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YOUNG MALES: STRENGTHS-BASED AND MALE-FOCUSED APPROACHES

A REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH AND BEST EVIDENCE

By Helena Barwick
March 2004
Disclaimer
This literature review and analysis was produced by
Helena Barwick for the Ministry of Youth Development.
Its purpose is to inform discussion on young males and
assist future policy, programme and service development.
The opinions expressed in this document do not
necessarily reflect the official views of the Ministry of
Youth Devlelopment.

Copyright
Ministry of Youth Development 2004

Published by
Ministry of Youth Development
PO Box 10-300
Wellington
New Zealand.
Ph 04 916 3645
Fax 04 918 0091
Email mydinfo@myd.govt.nz
www.myd.govt.nz

ISBN 0-478-25019-3

Copies are available from the Ministry of Youth


Development and on its website: www.myd.govt.nz

02 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


Contents

Executive Summary 5
1.0 Introduction 9
2.0 A strengths-based approach 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 What is a strengths-based approach 11
2.3 Strengths supporting positive youth development 12
2.4 Strengths-based programmes 14
2.5 Summary 14
3.0 A male-focused approach 15
3.1 Introduction 16
3.2 Why have male-focused approaches in youth development? 16
3.3 Being male in New Zealand 18
3.4 What are male-focused approaches? 19
3.5 Summary 20
4.0 Programmes for positive male development 21
4.1 Introduction 21
4.2 Mentoring programmes 22
4.3 Adventure education 23
4.4 Community-based youth development 24
4.5 Programmes for parents and families 25
4.6 Transition to employment 27
4.7 Principles of effective programmes for positive youth development 28
5.0 Programmes addressing areas of risk 29
5.1 Physical and mental health 29
5.2 Programmes to prevent offending and reoffending 32
5.3 Programmes supporting boys in education 35
5.4 Building evidence 38
5.5 Principles of effective programmes in areas of risk 38
6.0 Conclusion 39

References 41
Appendix Methodology 45

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 03


04 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches
Executive summary

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 05


This review of research and best evidence their families and environments for optimal
examines strengths-based and male-focused outcomes and positive behaviours. Protective
approaches to programme delivery for young processes, such as caring relationships, high
males, with particular emphasis on young expectations and opportunities for meaningful
men at risk of harming themselves or others. participation and contribution will be the
It identifies and reviews material that is means by which this can be achieved.
directly applicable, and as far as possible
focuses on New Zealand research and
evidence. It can inform potential action A male-focused approach
options and policy directions and is designed
to be useful to anyone thinking about Young men, far more than young women, are
developing programmes for young men. at risk of things that harm themselves or
others. Young men are over-represented among
those who commit suicide, they have high
A strengths-based approach rates of alcohol-related harm, they are more at
risk of dying on the roads than any other
Strengths are positive factors, both in the group, they are suspended and expelled from
individual and in the environment, which school at much higher rates than girls, and,
support healthy development. A strengths- more boys than girls leave school with no
based approach has a simple premise qualifications at all. They are arrested, charged
identify the factors that help most young and convicted of crimes far more frequently
people to lead happy and productive lives, and than young women.
support them. Rather than having a problem
orientation and a risk focus, a strengths-based The origins and nature of cultural stereotypes
approach works at developing the factors that of the New Zealand male have been the subject
protect young people. of research by historians and sociologists.
The pioneer, the decent bloke, the soldier, the
Building strength, commissioned by the hard man and the family man are all cultural
Ministry of Youth Affairs, is an extensive review stereotypes identified. Although they were
of New Zealand and international research into narrow stereotypes, and those who didnt fit
how to achieve good outcomes for young them often suffered, when reform of the
people. It discusses how to optimise the licensing laws, the emergence of the peace
conditions for positive youth development. It movement, the rise of feminism and womens
finds that success for young people is not move into the workforce combined to
simply a result of chance or genes but that undermine them, there was no obvious
parents, and families in particular, schools, replacement.
peers and communities can do a lot to provide
the conditions in which young people thrive. Male-focused approaches are built on the
Strengths are protective factors, and strengths- understanding that being male is not just the
based programmes need to find ways to gender into which some are born, but is about
mobilise them. If we believe young people are a set of characteristics, activities, preferences
inherently at promise rather than at risk, the and forms of expression that we associate with
task of programmes is to help young people it. Male-focused approaches respond to the fact
find and build on the strengths in themselves, boys are different from girls, both in gender-
related traits and preferences and in the
expectations society places on them. Some of

06 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


the challenges boys face as they move towards
adulthood are different and need different
responses.

Programmes for positive male


development

Social policy makers and programme designers


everywhere are faced with the lack of rigorously
evaluated programmes that can be replicated
with confidence. In the absence of a strong
body of rigorous evaluations of effective
strengths-based, male-focused programmes,
this review draws on a range of research and positive youth development philosophy and particularly if that help is focused on long-term
best evidence from New Zealand and overseas. paying careful attention to the recruitment and rather than short-term employment goals.
training of programme staff to work with Programmes benefit from strong relationships
Research shows clearly that caring relationships young people will improve the effectiveness of between providers, local communities, and
with adults are protective for young people. community-based programmes. local employer and worker organisations.
Mentoring programmes, based on this belief, are
intentionally created relationships designed to Research has consistently shown that parents This review suggests that successful
provide this protective effect. Mentoring has are important to young people until well into programmes for positive youth development
been shown to be most successful when adulthood. Research with teenage boys in New will attend to the following:
careful attention is given to matching mentors Zealand reveals a strong desire for more time Young men need as many anchoring points
with young people, when contact between with parents especially fathers, relationships contact with competent, caring and
them is frequent, when activities are mutually characterised by trust, affection, fairness and prosocial adults as possible.
negotiated, and when relationships are not fun, and relationships with parents which Strengths exist in individuals, in families, in
prescriptive or judgemental. include a balance of talking and listening. schools, among peer groups and in
Although some programmes designed for fathers communities. The programmes that seek to
Adventure programmes were shown to have and sons were identified none had been build those strengths will need to be diverse
widespread and long-lasting beneficial effects evaluated in a way that identified effective in their focus and their location.
when they were long enough to encourage full characteristics. Families are important to young men until
involvement, they challenged young people well into adulthood.
with specific goals, they provided quality Programmes supporting transition to employment The more intense a programme is, and the
feedback on participation and they created an need a range of features if they are to be longer it goes for, the more effective it is
environment for participants to reflect on, effective. They need to be intensive and placed likely to be.
discuss and understand their experiences. within well-recognised educational pathways. Many young men enjoy physical activity and
They need to be linked to local labour markets challenge but they also need to be
Community-based youth development programmes and to be responsive to the needs of local encouraged to reflect on what they are
with more features are likely to be more employers. Programmes which provide doing, how they are relating, what skills they
successful than those with fewer. Having a individualised help have better outcomes, have and what skills they need to develop.

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 07


Young men are likely to be more engaged Much research has gone into what works to programme success include greater intensity of
with programmes that are relevant to their reduce youth offending. On the basis of what interventions, good staff selection and training,
experience of, and hopes for, the real world. is known at present it can be said with some involving parents and families, working to
confidence that programmes should address establish a positive peer culture, and
the risk for offending, they should target addressing both academic issues and other
Programmes addressing areas of risk multiple causes and use a range of techniques, issues that affect academic performance.
they should teach young men new skills in
Programmes for young men in areas of risk active ways and they should be delivered by Those developing programmes addressing risk
need to both build strength and address risk. people who can establish warm, friendly areas for young men would do well to
Whatever the programme, research says the relationships while setting limits and enforcing consider:
development and maintenance of strong rules. Once again, programmes to reduce Programmes can make a difference.
relationships with young people must be the young peoples reoffending will be more The more quality programmes available to
top priority, and efforts must focus on creating effective if they can involve families, peers, young men the better.
healthy, inviting environments and systems schools and communities. The more individual, family, social and
rather than on trying to fix young people. community strengths a programme can
Successful programmes to reduce reoffending
build the better.
Programmes to reduce youth suicide need to among young Mori tend to be provided by
The need to both address risk factors and
work towards increasing the awareness of people who have mana and with whom young
people can identify. They are likely to offer build protective factors, thereby increasing
mental health issues among young people
positive reinforcement and acceptance, and resilience.
rather than to focus directly on suicide. As well
as developing self-awareness, coping skills, acknowledge the importance of identity, The value of separate programmes designed
social skills and problem solving skills, young cultural knowledge and history. Effective for young men, as distinct from those
people should be encouraged to recognise programmes also tend to address practical, designed for older adults.
mental health problems in themselves and academic, employment, financial management A clear finding that interactive programmes
others and know where to get help. and stability needs and teach young people are more effective.
about the contemporary relevance of Employing programme staff who are able to
School-based drug education programmes will Mori values. establish warm and friendly relationships
be more effective if they are relevant to the while setting limits and enforcing rules.
needs of young people as young people see Programmes designed to improve the academic
A whole person approach works better than
them, if they are interactive and activity achievement of boys are likely to address
a problem focus. Even when addressing
oriented, if they provide a combination of discipline and support and provide students
with positive role models; to focus on specific areas of risk, programmes will be
factual information and resistance strategies,
behaviour management, self-esteem and values; more effective if they engage with young
and if they are ongoing. Community-based
drug-education projects are more successful to encourage nurturing behaviour between mens other needs as well.
when they involve cross-sectoral, collaborative different age groups within a school; and to
action by groups and agencies that have an increase learning options, including practical
existing interest in and responsibility for activities, which boys see as relevant to their
reducing drug-related harm. lives. Other factors that will increase

