeranges only, and whenever they can be based on a single unit or on only a few basic and
Size-rangedevelopment can be summed up as follows: additional units.
1. Prepare the basicdesignfor the range. This can be completelynew or derivt,l Besides fulfilling a variety of functions, modular systems can also serve to
from an existing product. incease the production batch size of identical parts for use as building blocks in a
2. Determine the physical relationships (exponents) in accordancewith s i m i l l r r variety of products. This additional objective, which greatly helps to rationalise
ity laws, using Table 7.3 for geometricallysimilar product ranges,o r u s l l l r ' the production procedure, is attained by the breakdown of the product into
productranges.Put downthe
exponentialequationsfor semi-similar elementary components (6.5.6). Which of the two objectives is paramount
the form of data sheets. depends largely on the product and on the task it has to perform. With a
3. Determine the step sizes and add them to the data sheets' wide-ranging overall function, what matters most is a resolution of the product
4. Adapt the theoretically obtained ranges to satisfy overriding standarcls,'t into function-orientated modules; with a small number of overall function
technological requirements and record the deviations. variants, on the other hand, a production-orientated resolution is the paramount
5. Check the product range againstscalelayouts of assembliespaying partictrlrrr consideration.
attention to critical areas for extreme dimensions. Often, modular development is only initiated when what was originally
6. Improve and perfect what documentation may be needed to determinc tlrc conceived as an individual or size-rangedevelopment is expected to yield a large
range and prepare production documents (when required). number of variants. To that end, products that have already been marketed are
The need for developing a semi-similarsizerange may not alwaysappear frrtttl often redesigned as a modular system. The disadvantage here is that the
the specificationor from a first survey of the physicalrelationships,but may ortly products are more or less predetermined; the advantage that their essential
become clear during the actual development. properties have already been tested so that an expensivenew development can
be dispensedwith.

7.2.1 Modular product systematics

7.2 Modular products
Modular product systematics is discussedin [7.10,7.11]. Basingourselveson
In 7.1 we discussedthe features and designpotential of sizerange developmeIlt thesefindings,we shallfirst of all examinethe principlesandthe mostimportant
Their aim is the rationalisation of product development by the implementittir concepts,and merely add a few amplifications.
of the same function with the same solution principle and if possible with t Modular productsystemsare built up of separableor inseparable units.
same properties over a wide range of stzes. We must distinguish between function modules and production modules.
Modular products provide rationalisationin a different situation. If a prodt Functionmoduleshelp to implementtechnicalfunctionsindcpendentlyor in
is to fulfil different functions, then many variants will have to be proviclctl , combinationwith others. Productionmodulesare designedindepcndentlyof
great cost in design and production. Rationalisationis, however, possiblc il t their function and are basedon production considerations alone" Function
oarticular function variant at anY one time is based on a combination ol'lix modulesin the narrower sensehave been dividedinto equipment,accessory,
i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s a n d / o r a s s e m b l i e s( f u n c t i o n u n i t s ) , a n d t h i s i s p r e c i s e l yw l t r r t connectingand other modules17.70,7.IIl. This divisionis neitherclear-cutnor
modular systenr sets out to achreve. adequatefor the developmentof modularsystems.
B y m o d u l a r p r o t l u c t sw e r c f c r t o m i t c h i n c s ,a s s c m b l i c sa n d c O m p o n c n l sI For the classificationof function modulesit seemsadvantageous to definethe
l u l l ' i l v a r i o u s o v c r a l l l ' u n c t i o t r st h r < l t r g l t( h c c o n r b i n i t t i t l l to f ' d i s t i n c t b u i l t l i r t l varioustypesof functionthat recurin modularsystemsand can be combinedas
bklcksrlr rrroclulcs. sub-functions to fulfil differentoverallfunctions(overallfunctionvariants)(see
llcclusc srlchrrl(xlulcsnrily contc ilt vrlriotuisizcs.mttdttlitrprotlttclsoltctl Figurc7.20).
'l'hc I)u.ticluttctiorf.r
ilrc funclamcntal to a svstcm.Thcv are not variablein
ilrvolvcsirc rltUlu,, shortldhc produccdby sinrillr lccltttttlttcr
trrotlulcs
344 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e sa n d m o d u l a r p r o c l r r t ' 7.2 Modular products 345

principle. A basic function can fulfil an overall function simply or in combinatiorr A production-orientated charcteristic islhe complexity of a module. Here we
with other functions. It is implemented in a basicmodule which may come in ()r)c distinguish between large modules which, as assemblies,can be subdivided into
'essential'(Figure
or several sizes,stagesand finishes. Basic modules are 7.20) components, and small modules that are components themselves
A further aspect of module characterisation is their type of combination. The
designer should always aim for technically advantageouscombinations of similar
modules. In practice, however, the combination of similar with different
modules, and also with customer-specificnon-modules, is often unavoidable.
Non-modules, as mixed systems,can meet market requirementsvery economi-
cally.
For the characterisation of modular systems we can also consider their
divisibility-in other words, the extent to which a particular module can be
broken down into individual parts for functional or manufacturing reasons. For
the modular system as a whole, divisibility defines the number of individual units
and their possible combinations.
For the application of closed modular systems,their range and potential can be
expressed by combinatorial plans with a finite and predictable number of
variants. Such plans make it possible to choose desired combinations directly.
lmplementation By contrast, open modular systemscontain a great multiplicity of combinatorial
Variants possibilities, which cannot be fully planned or represented. A specimen plan
provides examples of typical applications of the modular system.
The above-mentioned concepts of module development are summarised in
Table 7.5.

_ Essential
module
----- Possible
module
- - 0nlyinspecial Ieads
cases; tomixed
systems
Classifyingbriteria Distinguishingfeatures
Figure7.20.Functionand moduletypesin modularand mixedproductsystems
of module: - Function modules
o Basic modules
Auxiliary functions are implemented by locating or joining auxiliary modt o Auxiliary modules
'essential'type.
in conjunction with the basic modules and usually of the o Special modules
Specialfunctions are complementary and task-specific sub-functions that ncc o Adaptive modules
. Non-modules
not appear in all overall function variants. They are implemented by speci
'possible' type. - Production modules
modules of the -
mportance of modules Essential modules
Adaptive functions are necessary for adaptation to other systems and - Possible modules
marginal conditions. They are implementedby adaptive modules whose dimc lexity of modules - Large modules
sions are not fully fixed in advance and hence allow for unpredictable circ - Small modules
Combinationof modules - S i m i l a r m o d u l e so n l y
s t a n c e s .A d a p t i v e m o d u l e s m a y b e o f t h e ' e s s e n t i a l ' o r t h e ' p o s s i b l e ' t y p e .
- Different modules only
Customer-specificfunctionr not provided for in the modular system will rccur - Similar and different modules
time and again even in the most careful development. Such systems ill - Modules and non-modules
implementedby non-modules which have to be designedindividually for spccilic Divisibilityof modules - Number of parts per module
tasks. If they are used, the result is a mixed system, that is a combinatitlrl ol - Number of units and their possible
modules and non-modules. combinations
Applicationof nrorlulcs - Closed system with combinatorial plan
By the importance of a module wc rcfcr trt its ranking within a morlttllt - C)pensystemwith specimenplan
s y s t e m . T h u s , f u n c t i < l nm o d u l c s c a n b c r $ n k c d t t s ' ( ' J . T c l I i ( t / ' o ri l s ' l t o s . r i h l e '
Tnblc 7.5, ( irnccpls ot' nrrltlullr syrtcnlitlioi
l7.l3l.
346 7 D e v e l o p i n gs i z e r a n g e sa n d m o d u l r r p r o ( l u \r \ 7.2 Modular products 347

7.2.2 Modular product development

In what follows the development of modular systems will be presented in
e
accordance with the steps listed in Figure 3.3. o
=
c
t
Clarifying the task -.
In his formulation of demands and wishes, for instance with the help of th.' @
I
checklist (Figure 4.5), the designermust pay careful attention to the clarificatiorr \ \
of the various tasks to be performed by the product. A characteristic demancl ol Lr- s'
the specification of a modular system is that it must fulfil several overrrll
functions.
Of particular importance for the economic analysis and application of modul..'
E6
are data about the market expectationsof particular variants. Friedewald [7. | /l
speaksof the quantification of function variants for the technical and econorrrit 6E
c
92
optimisation of modules. Whenever the implementation of rarely demandr',1
E S >
variants increasesthe overall costs of the modular system, an attempt must lrc
made to remove such variants. The more searchingthese analysesare before tlrc
6- a- il,
actual development is begun, the greater are the chances of arriving at ;r l'r d l

cost-effective solution. However, the reduction of types by the removal trl

infrequently demanded and costly variants cannot be finalised until the elabo. I c.l
F-

rated solution concept or even the embodiment design provides reliablc

information about the cost of the different variants and also about the influencc
of every individual variant on the cost of the modular system as a whole.
,l O
,7

E stab lishing functio n structure s

I o

bo

The establishmentof function structuresis of particular importance in llr

development of modular systems. With the function structure-that is tl 0)

splitting up of the requiredoverall functioninto sub-functions-the structurc(

the system is already laid down, at least in principle. From the outset, tl
designer must try to subdivide the overall function variants into a mininru
number of similar and recurring sub-functions(basic,auxiliary,speciali
adaptive functions, see Figure 7.20). The function structures of the ovcr o
(.)
t-
function variants must be logically and physically compatible, and the su \ B
o
functions determined by them must be interchangeable.To that end, it is usclr
if, depending on the particular task, the overall function can be achieved
'essential'
functions and by additional task-specific'possible'functions. c

Figure 7.21 shows the function structure for the modular bearing systc c

discussed in [7.3, 7.23]. The most frequently demanded overall functio o

namely 'non-locating bearing', 'locating bearing' and 'hydrostatic locati

b6

bearing', together with the appropriate basic, special, auxiliary and adapt
z 9=F
=:.=- .l (.)
o.l
F-

functions, are represented.By means of the sub-function 'seal betwecn rotilti '6:iE
bo
and stationary systems', we can show that it is often more cost-cffectivc lrl oa/5=
LU: Il 6

combine several functi<lnsinto onc complcx l'unction; thus in thc prcscnt cirsc,
the sealing function was comhincd with tn ilclaptivc function to sltisl'y vitrioitr
conditiorts.Thc productitlrt mrxlulc. which pcrforms this colrrplcx function. wlr
348 7 D e v e l o p i n gs i z e r a n g e sa n d m o d u l a r p r r r r l , , , , . 7.2 Modular products

accordingly specified as an unfinished one that could be completed dr.rrirrg

production as a simple line seal, as a line seal with an additional labyrinth or ir\ 0
seal with an additional coupling adapter (see Figure 1.22). Ir should also b6
stressed that there are special functions (special modules) that occur in at lerrrl
'transfer axial force Fa
one overall function variant (here: from rotltirrr'trt
stationary system'), others that represent possible modules for all overrrll
'set and measureoil pressure'),and yet others that orrly
function variants (here:
'feed high pressure oil').
become necessaryat a certain size (here:
In the setting up of function structures the following objectives shoultl 116
borne in mind:
- Aim for the implementation of the required overall functions by
combination of the minimum number of easily implementable basic
tions.
-Try to divide the overall functions into basic functions and if necessarr irr
auxiliary, special and adaptive functions in accordancewith Figure 7.2(l ,=
such a way that variants in high demand are predominantly built-up with lrrrr
6
functions, and more rarely demanded variants with additional special rr F
r')
adaptive functions. For very rarely demanded function variants, tnr ---1-i
L!
systemswith additional functions (non-modules) are often more cost-cllr
tive. ci
-Try to combine several sub-functions in a single module if this incrci
F--

cost-effectiveness. Such combinations are particularly recommended for ao

implementation of adaptive functions.
T-l
;
Searchingfor solution principles and concept vanants tl
q

The next step is to find solution principlesfor the implementation of the varir tl
sub-functions. To that end. the desisner should, above all. look for s -+\
T\ 'r'

principles as provide variants without changes in working principle and I I

I

-J I b{]
design. As a rule, it is advantageousto stipulate similar types of energy
I
similarphysicalworkingprinciplesfor the individualfunctionmodules.Thusi I o
more cost effective and technicallv advantageous, in the combinatiort I
o
sub-solutions into overall solutions (concept variants), to implement vari I =
I
drive functions with a single type of energy rather than provide a single mt -l
1---
system with separate electrical, hydraulic and mechanical drives. I u
A satisfactoryproduction solution is also ensured by the implementation I
I
severalfunctions by a single unfinished module that can be completed in vitr
I
ways depending on the requirements. -l I
6
However, so complex are the technicaland economicfactors involved thirt I J
I I
impossible to lay down hard and fast rules. Thus, in the case of the I
N
.l _.,
cl
system (Figure 7 .22) ft seems technically and economically advantagcout F
l1 a-

provide the bearing shell with lateral locating surfacesfor taking up sntall rr !l
ll bo
forces. With larger axial forces, hclwcvcr, rolling lrcarings must l'lc llrov L_ J

i n s t e a d ;i t w o u l d b e a m i s t a k c t o t r y , f i l r p u r c l y t h c o r c t i c a lr c a s o n s ,t o l r i l l
t h e r a d i a l a n d a x i a l f i r r c c so v c r t h c c n t i r c s i z . cr n n g c b y n l c o n s< l l ' p l l i n b c i r r i t t
1'hc plain bctring systcnlnlusl l'rctlcsigncdduringthc conccptunlphlsc
350 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e sa n d m o d u l a r p r o r l r r r l t
two alternative lubrication systems (free ring or fixed ring) because tht
respective advantages and disadvantagescan only be determined by lrrt
experimentsl7 .23].The designof the ultimatelychosenbearingsystemis sht
in Fisure 7 .22.
Selecting and evaluating
If several concept variants have been found during the previous steps,each rrrrr
now be evaluated with the helo of technical and economic criteria so that t
most favourable solution concept can be selected.Experience has shown llrrrl
since the properties of any one variant are not yet sufficiently clear at this strrle
such selections are very difficult to make.
Thus, in the case of the bearing system, preliminary evaluationshave tt,
made even in the conceptual phase, for instance as to whether the axial lorr
should be taken up by plain or rolling bearings. However, the final choitt'r
lubricating system can only be taken after the building of prototypes :r
experimentation with them.
Apart from the determination of the technical rating of individual con..r
variants, economic factors are of crucial importance in the design of morlrr
systems.To come to grips with them, the designermust estimatethe productr
costs of the individual modules and their relative effect on the cost ol
modular system as a whole. To that end, he will first of all determinc
'function
expected costs' of the sub-functionsor of the modules fulfilling tlrc
At the lower level of embodiment characteristicof the conceptual phasc.
cannot usually hope to come up with more than very rough estimates. Si
basic modules appear in all sorts of variants, he will select such soltrl
principles as provide the most cost-effective basic modules. Special and adi
modules take second place in the minimisation of costs.
For minimisins the costs of a modular svstem. not onlv the mod
themselvesbut also their interaction must be taken into account; in partic
the influence of special. auxiliary and adaptive modules on the cost of thc
modules. The influence of the cost of every overall function variant on thc
of the modular system as a whole must be fully determined. This may pr(
complex task. Thus, in the bearing system we have been considering.
functionvariant 'cool oil internallv' would sreatlvinfluencethe costof thc
module 'bearing housing', becausethe dimensionsof the specialmodule 'w
cooler' determine the dimensions of the housins and hence the overall costs.
there is only a small demand for this variant then it is certainly rr
cost-effectiveto fit the oil cooler to the outside of the housing and to put ul)
the extra cost of an oil pump.
ln short, the layout of the basicmoclulesmust be adaptedto the cxpc
demand.To that end, the influcnccof the rcmainingmodulcsis ol'
importance.If it is impossiblc to prrlviclc
a markctablcaclaptation ol thc
conccpt.thc lcastcost-cft'cctivcfunctirtnvnritntsshouldbc clirninatccllrorrr
modularsystcm.lt will ol'tcn bc ntorc economicullo rcplaccurrr,rsuirlvirri
which rcndcr lhc ovcrlll syritcnrIn()rccxpendvc.by mrkirrgirrdivirlull
7 2 Modular products 351
tions than to impose such adaptations on the whole modular system. An
alternative is the use of mixed systems.
Prep aring dimens io ned lay o uts
Once the solution concept has been selected, the individual modules must be
designed, in accordance both with their functions and also with the production
requirements. In the design of modular systems, manufacturing and assembly
considerationsare of paramount economic importance. By paying heed to the
embodiment design guidelines laid down in 6.5.6 and 6.5.7, the designermust
try to provide basic, auxiliary, special and adaptive modules with the maximum
number of similar and recurring parts and the minimum number of unfinished
parts and manufacturing processes.
When selectingstep sizes,the designershould aim at the optimum divisibility
of modules, and to that end he may well adopt the differential construction
approach. The determination of the optimum number of modules is, however, a
complex task, for it is influenced by the following factors:
- Requirements and quality must be maintained and the propagation of errors
must be taken into account. Thus the greater the number of individual
components, the greater the number of fits, and this may have untoward
repercussions on the function, for instance on the vibration of the machine.
Overall function variants must be created by simple assemblyof modules.
Modules may only be broken down to the extent that functions and costs
allow.
In modular products marketed as overall systems,variants of which the client
can assemble himself by combinations of the modules 17.291,the most
common modules must be designed for equal wear and tear and for easy
replacement.
In determining the most cost-efficient modularity, the designer must pay
special heed to the cost, not only of the design itself, but also of overall
schedulingand of manufacturing processesincluding assembly,handling and
distribution.
Figure L22 showsthe scalelayout of the bearingsystemwe have been
ussing. In Figure 7 .23 the structure of the overall function variants is shown
the form of a family tree. In both thesefigures,only the most important
blies and individualparts of the bearingsystemhave been entered;the
ual modularityis greater.If the functionstructureis comparedwith the final
ular structure, it becomes clear that in the given modular system several
nctionsare fulfilled bv a sinelemodule or its variants.Table 7.6 showsthe
ules used and their assisnedfunctions.
'p aring pro duction documents
uction documents must be prepared in such a way that the execution of
rs can be based on the simple, and if possiblecomputer-aided,combination
nd l'urthcr cluboration of modules for the required overall function variants.
I ) r i r w i n g s r c q u i r c a r r a p p r o p r i a t e p a r t - n u m b e r i n gs y s t e m a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,
352 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e s a n d m o d u l a r l ) r o ( i r Lr,r 2 Modular products

-ol
al

2l !
al

I 5.