08 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


1.0 Introduction
The Youth Development Strategy Aotearoa sets what young people are and can become, and
out how government, working with families programmes which embrace rather than find
and communities, can support young people fault with the things that make young people
to develop the skills and attitudes they need to different from children or adults.
take part positively in society (Ministry of
Youth Affairs 2002). In doing this, the strategy There has been a real attempt in this review to
takes a positive youth development approach, find out what is going on in New Zealand to
which is founded on six principles: support the positive development of young
1. Youth development is shaped by the big men. Ideally, the programmes reviewed here
picture. would all have been soundly evaluated using
2. Youth development is about young people methodologically rigorous research designs,
being connected. and we would be able to say with confidence
which ones work but such is not the case.
3. Youth development is based on a consistent
Some have been evaluated, and the quality of
strengths-based approach.
those evaluations is variable. Included here
4. Youth development happens through quality
too are programmes that have not yet been
relationships. evaluated, and may never be, but which are
5. Youth development is triggered when people attempting to provide strengths-based
fully participate. programmes for young men. No apology is
6. Youth development needs good information. made for their inclusion, although the review
does try to make clear where research or
This review discusses what we know about the evaluation provides evidence of the efficacy of
programmes that support the positive a programme.
development of young men in New Zealand.
The review is of programmes for young men in This review is designed to be useful to anyone
general, and particularly those for young men thinking about developing programmes for
who are at risk from behaviours that harm young men. Included are a small number of
themselves or others. In line with the studies completed in other countries. These
principles of the Youth Development Strategy are usually ones which have reviewed large
Aotearoa, the focus is on programmes that numbers of programmes and which help us
address young peoples strengths rather than to understand what effective, strengths-based
their weaknesses, programmes that affirm programmes for young men look like.

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 09


10 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches
2.0
A strengths-based approach

2.1 Introduction The approach emphasises the resourcefulness


and resilience that exists in everyone rather
A strengths-based approach has a simple than dwelling on what has gone wrong or
premise identify what is going well, do placed a person at risk. It affirms that people
more of it, and build on it. Strengths are can grow and change, and that everyone has a
positive factors, both in the individual and in range of abilities and strengths, which, with
the environment, which support healthy the right support, can be mobilised to give
development. them a better future.
A strengths-based approach recognises that
each of us has a combination of risk factors A second element of a strengths-based
and protective factors which shape our approach is an acceptance that the solutions
development. Some of them are within our will not be the same for everyone, that the
control, and some beyond. Much attention has strengths of individuals and their circumstances
been given to the risk factors that have led to are different, and that people need to be fully
young men being over-represented among road involved in identifying their goals and building
crash fatalities, youth suicides, perpetrators of on their strengths and resources.
violence and many other negative statistics.
What has been given far less attention are the The third element is the recognition that as
protective factors that mean most young men individuals we live within families, communities,
are not counted among those statistics, and a society and a culture, and that all of these
most lead healthy and productive lives posing along with our own attributes determine our
no risk to themselves or others. wellbeing. The strengths of these different
Rather than having a problem orientation and environments are just as important to good
a risk focus, a strengths-based approach seeks outcomes as the strengths of individuals
to understand and develop the factors that (Ministry of Health 2002; Stumpfig 2000).
protect most young people.
Strengths are also described as protective
factors. Protective factors, as the name
suggests, provide a buffer against risk factors.
2.2 What is a strengths-based approach
An individuals ability to cope with and
manage the balance between risks, stressful life
A strengths-based approach has three distinct
events and protective factors is increasingly
elements.
described as resilience (Kalil 2003).

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 11


2.3 Strengths supporting positive youth Family influences which support good peer influence, particularly negative
development outcomes for young people include: influence, is stronger when parental
growing up with parents who are nurturing influence is weak
Building strength, commissioned by the while setting reasonable boundaries young people who are not supported at
Ministry of Youth Affairs, is an extensive review home are particularly vulnerable to the
of New Zealand and international research into parents who are involved with their children, breakdown of their friendships
how to achieve good outcomes for young accept their right to think for themselves, young people tend to mix with people
people. It includes comprehensive coverage of and monitor where they are and who they similar to themselves and to become more
major New Zealand projects including the are with like them over time
Christchurch1 and Dunedin2 longitudinal child happy parents who handle conflict positive peer influence can affect young
development studies. constructively and drink only moderately peoples continued involvement with school
when, after divorce, parents get on with one and activities and improve how they cope
This rich research has much to tell us about
another and have a similarly nurturing with adversity
how to optimise the conditions for positive
parenting style close friendships are important for
youth development. It finds that success for
stable parental relationships whether they preventing loneliness, coping with peer
young people is not simply a result of chance
are two parent, one parent or step-parent rejection and practising prosocial behaviours
or genes, but that parents, schools, peers and
communities can do a lot to provide the families. friends, particularly large groups of opposite
conditions in which young people thrive. sex friends, help the development of stable,
Peers are important in the lives of young
people. The research tells us that: emotionally close romantic relationships
What follows is a brief synopsis of key findings more than parents do
while friendship becomes more important
relevant to the development of strengths-based
with age, parental support continues to good communication, effective conflict
programmes for young men. This review finds
matter into adulthood resolution, empathy, fairness and
that parents have the most impact on good
parental influence affects who young people appropriate sharing of personal information
outcomes for young people, followed by peers
choose to mix with foster good peer relationships.
and schools, neighbourhoods and
communities. peers are considered more important to
young people in some cultures and families
than others

1 University of Otago. Christchurch Health and Development Study. http://www.otago.ac.nz/research/centres/res_cen_chchhealthdev.html


2 University of Otago. Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study. http://www.otago.ac.nz/research/centres/res_cen_dnhealthdev.html

12 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


School-related factors associated with positive staying at school reduces the likelihood of community factors that have a bearing on good
youth development include: young men being involved with negative outcomes for young people are:
a warm school climate which helps young peer influences. adults other than parents can have a positive
people achieve good personal and academic impact by providing support, modelling
outcomes Young people are more likely to succeed at positive moods and behaviours, showing
high standards for learning and behaviour, work if they have spent more years at school disapproval of poor behaviour and providing
irrespective of academic achievement; they are young people with counsel and a sense of
moderate classroom control and teacher
directly influenced by their parents careers meaning and purpose
warmth
and levels of education especially in close, young people who grow up in disadvantaged
stability of schooling with few changes
warm families. Work and career influences neighbourhoods can be supported by firm
of school parents, parents involved in schools and
that support young people include:
young people from non-dominant cultures local institutions, other supportive adults,
evidence that less than 20 hours work a
may do better in ethnically diverse schools week during schooling has no adverse effects close ties between parents and supportive
a balance of study and leisure, particularly using earned income to contribute to things neighbours, stable neighbours and
active leisure, and involvement in extra like school fees or contributing to family participation in community activities
curricular activities expenses rather than personal goods and where relationships with neighbours are
family affluence increases the chances of activities is associated with good outcomes strong, they can help to set or reinforce
young people staying at school and going on same-sex parents who provide role models limits for young people
to university, although family factors also of educational and career achievement. participation in community activities,
particularly structured and supervised
influence the chances of young people from
Neighbourhoods and communities influence activities, supports positive academic, social
poorer families going on to tertiary study
young people both directly by providing and personal outcomes
adapting to tertiary study is enhanced by
experiences, opportunities and limits, and neighbourhoods have more influence on
good relationships with parents young men, in part because they have fewer
indirectly by reducing parental stress and
young people believing they can influence parental restrictions than young women and
increasing support for parents. When families
their future, that education is important and lack strengths, neighbourhood characteristics thus spend more time exposed to
that effort is more important than ability become more influential. Neighbourhood and neighbourhood and community influences
(McLaren 2002).

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 13


A Ministry of Health report concerned with family norms and morality, having 2.4 Strengths-based programmes
promoting mental health in New Zealand also responsibility within the family, and having a
explicitly adopts a strengths-based approach. It supportive relationship with another adult. How then do we use what we know about the
too identifies a range of strengths which have strengths that support positive youth
the potential to protect children and young In the school context, the report affirms the development to design and provide effective
people from mental health problems. Not value of a positive school climate and a programmes for young people? In part, the
surprisingly, many of the protective factors are prosocial peer group. It also finds that young answer lies in understanding the difference
the same as those found by McLaren in her people respond positively to responsibility between protective factors, or strengths, and
review. However, this report also identifies a within the school environment and to protective mechanisms which emphasise the
range of individual characteristics that are opportunities for success and recognition. dynamic interaction between the individual
protective for children and young people. School norms against violence are also and the environments within which they
Individual factors which protect children and protective. operate. If we believe young people are
young people include: inherently at promise rather than at risk the
easy temperament Based on findings from Australian research, task becomes to help the young person access
good nutrition strong cultural pride and ethnic identity was the strengths in themselves, their families and
attachment to family also found to be a strength for children and environments for optimal outcomes and
above average intelligence young people (Ministry of Health 2002). positive behaviours. Protective processes, such as
school achievement caring relationships, high expectations and
Kalils review finds that, in addition to opportunities for meaningful participation and
problem-solving skills
favourable social and economic conditions, contribution will be the means by which this
internal locus of control (self-control)
good outcomes for children are supported by can be achieved (Marshall 2001).
social competence families which:
social skills are close but not over-involved with each Resilience, the interaction between strengths
good coping style others lives and risk factors is not fixed; it is dynamic and
optimism share belief systems and cultivate a sense of varies according to context. It is the process
moral belief values centred on loving and caring of doing what is necessary to survive and
values deal with conflict effectively overcome the challenges life brings (Bernard
positive view of self. are well connected to other adults and and Marshall 2001a). Resilience will look
different in different circumstances, and
institutions in the community
In addition to the family-related strengths it is the potential to build resilience that
have both parents involved in childrens lives
found by McLaren in her review this report makes offering strengths-based programmes
even if the parents own relationship is over
finds that small family size and more than two worthwhile.
years between siblings are associated with (Kalil 2003).
good outcomes for children, as are strong 2.5 Summary

Strengths are positive factors, both in the


individual and in the environment, which
support healthy development. There is now
substantial evidence strengths-based
approaches are effective for positive youth
development.