I
F
I

c..t
c\
t-

bo =!
tl.
-dFSRR -sh
mmmmm
co
CAXXXXXXXXXXXX
O

a 5 f ,^'!-, Er !.- E; sT
E-i^" y i.\fr=s.e^" g sr-"HE oouIE=is"
oE
I
o
E= 7i
!4!-y t *?Ei +7! y &--v E! i2'E i 72;.; =
=!l d = d e s i $ d E #s " E i = E E s#i5E tE [tg .;ggig
EA
J =

>' a]
a-
bo
c5 ;6
bo
IJ.
.=
E

c
(,
o
'6 =
r o o cy',
* *O
= = d d F
L

o o 9s 9P >
U
E E =v =oe
'-0 j, 'tr! 0
EP 5
oaNe6vJ

J -
N ca cq >E >E<
-c)

::S!*<(laI
= 3 S 3 : : :: : I : I :
u)o m6m

=u = ! z
E.=c= L o o :
@ d .=
g' g' E r , $ e E -v Y=r -Er ' -e- - E r : a f-

g E 6-Y;=-=
i o dz 1H*.o oo-F:J E ! A*G
f I "Ts:I+==.;3H3EagE F
a
354 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e s a n d m o d u l a r p r o r l r r rr r 7.2 Modularproducts 355

two prerequisitesof the optimum combination of modules (individual parts an(l - Adaptations to special customer's wishes are not as easily made as they are
assemblies). with individual designs (loss of flexibility and market orientation).
The combination of individual modules into product variants must be rr.. - Once the system has been adopted, working drawings are made on receipt of
corded in the parts list. To build up a parts list, the designer can refer to rlr(, orders only, with the result that the stock of drawings may be inadequate.
so-calledvariant parts list [7.13] which is based on the structure of the proclrrr't - Product changes can only be considered at long intervals because once-and-
and in which a distinction is made between'essential'and'possible'modules. for-all development costs are high.
Particularly suited to the numeration of drawings and parts lists is the methorl - The technical features are more strongly influenced by the design of modules
of parallel encoding, which assignsidentification numbers for the unequivot rrl and the modularity than they would be by individual designs.
and unmistakeabledescription of componentsand assembliesand classificatrorr - Increased manufacturing costs, for instance of locating surfaces; manufactur-
numbers for the function-orientatedrecording and retrieval of thesecomponcnl\ ing quality must be higher because re-machining is impossible.
and assemblies.The classification number is of particular importance in rlrr. -Increased assemblyoutlay is likely.
modular product system, because it helps to detect functional and otlr,.l - Since the user's as well as the manufacturer's interests have to be taken into
similarities of comoonents. consideration, the determination of an optimal modular system may prove
very difficult.
- Rare combinations needed to implement unusual requirements may prove
\
much costlier than tailor-made designs.
/
For the user there are such disadvantages as:
7.2.3 Advantages and limitations of modular systems - special wishes cannot be met easily;
For the manufacturer, modularsystemsprovideadvantages in nearlyall arr.rrs: - certain qualitative characteristics may be less satisfactory than they would be
-ready documentation for tenders,project planningand design;designinrlrr with special-purposedesigns;and
done once and for all, thoughit may be more costlyfor that very reason: weightsand structuralvolumesof modularproductsare usuallygreaterthan
- additional design effort is needed for unforeseeableorders only; thoseof speciallydesignedproducts,and so spacerequirements
and founda-
-combinations with non-modules are possible; tion costsmay increase.
-overall schedulingis simplified and delivery dates may be improved; Experiencehas shown that, while modular production helps to reduce general
- the execution of orders by the design and production departmentscan bc c ads (includingadministrative
staff costsin particular),it may lead to an
short through the production of modules in parallel; in addition parts can s e i n s h o p f l o o r w a g e s a n d e s p e c i a l l yi n t h e c o s t o f m a t e r i a l sb c c a u s e ,a s
supplied quickly; ntioned earlier, it tends to involve greater weights and volumes. Only if a
- computer-aided execution of orders is greatly facilitated; lar systemis developedwith the expressintention of renderingevery
- calculationsare simplified; nction variant more cost-effectivethan a speciallydesignedproduct can there
-modules can be manufactured for stock with consequentsavings; a significant reduction in overall costs.
- more appropriate subdivision of assembliesensures favourable asscrrr
conditions; and
- modular product technology can be applied at successivestagesof protl .2.4 Examples
development, for example, in product planning, in the peparationof drawi
rrc motor systems
and parts lists, in the purchase of raw materials and semi-finishedmatcrilt
in the manufacture of parts, in assemblywork, and also in marketing. lar systems are particuarly cost-effective in the production of such
For the user Ihere are the following advantages: versal drive svstems as electric motors.
- s h o r t d e l i v e r yt i m e s ; Figure 7.24 showsa modular high-outputelectricmotor system17.34].Of the
- b e t t e r e x c h a n g ep o s s i b i l i t i e sa n d e a s i e rm a i n t e n a n c e ; ifiable modules, Numbers 1,2,5 and Il are fixed basic modules, Numbers
- b e t t e r s p a r ep a r t s s e r v i c e : 6, 7, 8, 9 and l0 are basic modules with possible adaptations for specific
- p o s s i b l e c h a n g e so f f u n c t i o n s a n d e x t e n s i o n so f t h c r a n g c ; a n d uirements (for example Numbers 4, 6, 7 and 8 for adaptation to various
- a l m o s t t o t a l e l i m i n a t i o no f c r r o r s t h a n k s t o w c l l - d c v c l o p c dp r o c l u c t s . ages or Number 9 for adaptation to the coupling dimensions) and Numbers 3
For the munul'actur(rthc limit of a moclularproduct systcm is rcachcclwhcrrc I2 are special modules for meeting certain safety provisions.
t h c s u b c l i v i s i o ni l t t o t r r o d u l c sl c a d s t < l t c c h n i c a l s h o r t c o n r i l r g sa n d c c o n r This particular modular systemis at one and the same time a size range, every
Iosscs: m o d u l c b c i n q a v a i l a b l ei n d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s .
356 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e sa n d m o d u l a r p r o r l r r r 7.2 Modular products

u t0
lP 23 SllstJmIPR System lP 44 Svstem IPW 24
F i g t r e 7 . 2 4M
. o d u l a r s y s t e m f o r t h r e e - p h a s e m o t ohrisgohfo u t p u ta, f t e r [ 73 4 1, s h r
the mostimportantmodules Figure 7.25. Modular systemfor three-phasemotors of medium output, after [7 .34],
1 Base frame; 2 Support frame of outer housing;3 Cover platesand ventilation grid; J howing the most important modules
Terminal box; 5 Stator housing; 6 Stator laminations;7 Stator winding; 8 Winding ct Squirrel cagerotor;2 Winding head cover;3 Rolling bearingassembly;4 Radial plain
9 Shaft and rotor; 10 Rotor laminations and winding; 11 Bearing; 12 Cover plate ring;5 Bearing cover; 6 Stator housingwith laminationsand winding; 7 Cover grid; 8
eatherprotection;9Airfilter; l0Terminal box; ll Coverplate l2 Coolingsystem;
A smaller degree of modularity is found in the next example-an elc irlwater cooler
motor systemof medium output 17.341.Figure 7.25 showsits structurc
contrastto the motor in Figure 1.24, the statorhousingis combinedwith Another modularproductsystemfor electricmotorsis describedin [7.1].It is
stator laminations and with the windins into a sinsle and undivided on the size range shown in Figure 7.77 and also containsthe plain bearing
module. As a result, the following production sequencehas to be obsc em shown in Fipure 7 .22.
manufacture stator housins as a welded construction-assemble and welcl
laminations-add windings. In other words, the housing and the laminrt
cannot be manufactured in parallel as they were in our first example. ['lcrc. I are another familiar example of modular systems. They involve a
modular product technique bears mainly on the attachmcnt and constructi()rl multiplicity of market-determined function variants (for instance, the attach-
t h e c o o l e r a n d t e r m i n a l b o x e s . o n t h c i n s t a l l i r t i < lonf v a r i o u sp r o t c c t i < l nd c mcnt of different input and output devices,various shaft positions and different
and on the bearings(rollingbcarings,plain bcarings),Figurc7.2(rshowsI gcar ratios). For the user it is a great advantage if he can build up gearbox
'l'his
possiblcarrangcrncnts l'rlr coolcrsancltcrntinul brlxcs. nrodullr prr conl'igurati<lnsto suit his particular requirements or if, in the caseof damage,he
systcm,lrlrl, is cornbincdwilh l sizcrungc$y$tcm. Cun nrakc sinrplc itncl spccdy replacements.For the maufacturer the modular
3s8 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e s a n d m o d u l a r p r o r l r r ,t r 2 Modular products 3s9

Coolerelements
ol
Cooleronrtghtor water
bothsides,
front
connectionconnection
left,water or
frontor back back

onlyIPR44 withcoonrt
Layout
onbothr,'1'',
elements
ondemand

rl-llts+
TJll r# IVIililI

6r:Ih
lll,+ll |re
4l-lql
il.t | ilt
ll
-lT-
iltF
L_r__.]____-u
Layout
wrthside- withcootttrt
Layout ut:l|l Y
fixed
cooler
on onboltt',tlr'1
elements ruil1 IV ilI II
demand 0noeman0

Figure 7.26 Possiblearrangementsof coolersand terminal boxesfor the motor sho* rr

Figure7.25
r e 7. 2 7. ' H a n s e n - P a t e ngte' a r b o x[ 7 2 1 1

system provides a comprehensive gearbox system with only a few housings, r aperturesto various spur gearcombinations,by the inclusionof a special
w h e e l s ,s h a f t sa n d b e a r i n g s .
al cover for the flange-mounting of a drive motor, and by the provision for a
Figure 7.27 givesan example: the housing of a modular gearbox allowing vel gear input stage. The disadvantage of this highly modular design is that it
different input shaft positions and also for different gear arrangements (si
mands a very accurate location of the various covers for proper alignment of
and multiple stages,spur and bevel gears) 17.2ll. The reader will noticc shafts and seals. Moreover, the housing is not fully utilised unless all the gear
undivided housing 1, which is closed on the output shaft side with an oval
are built in. A further development,namely a split housing[7.221,
2, and on the other side, for easier gear assembly, with alarge, circular cr
iates these problems (Figure 7.28). In that case the small individual covers
underneath a smaller oval cover 4. While the circular cover 3 locatcs
t remain only carry the seals or only cover the bearing apertures.
bearings of the various input shafts, the oval cover 4 merely covers the
aperturewhen the input is throughbevelgears;but if the input is through
gears, it contains a shaft seal. The slow running output stage IV is alwitvs
through a bearing in the opposite side of the housing, with its shaft seal ltc
the oval cover 2. The complete housing is therefore broken down into sc
function/production modules, the central housing section and the circulitr
serving as basic modules, the two oval covers serving as modulcs aclitpltd
particular arrangements and dimcnsions of thc shal'ts,and thc bcitring ol
b e v e l p i n i o n a n d a r c c t a n g u l a rb l i n d c t l v c r s c r v i n g a s s p c c i a l m o d u l c s .
arr4ngcmcnthas thc advantitgcof providing.with u singlcccntrill I ; i g u r c7 . 2 1 ,I |l.o u s i n gf o, r ' l I a n s c n - P a t e n t ' g e a r b o. 2
x l2T1 ;
scction,a multiplicityol'possiblc lduptntiottol lltc r
vnrinnlsby uppropriutc thc housingis syntntctrical
360 7 D e v e l o p i n g s i z e r a n g e sa n d m o d u l a r p r o t l t r ,I 7 2 Modular products 361

Another modular gearbox design is shown in Figure 7.29 [7.31)- It $:rr Further examples
developed for the expresspurpose of providing a broad gear system (in resl'rt,t Further examples taken from hydraulics, pneumatics and machine tool construc-
of shaft positions and gear ratios) with the fewest possiblemodules. In contrrrrl tion can be found in the literature17.2,7.79,1.351.
to the example shown in Figure 7.27, severalhousing variants were providctl to
match more closely different gearbox variants and hence to reduce weight rrrrtl Mo dular conveyor system
volume. While all the systems discussedabove are examples of 'closed' modular systems,
Another modular gearbox, which and outputs in particular can Figure 7.30 shows the modules and a specimen plan of an 'open' modular
varied, is describedin l7 .7a1. system.

7 .29.WGW gearboxl7.371
Fig:ure

Endcap lrolltly
withbullet

F i g u r c7 3 0 . O p c l t t t 6 t l t t l l t\tV s t c t l l ( } l c r t l l r t ' V r t t(sl ) c r r r 1 p ,l ) r r i s [ r r r g ) ,

( i r) n t o t l t r l c s( h ) s p et ' i t r t er t P l i t t t
 8 Summary 363

8 Summarv
Steps

E
6
E
lvlethods
and ; d

ards 6
s E

(, main C =
= a

= !
E
O suppo(ing E
E
E
OE E a O @

8.1 The systematicapproach

')
Trend
studies
Market
analysis o o
After examining the historical background and the fundamentals, t h i s b o o k l r ; r r
Specification t.2. o o
described a step-by-step approach to design, starting with product planning :rrrrl
the clarification of the task and proceeding to the conceptual and e m b o d i r r rrtt l
Abstraction 5.2. o o
design phases. As special aids to cost-effective design it has also discussetltho
boxrepresentatlon
Black
Funct
on structure o o
development of size ranges and of modular products.
Conceptual design and embodiment design are the two crucial phases in t
Literature
search 5.4.',| o o o o
creation of technical products or systems. Their respective steps are showrr natural
systems t . 4 .I o o
Figures 8.1 and 8.2, where the various methods and aids are correlated rrr
their main or supporting applications. The figures also chart the progr
known
solutrons 4.1 o o oo o
of the designer's work and the timing of the various steps. The propr
correlations are not, of course, absolutely fixed, because tasks and problt
physical
mathematical
relationships
4.1 o o
differ from product to product, and because some of the steps may have to Tests,
measurements 5 . 4 .I o o o
omitted.
In other words, the various methods should only be applied when they
Brainstorming
SVnectics 5.4,2. o o
required. Work should never be done for the sake of systematicsor for peclir study0f physical
Syslematic processes
5.4.3. o
reasons.Depending on his inclinations,experienceand skill, the designersh<
choose the appropriate method for a particular step.
frcalion
Class schemes 5.4.3. o o
The ability to abstract, to work systematically and to think logically Design
catalogues 5 . 4 .3 o o
creatively complement the designer's professional knowledge. In the va
design steps, these abilities are demanded to varying degrees.Abstractiotr
Sketches
Intuitive
improvements
5.5.
o o o
particularly needed for the identification of essentialproblems, for setting
function structures, for determining the characteristics of classification schc
procedures
Seleclion 5.6. o o o o o
and for the application of the principles and rules of embodiment dcsi
Evaluation
methods 5.8. o
Systematicand logical thinking help in the elaboration of function structurcs,
setting up classificationschemes,in the analysisof systemsand processesirrrtl
Value
analysis 6.5.6 o o
the combination of elements. Creative ability helps in the variation of funct 8.1. Correlation of methods and aids with the various steps of the conceptual
structures, in the search for solutions with the help of intuitive methods, ilr ign phase (numbers refer to chapters and sections)
combination of elements with the help of classification schemes rtr tlesi
c a t a l o g u e sa n d i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o no f t h e b a s i c r u l e s , p r i n c i p l e sa n c l g u i c l c l i t the technical function is implemented economically and safely. The
P r o f e s s i o n akl n o w l e d g ei s n e e d e d p a r t i c u l a r l yf o r t h c d r a w i n g u p o f s p c c i l r r i n g s o f t h e c h e c k l i s t sa r e a d a p t e dt o t h e v a r i o u sd e s i g np h a s e s .
t i o n s , f o r t h e s e a r c hf o r w e a k l i r r k s .l i l r s c l c c t i o t ta n d c v a l u i t t i o na n d l i r r c l t t Before a specification can be drawn up, the requirements must be known in
b a s e do n t h e v a r i o u s c h c c k l i s t sa r r d o r r l i r u l t t r n c i n g , ail so that the function and important constraintscan be identified. For that
Figurc [3.3c<lmbincs thc chccklistsuppropriatelo thc variousdcsignplr r n , i n t h c c h c c k l i s t u s e d d u r i n g t h e c l a r i f i c a t i o no f t h e t a s k , t h e h e a d i n g
Thc listsarc in accorcllnccwitlr thc gcncruldlrcctivcsgivcnin 2. 1.(r,lrrrl c : t i t r t ' n r a k c s w l y f o r t h c a s s o c i a t c dh c a d i n g s ' g e o m e t r y ' , ' k i n e m a t i c s ' ,
364 8 1 The systematic appro;r,h I Summary

rof task Conceptual

design Embodiment
design
E 6
= o Selecti
ng Evaluating Embodying Evaluati
ng
y)"
E
-f, ldentilying
thebest Discovering
optimumChecking ldentifying
Ehi
6o combinationol concept embodiment optimumembodiment
s s!? 6 Z prnctples Determininglayout,
E
a= l0rms
andmaterials
=- >
=
= 6
igure
4 5) (Figure
5 44) (Figure
5 60) (Figure
6 2) (Figure
6 136)
>t
-E oe

Specilicat
on 4.2. o o o q o ry
overal
w ththe
Compatible
I task
Function Function Function

Functlon
slructure o principle Working
Working principle design
Layoul

Solutonconcept 5 o ooo o Fullils

demands
ol
thespecilication
Embodiment Layoutandform
0esrgn
Form
design
S o l u t j omne t h o d u
conceptual phase
s rn 0 5 o Durability
Deformation
C h e ci ks t o.z. o oo ooo oo Real isable
i np r i n c i p l e
Stability
Resonance
B a s ircu l e s :i m p l i c i t y , | 6 . 3 .
clarity, safety c ooooooooo \J Expansion
Corrosion
Pr*d"
Force
kansmiss
on I
l..o o o ooo Wear

ol tasks
0ivision Incorporates
direcl Satety Safety Safety
Seif-help measures
salely
andp anned
Stability Ergonomics Ergonomics Ergonomics
itv
instabi
_
b u r 0Ien e s
l _o ,
I "
o o ooo c o Production Production Production

Durabiity(Stress) Quality
control Ouality
contro Ouality
control
Deformation
ity
Stabil Prelerred Assembly
bydesigner's Assembly Assemb,,
Resonance c0mpany
Expansion Transport Transport Transport
Creep
Reaxation
0peration Operation 0peration
Corrosion
Wear
Ergonomics Mantenance Maintenance Maintenance
Standards
Producton Costs Costs Costs
Assembly
Oualitycontro
Transport
0peration
Maintenance Schedules Schedu
les

procedures
Selection c o 8.3. Summary of checklists with main headings
Faulttreeanalys
R i s rke d u o
c tn
s
6.6 o o )es', renergy', 'material' and 'signals',all of which facilitate the identification
Evaluation
methods o o description of th'e overall function. Similarly, in the embodiment phase, the
'cmbodiment'
Figure 8.2. Correlation of mcthocls anrl airls with thc stcps ol' thc cmtr<lclimcntdcsiytt ing is replaced with the appropriate 'layout and form design'
phase (numbcrs ref'crto chaplcrs an(l scclion$) r i r c t c r i s t i c s .S i r n i l i r r h c a d i n g s a p p l y t o e v a l u a t i o n ; t h e y h a v e a w e l c o m e
t u r t c l r r r rw
c yh i c h c n s u r c s t h i r l t h c y c < l v c ra l l c o n t i n g c n c i e s .
S o t t t c o l l l t c t t t c l l t o d si l n ( l i r i ( l sw c h i l v c c x a n l i n c d i l r c a p p l i c a b l ea t d i f f e r e n t
 8.2 Time commltment

:ls of embodiment and can therefore be used repeatedly. This is particularly References
casewith the documentation (for example, specification,function structure,
ction and evaluation charts). Moreover, it has been found that systematically
)orated documents for certain product groups have a wider application in
: they can be used for other products, thus reducing the overall cost of thc
ematic approach.

I Introduction
I Time commitment
1.1 Bach,,C., 1880(12th.ed 7920).Die Machinenelemente. Stuttgart:Arnold Bergstrds-
ser Verlagsbuchhandlung.
meet the objection that systematicproceduresare very time-consumlng,w(' 7.2 Bar, S., 1970.Aufgabe und Stellungdes Konstrukteursbei der Schwerindustrie,
e broken down the man-hours spent on each step of the conceptual phast' Konstruktion22. 1-5.
gure 8.4). These percentagesare basedon practical experienceto date at thc 1.3 Beitz, w., 1971.
.systemtechnikim Ingenieurbereich,vDl-Berichte 174 (with
_ further bibliog.refs.). Diisseldorf:VDI-Verlag.
1.4 Beitz,w., 1970.systemtechnik in der Konstruklion, DIN-Mitteitungen 49,295-302.
Steps En9
1.5 Beitz, W., W. Eversheimand G. Pahl, 1974.Rechnerunterstritztes Entwickeln
Clarfyinqthetask 10v, und Konstruieren. im Maschinenbau, Forschungshefte;Forschungkuratoriunt
lo 'derlrly
Absl.actrng oroblens
essential Maschinenbal,Vol. 28, Frankfurt:Maschinenbau-Verlig.
1.6 Bischoff,W. and F. Hansen,1953.Rationelles KonstruiZren. Berlin: VEB-Verlag
function
Establishing structures Technik.
Searchtno
lor e g bralnstormlng
Intuitive 1.7 Bock, A., 1955.Konstruktionssystematik-die Methodeder ordnendenGesichts-
solutions drscursrve 15% punkte, Feingercitetechnik
4.
Combining solutionprinciples andselect ngquaitative y 3Y.
)E o/
F i r m i nr roni n l o P r e l i m i ncaar iyc u l a t t 0 n s
concept varlants Prelim narylayouts ?q o/

varlants
concePl
Evaluating
r00%
phase(estinlirtt'
of breakdownof man-hoursspenton the conceptual
,ure8 4. Percentage 1 . 1 2E r k e n s ,A . , 1 9 2 8 B
. e i t r r i g ez u r K o n s t r u k t i o n s e r z i e h uZn.gv, D I 7 2 , l 7 - z r .
;edon experience) 1.13 Eversheim,W., 1969 E,ineanalytische Betrachtungv"onKonstruktionsaufgaben,
Industrieanzeiger 97, Vol. 87.
1.14 Federn,K., 1970 wandel in der konstruktivenGestalttng,Chem.-Ing-Tec.hn.42,
iversity and in industry. The greatest percentageis devoted to conventitlrtltl 729 731.
.ivities, that is to firming up into concept variants which involves prelimirtrrty
culations and layouts. A systematic approach during the conceptual
rvides, with very little extra time expenditure, a broader over-vlew il
tmises a greater chance of arriving at an optimum solution. Things arc ttr
ry different in the embodiment phase. By consulting the checklists
lowing the basic rules, principles and guidelines,the designerwill usually I 1 . 1 9K e s s e l r i n gF,, 7 9 4 2 D i e s t a r k eK o n s t r u k t i o nz,. v D I 1 1 6 , 3 2 l - 3 3 0 j 4, 9 - 7 5 2 .
le to save time and effort. Checking with the help of fault-identificirtir 1.20 Kesselring, F., 1954.Technische Kompositionslehre. Berljn,Gottingen,Heidelberg:
: t h o d s , m o r e o v e r , h e l p s t o i m p r o v c q u a l i t y a n d o n l y b e c o m e su n a c c c p l i r l Springer.
. v a l u i t t i o n sd o n o t c o n s u t l l cl t l.2l Kesselring,F., 1951.. Bewertungvon Konstruktionen. Diisseldorf:VDl-verlag.
r < t r i o u si f i t i s n o t c o n f i n e d t o t h c c s s c n t i a l sE
1.22 Koller. R.' 1973.Eine algorithmisch-physikalisch orientierteKonstruktionsmetho-
r c h t i m c w h c n o n c c o n s i c l c r st l t c i t t l i l r n t i t t i o nt h c y y i c l d , c s p c c i a l l yi t t t l t d dik. Z. vt)t lt5. 147_152,309_317, 843_847,1078_1085.
l r c S l i l r w c a k l i n k s .A n y o n c l l r r r r i l i i rwr i t l r t h c n l c t l r ( x l sc i l n . i t t a n y c i t s c .i l l ' r l v o 1 23 Ktrllcr, I{.. 1976.Krtnslruktionsmethctde ftir den Maschinen-,Geriite-untl Apparate-
S r t t l d c r a n d b c t t c r r c s u l t s i r t i r r c l i t l i v c l y s h o r t t i t t t c . l r t p i t r t i c t r l i r r ,t l t d / r a r r .l l c r l i n , I l c i t l c l t r c r gN, c w Y o r k : S p r i n g e r .
i l c r r y t t i c u p p r o i t c h h o k l s o r r l i t B r c n l c t p r ( ) m i l i co l l t v r t i t l i r t gt i t t t c - c o t t s t t t l t t t t l l . l ' l L i r r r t l i c r rK, . . l 9 l l , M u : c l t i t t t ' t t t , ! u n r , nI -i <
. c' .i y . r z D
i gr: M a x J u n e c k ev e r l a g s b u c -
I rl rl r n rIrl rr r t ,
r o r s t l t r c t t t i t l i t c k o l ' i t t l o r t t t i r l i ( l l tl l l l t t l r a l l t ,
 R e f e r e n c .' References
369

Leyer, A., 1963-197I. Maschinenkonstruktionslehre, Vols. 1-6 technrca-senc: 1 52 Sorensen,E., 1958.Konstruieren-schopferische Ingenieurarbeit,Z. vDI 100,
Basel,Stuttgart:Birkhauser 1123_1128.
Martyrer, E., 1960.Der Ingenieurund dasKonstruieren,Konstruktion72, 1-4. 1'53 Tschochner,H. , 7954.Konstruierenund GestaltenE,ssen: Girardet.
Matousek, R., 1957(reprint). Konstruktionslehre desallgemeinenMaschinenbutrs 1.54 vDI-FACHGRUPPE Konstruktion(ADKI), 1967.EngpassKonstruktion
Kon_
Berlin, Heidelberg,New York: Springer struktion19,192-795.
Muller, J., 1,970.Grundlagen der systematischen Heuristtk, SchriftenzLtr .\(l 1'55 VDI-Richtlinie2222,1973.Sheet1 Konzipierentechnischer Produkte.Dtisseldorf:
Wirtschaftsftihrung. Berlin: Dietz. VDI-Verlas.
Niemann, G., 1950.Maschinenelemente, Yol 1 Berlin: Gottingen,Heidelbcrl 1'56 VDl-Richtlinie 2225, 1969.Technisch-wirtschaftlichesKonstruieren.Dirsselclorf:
Springer(2nd ed. 1965,3rd ed. (with M. Hirt) 1975). VDI-Verlag.
N. N., 1977.Leonardoda Vinci, Das Lebensbild einesGenies,Wiesbaden, Bcrlrrr 1.57 Wachtler,R , 1969.Die DynamikdesEntwickelns(Konstruierens), Feinwerktech-
Vollmer, 439-505. nik 73. 329-333.
Opitz, H. et al., 1977.Die Konstruktion-ein Schwerpunktder Rationalisienrrrl 1.58 Wachtler,R., 1967.Beitragzur TheoriedesEntwickelns(Kontruierens),Feinwerk-
Industrie-Anzeiger93, 1491-1503. technik7l, 353,357.
Pahl, G., 1967.Entwurfsingenieur und Konstruktionslehreunterstiitzen die rn,,,l 1.59 wdchtter, R., 1971Entwickelnund Konstruieren-Tdtigkeiten, die wachsendem
erne Konstruktionsarbeit,Konstruktion19, 337-344 Zeitdruck ausgesetztsind, VDI-Nachrichten25. No. 6.
Pahl, G. and W. Beitz, L912-74 Fiir die Konstruktionspraxis, Konstruktiort'l 1.60 wogerbauer,H., 1943.Die Technikdes Konsiruierens,2nd ed., Munich, Berlin:
(1972),2s (1973) and 26 (1e74). Oldenbourg.
Penny, R. K., 1970, Principlesof engineeringdesign, Postgraduate 46. .l I I 7.61 zangemeister, c., 1969.Zur charakteristikder Systemtechnik.TU Berlin (Auf-
349. bauseminarSystemtechnik).
Redtenbacher,F., 1852. Prinzipien der Mechanik und des M a s c h i n e n l t t t t t '
Mannheim:Basserman. 257-290 2 Fundamentals
Reuleaux, F. and C. Moll, 1854 Konstrukstionslehre fiir den M a s c h i n e r t l t , t r r 2' 1 Branlrm p . K., 1975 . Produktivitritssteigerung
Brunswick: Vieweg. in clermittelstrindigen
IndustrieN RW.
VDI-Taschenbuch. Diisseldorf:VDI-Verlae.
Richter, A , 1974. Nichtlineare Optimierung signalverarbeitenderGerate, I,/t/
2.2 DIN 44 300, 1972. Informationsverarbeiting-Begriffe.Berrin, cologne:
Berichte 219 (with further bibliog. refs ) Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlag. Beuth-
Vertrieb.
Richter, A. and G. Kranz, 1974. Ein Beitrag zur nichtlinearen Optimierung trtttl
2.3 DIN 44 301. 1973. Informationstheorie-Begrtffe( Normentwurf).Berlin,
dynamischenProgrammierungin der rechnerunterstritztenKonstruktion, Konstr trl'' cologne:
Beuth-Vertrieb.
tion 26. 36I-367.
2.4 DIN 69 910. 1973. wertanatyse,Begriffe,Methode. Berlin, cologne:
Riedler, A , 1913. Das Maschinenzeichnen.Berlin: Springer. Beuth-
Vertrieb.
Rodenacker, W. G. 1,970. Methodisches Konstruieren. Berlin, Heidelberg. Ncw
York: Springer (2nd ed. 1976.)
Rodenacker, W. G. and U. Claussen, 1973-74. Regeln des Methodischen K,
struierens Mainz: Krausskopf.
Rotscher, F., 192'7. Die Maschinenelemente.Berlin: Springer.
Roth, K., 1974. Aufbau und Handhabung von Konstruktionskatalogen, l'l)
Berichte 219. Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlas.
Roth, K., 1968. Gliederung und Rahmen einer neuen Maschinen-Gerate-Konst rI
stionslehre, Feinw erktechnik 72, 521-528.
Roth, K., 1970. Systematik der Maschinen und ihrer mechanischenelemcttlrrt
Funktionen, Feinwerktechnik 74, 453460
Roth, K. , f974. Methodisches Ermitteln von Funktionsstruktur und (icstrr
2.11 Klaus, G., 197r.w_drterbuch clerKybernetlk.Frankfurt,Hamburg:Fischcr.
VDI-Berichte 219 Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlas.
2'12 Koller, R., 1973.Eine algorithmisc-h-physikalisch orientierteKonitruktionsr.nctho-
Roth. K., H. J Franke and R Simonek, 1972.Die Allgemeine F u n k t i o n s srtr rk I
dlk. z. vDI ll5.
ein wesentliches Hilfsmittel zum methodischen Konstruieren, K o n s t r u k t i r r .nl
2'13 Koller' R', 1974.Kann der Konstruktionsprozess in Algorithmengetasstuncldcnr
277-282.
I { o t h , K . , H . J . F r a n k e a n d R S i r n o r r c k ,l 9 7 l A l g o r i t h m i s c h e sA u s w a h l v c r l l r l r r ^ .. S..hl.r tibertragenwerden?vDI-Berichie219.Dtisseliorf:vDl-Verlag.
zur Konstruktion mit Katalogctr, I"cittv,arktccltrtik 75, 337-345 2 14 Krumhauer,P., 1974.Rechnerunterstiitzung fiir die Konzeptphase der Konstruk-
I { p t [ . K . . I I . J . F r a n k c a n d I { S i n r o n c k , 1 9 7 2 .A u t ] r i r u u t t c l V c r w c t t t l t t t r gr t
t i o n . ( D i s s e r t a t i o nT)U D 8 3 . B e r l i n :T U .
K i r t r r l r r e c Ir 'rr i rd l s r l c t h o t l i s c h cK o t t s t t t t i c t c t t .K t t n : ; l n t k l i t t t2t 4 , 1 4 9 4 5 t j
2 l-5 Mcwes, D.' 1973.Der Informationsbedarfim konstruktivenMaschinenbau.yDl-
S i r l i n g ,K . - 1 1 . . 1 9 7 0 ,I ' r i n z i p -r r r r t lV ; r r i r r r t l c r t k o r t s l r t t k ti ri ot t ltc r A t t l t r t t g s r r l r r\ r. r ,
TlschcnbuchT 49 Diisseldorf:VDI-Verl"as.
I r r r r g V o n r u s s c t z u r ' t l l c rnr r r r l ( i r r t r t r l l r r g c r rl ,' l U - l l r ' r i L l t t t 1 5 2 , I ) i i s s c l t l t r r l :\ ' l t l '
2 l(r Miillcr' .1.' 1970. Grundla{'n der system"atischcn Heuristik. Schrilten zLtr soz.
Vcll;rg.
Wi rt.\( ltuI t.\| t:ihrrrrrg Berlin: Dietz.
l l7 Nrrtflcr'. (;.. 1967 work.sv,srcnts Da,signTheItlealsConceptHomewood,Illinois:
S i r r r o r r c kl.t , l ( ) 7 1 l ) i t . k r r r r r l l r r k l r v cl , t t n k l t o t tu t t t l i l t r c l ; o t t t t t t l i e r t t t t tgt t r l , r t
r ( ' ( ' l l n ( t' r( ' \ l t t l z t r ' K o t t r l tl l t ( ' l r l t , I t t n x e t A t a ht n t l - 7 s . l ' l \ t ' l ( ,
I t i t ' l r ; r l It )l l l r v i r r I. r r c ,
 Referenccs References 371

Nadler, G., 1963 Work Design. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D lrwin, Inc. 4 Product planning and clarification of the task
n.n. (anon.), L958. Lexikon;der Neue Brockhaus. wiesbaden: F. A. Brockhaus.
fiir Schnittwerte, wt. Z. industriellc 4.1 Arlt, J., 1971. Dynamische Produktionsprogrammplanung. Dissertation TH
Opitz, H., 1970. INFoS-Informationszentrum
Aachen.
Fertigung 13.
4.2 Brankamp, K., I974. Produktplanung-Instrument der Zukunftssicherungim Un-
Opiti, H., K. Brankamp and H.-P. Wiendahl, 1970.Aufbau und Anwendung eines
funktionsorientierten Baugruppenklassifizierungssystems, Industrie-Anzeiger 9) ternehmen, Konstruktio n 26, 379-327.
(1e7031). 4.3 Franke, H.-J , 1975Methodische Schritte beim Kldren konstruktiver Aufgabenstel-
Petzold, H -J., J. Pohlmann and W. Haag, 1974. Modelle der innerbetrieblichert lungen, Konstruktion 27, 395-402
4.4 Geyer, E., 1972. Marktgerechte Produktplanung und Produktentwicklung. Part l:
Informationsversorgung.BetriebstechnischeSchriftenreihe RKW/REFA. Berlirt
Cologne, Frankfurt: Beuth-Verlag GmbH. Produkt und Markt Part II: Produkt und Betrieb. RKW-Schriftenreihe 18 & 26
Rodenacker, W. G., 1970 (2nd ed. 1976). Methodisches Konstruieren. Konstruk Heidelberg: Gehlsen.
4.5 Hansen, F., 1966. Konstruktionssystematik.Berlin: VEB-Verlag Technik
tionsbiicher Yol 27. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer.
Rodenacker, W. G. and U Claussen, 1973 and 1975. Regeln des Methodiscltttt 4.6 Kehrmann, H., 1912 Die Entwicklung von Produktstrategien Dissertation. TH
Aachen.
Konstruierens,Vols. I and II. Mainz: Krausskopf
Roth, K., H.-J. Frank and R. Simonek, 1972. Die allgemeine Funktionsstruktrrr 4.7 Kehrmann, H., 1973.Systematikzum Finden und Bewerten neuer Produkte, wt.-Z
ind. Fertigung 63, 607-612.
ein wesentliches Hilfsmittel zum methodischen Konstruieren, Konstruktion 2J
277-282. 4.8 Kesselring, F. and E Arn, 1971. MethodischesPlanen, Entwickeln und Gestalten
technischerProdukte, Konstruktion 23, 212-218.
Schon, F., \973. Wirtschaftlicher Konstruieren durch bessereInformation, v/)/
4.9 Kramer, F., 1975. Produktinnovations- und Produkteinftihrungssystemeines mitt-
Berichte 191. Drisseldorf: VDI-Verlag.
leren Industriebetriebes,Konstruktion 27. I-7.
VDl-Richtlinie 2222. 1973. Sheet 1. Konstruktionsmethodik, Konzipieren tctlr
4 . 1 0 P a h l , G . , 1 9 7 4 . K l d r e n d e r A u f g a b e n s t e l l u n gu n d E r a r b e i t u n gd e r A n f o r d c r u n g s -
nischer Produkte. Disseldorf: VDI-Verlag.
VDl-Richtlinie 2801, 197017I, Sheets l-3 Wertanalyse. Dtisseldorf: VI) I liste. Konstuktion 24,195 199.
Verlag. 411 Pahl, G.,1970. Wege zur Losungsfindung,Industrielle Organisation39. 1-5-5-161.
Voigt, C.-D.,1974 (3rd ed.). Systematik und Einsatz der Wertanalyse.Munitlr 4.12 Rodenacker, W G., 1970, 2nd ed. L976 MethodischesKonstruieren. Konstruk'
Siemens-Verlag. tionsbilcherYol. 27. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer.
Weizsacker von, C F., 1971. Die Einheit der Natur-Studien. Munich: Ilanser 4.13 Roth, K., H Birkhofer and M. E,rsoy, 1975. Methodisches Konstruieren neuer
Sicherheitsschlosser, Z. -V Dl 117, 613-618
Wolf, S., 1970. Informationssystemfirr Maschinerlbau-Unternehmenmit E,inzcl
und Serienfertigung, wt.-Z. industrielle Fertigung 60, 26-39. 4.14 Schmitz, H., 1972. Produktplanung. VDI-Taschenbuch T 32 Diisseldorf: VDI-
Zimmermann, D., 1972. Produktionsfaktor Information, Yol. 72 of: Wirtschu.lrt Verlag.
4.15 Stotko, C , 1973. Produktplanung-massgebend fi.ir den Unternehmenserfolg,
filhrung- Kybernetik- Daten verarbeitung. Neuwied: Luchterhand.
Zimmermann, D., 7971. StrukturgerechteDatenorganisation,Vot. 10 of: Witr Industrielle Organisation 42, 2ll-214.
4.16 VDI-Beichte 229, 1976. Produktinnovation-Herausforderung und Aufgabe.
schafts-fiihr ung- Ky b ernatik- D atenvera rb eit u ng. Neuwied : Luchterhand'
Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlag.
Zimmermann , o., pel . ZAFO-Eine allgemeine Formenordnung fur werk.stilt Lt
4 17 VDl-Taschenbuch T 46,1975. SystematischeProduktplanung-ein Mittel zur Unter-
Stuttgart: Grossmann.
nehmenssicherung.Dirsseldorf: VDI-Verlag.