Effective strengths-based approaches address a


range of targets which can include individual
functioning, family relationships, peer culture,
school or work environment, neighbourhoods
and communities. Strengths-based approaches
can offer caring, respectful relationships, high
expectations and opportunities for meaningful
participation and contribution that help young
people to access the strengths in themselves,
their families and environments.

14 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


3.0
A male-focused approach

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 15


has led to a certain invisibility. Most of us There is ample evidence to show that
3.1 Introduction would struggle to articulate what it means young men, far more than young women,
to be Pkeha or to be male, although we do things that harm themselves or others.
Social scientists and others working in may have some understanding that Mori There is also a widely held although
social sectors have, over recent decades, have their own cultural values or that contested view that boys are not achieving
developed a much better understanding of women have issues and aspirations as well as girls in our education system.
diversity. We no longer assume that policies different from those of men.
or programmes can be designed as one-size- We now understand that this invisibility In 2000, 96 New Zealanders aged between
fits-all, and we understand that personal, has not been helpful. Pkeha need to know 15 and 24 died from suicide 81 of them
social and cultural realities are different. and be able to celebrate their culture, and were male. Of these young men, 31 were
men and boys need to know and value aged 15-19 and 50 were aged 20-24. In
The initial response to this awareness was what makes them unique. 2000/2001, in contrast to this, 1,018
to look beyond the dominant group be it young women were hospitalised as a
Pkeha, male, the financially secure, or the result of a suicide attempt, over twice the
traditional two-parent family for others 3.2 Why have male-focused approaches number (478) of young men admitted to
whose reality had been denied while it was in youth development? hospital as a result of a suicide attempt
assumed their aspirations and needs (New Zealand Health Information Service).
matched those of the dominant group.
The Youth Development Strategy Aotearoa A review of New Zealand research found
Hence we have seen a burgeoning of
makes a commitment to acknowledging the that adolescent girls (aged 13-17) are
policies and programmes designed to meet
diversity of young people and it places a more at risk from unemployment, low
the needs of Mori, of women, of those
strong emphasis on policies and income, sexual abuse, family violence and
living in poverty, of single-parent families
programmes designed for the betterment attempted suicide than are adolescent
and others; and there is still some way to go
of young people (p33). boys. Both genders are equally susceptible
before all groups benefit equally from what
New Zealand has to offer. to family hardship, truancy, and alcohol
and cannabis misuse. However, boys are
However, being part of a dominant group, more at risk from low educational
while it often brings a raft of advantages, qualifications, suicide, accidental injury

16 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


and death, homicide and intentional injury, While the rates of young people involved in of 1,265 children born in Christchurch in
unsafe sexual behaviour, behaviour and road crashes is coming down, Land Transport 1977. This research found unequivocally that,
conduct problems, suspension/expulsion, Safety Authority (LTSA) data shows that in despite very similar IQ test scores, the males in
mental health problems, substance 2000 drivers in the 15-19 year old age band the study achieved less well than the females
dependence, serious offending and arrest were seven times, and drivers aged 20-24 three on standardised tests, teacher ratings and
(Davey 2000). times, as likely to crash as drivers aged 45-49. school leaving outcomes. These researchers
In both the 15-19 and 20-24 age bands almost concluded that the boys disruptive and
In a recent New Zealand health survey, 50% twice as many male drivers as females were inattentive classroom behaviour accounted for
of males between 15 and 24 reported drinking involved in crashes (LTSA 2003a). Between the differences (Fergusson and Horwood
in a hazardous manner, that is, with an 1999 and 2001 each of the 15-19 and 20-24 1997). This is endorsed by a recent New
established pattern of drinking that carries age bands contained about 8% of licensed Zealand review of research into the risks,
with it a high risk of future damage to physical drivers. However, drivers aged between 15 and remedies and consequences of youth inactivity
or mental health. In another national survey, 19 made up 11% of those involved in fatal (McLaren 2003).
over half the men aged between 18 and 24 crashes, and drivers between 20 and 24 made
reported frequently experiencing alcohol- up 14% of those involved in fatal crashes. In The evidence of a gender gap in educational
related problems including memory loss, both age bands 70% of the drivers in fatal achievement is still equivocal.
getting into fights, having arguments, being crashes were male (LTSA 2003b).
absent from work, driving drunk and feeling Alton-Lee and Praat reviewed a complexity of
ashamed of their behaviour while drunk Educational achievement was among the information in their investigation of gender
(ALAC and the Ministry of Health 2001). outcomes tracked in the Christchurch Health differences in the compulsory schooling sector.
and Development Study, a longitudinal study Their detailed examination showed that gender
differences varied by curriculum and school
level; that in most curriculum areas girls
outperformed boys at primary school; and
that at secondary schools boys generally did
better in mathematics and science, and girls
in subjects which were literacy based. These
researchers concluded that any emerging
gender gap could be explained by girls
improving performance in recent years rather
than any decline in the achievement of boys
(Alton-Lee and Praat 2000; Praat 1999).

What is beyond dispute is that boys are less


likely to stay in education beyond the age of 16
(Ministry of Education 2003a), and they are
strongly over-represented among students who
are stood-down, suspended and excluded from
schools. Almost three-quarters of students
stood-down or suspended from New Zealand
schools in 2002 were boys (Ministry of
Education 2003b). In every year between 1991
and 2001 a higher proportion of boys than
girls left school without any qualifications
(Hill 2003).

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 17


In her 2003 report McLaren reviewed available 3.3 Being male in New Zealand
research on the factors that contribute to boys
relative underachievement. She reviewed There is a small but thoughtful body of
research that found boys are more likely than literature on being male in New Zealand.
girls to experience attention problems, which Phillips social history A mans country? The
affects school success and has a knock-on image of the Pkeha male a history, written
effect on employment and future education in 1987 and revised almost 10 years later, is
prospects. Her reading of the New Zealand widely acknowledged as the most significant
research found no consensus about whether and influential work on Pkeha masculinity in
the type of school (single sex/co-educational, New Zealand to date. Phillips work on
private/state) has a significant independent identifying the origins and nature of the cultural
impact on educational outcomes. Although stereotypes of the New Zealand male has
some rigorous studies have found evidence been the foundation of much that has been
of a positive effect from attending a single sex written since.
school, others have found the apparent
benefits of attending single sex, church and The pioneer, the decent bloke, the soldier, the
private schools either disappear or become hard man and the family man are all cultural
much less significant when adequate controls stereotypes Phillips unpicks and examines,
are introduced for prior pupil attainment, identifying their origins and their legacies for
socio-economic status, ethnicity and overall New Zealand men. In his final chapter, The
pupil mix (McLaren 2003). bloke under siege, he addresses some of the
difficulties facing New Zealand men at the end
Of 4,158 young people aged 14-17 brought of the 20th century. Reform of the licensing
before the courts in 2001, 82% were male. laws and the end to six oclock closing, the
Of all offences resulting in a conviction in 2001 emergence of the peace movement, the rise of
over a third were committed by boys and men feminism and womens move into the
aged 14-24, despite males in this age group workforce, and a decline in the dominance of
making up less than 7% of the population the All Blacks combined to undermine the
that year (Spier 2002; Statistics New Zealand cultural stereotypes New Zealand men had,
2002). largely unconsciously, sought to fit.

From 1986 to 2002 boys had a consistently Although the stereotypes were narrow and
higher rate of youth unemployment than girls those who didnt fit them often suffered,
(Hill 2003). their loss left a gap that at the time of writing
Phillips considered largely unfilled
There is now clear evidence young men are (Phillips 1996).
hurting themselves and other people at
unacceptably high rates. What it is easy to Others have developed Phillips ideas and
forget when confronted with this evidence is demonstrated how popular culture and
that many more boys and young men are the media have reinforced these essential
leading happy, successful lives not placing stereotypes. An ambivalent archetype discusses
anyone at risk. This report is about trying to the contradictions in the man alone
understand what keeps this latter group safe stereotype where the heros masculine self-
from harm, and how those protective factors sufficiency is always incomplete (Spicer 2000).
can be fostered in those who need them. Abdinor explores the interaction between the
stereotypes and the potential for them to
reinforce each other. He also argues men need
positive stereotypes to aspire to in order to
prevent low self-esteem and depression
(Abdinor 2000). Latimer theorises that the
physically strong, emotionally restrained
masculine stereotypes led to the traditional

18 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


myth of modernity, which is that men are in Other theories of masculinity as well as 3.4 What are male-focused approaches?
control of their emotional and sexual life. personal and cultural reflections on being a
The challenge of feminism and gay political male in New Zealand can be found in the 1988
Male-focused approaches are built on the
activism in the 1970s he says, along with book, One of the boys, and the 1999 collection
understanding that being male is not just the
increasing urbanisation, put pressure on the of essays in Masculinities in Aotearoa/New
gender into which some are born, but is about
old stereotype and on New Zealand men to be Zealand (King (ed) 1988; Law, Campbell and
a set of characteristics, activities, preferences
able to express their emotional and sexual lives Dolan (eds) 1999).
and forms of expression we associate with it.
(Latimer 1998). Duley analysed the television
As well as gender-related traits and preferences,
coverage of the 1995 Americas Cup campaign Fifty teenage boys talk about what it is like to
some of which are biologically determined
and argues it reinvented and reinforced the grow up in New Zealand, sharing their views
and some culturally, there is a range of explicit
masculine stereotypes of the pioneer and the on parents and families, education, their social
and implicit expectations placed on boys when
soldier with its descriptions of the men life and employment. The boys reported
they are born and reinforced throughout
involved in the Team New Zealand campaign. wanting more time with their parents. They
their lives.
Frequently described as strong and hardworking, wanted their parents to be interested and
yet also laid-back, relaxed and humorous, the involved in what they do, but found the way
Male-focused approaches respond to the fact
team were fighters and winners and much parents expressed their interest sometimes
boys are different from girls and some of the
emphasis was placed on team spirit and came across as pressure. For these boys,
challenges they face in growing up are different
mateship especially in the celebrations that schools were as much about being with friends
and need different responses. A strengths-
followed the teams victory (Duley 1997). as about education. They appreciated teachers
based, male-focused approach will pay particular
who were fair and approachable. Friends were
attention to the unique strengths boys and
A different cultural stereotype very relevant to hugely important. Boys wanted to be trusted
young men have, and develop them further.
the subject of this report is that of the cool to choose their friends and experiment with a
fool. Henry also builds on Phillips work in range of identities and behaviours. The boys
his thesis about cool fools that group of said they found it very difficult to talk to
boys found in almost every high school in the anyone when they had problems and could
country who have a laconic and ironic only ever talk to someone they trusted. Several
detachment from the process of learning boys reported having been bullied, feeling the
and who construct their identity in the pressure to be tough and competitive, and
classroom in adverse relation to the position having suicidal feelings (Weaver 2001).
of the teacher. In his complex and interesting
thesis Henry argues the cultural stereotypes
available to New Zealand boys are limiting, and
the pressures within society on boys to comply
with this narrow range of models is strong
(Henry 2002).