re design process 5 Conceptual design

l e e l i c h . K . H . a n d H . H . S c h w e d e , l 9 7 4 .L e r n - u n d A r b e i t s t e c h n i kw. i i r z b u r g : 5. 1 Baatz, lJ., 1971. BildschirmunsterstirtztesKonstruieren, Diss., RWTFI Aachcn.
/ogel. 5.2 Beitz. W., 1968. MesstechnischeHilfsmittel des Konstrukteurs, gezcigt an llcis'
<riit, V., 1969.An Introduction to Engineering and Engineering Design, Second oielen aus dem Elektrogrossmaschine nbau, Antriebstechni k 7' 3-5u-362'
ldition, New York, London, Sidney, Toronto: Wiley & Sons Inc' 5 . 3 b e i t z , W . , 1 9 7 3 . M e t h o d i s c h e s K o n z i p i e r e n t e c h n i s c h e rS y s t c m c . g c z c i g t a r t t
_eyer,A., 1973.Zv Frage der AufsAtze irber Maschinenkonstruktionin der Beispiel einer Kartoffel-Vollerntemaschine.Konstuktiott 25' 65-1 |
technika', technika 26, 2495-2498. 5.4 Bengisu, O., 1SZO.ElektrohydraulischeAnalogie, Olhydruulik untl Prtautttutik14.
) a h l . G . . l g T 2 . D i e A r b e i t s s c h r i t t e b e i m K o n s t r u i e r e n ,K o n s t r u k t i o n 2 4 , 1 4 9 - 1 5 . \ '
122 t27
)cnny, R. K., 1970.Principlesof Engineering Design, PostSraduu.te.J. 4C 344-.1'l()
5.5 Boesch, E ,1954. Die Organisation industrieller Forschung.Industrielle Organisa-
r ' D l - R i c h t l i n ie 2 2 2 2 , 1 9 7 3 ,S h e c t l , K o n z i p i c r c nt e c h r r i s c h ePr r o c l u k t e D . tisscltlorl tion 23.335-344.
y ' l )l - V c r l a u . ,5.(rBrader. C. and G. Hohl, 1974. Rechnereinsatzin der Konzeptphasedes Konstruk-
y l ) l - l { i c h t i i n i c 2 2 2 3 . 1 9 6 9 I } c g r i l l c r r n t ll } c z c i c l r r t u r t g ci nt tt K o n s t l u k t i o n s b c r c i c l t tionspr<rzesses, V DI-Berichle 219. Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlag
) t i s s c l t l o l:l V I ) I - V c t l r t g . ,5.7 ('hladck, W., 1971.TechnologischeVoraussagen,Z' VDI Il3, 1277-1225.
A u s d c r A r . b c i td c l V I ) i - l r r r c h g l r r l ) l )K c r l l s l l t r k t i o l r( A l ) K I ) , l ( ) ( r ( rl .: r t t P l c l t l t t t t g t " t t 5.il ('lirusscn. LJ., 197I Konstruieren mit Rechnern, Konstruktionsbticher29. Berlin,
'tir
l l c g r i l t c r r r r t l l c z c i c h r r r r nigr r r . ( o r r s l t t t k l i o t t r l l c r c i c lKt .t t t t . t t r u k t i t tl tf t{ ' . 1 9 ( }. 1 ( ) l I l c i d c l t r c r g .N c w Y o r k : S p r i n g e r .
Wirlrl,"M, lt., l()(r(),(;,ilnll(t!.'n rinrt lllunugerrrfnt'lnltrtrrttlri{,rrr'f}'rl('rtl('r' Ncttr|tt'tl
5 . ( ) t ) r r l k c v . N . I ) . r r n t l( ) . I l c l n t c r . l 9 6 l A n I l x p e r i r n e n t a A l p p l i c a t i o no f t h e D e l p h i
l l c r l i r r :I i r c l l t c l l t i r t t ( 1 , ( il( t t ( c V o l 9 . N o , 3 ( A p r i l 1 9 6 3 )
M c t l r . r r lt o t l t c I l s t l o f l : x l r c r l s , M t t r r t t g t ' r t r <, \' n
3tz Refe rc n cr't References JIJ

5.10 DIN 40 7000, 1,963 Schaltzeichen-Digitale Informationsverarbeitung. Berlin, Col 5.39 Richter, A. and H.-J. Aschoff, 1971. Problemstellungenbei der funktionsorientier-
ogne: Beuth-Vertrieb. ten KonstruktionssynthesesignalverarbeitenderGerite aus der Sicht der Systemdy-
5 . 1 1 D r e i b h o l z , D . , l 9 7 5 . O r d n u n g s s c h e m a tbae i d e r S u c h ev o n L o s u n g e n .K o n s t r u k t i o r t namik. Feinwerktechnik 75. 37+379.
21.233-240. 5.40 Richter. A. and H.-J. Aschoff ,7911. Uber die funktionsorientierte konstruktive
512 E,wald, O.,1975. Losungssammlungenfiir das methodischeKonstruieren Disscl Gestaltung von signalverarbeitendenGerdten nach statistischenund dynamischen
dorf: VDI-Verlag. Gesichtspunkten, Feinwerktechnik 75, 443-416.
-5 13 Feldmann, K., 1,974.Beitrag zur Konstruktionsoptimierung von automatischt'rr 5.41 Rodenacker, W. G., 1972. Festlegung der Funktionsstruktur von Maschinen,
Drehmaschinen. Diss., TU Berlin Apparaten und Geraten, Konstruktion 24, 335-340
5.14 Findeisen, D., 1974. Dynamisches System Schwingpriifmaschine Fortschritr-lJ, 5.42 Rodenacker, W. G., 1970. MethodischesKonstruieren, KonstruktionsbilcherYol
richte der VDI-Zeitschriften, Ser 11, No. l8 Dusseldorf: VDI-Verlag. 27. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer
5.15 Follinger, O. and W Weber, 1.967.Methoden der SchalttrlgebraMunich: C)lclerr 5.43 Rodenacker, W. G., 7976. MethodischesKonstruieren, KonstruktionsbilcherYol
bourg. 27.2nd edition. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer.
5.16 Gerber, H., 1973.Ein Konstruktionsverfahrenfur Gerdte mit logischerFunktiorr. 5.44 Rodenacker, W. G. and U. Claussen, 1973 Regeln des Methodischen Kon-
weise, Konslruktion 25, 13 l1 struierens.Mainz: Krausskoof.
5 . 1 7 G e s c h k a ,H . a n d H . W i g g e r t , 1 9 6 8 S u c h em i t S y s t e m ,D e r V o l k s w i r t 3 6 3 T 5.45 Rohrbach, B., 1969. Kreativ nach Regeln-Methode 635, eine neue Technik zum
5.18 Gordon, W J. J., i961 Synectics,the developmentof Ueative capacity.New Yorl' Losen von Problemen Absatzwirtschaft 12, 13-75
Harper. 5.46 Roth, K., 1974. Aufbau und Handhabung von Konstruktionskatalogen, VD1-
5 . 1 9 G u n t h e r , W . , 1 9 7 1 .D i e G r u n d l a g e nd e r W e r t a n a l y s e ,Z . V D I 1 1 3 , 2 3 8 - 2 4 1 Berichte 219. Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlag.
5.20 Herrmann, J , 1970. Beitrag zur optimalen Arbeitsraumgestaltungan numcri:, lr 5.47 Roth, K., 1970. Systematik der Maschinen und ihrer mechanischenelementaren
gesteuertenDrehmaschinen, Diss., TU Bertin. Funktionen Feinwerktechnik 74. 453460.
5.21 Hertel, H., 1960. Biologie und Technik Struktur, Form, Bewegang. Mirrrr; 5 48 Roth, K., 1974 Systematik mechanischer Flip-Flops und ihre Bedeutung ftir
Krauskopf. die Konstruktion von Schaltelementen, Feinwerktechnik und Messrcchnik 82,
5.22 Hertel, H., 1960 Leichtbau. Berlin, Gottingen, Heidelberg: Springer. 384-392
5 23 Keller, K., 1971 Entwicklung eines Fertigungsautomaten zur Fertigung r,'rr 5 . 4 9 R o t h , K , H . B i r k h o f e r a n d M . E r s o y , 1 9 7 5 . M e t h o d i s c h e sK o n s t r u i e r e n n e u e r
Filigrantragern, unpublished thesis, TU Berlin Sicherheitsgurtschlosser, Z VDI ll7, 613-618.
5.24 Kesselring, F., 7951 Bewertung von Konstruktionen, ein Minel zur Stetterurtt!t,'rt 5.50 Roth, K., H.-J. Franke and R. Simonek,19'72 Die Allegemeine Funktionsstruktur,
Ko nstruktionsarbeit. Drisseldorf: VDI-Verlag. ein wesentliches Hilfsmittel zum methodischen Konstruieren, Konstruktion 24,
5 2 5 K o l l e r , R . , 1 9 7 3 .E i n e a l g o r i t h m i s c h - p h y s i k a l i s oc rhi e n t i e r t eK o n s t r u k t i o n s m c l l t o 217-282
dik. z. vDl ll5, 147-r52,309-31'7,843-847, 1078-108-5. 5.51 Roth, K., H.-J. Franke and R. Simonek, 1972 Aufbau und Verwendung von
5.26 Koller, R., 1974. Kann der Konstruktionsprozessin Algorithmen gefasstuncl tl, ttr Katalogen fiir das methodische Konstruieren. Konstruktion 24, 449-458.
Rechner iibertragen werden VDI-Berichte 219. Drisseldorf: VDI-Verlag. 5 . 5 2 S c h l o s s e rW , . M . J . a n d W . F . T . C . O l d e r a a n , 1 9 6 1 .E i n e A n a l o g o n t h e o r i ed e r
.5.27 Koller, R., 1976 Konstruktionsmethodefur den Maschinen-,Gerrite-und Ayslturttr, Antriebe mit rotierender Bewegung. Othydrautik und Pneumatik 5,413-418
bau. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer 5.53 Schmidt, H. G., 1973. Entwicklung von Konstruktionsprinzipien fiir einen Stoss-
5 . 2 1 1K r a m e r , F . , 1 9 7 5 .P r o d u k t i n n o v a t i o n su- n d P r o d u k t e i n f u h r u n g s s y s t eemi n c s n ) r t t priifstand mit Hilfe konstruktionssystematischerMethoden. Study Project, TU
leren Industriebetriebes,Konstruktion 27, | 7 Berlin.
-5.29Krick, E V, 1969. An Introduction to Engineering and Engineering Desigtt. -'ttl 5.54 Simonek,R.,I974. EinVerfahrenzurErmittlungderSpeziellenFunktionsstruktur
edn., New York: Wiley & Sons,Inc. mit Hilfe der EDV, Feinwerktechnikund Micronic 78, lTl7.
5 30 Krumhauer, P I974. Rechnerunterstiitzungfiir die Konzeptphase der Kortsttrrl 5.55 Stabe, H and E Gerhard, 1974.Anregungen zur Bewertung technischerKonstruk-
tion, Diss., TU Berlin. tionen. Feinwerktechnik und Messtechnik82, 378-383 (with further bibliog. rcl'cr-
5 . 3 1 L o w k a , D . , 1 9 7 5 M e t h o d e n z u r E n t s c h e i d u n g s f i n d u nigm K o n s t r u k t i o n s l . r t t z t ' r r , ences).
Feinwerktechnikund Messtechnik38. 19-21. 5.56 Stahl, U.,1916. Uberlegungen zum E,influssder Gewichtung bei dcr Bcwcrtung von
5 . 3 2 M i l i t z e r , O . , 1 9 7 5 .R e c h e n m o d e l lf u r d i e A u s l e g u n gv o n W e l l e n - N a b e n - P a s s l t ' r h ' r Alternativen, Kons truktion 28, 2'73-214.
v e r b i n d u n g e n ,D i s s . . T U B e r l i n . 5.57 Steuer, K., 1968. Theorie des Konstruierensin der Ingenieurausbiltlung.Lcipzig:
5 3 3 n . n . ( a n o n . ) , 1 9 7 2 ,K r e a t i v i t a t D o k u m e n t a t i o nd e r 4 3 K r e a t i v - M e t h o d n e , M i l t t , t ' 1t , VEB Fachbuchverlag.
Mugazin l l, -51--57 -5.58 VDl-Taschenbuch 135, t972 Wertanalyse-ldee, Methode, System 4. Di.isseldorf:
.5.34Osborn, A. F.. 1957.Applicd Imagination-['rincipla.s und Procctlurcso.l ( t(tttt\( VDI-Verlag.
'l'hinking .5.59 VDI-Richtlinie 2222, Sheet 1,. 1975 Konzipieren technischerProdukte. Diisseldorf:
Ncw York: Scribner
5 . 1 5 l , i r h l .G , 1 9 7 2 A n a l y s cu n d A b s t r i r k t i o rrtl c sI ' t o b l c n t s A . t r l s t c l l c nv o r t I i t t t ) k l i r r t r o VDI-Verlag.
r ,2 3 5 l l l ) ,
s t r t t k t t t r c t tK. o t t . s l r t t k l i r2t r. 1 5.fi) VDI-Richtlinie 2225, 1969. Technisch-wirtschaftliches Konstruieren. Diisseldorf:
5 , . 1 ( lr, r r l r l (, i . , I 9 7 4 M c t h o r l i s c l r cKs ( ) n \ l t u i ( ' t ( ' r l /, l ) l " l l u i t l t t r l l ( ) , l ) t i s s c l t l t r r l\ :' l r l VDI-Verlag.
V c rl r r g 5.6 1 VDI-Richtlinie 2801, 1970 Wertanalyse.Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlag.
5 , 1 7 l , i r l r l ,( ; , l 9 7 l l { i i c k h l i c kz r r r l { c i l r t " l t t t r l t c K o t t r l t t t h t i o t t s I r t \ i s '1, r , , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 " t r 5.62 Voigt, (1.-D., l95U Systematik und Einsatz der Wertanalyse.Berlin, Munich:
l(1,.l()l .l()5, S i cr r r cr r s
t l t { I t t r t z ,I l ( ) 7 \ I ) i ! : r t r t l t lrt' trt r l , |. ) t r r r r . l r hl r f V l ) l V c r l ; r I 5 0 1 W i t l r i r r g (. ' , , l 9 5 l t , ( ' t t u t i v t ' I ' l r i r t k i r t 1
N4c.w Y o r k : I l c i n l r o l d
374 References References 315

5.64 Zangemeister, C., 7970. Nutzwertanalvse in der Systemtechnik. Munich: Witte- 6.26 Compes, P., 1970 Sicherheitstechnisches Gestalten. Thesis, TH Aachen
mannsche Buchhandlung. 6.27 Cornelius, E. A. and J Marlinghaus, 1967. Gestaltungvon Hartlotkonstruktionen
Entdecken, Erfinden, Forschen im Morphologischen Welt-
5.65 Zwicky, F., 1976119'71. hoher Tragfdhigkeit. Konstruktion 19, 321-327.
blld Munich. Zwich: Droemer-Knaur 6.28 Cornu, O., 1973. Ultraschallschweissen,Z. TechnischeRunschau 37, 25-27.
6.29 Czerwenka, G. and W. Schnell, 1967. Einftihrung in die Rechenmethoden des
Leichtbaus I und II, Hochschultaschenbuch1.241124a. Mannheim: Bibliographis-
6 Embodiment design ches Institut.
6.1 AEG-Telefunken, 1971. Biegen. Werknormblar 5 N 8410. 6.30 Dangl, K., K. Baumann and W. Ruttmann, 1969.E,rfahrungenmit austenitischen
6 2 Altmann . F. G 1962. Antriebstechnik. Z. VDI 104, 965-976 Armaturen und Formstricken, Special issue: VG B-Werkstofftagung 1969, 98
6 3 Andresen , U.,1915 Die Rationalisierungder Montage beginnt im Konstruktions- 6.31 Dhen, K., 1959 Aufgaben und Nutzen innerbetrieblicherNormungsarbeit, D1N-
biiro, Konstruktion 27, 478-484. Abr from: Ein Beitrag zum methodischen Mitteilungen 38, 7-11.
Konstruieren bei der montagegerechtenGestaltung von Teilen der Gross-serien- 6.32 Dilling, H.-J. and T. Rauschenback,1975 Rationalisierungund Automatisierung
fertigung, Diss. 1975, TU Braunschwerg. der Montage, Diisseldorf: BDl-Verlag.
6.4 Banninger, E., 1910 Normung-Zwangsjacke oder unentbehrlicher Helfer des 6.33 DIN, Krieg, K. G. (ed), 1975.Nationale und internationaleNormung, Handbuch
Konstrukteurs? technica 21, 1947-19'72and 22, 2171-2117. der Normung, Vol. 1, 3rd edn., Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb.
6.5 Bartel, A., 1963 Die Entstehung von Passungsrostbzw Reiboxydation, Ma,r- 6.34 DIN, 1975. Verzeichnis der Normen und Norm-Entwiirfe. Berlin, Cologne:
chinenschaden 36 Beuth-Vertrieb.
6 . 6 B a u m a n n , K . , 1 9 5 8 .M a n n e s m a n n - L e c t u r e on 28.11.195U. 6.35 DIN 820, 1969. Sheet 2. Gestaltung von Normbliitten Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-
6.7 Bautz, W. and A. Thum, 1935. Die Gestaltsfestigkeit,Stahl und Eisen 55. Vertrieb.
1025-1029 & Schweizer. Bauzeitung 106, 25-30. 6.36 DIN 82Q, 1975, Sheet 3. Normungsarbeit-Begriffe, Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-
6.8 Beckstroem, J., 1965 Eigenspannungenund Betriebsverhaltenvon Schweisskon Vertrieb.
struktionen. Konstruktion 17. l0-15. 6 37 DIN 752f-7527. 7971 74. Schmiedesttickeaus Stahl.
6 . 9 B e e l i c h , K . H . , 1 9 7 3 .K r i e c h - u n d r e l a x a t i o n s g e r e c hKt ,o n s t r u k t i o n 2 5 , 4 l 5 4 2 1 6 38 DIN 8577,1974.Fertigungsverfahren;Ubersicirl.Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb
6.10 Behnisch, H., 1973. Thermisches Trennen in der Metallbearbeitung-wirtschaft' 6.39 DIN 8580, 1974. Fertigungsverfahren.Einteih.rng.Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Ver-
lich und genau, ZwF 68,337-340. trieb.
6.ll Beitz, W., 1971. Normung und Systemtechnik-Grundlage fiir ganzheitlichc 6.40 DIN 8588, 1966. Fertigungsverfahren. Verteilen-Einordnung, Unterteilung, Beg-
Betrachtungsweisein Konstruktion und Fertigung, DIN-Mitteilungen 50,378 381 riffe Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb.
6.12 Beitz, W., 1969. Moderne Konstruktionstechnik im Elektromaschinenbau,Kr.rrr 6.41 DIN 8593,1961 Fertigungsverfahren Ftigen-Einordnung, Unterteilung, Begriffe.
struktion 21, 461468. Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb.
6.13 Beitz, W., 1973. Die normgerechte Konstruktion, Konstruktion25,319-327. 6.42 DIN 9005, 19731 4. G esenkschmiedestuckeaus Magnesium-Knetlegierungen Berlin,
6.14 Beitz, W ., 1973. Fertigungs- und montagegerecht, Konstruktion 25, 489-497 Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb
6.15 Beitz, W. and H. Staudinger,1969. Guss im E,lektromaschinenbau,Konstruktiott 6.43 DIN 31 000, 1977. Sicherheitsgerechtes Gestalten technischer Erzeugnisse
2t. t25 130. Allgemeine Leitsritze Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb
6.16 Berg, S., 1969 Die besondere Eignung der Normzahlen ftir die Grossenstufurrg. 6 . 4 4 D I N 3 1 0 0 1 , 1 9 7 4 , S h e e t s 1 , 2 a n d 1 0 . S c h u t z e i n r i c h t u n g e nB.e r l i n , C o l o g n e :
D IN- Mitteilungen 48, 222 226. Beuth-Vertrieb.
6 17 Berg, S., 1965. Konstruieren in Grossenreihenmit Normzahlen, Konstruktion l7. 6.45 DIN 31051, 1974, Sheet l. Instandhaltung: Begriffe. Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-
15-21. Vertrieb.
6.18 Berg, S., 1952. Gestaltfestigkeit: VDI-Verlag. 6.46 DIN 33400. 1974. Entwurf: Gestalten nach arbeitswissenschaJtlichenErkennttris-
6 . 1 9 B i e z e n o , C . B . a n d R G r a m m e l , 1 9 5 3 , T e c h n i s c h eD y n a m i k , V o l s 1 & 2 . l r r , l sen, Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb.
edn., Berlin, Gottingen, Heidelberg: Springer 1959. 6.47 DIN33401, 1974.Entwurf. Stellteile.DIN33 402,1914.Entwurl: K0r1tcrnm.t.tt"r'on
6.20 Bowden, E. and D. Tabor, 1959. Reibung und Schmierungfester Korper Bcrlrrr, Erwachsenen Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb.
Gottingen, Heidelberg; Springer. 6.48 DIN 40041, 1967 Zuverldssigkeit elektrischer Bauelemantc: IlegrilJL'. Ilcrlin.
6.21 Brandenberger, H., n.d Fertigungsgerechtes Konstruieren.SchweizerDruck- trrt,l Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb.
Verlagshaus 6.49 DIN 50960, 1963. Korrosionsschutz, galvanische Uberztiga. Berlin, Ctllogrlc:
6 2 2 B r o i c h h a u s e n ,J . , 1 9 7 0 B e e i n f l u s s u n gd e r D a u e r h a l t b a r k e i tv o n K o n s t r u k t i o r t ' Beuth-Vertrieb
werkstoffen und Werkstoffverbindungcn durch konstruktive Kerben, Obe rl 6.50 DNA, 1970. Die Zusammenfiihrung der elktrotechnischenNormen- und Vors-
l i i c h e n k e r b e nu n d m e t a l l u r g i s c h cK c r b c n . V D I - F o r t . s c ' h r i t t . s - B e r i cShet e r i,c sl . N , ' chriftenarbeit in Deutschland, DIN-Mineilungen 49, 401-471'
2 0 . D i i s s e l d o r f :V D I - V e r l a g . 6.51 DNA, Krieg, K. G., 1914. Innerbetriebliche Normungsarbeit. Handbuch der
( r . 2 3 [ J r o r r r r c rA, . , l 9 6 i 3 .W c r t l n u l v s c l l s i n t c B r i c t t cl { i r t i o n a l i s i c r t n t g , W c r k s t u l t \ t ( ( l t t t t L Normung, Vol. 2. Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb.
5 U .N r I 6.52 DNA-Grundnormen fiir die mechanischeTechnik. DlN-Taschenbuch I. Berlin,
6 , 2 . 1I l u r g r k r r ' 1 .M . . l t ) 7 3 , I ; l i c s s F r ' r c t ' l t t(ci c r l i t l l t t t t g v o t t W c r k s t ( i c k c t t .u ' t - Z n t r l ( l o l o g r r e: B c u t h - V e r t r i e b .
l:crtig 63 . lti7 .192. 651 I)Nn, Kricg. K. G. (ed), 1972: Normung als Instrument der Unterneh-
'l'tcrtttlttttclt
( r , 1 5 ( ' l l r r r s r r r r , v c rl,l , . l t ) ( r t ) , K r i t r r r ' h c t S P r u t t t t t t t g r l t t . , t l t ttrtlt t t l t t t t t rr r r r c r r s l c i t r r n gl l u t t t l l t u t l r d c r N o r r n u n g , V o l 3 B e r l i n , C o l o g n e : B e u t h -
t t t c l t r r t ' l t s i g t 'ltl t ' l t t t r l trt t tl t t t t t p ,A o l r l r l l l l f t r r l l l, 1 l 5 ( , Vcrtrit'h,
 References References 371
376