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 19


3.5 Summary

There is ample evidence to show young men,


far more than young women, do things that
harm themselves or others. Young men commit
suicide at much higher rates than young
women in New Zealand, and suffer much
higher rates of alcohol-related harm. They are
far more likely to die in a road crash, and they
greatly outnumber young women in the justice
system. Boys are suspended and excluded from
school more frequently than girls, and are more
likely to leave school without qualifications.
Young men are more likely to be unemployed
than young women in their teens and early 20s.

Long held stereotypes of the New Zealand


male emphasise physical prowess along with
emotional control and self-sufficiency.
Feminism, pacifism and economic change have
challenged the stereotypes and may, some say,
have left New Zealands young men without
viable models of masculinity.

There is a range of explicit and implicit


expectations placed on boys when they are
born and reinforced throughout their lives.
Male-focused approaches accept this, and
respond to the fact boys and young men
face unique challenges and need different
responses.

20 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


4.0
Programmes for
positive male
development

4.1 Introduction In the absence of a strong body of local or


international research on effective strengths-
The brief for this report was, as far as possible, based, male-focused programmes, this
to find and discuss what constitutes effective review draws on a range of literature from
strengths-based, male-focused programmes for New Zealand and overseas. As well as
young men in New Zealand. The net was cast programme evaluations and meta-evaluations,
wide in the hope of locating sufficient numbers it includes programme descriptions, and some
of programmes which have been evaluated by programme theory.
rigorous methods and reported in such a way
that conclusions could be drawn and pointers One of the most obvious gaps in the research
given to those wanting to develop and offer uncovered for this report is programmes with
programmes of this kind. A few were found, a deliberate focus on males. Many of the
but not many. programmes designed for young people, and
in particular for those at risk, make scant
This is not a situation peculiar to New Zealand. mention of gender; they are effectively gender-
The lack of rigorously evaluated programmes neutral even when the majority of programme
that can be replicated with confidence faces participants are male. The absence of
social policy makers and programme designers programmes and approaches with a male
everywhere. The reports of the Surgeon focus make it hard to draw conclusions about
General in the US are arguably the best- whether they are effective and should be
resourced investigations into the health and encouraged.
wellbeing of North Americans. In 2001 the
Surgeon General reported on an extensive This section of the review discusses different
investigation into the causes, prevention and types of strengths-based programmes
reduction of youth violence. In the section on including mentoring, adventure, community-
programmes to prevent youth violence the based youth development, programmes for
Surgeon General said this: parents and families, and programmes to help
. . . relatively little is known about the scientific young mens transition to employment. Within
effectiveness of hundreds of youth violence each subsection priority is given to evidence-
programs currently in use in schools and based material from New Zealand. Also
communities in the United States . . . even less is included is relevant research and evaluation
known about the best strategies for implementing from other countries and, in some cases, links
effective programs on a national scale without to descriptions of strengths-based, male-
compromising their results (US Department of focused programmes which may not have been
Health and Human Services 2001). formally evaluated.

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 21


4.2 Mentoring programmes direction to young New Zealanders. It is a For young people from minority ethnic groups
long-term project which has a number of these findings were even more pronounced.
Research into the strengths that support components including Project K mentoring. Truancy and physical aggression were also
positive youth development show clearly that Following a three-week wilderness challenge reduced among the young people who had
caring relationships with adults are protective and involvement in a community challenge been mentored. Small gains in academic
for young people (McLaren 2002). Mentoring achievement were also noted. The researchers
students are matched with a personal
programmes, based on this belief, are analysis led them to believe the success of
mentor who has attended a mentoring
intentionally created relationships designed the mentoring programmes lay in the
training course. The mentoring relationship
to provide this protective effect. developmental one-to-one relationships
is intended to complement existing between mentors and young people, and in
relationships with caregivers and teachers the infrastructure supporting the programme.
IN NEW ZEALAND
http://www.projectk.org.nz There is no
Mentoring programmes are gaining popularity
evidence the programme has been evaluated. Of the 400 matches studied in this research,
in New Zealand. Schools, particularly boys
A Ministry of Education paper outlines the over 70% met three times a month for three or
schools, are adopting mentoring programmes
key features of some school-based models of four hours at a time, 50% met once a week.
for boys in increasing numbers. Some examples
mentoring The investigators found the most successful
of New Zealand mentoring programmes found
http://mentoring.unitecnology.ac.nz/case_ mentors were able to develop lasting and
through web searching include:
studies.html supportive friendships with the young people
The Man Alive Big Buddy programme has
by making the time to establish and maintain
operated in Auckland since 1999. It recruits,
ELSEWHERE trust, listening sympathetically and non-
screens and trains men from the community
Mentoring has become popular in other judgementally, and negotiating mutually
to act as mentors to fatherless boys satisfactory activities. A key to successful
countries too, although not a great deal is
http://www.bigbuddy.org.nz mentoring appeared to be that, while most
known yet about the efficacy of mentoring
It has yet to be evaluated to determine what mentors ultimately hoped the young person
programmes. An evaluation of the Big Brother
effects, if any, it has on the boys being they had befriended would improve at school
Big Sister mentoring programme used a
mentored. classical experimental design, with young and become more responsible, they put their
In 2002 the Pacific Foundation in people aged between 10 and 16 assigned to effort and expectations into developing a
partnership with the University of Auckland a mentoring programme or to a control group reliable, trusting relationship. The volunteers
offered a pilot year of MATES, Mentoring in eight US states. The evaluation appears to gave priority to making the relationships
have been privately funded and has not been enjoyable and fun for both parties. By contrast
and Tutoring in Education Scheme, linking
published in a peer-reviewed journal (Tierney to these developmental relationships, the
Pacific young people (not solely boys) with a
and Grossman 2000). Bearing that in mind, researchers observed a smaller number of
university student mentor/tutor. The website
it is interesting to see what the researchers found. prescriptive relationships, in which the adult
reports initial evaluations but these could
volunteers believed their purpose was to guide
not be located the young person they worked with towards
Overall, young people who participated in
http://www.pacificfoundation.org.nz/mates.htm values, attitudes and behaviours the adult
mentoring programmes were 46% less likely to
The Project K Trust, an initiative of deemed positive. Adults in these relationships
start using illegal drugs, and 27% less likely to
mountaineer Graeme Dingle, is a project set the goals, the pace and the ground rules.
start drinking than those in the control group.
designed to foster self-esteem and give life-

22 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


Adults and young people in prescriptive Outdoor Education are relevant to this report. The two major findings of the meta-analysis
mentoring relationships found them One discusses the current practice of offering were that participants made gains on a wide
frustrating and only 29% met consistently. young people with disabilities their own range of outcomes, and that those gains
Only 32% of these relationships were still adventure education courses rather than increased in the months following programme
going at the 18-month follow up compared including them with their able-bodied peers. participation. The outcomes which showed the
with 91% of the developmental relationships. The author argues that offering separate most improvement were those related to self-
courses reinforces unfounded stereotypes and control; the programmes appeared to increase
The other factor which supported the success the exclusion of young people with disabilities the participants ability to actively control
of the mentoring programme was the from society (Borgman 2002). Another themselves to respond to environmental
programme infrastructure. Intensive contributor to the journal argues that outdoor challenges. Powerful effects on self-esteem and
supervision and support of mentors by paid education as it is currently offered in New academic performance were also revealed. Both
staff was a key programme component, Zealand reinforces heterosexuality as the norm general academic gains such as increased
and those sites which maintained regular and offers no affirmation to gay or lesbian problem-solving skills, and direct effects such
supervision had the most successful matches. young people (Dignan 2002). as improved scores in mathematics were
Other important facets of the programme were identified. Improvements in interpersonal skills
effective screening out of volunteers who were ELSEWHERE included social competence, co-operation and
unlikely to maintain their commitment; mentor In 1997, a substantial meta-analysis of 96 interpersonal communication. Follow-up
training that included communication and adventure programmes was conducted by a studies showed the gains had not only been
limit-setting skills, and guidance on how to team of university researchers including maintained, but in some cases had increased
build a relationship with a young person; and John Hattie, then of the University of North over time. The effect of the programme on
careful matching processes that took into Carolina, and now Professor of Education at young people at risk was even greater than for
account young peoples preferences, families Auckland University. The evaluation findings other participants.
views and the volunteers wishes were published in Review of Educational
(Bernard et al 2001b). Research. Seventy-two percent of the combined Three programme variables were found to be
total of over 12,000 participants in the most influential. The type of adventure
4.3 Adventure education programmes was male, and their average age programme, the duration of the programme
was 22 years. Only a few of the programmes and the country in which it took place. The 20-
For many years those seeking to promote included were specifically designed for young day Australian Outward Bound programmes
positive youth development have advocated people at risk. One of the criteria for inclusion had the most powerful effects. The researchers
adventure education as a way for individuals to was that the programme should be more believe this can be attributed to the quality of
improve their physical and mental health, challenging than school-based outdoors the instructors. The Australian Outward Bound
social skills, and leadership potential. programmes. Schools policy is to appoint instructors who
Relatively little is known about the impact of are university graduates, usually qualified
adventure programmes on positive outcomes teachers and to have participants, co-leaders
for young people. and supervisors evaluate every instructor.

IN NEW ZEALAND
Outward Bound is probably the best known,
although by no means the only, adventure
education programme in New Zealand and
offers a range of courses to young people
http://www.outwardbound.co.nz
No evaluations of the Outward Bound New
Zealand programmes were uncovered for this
review. Other adventure programmes include
Pathways, a week-long camping experience for
teenage boys and the significant men in their
lives offered by Auckland mens collective
Essentially Men
http://www.essentiallymen.net/emnetwork/em
network_pathways.html

While not evidence-based, two articles in the


peer-reviewed journal New Zealand Journal of

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 23


Hattie and his colleagues point to four Appropriate structure limit setting, clear
attributes of programmes with positive effects: and consistent rules and expectations, firm
the intensity of the experience which enough control, continuity and predictability,
encourages full involvement in the activities clear boundaries and age-appropriate
challenging and specific goals which focus monitoring.
attention and effort Supportive relationships warmth,
connectedness, good communication,
the amount and quality of feedback, vital
support, guidance, secure attachment and
to the experiential learning process
responsiveness.
mutual group support which enables
Opportunities to belong opportunities
participants to reflect on, discuss and for inclusion regardless of gender, ethnicity,
understand the experience (Hattie et al 1997). sexual orientation or disability, social
inclusion, engagement and integration,
4.4 Community-based youth support for cultural and bicultural
development competence.
Positive social norms rules of behaviour,
ELSEWHERE expectations, injunctions, ways of doing
In 2002, the National Research Council and things, values and morals, obligations
Institute of Medicine in the US produced a for service.
major report on community programmes to Communicating that young people matter
and can make a difference youth-based
promote youth development. The report finds
empowerment practices that support
that the strengths which facilitate positive
autonomy; making a real difference in
youth development cover physical health,
ones community; being taken seriously;
intellectual development, psychological and enabling, granting responsibility and
emotional wellbeing and social development. providing meaningful challenges; a focus on
It explicitly endorses a strengths-based improvement rather than relative current
approach and says community programmes performance.
with more features are likely to provide better Opportunities for skill building
support for development. Furthermore, as opportunities to learn physical, emotional,
young people who spend time in communities intellectual, psychological and social skills;
rich in developmental experiences have less exposure to intentional learning
risk and show more evidence of positive experiences; opportunities to learn cultural
literacy, communication skills, media
development, a diversity of programme
literacy; preparation for adult employment;
opportunities in each community is likely to
opportunities to develop social and cultural
support broad adolescent development and
capital.
meet the needs of a greater number of young Integration of family, school and community
people. efforts co-operation, co-ordination and
synergy between family, school and
The authors of this report found, as many community (Eccles and Gootman
others have, a frustrating lack of comprehensive [Eds] 2002).
programme evaluations that could support a
recommendation for a particular type of Two recent papers on community-based
community-based youth development youth work stress the importance of
programme. However, they do find sufficient understanding the distinguishing features
evidence to make recommendations about the and essential elements of positive youth
features of effective community programmes. development, and putting in place staff
In summary, these are: development to encourage community-based
Attention to physical and psychological youth workers to reflect those in their
safety practices that increase safe peer practice.
interaction and decrease confrontational
peer interaction. Political and social unrest, an uncertain
labour market, and the challenge of
feminism to traditional patriarchy led young

24 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


programme which included 600
youth workers at 10 sites over four years.

The focus of the programme was to help


develop the practice of reflection in the youth
workers themselves. The trainers modelled
encouragement of reflective practice with
participants. At the end of each day a key part
of the training was for workers to reflect on
what they had learned, their prior beliefs and
their future goals. An internal evaluation of the
programme, that was not of a robust design,
found by their self-report that youth workers
relevant knowledge, skills and confidence had
all increased (Huebner et al 2003).

4.5 Programmes for parents and


men in Northern Ireland, without traditional published, it could not be located for this families
ways to express their masculinity, to search review.
for ways to prove themselves. Taking risks, say Research has consistently shown parents are
Harland and Morgan, was the way they found From the other side of the Atlantic, Huebner, important to young people until well into
to achieve an adult status no longer acquired Walker and McFarland reached very much the adulthood. Not only is a good relationship
through work. By withholding feelings and same conclusions about the fundamental role with parents a strength that can support a
emotions the young men they worked with of youth workers in positive youth development young persons own development, but
were demonstrating what they believed to be programmes. Huebner and her colleagues say relationships with parents are a major
true that men do not need the support of that, although definitions of positive youth influence on the skills young people carry
others. Whereas traditional youth work in development programmes vary, these are key forward to the parenting of their own children.
Northern Ireland has tended to focus on elements:
recreational needs or adopted a problem- youth development is something young IN NEW ZEALAND
centred approach, the Youth Action project people do it is a natural process of Man Alive, a mens centre in Auckland, offers
sought to combine reflection along with learning, growing and changing parenting programmes for men. Their course,
activity and structured risk-taking. Recognising the fundamental philosophy is a strengths- Great Dads, is designed to help fathers develop,
the success of this approach would depend on based approach to childhood and
sustain and nurture life-long bonds with their
the quality of the workers involved, the project adolescence
children. The programme includes examining
designed specific training programmes for it is a way of working with young people
beliefs around parenting and how to be the
youth workers. They encouraged workers to that values their participation and
reflect on their own experience of growing up contribution and their unique personal sort of father you want to be
male, and to understand and be able to characteristics. http://manalive.org.nz/parenting.htm
articulate the influences on their development There was no indication this programme had
as young men. These youth workers reported In their view the key role of a youth worker is been evaluated.
that self-reflection and practice in expressing as a facilitator to foster critical reflection and
their own emotions improved their relationship to help participants make connections between Two pieces of research that confirm the
with the young people they worked with and their experiences of the programme whatever importance of families to New Zealand
increased their potential to challenge the those experiences and their past and future adolescent boys are Teenage boys talk (Weaver
damaging aspects of the traditional attitudes and behaviour. It requires a flexible 2001) and Windows on family life (Andrew et al
expressions of masculinity (Harland and and responsive style focused as much on the 2002). While neither explicitly addresses
Morgan 2003). Although a project evaluation participant as on the activity. Huebner and her programmes for parents, both confirm the
has been completed and appears to have been colleagues report on a 40-hour training importance of parents in the lives of sons, and

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 25


give encouragement to parents that there are being taken seriously, were what these young
simple things they can do to support boys men wanted from their parents
positive development. (Andrew et al 2002).

In Teenage boys talk, 50 boys talk extensively The Office of the Commissioner for Children
about their relationships with their parents. undertook to identify ways to enhance the role
What emerges is a strong desire for more time of fathers, and to support fathers who wanted
with parents especially fathers, relationships to participate more actively in the parenting of
characterised by trust, affection, fairness and their children. Conducted through focus
fun, and relationships with parents which groups and interviews, the research gathered
include a balance of talking and listening. the views of women as well as men, and made
Boys do not require parents to be perfect strong efforts to capture the views of Mori
(Weaver 2001). and Pacific people as well as Pkeha. There was
much agreement about the characteristics of a
Windows on family life reports on in-depth case good father, with the key features giving time
studies with 29 young males aged 13-15 and and commitment, showing love, being fair and
their families/whnau. These young men were consistent, being self-aware and providing a
drawn from three groups: role model consistent with much other
young people who had not participated research. Virtually all participants thought
in mainstream education for 12 months fathers needed more support to be good
or more parents and suggestions centred on these
young men attending a non-streamed co- strategies:
changing stereotypes and attitudes to
educational high school and performing at
encompass more non-traditional models of
their chronological age
fatherhood
boys attending single-sex boys schools and
training for fathers including learning about
performing above their chronological age in child development, aspects of nurturing and
the education system. the consequences of child neglect
support for fathers and the promotion of
This rich piece of research sought to identify networks to support men as fathers
critical wellbeing factors in the families/whnau more flexible employment provisions to
of sons. allow fathers to be around when children
need them
Parents who were functioning well shared legal changes including a move towards joint
several important characteristics in their custody as the norm
parenting approach. They placed the child at a media campaign, using prominent men as
the centre of parental decision and choice role models, to promote positive fathering
making, and were able to put the needs of the (Julian 1999).
children ahead of their own needs. Families
where sons were flourishing were founded on Two other papers by New Zealand men
principles of strong communication, structured challenge men to pick up the pace in improving
progressive development of independence, the quality of their fathering of boys in
high expectations and consistent support. particular. Mitchell and Chapman ask why it is
that women are doing so much of the research
The young men interviewed confirmed that a into fathers and fathering, and question the
strong relationship with parents was critical to impact of womens interpretations of mens
them, and when things did not go well they voices. Oversimplified, their view is that
felt vulnerable. While friends were very women approach the issue of fathering with
important, parents were the key emotional the perspective of the child uppermost,
resource in the boys lives. Predictability, inhibiting the need for fathers to talk through
structure and reasonable boundaries as well as some of their own issues. When this was