Festlegungen Berlin, 6.80 Hartmann, A., 1959. Die Druckgefahrdung von Absperrschiebernbei Erwarmung
6 54 DNA, 1971. Normenverzeichnis mit sicherheitstechnischen
Cologne : Beuth-Vertrieb. des geschlossenenSchiebergehduses,VG B- Mitteilung, 1959, 303-307.
vielseitiges Ferti- 6.81 Hartmann, A., 1959 Schaden am Gehdusedeckeleines 20-atii-Dampfschiebers,
-'-- von bobeneck, O., l9lZ. Die Elektronenstrahltechnik-ein
6.55
gungru"rfahren, Feinwerktechnik und Micronic 77 ' 98-106' . VGB Mitteilung (1959), 315-316.
Asthetik Munich: Moderne 6.82 HAusler, N., 1974. Der Mechanismusder Biegemomentiibertragungin Schrumpf-
6.56 bor"fles, G., 1964. Gute Industrieform und ihre
Industrte. verbindungen. Diss , TH Farmstadt
6'5TEhrlenspiel,K,lg6gMehrweggetriebefiirTurbomaschinen,Z.-vDI111'218 6.83 Heckl, M., 1975. Minderung der Korperschallentstehungund Korperschallfort-
leitung bei Maschinen und Maschinenelementen,VDI-Berichte 239. Diisseldorf:
VDI-Verlag.
6.84 Heckl, M. 1975. Konstruktive Moglichkeiten zur Minderung der Luftschallab-
strahlung, VDI-Berichte 239. Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlag
6.85 Heesch, H. and O Kienzle, 7963. FltichenschlussBuchreihe Wissenschaftliche
Normung. Berlin, Gottingen, Heidelberg: Springer.
6.86 Hertel, H , 1969. ErmiidLrngsfestigkeit der Konstruktionen. Berlin, Heidelberg,
New York: Springer.
dung. Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb' 6.87 Hertel, H., 1960. Leichtbau Berlin, Gottingen, Heidelberg: Springer
Backenbremsen, Konstruktitttt 6.88 Herzke, I.,197 1. Technologie und Wirtschaftlichkeit des Plasma-Abtragens,ZwF
6.62 Falli, K., lg6i. ThEorie und Auslegung einfacher
19,268-27r. 66.284-291.
6.t39 Homig, H., \971. Metall und Wasser-Eine kleine Korrosionskunde E,ssen:
663Feldmann,HD.,lg5gKonstruktionsrichtlinienfiirKaltfliesspressteileausStahl.
Konstruktion 11, 82-89. Vulkan.
der Warmfestigkeit' Arclr 6.90 Hirskes, H. and W. Schmidt, 1972 Unterschiede im Kriechverhalten bei Raunr-
6 64 Florin, C. and H. i.g;unO, 1970.Uber die Grundlagen
E isenhiittenw esen 41. 7'77-7 78' temperatur von Stdhlen mit und ohne ausgepriigterStreckgrenze, DEW-I-echn
fiir den Konstruk- Berichte 12,29 34.
O.OSFotter, D., 1975.MaschinenakustischeBerechnungsgrundlagen
teur, VDI-Berichte 239 Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlag' 6.91 Illgner, K -H , 1972. Werkstoffauswahl im Hinblick auf wirtschaftliche Ferti-
Bestandteil einer Firmen- gungen, Z.-VDI 114, 837-841, 992 995
6.66 Friedewald, H. J., 7970. Normung-integrieren{er
6 92 Jaeger,T. A , 1974. Zur SicherheitsproblematiktechnologischerEntwicklungen,
QZ 19.r-9.
6.93 Jakob, E,. and H. Scholz, 1962.Beleuchungim Betrieb. RKW-Series, Arbeitsphy-
siologie-ArbeitspsychologieBerlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb.
6.94 Johnson, Kenneth, Lester: Grundlagen der Netzplantechnik YDl-Taschenbircher
T.53. Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlag.
6.95 Jung, A., 1959 SchmiedetechnischeUberlegungen fur die Konstruktion von
Gesenkschmiedestiickenaus Stahl. Konstruktion 11. 90-98.
6.96 Kaminsky, G. and H. E Pilz, 1963. Gestaltungvon Arbeitsplatzund Arbeitsmittel,
RKW Series, Arbeitsphysiologie-Arbeitspsychologie Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-
Vertrieb.
6 . 9 7 K e i l , E , E O . M i i l l e r a n d P . B e t t z i e h e , 1 9 7 1 .Z e i t a b h d n g i g k e idt e r F e s t i g k c i t s -
und Verformbarkeitswerte von Stahlen im Temperaturbereichunter 4(X)'C,,4rr'lr.
Eisenthuttenwesen 43. 757-1 62.
6 98 Kesselring, F., 1954. TechnischeKompositionslehre Berlin, Gdttingcn, Ilcitlcl-
berg: Springer.
6 . 9 9 K i e n z l e , O . , 1 9 6 1 N o r m e n u n d K o n s t r u i e r e n ,K o n s t r u k t i o n1 9 . l 2 l - 1 2 5
6.100 Kienzle, O., 1943. Normung and Wissenschaft,Schweiz. Techn Z ,533-539
6 . 1 0 1 K l e i n , M , 1 9 7 0 .E i n f u h r u n g i n d i e D I N - N o r m e n , 6 t h e d n . , S t u t t g a r t :T e u b n e r
6.102 Klein, H. C , 1959. Hochwertige Schraubenverbindungen:Gestaltungsprinzipien
und Neuentwicklungen, Konstruktion ll, 259-264
6 103 Ktocker, J.,1,967. ZeitgemasseForm Mrnich: S0ddeutscherVerlag.
6. 104 Kloss, G., 1964. Einige ribergeordnete Kor.rstruktionshinweisezur Erzeilung
echter Kostensenkung, VDl-Fortschrittsberichte,Ser. 1, No. l. Drisseldorf: VDI-
Vcrlag.
(r.105 Kkros, K II.. 1973. Werkstoffoberfldchenund Verschleissverhaltenin Fertigung
M t r c l t i n c t r b u r ,M r t n i c l t : I l l r r t s c r '
zttt r r r r t lk o r r s l r r r c t i v cA r t w c n d : : r ' r gV, l ) I - I l t r i t h t c 1 9 4 D t i s s e l d o r f :V D I - V e r l a g .
6 , 7 ( ) I l r r i l r i r c h ,l i , . n . t l . M o t l i l i z i c r t c l r n c | | r c s c l r | t d c n r f i k k r r r r r u l i l t i o r t s - l l y p < t l h c . s c ( r .1 0 6 K l r r t t c r ,K , , l 9 5 l r r n t l l ( ) 6 0 ,' l l c l t r t i r c l r r . \ < / r n ' i r t 1 3 t o t g , V
r/chrc.
r l c s l ) : r r r e r l e s t r ; t k c r t | | r h l n n
l l l
r l l l ( t l l s c h r c i t c t t t l c rScltritligtttrp o l s . I . Q2 . 2 n d e d n .
Itcriickrictrtigrrrrg 'l'cr'hrr
M i t t c i l r r t t g t ' rItM 5 l l l o l l e r l i r r ,( i ( ) t t i n t l ( ' r It .l e i t l c l l r c r gS: p r i r t g c r
I i r l r r r r i r l l r r r r rtl , , l l l . , t r i . l , r . l c r t r g l . t : rll) n r m r l r u h :
 References Refercnces
378

6.107Knappe, w., 1969. ThermischeEigenschaften von Kunstoffen,Z.-vDI 1'1L, 6.135 Miiller, E. A., 1962. Klima im Arbeitsraum, RKW-Series Arbeitsphrsrul,rgrc.
746-752. Arbeitspsychologie. Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb.
6.108Koch, H., 1963. Ltiftung des Arbeitsraumes,RKW-SeriesArbeitsphysiologie- 6.136 Mitler, K., 1970. Schrauben aus thermoplastischenKunststoffen, Wcrkstttlltltttt
Arbeitspsychologie. Berlin, Cologne:Beuth-Vertrieb' 514 & 515.Munich: Hanser.
6.109Kohler,^G. and H. Rognitz, 1,961.. Maschinenteile Parts 1 & 2. Stuttgart: 6.137 Muller, K., 1966. Schrauben aus thermoplastischenKunstoffen. Kunst.\t().ll( 1t\.
Teubner. 241-250.422429.
6110 Koenig,W., 1953.Wechselwirkung zwischenKonstruktionund rationallerFerti- 6 1 3 8 M i i l l n e r , E . , 1 9 6 0 . E n t w i c k l u n g s t e n d e n z einm B a u v o n T u r b o g e n e r a t o r e l ./ l / l (
gwg, Z.'VD195, 89G903. N achrichten ( 1960), 279-286.
Frictionand Wear,London: Butterworth'
6.111kragelskii,I. V., 1'965. 6.139 Munz, D., K. Schwalbe and P. Mavr, lgTL Dauerschwingverhaltenmetalli.sclrt,r
6.112Kro"emer.K. H., \961. Wasman von Schaltern,Kurbelnund Pedalenwissenmuss Werkstoffe. Braunschweig: Vieweg.
Berlin, Cologne:Beuth-Vertrieb. 6.140 Murrell,K.,1971. GundlagenundPraxisderGestaltungoptimalerArbeitsprozt,.ssc.
6.113Kiihnpast, {., 1968. Das Systemder selbsthelfenden Losungenin der ma- Diisseldorf. Vienna: E,con.
schinenbaulichen Konstruktion.Diss.,TH Darmastadt' 6.141 Neuber, H., 1958. Kerbspannungslehre. Berlin, Gottingen, Heiclclberg:
6.114Kurtze, G., H. Schmidt and w. westphal, 1.915.Physik und Technik der Springer
6 . 1 4 2 N e u b e r , H . , 1 9 6 8 . U b e r d i e B e r i i c k s i c h t i g u n gd e r S p a n n u n g s k o n z e n t r a t i obnc i
Festigkeitsberechnungen, Konstruktion 20: 245_251.
6.l43 Neumann, J. and K.-P. Timpe, 1970.Arbeitsgestaltung.Psychologi.st'hc f,rpltlt'rttt'
b_eiUberwachungs- und Steuerungstiitigkeiten.Berlin: VEg Oeutriher Ve rllg tlcr.
Wissenschaften.
6 . 1 4 4 N i e m a n n , G . , 1 9 6 3 . M a s c h i n e n e l e m e n t ev,o l . l , | & 2 t s e r l i n . G ( i t t i n g c r r .
Heidelberg:SPringer. Heidelberg: Springer.
-Allgemeine
Gestaltungslehre, Nr. 2: Maschinenkonstrukriont 6 145 Niemann, G., 1975 Maschinenelemente.vol 1 Berlin, Fleidelberg. New york:
6.118Leyer, A,.",1664.
lehre (technica-series 2) Basel, Stuttgart:Birkhauser' Springer.
6.119Leyer, A., 1963.Grenzenund Wandlungim Produktionsprozess, technica12. 6'146 n.n. (anon.), 1969 ErgebnissedeutscherZeitstandversuche lanper Dauer. Dussel-
191-208 dorf: Stahleisen.
6.120 Leyer,A., 1913-4.Kraft- und BewegungselgTellg.dgl technicu
l\4aschinenba]us, 6.747 n.n.. (31on.;, 1958 Nickelhaltige Werkstoffe mit besonderer Wdrmeausehnung,
26'(1973) 2498-2510,2501-2520;technica5 (1914) 319-324;technica6 (1974\ Nickel- Berichre D 16. 79-83.
435 440 6.14u oehler, G. and A. weber, 1972. Steife Blech- unt) Kunststofl'konstruktionen,
6.121 Leyer, A., 1963-1971. Maschinenkonstruktionsle/rre Nos. 1-6 (technica-series) Konstruktionsbricher Vol. 30. Berlin, Heidelberg, New york: Springer.
Birkhduser' 6. 149 Pahl, G., 1973. Ausdehnungsgerecht.Konsrruktion 25, 367-373.
Basel,Stuttgart:
dcs 6.1-50Pahi, G.,1972. Bewdhrung und EntwicklungsstandgrosserGetriebe in Kraftwer-
6.122 Lipertz, tt., lgl+. Neue zeichnerische _zurRationalisierung
Darstellungsart
Konstruktionsprozesses vornehmlich bei methodischen Vorgehensweisen. Diss . ken, Mitteilungen der VGB 52, Kraftwerkstechnik, 404_415.
TH Darmstadt. 6.1-51Pahl, G., 1967. Entwurfsingenieur und Konstruktionslehreunterstiitzentlie mod-
erne Konstruktionsarbeit, Konstruktion 19, 337-344.
6 123 Maduschka, L., 1936. Beanspruchung von Schraubenverbindungenund zweck
mdssige Gestaltung der Gewindetrager. Forsch. Ing Wes' 7,299-305' 6.152 Pahl, G., 1973. Grundregel frir die Gestaltung von Machinen und Apparaten,
Konstruktion 25. 271-277.
6.124Magnus, K., 1969. Schwingungen.Stuttgart: Teubner.
6 1 5 3 P a h l , G . , 1 9 7 5 . I n t e n s i v e r eS i c h e r h e i t s b e t r a c h t u n g ednu r c h m e t h o c l i s c h c K
6 t25 Magyar, J., n.d., From unpublished lectures,TU Budapest' s prr-
6.126Mahle-Kolbenkunde, 2nd edn. , 1964, 18 and 45. struieren, Chemie-lngenieur-Technik47, 457-464.
6 . 1 5 4 P a h l . G , 1 9 6 3 . K o n s t r u k t i o n s t e c h n i ki m t h e r m i s c h e nM a s c h i n c r r b l u .K o r r . r / r r r A -
6 . 1 2 7Martin, P. and M Mathey, L975. Zwerlassigkeitsbetrachtungenbeim Ttrr
binenschutz. VGB Kraftwerkstechnik 55, 574-580' 655-660' tion 15.97-98.
6 . 1 5 5 P a h l , G . , 1 9 7 3 .P r i n z i p d e r A u f g a b e n t e i l u n g ,K o n . y t r u k t i o t2t5 , l 9 l _ 1 9 6 .
6 . 1 2 8Matousek, R., 1957 (repr. 1974) Konstruktionslehre des allgemeinen Mttt
chinenbaus.Berlin, Gottingen, Heidelberg: Springer. 6 . 1 5 6 P a h l , G . , 1 9 7 3 .P r i n z i p i e nd e r K r a f t l e i t u n g , K o n . s t r u k r i o n2 5 , I - 5l _ 1 5 6 .
6. 157 Pahl, G. , 1973. Das Prinzip der Selbsthilfe, Konstruktion 25, 231 23i .
6 . t 2 9 M a t t i n e . A . a n d K . U l m t r , 1 9 6 3 . S p a n n u n g s v e r t e i l u n ign M e t a l l k l e b v e r b i r r
6 . 1 5 8 P a h l , G . , 1 9 7 1 . S i c h e r h e i t s t e c h n i ka u s K o n s t r u k t i v e r S i c h t . K o n s r r u k r i o n 2 3 .
dungen,Z.-VDI 105, 1449 1457.
6 . 1 3 0 M a J z . W . a n d H . K i e s . 1 9 7 3 .F u n k e n e r o s i v eus n d e l e c t r o c h e m i s c h eSse n k e n ,Z r t / 207_208.
68.418-422. 6.159 Pahl, G. and E. Schmidt, 1973 wie sieht die wissenschaft die Zukunft der
6.131 Mclirn. E arrcltl. Parkus. 1953.Wiirrtrcsl)dtuuut!:(tt inlrtlga.sluliontirer Tcnrptrtttttr Sicherheitstechnik? Sich erh e itsin g enieur g, 404-419.
(r.l(r0 Paland, E. G., 1960. Untersuchungen iiber die
/r'lrir'r. V i c r r n l t : S p r i r t g c r
-'l'irProggc.. Sicherungseigenschaften von
6 1 . 1 2M c r r g c s ,( i i r n t l I { . l ( ) 7 0 , l ) c r r k c r ri t t V c r t o r t t t t r r t g ccrlll c i c h l c t t t l ; r t Schraubenverbindungenbei dynamischer Belastung. Diss., TH Aanover.
( ) 1 76 2 9 ' 6 l6l I'lltigcr, A.. 1964. Stabilittitsprobleme
I ) i r r r t ' . s i < t r r i c rvc(l)l l l K t r r t s t s t . l l t c i l c 1/ .1 ," 1 ' l ' l I l l , 1 { I l ' l ( ) , der Elastostatik.Berlin: Gcittinsen. Heidel-
O . t 1 . lM i l i t z c r . ( ) M , , 1 9 7 5 ,l { t , t ' l r t . r r r r r o r c l l l I r r l r c A t t s l c p t r r t vott Wcllctt-N:rlrt'tr
g Itcrg:SIrrirrg,cr.
6, 1(rl ltrrlrirr.wicz. I: ,l()65 l;ricriortrttrd wcor o.f Materiul.t.New york: wiley & Sons.
l ' r t s s t t ' t l c t v t ' t l r i t t t l t t t t l . l )t i' tr tr , I I ! l l e t l r l t
r r I t . t l \ , f r r l r l t . rI . l ( ) ( r 5 ,i ) t r I r t r l l t t t t , ! r t l t t g r n t e n r tu u l l t r . , l r l r r i t t t i r ' l t , ' r h r ' l t . ' I ttl't, l r r Int'.
( r l t r l l { l r r n r . l r l r o l t ,l rl , l l . l ( ) 7 { } S
, i r . l r t . r l r c i t s g c r ( . ( (. li lt l.(s, t\ u l l e rvr o r r M i r s c h i r r cunn l e r
l l t ' t l t t t :\ ' r ' t l ; r l I t t l r t t t t t '
3g0 References References