26 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


achieved through their own qualitative cut many young people are involved in Higgins also reviewed programmes designed to
research with fathers, men were able to shift paid work from an early age, and many adults support young peoples transition to the labour
the thinking of their own needs, they began to pursue education until late in life. However, market. She cautions that programmes do not
enter into a dialogue that raised new issues for at some point in late adolescence or early necessarily travel well, and there can be no
them (Mitchell and Chapman 2001). This adulthood most people assume financial guarantee a successful programme in one
raises an associated issue of who should be responsibility for themselves, and having labour market will be equally successful
responsible for designing and implementing an income is of prime importance. elsewhere. However, with that caveat Higgins
programmes for fathers. does identify what seem to be the elements of
IN NEW ZEALAND effective labour market transition programmes
In his opinion piece, Pudney pursues the Higgins, from the University of Canterburys for young people. They are:
theme of the detrimental effects of the intense Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Training. This may need to be intensive and
silence of many fathers, and describes the analysed policy around the transition from long term, should be pedagogically
longing for fathers that boys and men education to employment and confirms there informed, that is, creative about
experience as being father hungry. Posing the is a lack of good New Zealand data about encouraging young people to be interested
question of what can be done to increase the many of the transitions young people in learning, and be linked to official and well
positive presence of fathers in boys lives he experience. In her view, how we conceptualise recognised educational pathways.
says fathers need to be proud, purposeful, transition is crucially important in crafting
Links to local labour markets. This could
positive and present. Proud of their sons both effective youth policy. Such policy, she believes,
directly to them and in front of other people; involve networking in job search, training in
should recognise the complexities young
deliberately positive in the face of stress and skills that are in local demand, work
people face as they manage a multiplicity of
the normal adolescent testing of boundaries; transitions involving education, employment, placements and subsidies in genuine jobs.
purposeful in having a commitment to the job family, peer relationships and housing. Programme designers and providers, case
description and not waiting to be invited; and managers and mentors need to be familiar
present both socially and emotionally. He calls Transition policy in New Zealand and other with local labour market conditions.
for greater effort on the part of fathers, but also places tends to be linear and conceptualises Case management support and mentoring.
greater support from the community and more young people as adults in waiting engaged in Individualised help for the best outcomes. A
provision of programmes to help men become education and training in preparation for the quick exit into any job is not the only option
better fathers (Pudney 1994). real life of employment. This creates problems and may not be the best one. Programmes
she says not only because it is simply not true should allow staff and job seekers to work
young people are involved in a range of adult
through a plan that addresses long-term
4.6 Transition to employment activities including paid work, caring and
employment goals.
domestic responsibilities and sexual
Ownership of the programme by those
For most people a key feature of the transition relationships while still in education but also
from childhood to adulthood is the move from because they do not see themselves simply as involved. Programmes benefit from strong
being primarily involved with education, to potential workers but as individuals seeking to relationships between providers, local
paid employment being the focus of effort and craft an identity through a wide range of communities, and local employer and
energy. The line between the two is not clear- activities in the present (Higgins 2002). worker organisations (Higgins 2003).

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 27


The New Zealand Council for Educational workers, all currently young men aged between easily applicable to the workplace, it built
Research is currently evaluating non- 15 and 22, are employed sorting materials, on young mens confidence, provided
conventional programmes for senior students building composting facilities and organising individualised help, expected a lot of them,
in low decile schools which are designed to the site. As well as addressing the problem of and encouraged them to think and to express
help those who would otherwise be at risk of waste, the project has spawned other initiatives themselves (Lloyd 2002).
unemployment make the transition to the such as growing native trees, fertilised by
workforce. This three-year evaluation has yet to compost made from recycled food scraps 4.7 Principles of effective programmes
report its findings. Early indications from the http://www.jobsletter.org.nz/cat/cat05.htm for positive youth development
case studies are that, while students were very
positive and enjoyed the course, few were able Tne Atawhai was a 3-5 day residential marae- This section of the review has included a wide
to make the links between the programme and based course for Mori men. It is designed to range of programmes of different types and
future study or employment (Boyd et al 2002). help participants recognise and confront the any attempt to distil the principles of effective
barriers they may have to obtaining work. It programmes can only be indicative. This
When teenage boys talked about employment targets long-term unemployed, newly enrolled review suggests successful programmes will
they were keen to have jobs, and those who job-seekers and young people. Forty-five attend to the following:
had them saw it as a source of their self- percent of participants up until the point of an Relationships. Young men need as many
esteem. Having money was the key motivation evaluation conducted in 1995 were men under
anchoring points contact with competent,
to work, and boys could see the link between 25. The evaluation, conducted by the New
caring and prosocial adults as possible.
education and future earning prospects. Boys Zealand Employment Service, was largely
The commitment to relationships with
in this research did not often talk about their formative. It reports positive intermediate
future plans unless asked, and were not often outcomes (training programmes) and long- young people must be genuine on the part
asked (Weaver 2001). term outcomes (permanent and temporary of adults. It will involve listening to young
work). Without any pre-programme peoples views and encouraging their
The Community Employment Group (CEG) comparisons or control group it is difficult to participation.
of the Department of Labour works with assess programme efficacy (New Zealand System-wide change. Strengths exist in
communities that face concentrations of Employment Service 1995). The programme is individuals, in families, in schools, among
disadvantage and adverse labour market no longer offered in the form described in the peer groups and in communities. The
conditions to help develop local enterprises evaluation. programmes that want to build on those
and employment opportunities. It works to strengths will need to be diverse in their
build capacity in these communities so they ELSEWHERE focus and their location.
can develop sustainable and rewarding A report called Underachieving young men Families are important to young men until
employment opportunities for themselves. preparing for work: a report for practitioners
well into adulthood.
CEG promotes the concept of staircasing describes a 30-hour, school-based programme
whereby involvement in community projects, Intensity and duration. The more intense a
for 14 and 15 year-old young men considered
leads to community work, jobs with subsidised programme is, and the longer it goes for, the
to be at risk because they were underachieving.
wages, and eventually projects and individuals The programme incorporated skills more effective it is likely to be.
being self-supporting. CEG supports a range development (telephone, interview, CV A combination of action and reflection.
of creative, community development and preparation, job seeking), career guidance, Many young men enjoy physical activity and
environmental projects involving young people exploration of future training options and challenge but they also need to be
http://www.ceg.govt.nz discussions about being a man in the encouraged to reflect on what they are
workforce. The participants reported a marked doing, how they are relating, what skills they
While it has not been formally evaluated, the increase in skills and confidence as well as a have and what skills they need to develop.
Innovative Waste Kaikoura Trust reports renewed interest in their schooling as a means Relevance and future focus. Young men are
considerable success with a project designed of equipping them for future work. likely to be more engaged with programmes
to provide employment and training to young The evaluation concluded that the programme
that are relevant to their experience of, and
people with a history of troublemaking. The was successful because it was practical and
hopes for, the real world.

28 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


5.0
Programmes addressing
areas of risk

This section includes a review of programmes A Ministry of Health analysis of the health
for boys and young men at risk of poor status of New Zealand men and the public
outcomes in the areas of health and education, health issues involved included three main
as well as programmes for those who have recommendations:
offended or are at risk of offending against include the category of men in policy,
the law. including health policy
foster initiatives specifically targeting men
identify and reinforce alternative versions of
5.1 Physical and mental health masculinity.

Furthermore, the report notes that adolescent


IN NEW ZEALAND men, men in transition (separating, becoming
Some of the clearest evidence all is not well unemployed, retiring), young men using
with some of New Zealands young men comes alcohol and other drugs heavily, and new
from the statistics of youth suicide and a fathers should be particular targets of
variety of harms that result from the misuse government policy and programmes
of alcohol and other substances. Yet men have (Adams 1997).
suffered from male sex invisibility when it
comes to health services. Any web or health The Canterbury Suicide project has
database search will reveal thousands of consistently found research evidence to
references to health programmes addressing support the fact the majority of young people
womens health issues, but comparatively who make serious suicide attempts or who die
few for men. by suicide have at least one mental disorder at
the time of their attempt. The research
Possible explanations for the invisibility of reviewed by the project indicates a clear need
men include: a view that men have had more to provide professionals who have contact with
attention than they deserve through a bias young people with education and training
towards male subjects in research before the programmes to enable them to better identify,
1970s; that it is seen as unmanly to have refer, treat and manage young people at risk
problems or to need help, which not only of a range of mental health disorders and of
discourages men from seeking assistance but suicidal behaviours. There is less support for
affects the public discourse about the status school-based suicide prevention programmes
of mens health; that masculine values aimed directly at young people, with a
permeate society to such an extent they are preferred approach being to incorporate
easily mistaken for universal standards; and general mental health issues into school health
that it is just the way of the world boys will and other curricula.
be boys, adolescents take risks, men drink
(Adams 1997).