besonderer Beriicksichtigung des "Gesetzes i.rber technische Arbeitsmittel", 6.188 Schmidtke, H , 19i3. Ersonomie 2-
Z.:VDI 1.12.55-5'7& 109 114. l r . r r g .M u n i c h : H a n s e r .
6.164 REFA,19'75. Methodenlehredes Arbeitsstudiums,4th edn. Munich: Hanser. 6 . 1 8 9 S c h m i d r k e .H . . l 9 6 t t . I J h e r w a c h u n p s - .
6.165 Reinhardt, K.-G., 1969.Verbindungskombinationenund Stand ihrer Anwendung, S e r i e s .B e r l i n , C o l o g n e : B e u t h - V e r t r i t
Schweisstechnik 79. Heft 4. 6 . 1 9 0 S c h n e i d e rP. . , l g 6 T . V e r b i l l i e r e
Konsrr
6.166 Reuter, H., 1958. Die Flanschverbindungim Dampfturbinenbau, BBC-Nachrich- men. DIN-Mirrelilunpen 4b. I4l- l4-s.
ten 40.335-365. 6 . 1 9 1 S c h i l t z ,W . a n d H . Z e n n e r , 1 9 7 3 .S c h a d e n s a k k u m u l a t i o n s h y p o t h e s e n
zlr l(.lr(.r\
6.167 Reuter, H., 1958. Stabile und labile Vorgiinge in Dampfturbtnen, BBC'Nachrich- d_auervorhersage bei schwingenderBeanspruchung-Ein tiiiiscner U6cr 5lir L, /
ten 40.391-398. Werkstofftechnik 4, 25-33 & 97-102.
6.168 Rixmann, W. , 7962. Etn neuer Ford-Taunus 12M, ATZ 64,30G311. 6'192
lchwaigerer, S', 1.970.Festigkeitsberechnung von BauelementendesDurtrltll,r,ttrl
6.169 Rodenacker, W. G., \976. MethodischesKonstruieren. Berlin, Heidelberg, New Behtilter-und Rohrleitungsbaus,2nd edn. Eerlin, Heidelberg, New yori:
S'ri'
York: Springer, 2nd edn. ger.
6.170 Rognitz, H. and G. Kohler, 7959, FertigungsgerechtesGestaltenim Maschinen- untl 6 ' 1 9 3 S c h w e n k ,W . , 1 9 6 9 S t a n dd e r K e n n t n i s s er i b e r d i e K o r r o s i o nv o n
S t a h l , S r a l tt!u r t l
Gertitebau. Stuttgart: Teubner. Eisen 89. 535-547.
6.171 Rohmert, W., 1966. Maximalkrbfte von Mdnnern im Bewegungsraumder Arme 6 . 1 9 4 S h r e i r , L . L . , 1 9 6 3 & 1 9 6 5 .C o * o s i o n . L o n d o n : G e o r g e N e w n e s .
und Beine Report 1616 by N. Rhenish-Westphalian Government. Cologne. 6.195 Skiba, R , 1975. TaschenbuchArbeits.sicherheit,2ndei'n. Bielefeld:
Schnridr
Opladen: WestdeutscherVerlag. 6 . 1 9 6 S p i i h n , H . a n d K . F a s s l e r ,1 9 6 6 .K o n t a k t k o r r o s i o n :G r u n d l a g e n - A u s w r r k u l *
6.172 Rohmert, W , 1973. Psycho-physischeBelastung und Beanspruchung von Fluglor- Verhiitung, Werkstofle und Korrosion 17, 321_331
sen REFA-schriftenreihe Arbeitswissenschaftund Praxis 30. Berlin, Cologne: 6 197 Spiihn H. and K. Fdssler, 1972. Zur konstruktiven Gestaltung kurrosionsbcrlr-
Beuth-Vertrieb
lqluclter Apparate in der chemischen Industrie, Konstrttktiin 24.2,19-l.5li &
6.173 Rohmert, W, and T. Hettinger, 1963. Korperkrafte im Bewegungsraun, RKW- Jl tL--tt).
Series Arbeitsphysiologie-Arbeitspsychologie.Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb. 6 1 9 8 S p e h n 'H . , E . R u b o a n d G . P a h l , - l 9 7 3 .K o r r o s i o n s g e r e c h tGee s t a l t u n g .
Korr,rrrrrli-
6.174 Rohmert, W. and P. Jenik, L912. Maximalkrdfte von Frauen im Bewegungsrautrt tion 25. 455-459.
der Arme und Beine, REFA-Schriftenreihe Arbeitswissenschaft und Praxis 22 6 1 9 9 S t e i n a c k ,K . a n d F v e e n h o f f , 1 9 6 0 . D i e E , n t w i c k l u n gd e r H o c h t e m p e r a r u r t u r -
Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb binen der AF.G, AEG Mitt. 50.433-453.
6.175 Rohmert, W., W. Laurig and P. Jenik, 1974 Ergonomie und Arbeitsgestaltung, 6 . 2 0 0 S t o f e r l e , T . , H . - J . D i l l i n g a n d r . R a u s c h e n b a c h ,r 9 7 5 . R a t i o n e i l e
Montage-
Dargestellt am Beispiel des Bahnpostbegleitdienstes.REFA-Schriftenreihe Arbeits- H e r a u s f o r d e r u n ga n d e n I n g e n i e u r ,Z . _ V D I | l j , : ' 1 5 7 1 g .
wissenschaftund Praxis 31. Berlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb. 6 . 2 0 1 S z a b o ,r . , 1 9 7 2 .H o h e r e T e c h n i s c h M e echanikl & II, 5th edn.,Berrin,Heidelberg,
6.176 Roth, K., 1960 Die Kennlinie von einfachenund zusammengesetzten Reibsystc-
men. Feinwerktechnik64. B5-142. t Stahl und G ussei,sen_W erks toffv erh alten.
6.177 Rubo, F.., 1966. Der chemische Angriff auf Werkstoffe aus der Sichl d c s
ryen. Leipzig: VEB_Fachbuchverla,r.
Konstrukteurs. Der Maschinenschaden, 65-'74 Maschinenelemente, repr.. Berlin, Heitlcl_
6178 Rubo, E., 1972. Die Wirkung der Erosion bei der Stromungskorrosion. ( - -
Chemie-Technik l. l7-7-179. ris der Netzplantechnik.Munich: Motlcrrrc
6.179 Rubo, E., 1960. Hohere Sicherheit chemisch beanspruchter Bauteile dtrrclr
konstruktive Korrosionsbewertung am Beispiel von Druckapparaten, KonstrttA 6 2 0 5 T h u m , A ' , 1 9 4 4 . D i e E n t w i c k l u n gv o n d e r L e h r e d e r G e s t a l r f c s t i g k c i r ,
Z.-Vt)l uu.
tion 12. 490-498. 609-615.
6.180 Salm. M and W. Endres, 1958 Anfahren und Lastdnderungvon Dampfturbitrcrt, 6206 Tietz, H., 1953.
lil-lgqttttt".peratur-Kraftwerk mit eiucr frrischdurnp1tcnrpcr-
atur von 610"C, Z -VDI 96.802_909
6 207 Tochtermann' W and F. Bodenstein, 196u & 1969. Kotrstrttktitttt.y<,!t,trtt,tttt,
tlt,r
, ^ . M a s c h i n e n b a u e sP, t s . 1 & 2 , u t h e d n . B e r l i n , H e i d e l b c r g .N c w y . r k : s p r i n g c r ,
6 . 2 0 8 T o d t , F . , 1 9 5 8 . M e t a l l k o r r o s i o n , 2 n de d n . B e r l i n : d e G r ' u y t c r .
6'209 Trapp, H.-J.' 1975..Beitrag zum rechnerischen Betriebsfestigkeitsnachweis
fijr
Bauteile in Kranhubwerken, Konstruktion 27. 1i2_14g.
nic 76.326-330. 6.210 Tschochner, H., 1954. Konstruierenund Gestarten.E,ssen:Girarder.
6 . 1 u 4 S c h m a l e . H . . 1 9 6 5 .D a s S e h e n b e i d e r A r b e i t , R K W - S e r i e s . B e r l i n , C o l o g r t t ' 6.211 ruffentsammer, K., 1975. Ldrmarm Konstruieren-Ein Beitrag
zur Humani-
Bcuth-Vertireb _ ^. - :i".rung des Arbeitslebens, vDI-Berichte 239. Diisseldorf: VDl-v6rlag
6 1 f t 5 S c h m i c l ,E , . 1 9 6 9 T h e o r e t i s c h cu n r l c x p c r i r n c n t c l l cU n t c r s u c h u n gc l e sM c c l t r r t t t ' 9 ?l? Vlhig, H H . 7970 Korrosion und Korrosionsschutz. Berlin: Akacleirie-Verlag.
r r r u s c l c r I ) r c l t n r o r l c n t i i b c r t r i r g t r n gv o t t K c g c l - [ ' r c s s - V c r b i n i l u l r g c l rV I ) l ' l ' " r r 6 213 Vcit, H.-J and H. Scheermann,7972. Schweissgerechtes Konstrureren. Schweis-
r c l t r i t l . r b r ' r i t lSr tccr i c sl . N o l ( r l ) i i r s c l l o r l :V l ) l - V c r l r r g .stt'<hni k 32. Diisseldorf: Deutscher verlag fi.ir Sihweisstechnik.
( r ,l f i 6 S c l t r r r i r l t .K [ ) . i r n r l I ) , . l S r ' l r l o r l c"r 1 9 7 5 , K o t t s t t t t k t i v c M i i g l i c l l k c i t c r r r t r r (r,211 vDl/ADB.Ausschuss Schmieden,
1g75: Schmiedestilcke-Gestaltung,Anwen_
M i r r r l c r . r r r rt lger ' ( i c l i i r r s r . h ( . i l t \ltlei l n l l . I ' l l l . l h ' r u ' h t t l l t t V l ) l - V c r l r r g . t l t u r 1 4I l, c i r l t i t ' l r ' .l l i r g c r r :I n i o r m a t i o n s s t c l l e
Schmiedestiick-Verwendun ! Indus-
im
t r , p i 7 S c l r r r r i t l t ,h .l il , , l , t 7 t I . . t r t y t t , , t t tI. ' t ) r u n i l l t y r n n t t n v l t l i l l t r r , ' l r l r r i tt t t r r ll r r t t t i c v er b i r n r lI ) c r r t s c h cS l chnricrlcrr,
trrrrr irlrtttit'ltl llrttrt't ( r l l 5 \ ' l ) l l t r . r i c l r t cl l ( ) . l ( X r f i ,K o l t l t t o l t l r t r t t , .
l ) t i r s c k l o r l 'V: I ) l _ V c r l r r g ,
 R e f er e n c e s
R e f er e n c e s

6.244 Wiegand, H. and K. H. Illgner, 1962.Berechnungund Gestaltungvon Schrauben-

6.216VDl-Berichte 214, 1911. Werkstoffeuntl BauteiLfestigkeit,Lecturesto VDI-
verbindungen Berlin, Gottingen, Heidelberg: Springer.
Conference,Dusseldorf.Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlag
Dussel- 6 2 4 , 5 W i e g a n d , H . , K . H . I l l g n e r a n d K . H B e e l i c h ,1 9 6 3 . E i n f l u s s d e r F e d e r k o n s t a n t e n
6 2lj VDI-Berichte 23g,1g'75Beispieleftir li)rmarmeMaschinenkonstruktionen. und der Anzugsbedingungenauf die Vorspannung von Schraubenverbindungen,
dorf: VDI-Verlag Konstruktion 20. 130 137.
Kon-
6.218 VDl-Richtlinine 2224, lg12 Formgebung technischerErzeugnissefiir den 6.246 Winkel, A. and E,. Walger, 1964.Staub am Arbeitsplalz RKW-Series Arbeitsphy-
strukteur. Dusseldorf: VDI-Verlag siologie-ArbeitspsychologieBerlin, Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb.
Konstruieren Dusselclorf:
6.219 VDI-Richtlinie 2225. 1969. Technisch-wirstschaftliches 6.217 ZGV-Lehrtafeln, 1966. Erfahrungen, Untersuchungen, Erkenntnisse fiir das Kon-
VDI-Verlag. struieren von Bauteilen au.sGusswerkstoJJen Dusseldorf: Giesserei-Verlag.
6 220 VDI-Richtl]nie 2226, 1965 Emplehtung fl)r die Festigkeitsberechnungmetallischcr 6.248 ZGV-Mitteilungen, n d. FertigungsgerechteGestaltung von Gusskonstttktionen.
Diisseldorf: biesserei-Verlag
6 249 ZGV, n.d. Konstruieren und Giessen.Diisseldorf: Giesserei-Verlag
6.250 Zienkiewicz, O. G., 1975. Die Methode der finiten Elemente in der Ingenieur-
wissenschaft.Munich, Vienna: Hanser.
6.251 Zinkler. B , 1962 Gesichtspunktedtir das Gestalten von Gesenkschmiedeteilen.
Konstruktion 14. 274-280.
dt'r[: VDI-Verlag.
Diisseldorf: VDI
6.224 VDl-Richtlinie 3239,1966 Sinnbikler ftir Zubringefttnktionen
Verlag.
Grundlag,en Dtts 7 Developing size ranges and modular products
6.225 VDI-F.ichtlinie 3720.1g'.'5.Li)rmarm Konstruieren-Allgemeine
seldorf: VDI-Verlag. 7 1 AEG-Telefunken, n.d.. Hochspannung,s-Asynchron-Nornmoloren,Bauku\lctt\\'r'
Diisseldorf: VDI
6.226 VDl-Richlinie 400tr, ;512, Sheet 2 Uberlebenskenngrbssen. tem, 160 kW3150 ftll Druckschrift E41.01.0210370.
7 2 A c h e n b a c h , H . - P . , 1 9 1 5 . E i n B a u k a s t e n s y s t e mf i i r p n e u m a t i s c h eW c g e v c n t i l e
tvt-Z ind. Fertigung 65, 13-I7.
7.3 Beitz, W and W. Keusch, 1973.Die Durchfuhrung von Gleitlager-Variantenkon-
struktionen rnit Hitfe electronischerDatenverarbeitungsanlagenVDI-Berichte 196.
Diisseldorf: VDI-Verlag.
Siemens-Verlag. 7 . 4 B e i t z , W . a n d G . P a h l , 1 0 7 4 B a u k a s t e n k o n s t r u k t i o n c nK o n s t r u k t i o n2 6 , 1 5 3 1 6 0
von Thet'rrto
6.231 Vorath, B.-J.. 1972 B"ittug zur Elmittlung der Ermiidungsfestigkeit 7 . 5 B e r g . S . . 1 9 4 9 .A n g e w a n d t eN o r m z a h l B e r l i n , F r a n k f u r t : B e u t h - V e r t r i e b .
plasten. ZwF 61. 412-418. 7 (r Berg. S., 1969. Die besonclereEignung der Normzahlen fiir die Grossenstufung.
Engirttt'r
6.232 Wachter, A., 1960.Proper design avoidsequipmentcorrosion. Chemical D I N -M ineilungen 48, 222 226
l n g , F e b . 1 9 6 0 ,1 6 2 - 1 6 6 . 7 7 Berg, S., 1965. Konstruieren in Grrjssenreihenmit Norrnzahlen. Konstruktion 17.
6 . 2 3 3 W " a g n e rK . u t E i n t e i l u n gv o n V e r s c h l e i s s v o r g i i n g c t t
, ., B. Pfeiland G. Keil, 1975Z 1 - 52 1 .
Schmierungstechnik 6. 299 302 7.8 Berg, S., 1959 Die NZ, das allgemeineOrdnungsnrillel North-Rhine Westphalia
Vl)l
6.234 Wahl, W. 1975. Abrasive Verschleissschiidenund ihre Verminderung G o v e r n m e n t P u b l i c a t i o nN o . 4 .
Diisselclorf: v I ) |
Berichte 243: "Methoclik der Schaclensuntersuchung". 7.9 Berg, S , 1958: Theorie der NZ und ihre praktischeAnwendung bei der PlutLurgtt
Verlag. Gestaltungsowie in der Fertignttg North-Rhine Westphalia Gttvernment Publicir-
6.235 Wank-e, K., 1963. Wassergeki.ihlteTurbogeneratolen. In AEG-DampJntrbirt''rr' tion No. 3-5.
Turbogeneratoren.159-168.Berlin: Verlag AEG --- 710 Borowski, K.-H., 1961 Das Baukastensy.tted me r T e r l t n i k B c l l i n . ( i ( r t t i r t g c r t .
Mllirtz
6.236Warnecke. H. J., I{.-G. Lohr and w. Kiener, 1975 Montagetechnik I l e i d e l b e r g :S p r i n g e r
KrausskoPf. 7 . 1 1 B r a n k a m p , K a n d J . H e r r m a n n , 1 9 6 9 . B a u k a s t e n s y s t c r l a t i k - ( i r u n r l l i t g c tut t t t l
mit tl.tctttto
6 . 2 3 7 W e b e r , A . , t q o + . w e r k s t o f f - u n d f e r t i g u n g s g e r e c h t eKso n s t r u i e r e n A n w e n d u n g i n T e c h n i k u O r g a n i s a t i o n .I n d - A n z e i g e r9 l , n o s . 3I & . 5 0
plastischenKunststoffen. Konstruktion 16, 2-11 ' 7.12 DIN 323,1914. Sheet 2. Normzahlen u Normzahlreihen. Berlin. ('olognc: Bcuth-
D1N-MittL'ilturtl'tt
6 . 2 3 t 3W c b e r , H . , 1 9 6 8 ,B e d e u t u n g u n d A u f b a u d e r W e r k n o r m u n g ' Vertrieb
18.41-16. 7 l3 Evershein.r.W. and H -P Wiendaht, 1971 Rationelle Aufrragsult*'icklung irtt
r t . fl i r t g i r t "'
6 , 2 3 9 W c l c h . B . , 1 9 6 1 .T h e r r . n aIln s t a b i l i t yi n I I i g h - S p c e dG e a r i n g ,l o u r n a l Konstuklionsburo. Essen: Girardet
7.14 Flender. 1,972.FirmenprospektNo. K. 21731D Bocholt.
7 l5 Franzmann. K , 1975. Interner Entwicklungsberichtder Fa. Borsig. Berlin.
7 l6 F'ricricwald. H -J, 1912. Normzahlen Grundlage eines h)irtschaftlichenErzeugnis-
l)t ()grunun.r tscrlin. Cologne: Beuth-Vertrieb.
7 . 1 7 l : r i c r l c w i r l d .. l - . 1 1 9 7 0 . N o r r n u n g i n t e g r i e r e n d e r B e s t a n d t e i l e i n e r F i r m e n -
k o n z c l r l i o n ,l ) l N - M i t t c i l t u r , r . l.c1r9r .I I I
, l r r r l i c h k c i t s g e s cbt zcci n rI : n t w r r r cl l c k t r o r r c c h a n i s c h(ei er r i i t e .
7 , l S ( i er l r l r r t l 1. , . l t ) 6 t ) A
,/ t l,l il 1, l0ll l0l(),