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 29


Rather than focusing directly on suicide, a education in New Zealand and recommends involve the expenditure of considerable
more fruitful strategy is to promote positive the development of a framework to improve resources to be effective. Community-based
mental health among young people. the evaluation of New Zealand drug education projects are more successful when they involve
Programmes which do this are likely to programmes. In the absence of such a cross-sectoral, collaborative action by groups
include: framework, and drawing largely on research and agencies that have an existing interest in
increased awareness of mental health issues from other countries, the report draws some and responsibility for reducing drug-related
among students tentative conclusions about best practice in harm. These projects need community
destigmatisation of mental illness drug education programmes. For school-based ownership and to be sustained over time.
encouragement of students to recognise drug education the elements of best practice
mental health problems in themselves and about which there was most consensus Mass-media campaigns are hard to evaluate in
their peers and to know how and where to include: the short term. The review concluded that
find help relevance to the needs of young people, cumulative effects may contribute to slow
teaching self-awareness, coping skills, social including the needs as young people change in the social cultures around tobacco,
skills and problem-solving skills (Beautrais see them alcohol and other drugs that influence
1999). interactive and activity-oriented design individual behaviour, and reinforce messages
follow-up and ongoing education provided through community action, family-
A review of evidence on the prevention of provision of factual information based or school-based education (Allen and
indigenous youth suicide examined a number the use of social influence approaches Clarke 2003).
of projects in other countries and analysed (factual information, normative information
their implications for Mori youth suicide and resistance skills training). A qualitative investigation of young mens
prevention. The report proposed a number of drinking found that many of the young men
strands for a Mori youth suicide prevention Family-based drug education has not been (aged 18-29) involved in the research who were
strategy: widely evaluated, but the review found the regular drinkers had low self-esteem and were
strengthen Mori communities and develop evidence of effectiveness to be positive apprehensive about having contact with
their capacity to respond effectively and and concluded that while family-based women. The importance of the male peer
appropriately to Mori youth suicide programmes are expensive, they are an group was paramount to them and being
shift emphasis from preventing suicide to important strategy for reducing drug-related included in the group was a priority that left
harm among high-risk populations. them vulnerable to peer pressure. Drinking
positive and proactive Mori youth
was symbolic of inclusion in the peer group.
development
Community-based drug education is also Their difficulties in relating to women made
increase the role of cultural development
promising, although once again such projects their reliance on the peer group even greater.
as a protective factor for young Mori
encourage and assist mainstream services
to respond appropriately to young Mori
improve the understanding of the causes
and true level of Mori youth suicide.

While not addressing programmes directly, the


report does recommend relocating the design
of prevention strategies into the hands of those
most affected by them, and basing
interventions on the realities of those receiving
them (Lawson-Te Aho 1998).

The Ministry of Youth Development recently


commissioned an extensive review of research
into drug education programmes here and
overseas as the first part of a three-phase
project to identify and encourage best practice
in alcohol and drug education. The report
notes little reliable evaluation of drug

30 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


They responded with some hostility to with substance abuse problems is based on a The Centre also reviewed three meta-analyses
commercials linking alcohol consumption to review of research and interviews with experts. of school-based drug prevention programmes.
success with women. The research found that It finds in favour of programmes that are While these conclusions are drawn from
low self-esteem was the strongest factor separate from adult programmes, are based on programmes in the US, the findings support
keeping these young men cemented into their harm reduction and have a realistic view of the recent Ministry of Youth Development
drinking peer group, and that identity relapse, are client-centred with a flexible report on drug education in New Zealand. The
confusion resulting from the transition from approach to treatment, and involve families. findings were:
childhood to adulthood further eroded self- A strengths-based approach and paying careful programme processes (interactive or
esteem (Wyllie and Casswell 1991). This attention to the recruitment of appropriate teacher/presenter centred) matter more than
research suggests programmes to reduce staff are other features most likely to achieve programme content (knowledge-based,
misuse of alcohol among young men should positive outcomes (Roberts et al 2001). affective, refusal skills development, harm
focus on building self-esteem and creating minimisation)
other ways for young men to bond with their Two research-based papers from the Centre interactive programmes are far more effective
peer groups. for Resilience Research at the University of (especially in schools with predominantly
Minnesota are worth including. The first is a minority populations), and they are most
ELSEWHERE review of lessons learned from the National effective when incorporated into a
Support for a gender-based analysis of policy Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add community-wide effort to reduce substance
and programme development models comes Health) funded by the National Institute of misuse
from Canada where guidelines suggest all Child Health and Human Development. The training drug educators in group process is
health policies and programmes should study of students aged 10-18 collects data on essential to effective programmes
address these questions: an extensive range of health-related behaviours the shift from problem prevention to youth
Are differences in the contexts of the lives of and health service use. The study explores development still has some way to go;
men and women, boys and girls addressed? causes of healthy and unhealthy behaviours school-based drug prevention tends to
Is the diversity within subgroups of men and and what protective influences operate in the operate in isolation from youth development
women, boys and girls identified and lives of adolescents. The study identifies a wide theory or practice
analysed? range of strengths within individuals, families, the more personal, familial, social and
Are men and women engaged in the processes schools and communities, and concludes that environmental strengths that can be
of development in a meaningful way? two lessons are paramount: mobilised to prevent and address drug
Are intended and unintended outcomes families, schools, and any organisations misuse, the more effective it will be (Bernard
identified? serving youth must make the development and Marshall 2001d).
Are social, political and economic realities and maintenance of strong relationships the
taken into account? (Womens Health top priority in their work A large report from the Australian Institute of
Bureau 2003) efforts must focus on creating healthy, Health and Welfare reviews what research
inviting environments and systems rather indicates about effective ways of reducing
Health Canadas extensive report into best than on trying to fix young people alcohol-related injury among young males.
treatment and rehabilitation practices for youth (Bernard and Marshall 2001c). The report has a strong focus on alcohol-

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 31


related motor vehicle crashes. While in danger more involvement with the justice system.
of greatly oversimplifying a substantial piece of Youth offending has been the subject of many
research, the report finds that while there has reports and investigations both in New
been a decline in alcohol-related motor vehicle Zealand and elsewhere; the pursuit of what
crashes over recent years due largely to works to reduce youth offending is relentless.
changes in legislation, random breath testing,
media messages and community response This report focuses on strengths-based
this strategy has been less effective with young approaches, and while there is clear evidence
males than with other sectors of the strengths-based approaches make a valuable
community. The report suggests young men contribution to reducing offending, they are
may need to be apprehended more frequently unlikely to be sufficient in themselves.
when driving over the legal alcohol limit to be Research into reducing offending indicates that
deterred from this behaviour. The report as well as focusing on building strength, in
strongly favours very low blood alcohol limits, particular those strengths that will help
graduated licensing, and strategies to reduce prevent reoffending, programmes to reduce
the availability of alcohol to young drivers reoffending must identify and address risks
(Steenkamp et al 2002). (McLaren 2000).

A qualitative investigation into the body image The Ministry of Youth Affairs undertook a
of adolescent males confirmed teenage males substantial review of research on what works
have concerns about their body image. to reduce reoffending by young people in June
The Australian study involving in-depth 2000. The review found research in this area
interviews with 24 young men half of whom did offer some consensus about the most
were active sportsmen, found all of them very effective ways of reducing crime by young
aware of the media representation of male people. The things research reviews and meta-
bodies that were defined, muscular, athletic analyses agreed on were:
and devoid of fat. Boys indicated they were The worst cases need the most attention.
taking up forms of physical activity as a The main distinguishing characteristic of
response to concerns about not matching this persistent young offenders is the number of
ideal, rather than for fun or health-related problems they experience. They usually
fitness. The study questions the current come to attention early in life and need to be
conceptualisation of sport as a powerful recognised and channelled into
positive influence on the lives of young men interventions sooner rather than later.
and says those offering sports opportunities Address the known causes of offending.
and programmes to young males need to be There is now much agreement on the risk
aware of the power of stereotypical images of factors for offending. Effective interventions
the male body (Drummond 2001). address these risk factors directly, and use a
variety of techniques to change them.
Target multiple causes and use a range of
5.2 Programmes to prevent offending techniques. The more causes that can be
and reoffending targeted, and the wider the range of
techniques used to address the causes, the
IN NEW ZEALAND more effective the intervention is likely to be.
Youth offending is a widespread concern. It is Teach new skills in active ways. Effective
largely a male issue, and although concern is approaches try to equip young people with
growing about offending, particularly violent more strengths than they had before. This
offending, perpetrated by young women, means teaching them new ways to think,
statistics clearly show it is males who have respond and behave.

32 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


Good outcomes need good people. People A report which draws on research from
who work effectively with young offenders New Zealand and overseas reviews current
are able to establish warm and friendly knowledge about the most effective
relationships while setting limits and interventions for reducing offending by youth
enforcing rules. The more time young from indigenous and ethnic minority cultures.
offenders can spend with people who While acknowledging the limitations of
respect the law and are succeeding at available research, the review supports many of
constructive activities, the better. the findings of McLarens report in identifying
Effective interventions involve families, four characteristics of programmes that are
peers, school or work, and communities effective for these offenders:
(McLaren 2000). a holistic approach incorporating different
strategies
McLarens review found one approach above involvement of significant others such as
all others was associated with a reduction in family and community
reoffending. Multi-systemic therapy (MST) staff who are sensitive, culturally appropriate
identifies the causes of offending, and then and with whom youth identify
develops ways of responding to them. It works incorporation of and emphasis on cultural
across the different social systems the young material.
person moves in family, school, peer group
and neighbourhood. McLaren describes the Although the review did not focus directly on
distinguishing characteristics of MST as: Mori it did find some evidence to suggest
addressing risk factors that lead to offending whnau involvement may be an important
working with the whole family as well as component of effective strategies for Mori
the offender, coming to the familys young people, and that successful programmes
environment in their time, and asking what for Mori tend to be provided by people who
the family needs have mana and with whom young people can
working in the four social environments identify. They are likely to offer positive
of the young person, their family, school, reinforcement and acceptance, and
neighbourhood/community and peer group acknowledge the importance of identity,
working in the community with chronic cultural knowledge and history. Effective
young offenders who are prison-bound. programmes also tend to address practical,
academic, employment, financial management
MST emphasises working with the whole and stability needs and teach young people
family, but also involves individual cognitive about the contemporary relevance of Mori
therapy with the young person. It endeavours values (Singh and White 2000).
to reduce contact with antisocial peer networks
by involving the young person in leisure time The literature on interventions for Pacific
pursuits at school, and introducing them to people is sparse. However, the same review
new social groups and activities. found indications that successful strategies for
Pacific young people recognise the identity
McLaren goes further and says the number of conflicts of New Zealand born Pacific youth,
high quality replications of MST shift it out of and are staffed by people who understand the
the promising and into the what works difficulties young Pacific people face.
category. Its effectiveness is the result not only Successful strategies also tend to deliver
of family involvement, but also of targeting risk information through interactive group
factors, and of working across the four processes rather than lecture formats and
environments of family, school, neighbourhood involve facilitator modelling of desired
and peer group. Being focused on the needs behaviour. The appropriateness of separate
and limitations of the families also means programmes for men, women and different
uptake is high and attrition low (McLaren age groups was also indicated
2003). (Singh and White 2000).