384
in derHydraulik,wt.-Z-ind' Fertigung
7.19Glaser,F.-J.,1975.Baukastensysteme 65.
19-20.
7.20 Gregorig, R., 1967.Zur Thermodynamik der existenzfAhigenDampfblase an einem
aktiven Verdampfun g skeim, V erfa hr enstech nik (1967), 389.
7 21 Hansen TransmissionsInternational, 1976. ProspectusNo. 6102-62/D Antwerp
7.22 Hansen TransmissionsInternational,1976. ProspectusNo. 202lD. Antwerp.
7 23 Keusch, W.,1972. Entwicklung einer Gleitlagerreihe im Baukastenprinzip.Diss..
TU Berlin.
7 . 2 4 K i e n z l e , O , 1 9 3 9 .D i e N Z u n d i h r e A n w e n d u n g , Z . - V D [ 8 3 , 1 1 7 .
7 25 Kienzle, O., 1950 Normungszahlen. Berlin, Gottingen, Heidelberg: Springer.
7 2 6 K i e s o w , H . , H . M i h m a n d R . R o s e n b u s c h ,1 9 7 0 .A u t o m a t i s i e r u n gv o n E n t w u r l .
Konstruktion und Auftragsbearbeitungim Anlagenbau, dargestelltam Beispiel des
Warmetauscherbaus. IBM'Nachrichten 20, 147-153.
7 27 Lang, K. and G. Voigtldnder,1971 Neue Reihe von DrehstrommaschinengIOSScl
Leistung in Bauform B3, Siemens-Zeitschrift 45, 33-37 .
7 28 Lehmann, T., 1959. Die Grundlagen der Ahnlichkeitsmechanik und Beispiclc ftir
ihre Anwendung beim E,ntwerfen von Werkzeugmaschinen der mechanischcrr
Umformtechnlk. Konstruktion II, 465-473.
7 .29 Maier, K., 1975.Konstruktionsbaukastenirr der Industrie, wt.-2. ind Fertigung65
21-24.
7.30 Matz, W., 19,54 Die Anwendung des Ahnlichkeitsgesetzes
B e r l i n , G o t t i n g e n ; H e i d e l b e r g :S p r i n g e r .
7 3 l P a h l . G a n d W B e i t z , 1 9 7 4 . B a u r e i h e n e n t w i c k l u n gK, o n s t r u k t i o n2 6 , 7 1 7 9 l ' .
113-118.
7.32 Pawlowsk:i,J., IgTL Die Ahnlichkeitstheoriein der physikalisch-technischen
schung. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer.
7 . 3 3 R e u t h e , W . , 1 9 5 8 . G r o s s e n s t u f u n gu n d A h n l i c h k e i t s m e c h a n i kb e i M a s c h i n c r r
elementen, Bearbeitungseinnheitenu. Werkzeugmaschinen.Konstruktion 19, 465
476.
7.34 Siemens, 1971 Drehstrommotoren fiir Hochspannung, Druckschrift M 2 and
s u p p l e m e n (t l q 7 5 ) .
7.35 Schwarz,W, 1975. Universal-Werkzeugfrhs-und -bohrmaschinennach Grundprizi
pien des Baukastensystems,wt.-2. ind. Fertingung 65,9-12
7.36 Weber, M., 1930. Das allgerneineAhnlichkeitsprinzip der Physik und sein Zttsrtttt
menhang mit der Dirnensionslehreund der Modellwissenschaft.Jahrb. der Sclrillt
bautechn. Ges 31. 27+354
7.37 WestdeutscheGetriebewerke, 1975. Prospectus Bochum
References
English Bibliography
English texts referred to by Pahl and Beitz are included in this list. Their original
reference numbers are given in square brackets.
Adams, J. L.,1974 Conceptual Blockbusting, Freeman, San Francisco.
Alger, J. R. M. and Hays, C. V., 1964 Creative Synthesis in Design, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
Andreasen, M. M., 1983 Kahler, S. and Lund, T.,1983 Designfor Assembly, Springer,
Berlin
Andreasen, M. M. and Hein, L., 1987Integrated Product Development,IFS Publications/
Springer-Verlag, Bedford/Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo.
in der Verfahrenstechrtil, Archer, L.8., 197I Technological Innovation - A Methodology, Inforlink, Frimley,
Surrey.
Asimow, M.,1962 Introduction to Design, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
Bailey, R. L., 1978 Disciplined Creativityfor Engineers, Ann Arbor Science,Ann Arbor,
Fltt Mich.
Besant, C. B., 1980 Computer Aided Design and Manufacture, Horwood, Chichester,
Sussex.
Dalkey, N. D. and Helmer, O., 3 April 1963An Experimental Application of the Delphi
Method to the use of Experts, ManagementScience,9,3. [5.9]
de Bono, E.,l97I The Use of Lateral Thinking, Penguin, Harmondsworth.
-,1976 Teaching Thinking, Temple Smith, London.
Dieter, G., 1983 Engineering Design - A Materials and Processing Approach,
McGraw-Hill, Tokyo.
Burr, A. H., 1981 Mechanical Analysis and Design, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Oxford & New
York.
Deutschman, A. D., Michels, W. J. and Wilsom, C. E.,1975 Machine Design, Macmillan,
London.
Dixon, J. R., 1966 Design Engineering: Inventiveness,Analysis and Decision Making,
McGraw-Hill, New York. [1.11]
Eder, W. E. and Gosling, W., 1965Mechanical SystemDesign, Pergamon, Oxford.
Faires, V. M., 7972Design of Machine Elements,Macmillan, London.
Flursheim, C. H.,1977 Engineering Design Interfaces,Design Council, London.
French, M. J., 1985 Conceptual Design for Engineers, Design Council/Springer-Verlag,
London/Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo.
7988 Invention and Evolution: Design in Nature and Engineering, C.U.P.,
Cambridge.
Furman, T T. , 1981 Approximate Methods in Engineering Design, Academic Press,New
York.
(ilcgg. G. L., 1969The Design of Design,C.U.P., Cambridge
-, 1912'l'hcSelection of Design, C.U.P., Cambridge
-. 1973'l'haScicn<'e of Design, C.U.P., Cambridge.
- , l 9 t i l ' l ' l r t I ) c v c l o l t n u ' not . fD e . s i g nC, . U . P . , C a m b r i d g e
( i o r r l o n , W . l . 1 . , . \ r ' r r r ' r i cI sI :.r r p c r & I \ r w . N c w Y o r k .
[5.llt]
 English BibliograPhY English Bibliography 387
386

d' Butterworth, London' Wachter, A., February 1960 Proper Design Avoids Equipment Corrosion, Chem. Engng.
h' London. 162,166.
[6.2321
ttton focused on System Management' Paper Wallace, P . J . , 1952 The Techniquesof Design, Pitman , London.
tndrstry Safety Conference, Goddard Space Welch, B., 1961 Thermal Instability in High-Speed Gearing, J. Engng. for Power,9lff.
[6.23e]
'tPirtut 6102- 621D, AntwerP' Withing, C.,1966 CreativeThinking, Reinhold, New York, 1966.[5.63]
Woodson, T T., 1966Introduction to Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill, New York.
-,1976 Prospectus202D, Antwerp [7'21]
Harrisberger, L., 1966'irgin,"'iontiip, A Philosophy of Design' Brooks/Cole'
Belmont, Ca
London-
Hubka, V.; 1982 Principles of Engineering Design, Butter-worth'
n. c., tsso optimim design ol Mechanical Elements' Wilev' New York'
l"h;;;;, 'Mechai.nical
-, 1SZS Disign Synthesil, Krieger, Huntington' Nly Ygt-k .
Jones, J. C.,1970 Design"Meihocls: Seedsof Hu^o, Futures,wiley, New York.
London [6 111]
iiiu!"f .tii, i. v ., tsos"Friction and ear, Butterworth, W
Krick, E. V., 1969 An Introduction to Engineering and Engineering Design, Wiley, New
Y o r k . [ 3 . 2 ,5 . 2 9 ]
Leech.D.J.and.I.urner,B.T.,lg85EngineeringDesignforProfit,EllisHorwood.
Chichester.
Leyer, A., l9'74Machine Design, Blackie' I ondon'
Eng. Des., London.
fr4i.pfti,'O. L., 1960 The Decisions of Engin.eerinbgDesign,Inst.
E., 1963 The Controlled Evol"ution of Engineering Design, Inst. Eng' Dcs '
tUatcneti.
London.
Matousek,R.,l963EngineeringDesign:ASystemaricApproach'Blackie'London'
London'
Muyuff , W. H., 1979Pinciptes in Design, Design Council'
W. H., 1969 hngineering Design Allyn & Bacon' Boston' Mass'
MidOenOott,
-, fSSt What Every Enginei Sho'd rcnoi 'q'tout InventinS'Dekker' New York'
D.,1969 Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill' New York'
Morrison,
Homewood, Ill [2. 17|
N;i;;, c., tgol worti iysii? o"ri[", The ltlgak Concept, rr-win,
-,9eZWork D e s i g n ,l r w i n , H o m e w o o d , I l l ' [ 2 ' 1 8 ]
Ne* York'.[5'34]
OsUo.n, A. F., 195iA iphed' Imaginarion,Scritnet'i,
B.', lg77 b'rrr;n, Ptinning, and Development Methodology' Prentice-Hall'
O;it"f.ky,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
New York'
Parr, R]E., l97O Principtes of Mechanical Design, McGraw-Hill'
(., 1SZOer:iiciptrs of Engineering design, Postgraduate 46,pp.344-349 [l 31'
ir""ny, n.
1 5l
pitts, Cl, 1973Techniquesin Engineering Design, Butterworth' London'
pofui, p., 1976A Bac'kground t6 Engineering Design, Macmillan' London'
Rabinowicz,E.,1965 iriirtiona,dtf'a'ofliateriik,Wiley'NewYork'-[6'162]
neOto.O, C. O., 1975Mechanical Engineering Design' Macmillan'.London'
and Production. Macmillirrt'
fi;ir, C. and Koenigsb.ig.r, n, tilO Orstg" foistrength
London.
Sherwin'K.,lg82EngineeringDesignforPerformance,Horwood,Chichester'
New York'
S'nEf.V,l. C.,l9ll ltiechaniiat EngineeringDesign,McGraw-Hill'
inr".ir, L. L., 1965Corrosion,Newnes' London [6 194]
Dgign. Pergamon,oxlortl
iirnnn, H. A.. lg75 A Student,sInrroductbn o Engineering
s;.;ia;M.F., lg7gDesignof M a c h i n c _ E l c m a n t s , p r c n t i c c-Hall,EnglewoodCliffs.N..l
Pilman, London.
Svcnsson,N. L., l976 Iitroiuctbn to l..ngint,Uingl)esign,
;i lndu.ttriull)<'.ti14rr, Ncwncs-lJcttcrworth'I-ondon'
i.i"., i.'.,l.)79 Sh,,rtCourscin (iruphic Mttdtlltttli'
-. Antlrcirscn. M. M. and Sclrnritlt. 1", 1j.., l9?9 littl4itrctring
Ncwrtcs-lJtrttcrw()rt l' l . o t t < k l t t
'lfrrirrg.
M . W . : r n t l l . : r i t h w i r i t c . l l ,{ . , l ( ) 7 ?l l t w t t t l n v e n t ,M a c n r i l l i l n . l . o t t d o t t '
V I ) 1 , ' i 9 H 7 V l ) l l ) t . t i g : t tl l t t n t l / t o o Ai l l / , l y r t o r m t u ' A p p n n t h . k t , t l r t ' l ) t , t i 1 4t tt.tl l r r l t t t t t ' t l
(icinr.n ctliti.rr). Vctcitt l)errtsr'lrr't
S ! , r r t , r , r t t t r t !t , r ' r u l i u l r ( t r i r r 1 r l i l t r ( t r t . l l t ) l l t l
I t t p c r t i e r r rV c c t l l r g 'l ) t t s s c k h r t I
lndex
abrasion 254
abstractformulation 77
abstraction 58
and problem formulation 5943
procedure during 60
to identify problems t42,156
accelerationforces 118
adaptations 56
adaptivedesigns 2, 4, 67,78
adaptive functions 3M
adhesivejoints I99
adjustments 294
alarmvalve 225,229
algorithmic-physical design
method 13-15
algorithmicselectionprocedure 72-13
aluminium-siliconalloypiston 236
ammonia synthesis 209
analysis 32-3,38
of existingtechnicalsystems 83-5
of naturalsystems 83
ofspecification 59
AND-functions 69,72
AND-relationship 298
animal feed bag filling, storing and
loading,63
assembly 20, 177,180,194,228,373
assemblydesignaspects 289-296
assemblyevaluation 29+7
assemblyguidelines 291
assemblyoperations 29I-5
assemblytypes 289-90
associatedforces 203
associationofideas 32
automatedassembly 293
auxiliaryflows 75,78
auxiliaryfunctions 24,74, 344
auxiliarymodules 3M
Baatz,U. 126
B a c h .C . 6
backwardstcpsmcthod 34
balirncctrl'lilrccs 203-5.212
balancedvalue profile 132
balancingcomponents 2I3
balancing elements 204
basic functions 343
basicmodules 344,350
bearing bracket designvariants 317
bearing-lubricationsystem72
bearingoil pressure 225
Deanng
force transmissionin 202
hydrostatic 223
hydrostaticaxial 2I8,2I9,228
bending stressesin 2I9
modular system 346,350
plain 348
rolling 210
taper roller 225
bending moments 208
bendingstiffness 2lI
bendingstresses 197,211,279,220
bent parts 277
Berg, S. 3I9
black boxes 26
boilers with membranewall 207
bolted connections 216,247
boltedjoints 2ffi,245,288
Booleanalgebra 69J2,711
bought-outcomponents 284
brainstorming 87-9, 158,160
Brankamp, K. 45
Bredtschneider-Uhde self-sealins
cover 2I4
brittle materials I92
BSI (British StandardsInstitution) 259
building-blockconstructionmethod 272
carton assemblymachine 55-6
cast components 272
catastropheanalysis32
Cauchycondition 318,331
Cauchynumber 318,331,332
causc-cffcct relationship 198
cirvitati()n 254
390 Index Index 39r

CENC (Comit6 Europ6ende firming-up into concePt cut-out components 279,280 economicevaluation\37
Normalisation) 259 variants 11G18 cyberneticconcepts l7 economicfactors 348
CENELEC (Comit6EuroP6ende logicalconsiderations 69Jz economicfeasibility 30
Normalisation man-hoursspenton 366 economic rating 128,136, 13'7, 309, 374
searchingfor solutionprinciplesfor data banks 83 elasticcouplings 222
Electotechnique) 259
sub-functions 824 data collection 36 elasticdeformation 792,197
characteristicnumber 322 data sheets 326,328,334,339
checklist,summaryof 362 selectingsuitablecombinations elasticforces 318,330,332,350
nz-rc decimal-geometic preferrednumber elasticpipelinesupports 335
circuit-breaker 209 series 3f922
clampconnectionof superheated steam stepsof 57 electricmotor end cover 270
useofterm 57 decisionprocess 39 electricmotor housing 283, 340
pipe 208
concretefoundations I97 definitive layout 166 electricmotor magnetsupport 268
clamping 277 deformation 19V203,211., 237,247,248
clarity l72J ,182,31.5 connectors 293 electricmotor sizerange 339
constraints 58,59,64,70 Delphi method 89-90 electricmotors
classificationschemes 68,94-101, 108, designcataloguesI2-I3,101-8
109 fictitious 65 1\C332
genuine 65 designconcept 1 modular systems 355J
classifyingcriteria 94, 95, 98, 104-5 designcyclewith learningsystemand
closedmodular systems 345 consumercharacteristics136 electricalinstallations 193
control equipment 20 environment 18 electricalmachines 307
clutchoverallvaluerating 403 designfactors 8
clutchselectionprintout 402 conventionalaids 83_6 electromagnetically operated
conveyors,modular systems 36I designfaults 297,306 clutches 149
COz-enrichedlye 255 designfunctions 13
cold extrusion 275 coolingfan 307 eliminationprocedure lI2
corrosion 92 designmethod 4,9-15 embodimentdesign 2,30. 42, 166-374
collaboration 334 designprocess 3&44
combinationof principles 29,lO9 accompanyingerosion,cavitationand basicrulesof 172-3
abrasion 254 flowdiagram 44 checklist 170_2
companyobjectives 46,47 phasesinvolved 40
companypotential 47 causesand effectsof 249 corrective steps 166
contact(bimetallic) 255 work flow during 4V evaluation of 309-14
companyshortcomings 50 designscope 14
compatibilitymatrix 109,111 crevice 257 guidelinesfor 227-96
local 251-5 designtask 45 principlesof 194-227
compatibilityverification 109 and activities 1-3
component 20 transitionzone 255 stepsof 1.66-iI
uniform 249-50 seealso task useofterm 166
componentfastening185 designtypes 4
componentformdesign 212-81 corrosiondamage 249-56 energyconversion 21-3,78
designingagainst 2554 designerresponsibility 53 energysources,harmfuleffectsassociated
componentsafety 185 deignerole 2,4,49
compositeconstructionmethod 2772 corrosionfatigue 253 with 193
costsof components,materials,semi- detaildesign 3I,424 energystorage 99,795
compressed gasesstorage 255 differentialconstructionmethod 267-9
computer-aideddraughting 5 finishedmaterials,and standard engineeringsystems,fundamentals
and bought-outparts 287 dimensionalchanges 56 of 2W37
computers dimensionallayouts351
designapplications 5 cost reduction 59 environmentaldemands18
costrequirements 194 DIN (GermanStandards Institution) 259 environmentalsafety 182
potentialbenefitsof 110,112,118
cost structure 286 DIN 44 300 37 epicyclicgearboxes212
conceptvariants 44, \16-8,348-50 DIN 44 301 37
comparing 126,138 costingand costevaluation 284-9 equipment 20
Coulomb'slaw 26 DIN 69910 25 ergonomics 177,179,193,228
determing the rating of 126-9 discursivebias 92-1.08
evaluating 118-19,151,163,350-1 couplings 21, 183,192,222,231 Erkens,A. 7
crane drives 202 discursiveprocedures32 erosion 254
firming up into 146,163 disturbingfactors 297-302
selecting 350-l creativeability 362 errors
creep 24{0_3 divisionof labour 334 identification 166,I7I
conceptual design 2, 30, 40,57-165,362 documentation 284,351
abstracting to identifytheessential abovecriticaltemPerature 243 inevitabilityof 32
at room temperature 242 dominancematrix 130 minimising 32
problems 5746
below criticaltemperature 242 dough-shapingmachine74 essentialmodules 354
comhiningsttlutionprinciples l0U-12 drawingrequirements 3514
cstablishing functionstructurcs designfeatures 246-9 evaluation 119
crccpcurvcs 242 drop fbrging 275 comparisonofprocedures 132
66-82 durability 191,221
c v i t l u i t t i r t gc ( ) n c c l )vt a r i i t n ti t g i t i t t s t c r c c ps t r c n g t h 2 4 1 , 2 4 3 conceptvariants 163
( ' r i t i c a l ) : r t hA n a l y s i s 3 3 c l y n a m isci m i l a r i t y 3 1 6 ,3 1 8 , 3 3 6 during conceptualphase 132-9
tccltnicnl itntl ccttntlntic
critcrit I ltt .19 criticrrltcnll)criltttrc l,l(I .l embodimentdesign309-14
e v i r l r u r l i o trtl t t t i t t t l I l 2 t , ( ' r i l i e i rwl l t i r l i r r g s p c c t l s3 ( X r c c o r l o r r r i c c h i r r a c t c r i s t1i c3s4 i n c l i v i c l usatlc p si n 1 3 3
c x i t t t t l t l c so l 1 , l t )( r 5 ('u\lolttclr1x'cilielttttetiotts 1't'l ct\lrorrriccritcrilr .ll{ c v i r l u i r t i ocrhr i r r t 1 2 3 1
, 27.312
 Index 19.1
392 Index

evaluationchecklists 131,135 function structure 2M,66-82, 157 ideal system 34 logicalrelationships69J2,78,84

weightingfactors 135 derivationof 76
evaluationcriteria 262,296,310,311 developmentof 80
compifingparameters122-3,135 establishing I42,34b
derivationof 120,134 practicalusesof 77-82
identifying 1192I,134 representationof 82
of approximatelyequal selectionprocedure 79
importance I22 simplification 79
weighting 121 studyof 77
evaluationuncertainties130-1,136, variantsof 75
138,144 function variants,overall 351
existingsolution 18 functionalinterrelationship 234
existingtechnicalsystems 83-5 functionalrelationships,logicalanalysis
expansioneffects 22840 of 69J2
'182
exponentialequations 333J functionalsafety
fundamentalsof engineeringsystems
2C_31
fundamentalof systematicapproach
fail-safeprinciple 183 JI_/
fatiguesafetyfactor 398 future development 5l
fault-identification 366
fault-treeanalysis 298-301
gatevalve 176
finite elementmethod 227-8,362 gearcouplingsizerange 326-'7
first solutionconcept 78
gearcouplingtest rig 114
fits 328 gearpumps 337
flangedconnection 235
gearboxes 206,207,212
flangedjoints 247 modular systems 35'740
flowlinesof forces 196,201,2045,
generalconstraints 30
22t,230 generalobjectives 30
forceddeformationdiagram 198,216
generallyvalid functions 68
force transmission 228 geometricscaling 319
in bearings 202
geometicseries 322
principles of 195-205 geometricsimilarity 23I, 315, 316, 319
forcetransmission path 272,222
globalapproach 33
principleofdirect andshort 197-8, glued connections 199
205
grinding 279,280
form design 8, 29, 167,174-8,791-3,
24V311,320
for components 272-81 hammerforging 274
for jointing 279 Hansen,F. 9
for primary shapingprocesses 2724 heat transfer coeffient 240
for secondaryshapingprocesses 274 helicalcompressionsprings 393
for separation 276-9 helicopterrotor-bladeattachment
forminterrelationship 28_9 211
forward stepsmethod 34 Holliger,H. 32
Fouriernumber 331 honeycombstructures 84
frettingcorrosion 201 Hooke'slaw 242
l'rictiondrive 2l'7 hoopstresses 221
l r i c t i o n atlh r c a d - l o c k i n g d e v i c9e2 4 l l t r h k aV, . 2 0
I u c lg a u g cd c s i g ns o l u t i o np r o p o s a l s I l 5 hydraulicprolcclionsystcm l Uu
l t r r r c t i r rcna r r i c r s l 7 1 , 2 8 6 Itydro-clcct ric gcrrcrat()r
mag,nct
l u n c t i o nc o s l s 3 . 5 0 whccl 271
Irrrtctiort ntotltrlcs 3.1.'1, .1.1.1 Ityrllo-clccltic rot()r'
gcrtcrirl()t
I r r r t c t i o t t - r l r i c t r l isl tyet(t lt l l c s i sI ( t rlrnrltueli(ln 170
identificationof components 292 logicalsystems 72
IEC (InternationalElectrotechnical logicalthinking 362
Commission) 259 long-termloads 246
'if then' relationship 69
inertiaforces 203,317,318, 330,348
inevitabilityof errors 32 machines 20
informationcollection 54,166 machiningprocesses276,277
information conversion 354,38, 42 Maduschka.L.2(n.201
informationfeedback 18 Magyar, J. 200
informationprocessing 22 main functioncarriers f67
information quality evaluation 36 main functions 24
information storage 56, 83, 105, 111 maintenance 171,181,794,228,313
information systems 37 market analysis 46
initial effect 214 market conditions 47
inputs 20,23 massproduction 3,296
inspection 294 matcheddeformationsprinciple
inspectioncover 275 199-203,205
integralconstructionmethod 269-71 materials 22
inter-disciplinarycollaboration 334 materialsbehaviour 240
intuitive bias 86-92 materialsconversion 79
intuitive throught 31 materialsselection 236,28I,284
ISO (InternationalOrganisationfor mathematical methods 8, 110 2
Standards) 259 M a t o u s e kR
, . 7,8
mesurementson existingsystems 84
method 635 89
joining methods 293 milling 219
model tests 84.316
modulardevelopment 343
K e s s e l r i n gF,. 1 , 7 1 9 ,f 2 2 , 1 9 4 modular productdevelopment 346-54
keyed connections 20I modular productsystematics 343-5
Kienzle,O. 3I9 modular products 34241
kinematicsimilarity 316 modular systems
Koller, R. 13,26 advantages and limitationsof 354-5
Krumhauer,P. 26 developmentof 346
Krihnpast,R. 2I8,222 examples 355-61
open 345,360,361
modulecharacterisation 345
labyrinth seal 58 module development 345
laminar flow 332 modulusof elasticity 247,244
lathe controls 333 monitoring 72,18V9
Laudien,K. 7 bearingoil pressure 225
187, layouts 167,174-8,791-3,230,311 morphologicalmatrix 108
learningprocess 17-19 motion forms 29
Leonardo da Vinci 6 motion variations 97
leverlaw 26 motor vehiclefuel garage 61
L e y e r ,A . 7 , 8 , 7 9 4 movementof parts 293
lightweightstructures,sandwich Mtiller. J. 10
constructionfor 84 multiple gears 213
linear expansioncoefficient 228
finearrelationships392
l i t c r a t u r cs e a r c h 8 3 NAND-functions 69
I o c k i n gm c t h ( ) ( l s2 9 4 r r a t u r asl y s t c masn a l y s i s i i 3
krgicirllrrrtcttorts(r() r r c g i r l i orrtrr c t h o d 3 4
394
new developments 59
nickel alloys 230
N i e m a n nG
, . 7,8
NOR-functions 69
NOT-functions 69,72
objectivestree 120,122
oil scraperrings 320
one-handed mixingtap 151,180
one-offproducts 2
operation 177,181,194,228,313
operatorsafety 182
Opitz,H. 317
8
optimisationcharacteristics
OR-functions 69,72
OR relationship 298
organisationalaspects 2,3
organisational model 2
originaldesigns 4, 67
outputs 20,23
overalleffects 214
overallfunction 24,29,58,66,73,75,
r09,11s
overalllayout design 266-72
overalltask 24
overallvalue determination 126,B7-B
overlappingjoints 199
overloadprotection 22Vl
overridingsimilaritylaws 328,33V2,
340
overridingstandards 328
overridingtaskrequirements332-3
Paland,E. G. 200
pantographconstructions
partslists 354
physicafeffects 26,73-:7,92,105
physicalinterrelationship 26-8
physicalprocesses
picking-upoperation 293
pistonwith unstablecharacteristics223
plannedinstabilityprinciple 225-7
plant 20
plasticdeformation 192
positioningrcquircmcnts 293
possiblcmoclulcs 354
p o t i r t oh i r r v c s t i r r ng a c h i r r c7 6 . I l 0
p o w c rl u n c t i o r t s 3 3 3
PrclcrcnccJrrrtcctlttrcl0()
prclcrrctlttunthcrscrics .l l9 1.5,.1.15
prc-krirtlctl cllccts l.l.l tr
p r c r s u r er l i s t r i h t r t i o r tl : . 1
Indcx Index 395
pressurelossfunction 332 Ringfederconnector2IO signalsflow 82
primary shapingprocesses 2724 risk assessment 190 similarity at constantstress 317-9
principleofuniformstrength 194,205 risk designaspect 303-14 similarity concept 316
problem analysis 32 R o d e n a c k e rW
, . G. I0,26,92 similaritylaws 315-9
problemformulation 5946 Rohrback,B 89 designsbasedon 331
problem-solving 38-40 Roth, K. 12,26,104,738,227 overriding 328,33U2,340
asinformationconversion 354 Rotscher,F. 6 similarityrelationships 317,319,3312
procedure-inherentshortcomings 131 simplicity 172,177-81 ,315, 333
producercharacteristics 136 safe-lifeprinciple 183 sinteredcomponents274
product definition 49 safetyaspects 173,l8l-94,228 situationanalysis 46
product ideas 45,47-B designingfor 189-94 sizeeffects 196
product planning 45-9 safetyblow-off valve 298 sizeranges 315
product selection 48 safetychecklist 189 developmentof 342
product structuredata 374 safetyfactor 191,398 geometricallysimilar325-8
production I77, I79, 794,228,373 safetyfencecontacts 188,189 semi-similar 32U2
productioncosts 264,283 safetyprinciples slidingarrangement325
productiondesignaspects 264 87 direct 182-7 slidingcontrol valve 779
productiondocuments 284,351 indirect 187-9 solderedconnections199
productionmodules 343,346 safetyrequirements 30, 193 solution concept 29
production-orientatedstructure 364 safetytechniques 181 2 solution principles 28,29, 32
productionprocedure 265 safetyvalves 225 combinationof methods 912
productionrequirements,overriding 333 salesforecast 334 combiningto fulfil overall
productiontimes 264,288-9 sandwichbox girder 84 function 108-10,146
professionalknowledge362 sandwichconstructionfbr lightweight for sub-functions 85, 98-101
progresscheck 39 structures 84 intuitive biasmethods 86 92
protectiveequipment I87,193 schedulerequirements194 searching for 824,143,158,348-50
protectivesystems 187,189 s e a l sa n ds e a l i n g B f , f 9 2 , 2 0 8 , 2 1 4 , 2 1 8 , selectingsuitable 162
'provideone-wayaxialmotion'
219,239,268,313,322,348 selectionof combinations of 148
function 108 searchfield 48 sub-functions 82
psychologicalaspects 1,3 secondaryshapingprocesses 274 to fulfil sub-functions 143,158
selectioncharacteristics 105 solutionvariants 83
selectionchart ll2 binary evaluation 130
q u a l i t ya s p e c t s 2 3 , 5 1, 2 6 4 self-balancingsolutions 218-20 optimisationof 384
qualitycontrol 717,179,194,228,313 seff-damagingeffects2154 rough comparisonof 130
questions method 34 self-helpprinciple 95,2812 Sommerfeldnumber 331
self-limitingeffect 224 specialfunctions 344
315 self-monitoringsystems188-9 specialmodules 344
R 10series 319 self-protectingsolutions 22V2 specification 514,77, 134,151,362-3
R 20 series 320 self-reinforcingarrangements276 analysisof 59
rating diagram I25 self-reinforcingbrakes 278 checklist 54
26,924 rationalapproach 5,6 self-reinforcingseals 218 contents 51
Redtenbacher, F 6 self-reinforcingsolutions 276-8 examples 56
redundancyprinciple l8+ 7 self-sealingcover 2f4 format of 52
R e i d l e rA , . 6 semi-finishedmaterials 2814 furtherapplications 56
relativeexpansionof components separatingprocedures276 Iistingthe requirements 534
23540 shaft-hubconnections 35,97, f04, 115, method of compiling 534
relaxation 2434 201 recommendedlayout 52
r c l i a b i l i t y c s t i m a t i ol n3 l test rig 139 stability 192,227
rcpcillparts 377 shapegenerationofcomponents 397 stabilityprinciple 223-5
rcsirlualstrcsscs 202 shearstresses 99,200 staff exchanges 2
rcs()nirnccs192,227 shrinkfits 201,218 standardcomponents284
l { c u l c n u xl,; , ( r shut-offdevices 227 standardisation
R c u t l r cW , , .11(l signals 22 asa straitjackct 2-5tj
l l i r ' h t c r ,A , t t r s i g r t i r l s c o n v c r s i o2n3 , 7 9 o t rj c c t i v c o
s l 256S
 Index Index 391
396

general comparison and statementof T s c h o c h n eH

r ,. 7, 8 Wrichtler,R. 77
standards 56,231,25ffi4
authors'own aims 19 turbineblades 220 warningsystems 181,187-8
developing 2624
historicalbackground G8 turbinecasings 209,233,248 weak links 33,220
typesof 258-60
importantcontributions 6-8 turbo-machinery 21V24 weak spots 131-2,138,I54
using 260_2
nature of I 6 turning 278 wear 192,228
staticsimilarity 316
steady-staterelativeexpansion 235-1 need for 4 6 Weber-Fechnerlaw 320
steaminlet pipe 233 systematicselectionchart 113 weight effects 330
steamturbine housing 240 systematicthinking 362 uniform strengthprinciple 796,205 weightingfactors 1272, 126,r35
steamvalveoperation 305 s y s t e m a t r cv a n a t l o n 3 5 unsteadyrelativeexpansion 237 welded components 28I
steamvalvespindleseals 239 systems 20 use-valueanalysis 116-18,130 weldedconstruction 283
stepcharacteristics322 systemsapproach l5-7, 33 welded joints 202
stepsizes,optimum selectionof 322-5 systemstheory 15 welding process 279
storagerequirements 291 Wiegand,H. 200
value analysis 24, 33, 119,2854 winding device 307
strengthdiagram 136
task clarification 40,49-55, 151 value assessment 1244,136 winding machine 269
strengthproblems 22'7
task division for distinct functions 206-11 value function 125 Wcigerbauer,H. 8
stressconcentrations 196,199,202,227
task division principle 205-13 value profiles 7312 working principles 178
stressconditions 227
taskrequirements, overriding 332-3 valuescale I25,130
stresscorrosioncracking 253
task-specificconstraints 30 variantdesigns 4,67,404
stressdetermination22'7
teaching methods 5 V-belt drives 2lI2 y i e l dp o i n t 1 9 8 . 2 3 7 , 2 4 62 ,5 4
stressparameter 318
technical artefacts 20 YDI Gddeline 2222 19, 43 yield strength 276
stressrequirements227
technicalcharacteristics 134 VDI Guideline2225 719,1212, 124,
structureanalysis 33, 84
technical composition theory 7 \28, r33, 136
stuffingbox performance 304
technical criteria 48 Velcro fastener 83 Zimmermann,D. 36
sub-functions 24-8,67-8,73,74,'76,78,
technicalevaluation 136 vibrations 92,227 Zwicky,F. 108
97,286
assignmentof 2054 technical factors 348
relationshipsbetween69 technical function 30
solutionprinciplesfor 82 6,98-101' technical rating 128, 136, 137,309, 3 I 1.
143,158 -) L+

subjectiveerrors 130-l technologicaldata 83

sub-objectives 120 technologicallimitations328
sub-systems20, 21,24, 52 technologystate 50
sub-values 126,131,132 temperaturecurves 237
superheatedsteamPiPes 2ll temperaturedistribution23(u-1
clampconnectionof 208 temperatureeffects233,24{l_-1
supplementaryeffect 214 tendencysign 136
surfacefinish 96 tensileforces 208
surfaceforms 28 tensilestresses 279
surfacevariation 97 tensiletestingmachine 73
synchronous generatorcoststructure 287 thermalexpansion 92,228y'.0
synchronousgeneratorrotor 26'7 thermal processes 331
synectics 90-1 thermalsimilarity 31.6
s y n t h e s i s3 3 , 3 8 thermal strains 232
syntheticmaterials230 thermalstresses 246
systemboundary 20 thermo-stablebehaviour224
system elements 21 time commitment 413
s y s t e m a tai cp p r o a c h 3 l - 7 , 3 6 2 4 tolerances 328
systcmaticc<tmbinati< l 0l n
ll-10 tooling 27'7
systcnratic dcsign 2 torcluc-limiters328
accordirtg ttl I lanscn 9- l() ttrrsionaloscillations 2Ml
accorcling ttl Kollcr l3- l5 ttrrsiottal stil'llrcss 202,203,21|
itccordittg to l\ldcttttckcr l(l | | torsiortllslrcsscs 97
lccortlirtgto l{otlt ll t{}ughncss 9 |
tlcvckrpntcttl ol (r l() l r l n s p r l r l 1 7 7 ,l t l 0 . 1 9 1 . l l l ' t , .11. 1
lrs*refortir in*reaseti-reci:ait*s:ssf 3L:*e#"s.c f*i' c*"* *ng1in*erilr.g prcd*cts,
especiailiv eempiexonesdesigiitieJ l"ryiarg+teernrs of sp*ciailetr:, ti:e ciesig;i
prorJsss mustbe carefu!iypiannedanr:i*y*iei"r:;tticnii'y' *xe,;i.rterl.F*r;'thist*
be posr::tlls, th* riesi,;l prc*eiq$f-Iir.ist
il# *r*[r+:*d*...4/1,filst ir-rj"*
Bha**eii;-'d
th*l: lrrtr ;icps, *ach rs'ithil; ap$i"*i.rri*t*:
ri:*rh,teis""iilis
editi*ii cf ihe
ii':liuei-rtiai
br:ckK**'*stra.*k*imra$6c*$lr*: F.{ar*dfu***'f*rSiiueiEue=i: q*s'rd
Fraxisu,by- Frof*:;s*rsS*riiereiF;:i'ilnnrj\fui:lfgi*ng; Liei*:,iaysd#in*'n .*
siruttegy f*i this pificitssa;reihrir';gs
tcg*';i"i*r'th* +xte;:sive i:r:iiynf
kn*wir:iig*ahcui tiloiiertiaFl;r*achestc;sysl*m*ti':{t*si*n. i",lc; +tll*:-b**k
pr+l'icf*s
in fii-rillisl'r s,-l*han ineighiintotlei=niarr thinliinge::*l-tiengirieering
anei#esign nretl'icC*;cg',r.

i'{*nbV{}liac*i:i.il:ir,i,,i.
{"Ingiviti,4e,:iii:.,
wh* sdite#r'h*fi;-*if.:iiEiisnili:i-rslaii*i:,
prr:pnreiftirisn*;ueriii.i*i'r ior iis r-rsr*
witl:sL:gg;+:stii:rrs iil rksi6rrtaari:ing.He
is Univr;reitli
[..eq:lursr in i:l:glin**l'i;'rei
L']+sign
and ;r Fisiir;u,r'cf
Seix'g'r:
Ll,;iia#e,eanri:rir.ige, F-ngiand.