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 33


Child, Youth and Family Chief Social Worker Elements to consider in programmes for young range of venues around the country including
Pakuras review of 13 years of Family Group Mori offenders include: marae, schools and prisons. Performances are
Conferences (FGC), a strengths-based approach opportunities to (re)discover identity, created by participants who share their life
to a better future for young people whakapapa, te reo, tikanga and history stories and through song, dance and dramatic
in the care and protection and youth justice alternatives to schooling and education techniques make sense of their past and
systems, led her to conclude that, while not which meet their needs prepare to face the future
perfect, the FGC process has resulted in better vocational skills and training for http://www.corrections.govt.nz/public/pdf/na
decisions for young people than would have employment ku/mar2003panuitekaumaiwa.pdf
otherwise been made. Although fears of multi- counselling to address issues of physical,
generational family dysfunction leading to poor emotional and sexual abuse, drug and ELSEWHERE
decisions proved largely unfounded, the FGC alcohol abuse and mental health problems The most significant recent international report
process has struggled in situations where a range of life skills including is the US Surgeon Generals 2001 report on
scattered and eroded family links have made communication and cognitive skills youth violence. This well-resourced
it difficult to get a sufficient representation of physical activity, recreational and outdoor investigation into the extent, causes and
extended family at the conference activity (Owen 2001). responses to youth violence reviews a mass of
(Pakura 2003). research in reaching conclusions about what
Two evaluations of interventions to reduce works and whats promising. Despite
Whanake rangatahi programmes and services mens violence towards their partners and acknowledging the lack of robust research into
to address Mori youth offending assessed Mori families used a combination of quantitative programme effectiveness, the report finds that
participation in programmes and services and qualitative data to show education and prevention programmes and strategies can be
directed at youth offending and the outcomes. intervention programmes had some positive effective against both early and late onset forms
The report drew on national level information effects for both the men and the families of of violence in the general youth population as
about programmes and services, previous those who attended. However, both well as among high-risk youth and those who
research, and interviews with young Mori evaluations found there were significant have already offended. The reports main
offenders, their whnau, service providers and problems engaging and keeping men in conclusions about programme effectiveness are:
community people who work with Mori programmes, which led the researchers to A number of youth violence intervention and
offenders. This report finds that preferred conclude the positive outcomes were to some prevention programmes have demonstrated
services for Mori generally take a holistic extent linked with the higher motivation of their positive effect; assertions that nothing
approach, involve whnau and incorporate men who had attended the programmes works are false.
tikanga and whnaungatanga. Rangatahi (McMaster et al 2000; Williams 1995). Most highly effective programmes combine
wanted programmes to be delivered by people components that address both individual
who shared similar life experiences to them, Although no research was uncovered into their risks and environmental conditions;
and to be caring, firm and fair. effects, there is strong anecdotal support for particularly building individual skills and
some of the arts and drama programmes competencies, strengthening parent
currently offered to young people. Te Rakau, a effectiveness, improving the social climate
theatre company headed by Jim Moriarty, a of the school and influencing the type and
qualified psychiatric nurse and actor, has been level of peer group involvement.
offering programmes to young people at a

34 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


Evaluation is crucial; just as some boys are failing at school or whether schools a wide range of programmes including
programmes have demonstrated their are failing boys. Over the last five years an subjects of particular interest to boys.
effectiveness, so too have some increasing number of educationalists in
demonstrated their lack of effectiveness New Zealand have publicly expressed their The schools have usually done some analysis
or even negative effects. concern that too many boys are not engaging of gender-related achievement. They have not
In schools, interventions that target change successfully with education (The NZ Education assumed boys and girls have the same learning
in the social context appear to be more Gazette Vol 78 No 10 1999; Garelja 1999; needs, have researched gender-related learning
effective than those which attempt to change Middleton 1999; Taylor-Smith 1998; styles and have incorporated a range of
individual attitudes, skills and risk Carnachan 2000; Bullen 1999; Greer 1998; teaching styles and strategies into their
behaviours. McCarthy 2000; Langley 2003). Undertaken programmes (Education Review Office 1999).
Involvement with delinquent peers and gang partly in response to these concerns, a review
membership are two of the most powerful of achievement data appears to show that, In the 2000 report Promoting Boys Achievement,
predictors of violence yet few interventions although the relative performance of boys and the Education Review Office described the
address these problems. girls has changed over recent years, it is types of programmes review officers concluded
Programme effectiveness depends as much because girls achievement has improved while were successful in addressing the perceived
on the quality of implementation as on boys has not (Alton-Lee and Praat 1999). under-achievement of boys. These include
the type of intervention. Many good programmes:
programmes are ineffective because The relative newness of the concerns and the addressing discipline and support and
the quality of implementation is poor lack of agreement over whether there is an providing students with positive role models
(US Department of Health and Human issue here at all, probably account for the lack focusing on behaviour management, self-
Services 2001). of established programmes that have been
esteem and values
robustly evaluated. Rather, schools are making
encouraging nurturing behaviour between
Two Australian research papers addressing the their own decisions about whether or not to
different age groups within a school
effectiveness of mentoring programmes for specifically address the needs of boys.
reducing youth offending both conclude that, increasing learning options, and introducing
as it can be hard to engage young offenders in The Education Review Office investigated the practical activities, which boys see as
mentoring relationships and any impacts on issue in 1999, being particularly interested in relevant to their lives (Education Review
rates of offending are as yet unproven, such whether schools were alert to any gender Office 2000).
programmes should only be considered differences in student achievement, and if they
promising at best (Wilezynksi 2002; Delaney were, what strategies were in place to address McLarens extensive review of local and
and Milne 2003). gender-related underachievement. The report international programmes designed to
found schools which demonstrate good relative reconnect young people with education did
achievement of boys have: not focus specifically on males. Nonetheless it
5.3 Programmes supporting boys in a high standard of behaviour management reached some conclusions relevant to this
and discipline report. McLaren concluded that programmes
education
a supportive environment with positive role which are successful at increasing participation
in education are based on the following
IN NEW ZEALAND models and where students are encouraged
principles:
There is an ongoing debate about whether to take responsibilities for their actions
its never too early and its never too late
both early intervention (perinatal and
preschool) and later interventions (in
adolescence) can be effective in improving
school success

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 35


the young people with the worst problems and the exact mix of components was tailored
show the best results those who are most to each individual. Interventions focused on:
in need of programmes to boost academic getting young people to school providing
engagement and success get most value transport, enrolling at a less structured
from them school, tutoring to make up lost learning
more intense interventions are more health interventions drug and alcohol
effective longer programmes and those education, sexual health advice, mental
with a higher level of contact with students health support
work better social and family interventions support to
effective programme co-ordinators make a fulfil the requirements of a court sentence,
difference, as does good staff selection and parental guidance and support, courses for
training motivation, stress and anger management
involving parents and families increases the interventions to foster work or recreational
impact of programmes increased support activities encouragement to increase
from key adults makes a difference involvement with existing sport or cultural
programmes that meet key developmental interests, exposure to new activities, linking
needs are more effective successful with potential employers.
programmes address key developmental
needs such as support and discipline, and Caseworkers monitored and revised goals and
teach the skills of relating to others, and activities through individualised management
how to manage emotions and behaviour plans. Mentors were also provided for young
positive peer cultures enhance success people who had the most complex problems.
services need to be as accessible as possible Post-testing showed the proportion of these
addressing both academic issues and other young people persistently truanting fell from
issues that affect academic performance 87% to 32%, the report of the research does
enhances success not indicate whether the truancy of young men
programmes that address many areas of improved more or less than that of young
students lives are likely to achieve better women. Young men showed significant
results, positive changes in one area can lead improvement on the self-reported indicators of
to positive changes in another delinquency. A three-month follow up showed
good organisational structure and support that, while the students had maintained
of workers is associated with good results attendance, performance at school and
(McLaren 2003). attitudes to school had not improved
(Milne et al 2003).
Two programmes for students at risk of
disengaging from the education system have Heart work and hard mahi is the report on the
been robustly evaluated. The first was a first 18 months of the Highbury Whnau
community-based truancy intervention Resource Centres alternative education
programme which aimed to get truanting programme. This qualitative research collected
students back to school, to reduce problem data from the six young men who participated
behaviours and to improve family functioning. in the programme during its first year, their
Sixty-six Dunedin teenagers were involved whnau, programme staff and key stakeholders
in the programme, 35 of them male; their in the Palmerston North community. The
median age was 14 years and 8 months. young men selected for the programme in the
The evaluation used a pre- and post-test design first year were high or serious recidivist
which measured frequency of truanting, young offenders aged between 13 and 15. Using an
peoples own reports of their moods and explicitly strengths-based practice philosophy,
behaviours, and a tool which measured family the programme took a whole person
functioning. The intervention was multifaceted approach to working with the young men and

36 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


their whnau/families. The approach required incorporate life skills Boys and drama a project designed to
the workers to identify the positive involve music help change the traditional construct of
characteristics, strengths and capacities of support the development of personal skills masculinity (Horne 2003).
the young people they worked with. The such as anger management, verbal rather Te Reo Putaiao science project which takes
evaluation found key successes in the first year than physical expression of feelings, dealing a holistic approach to motivating
were the regular attendance of students at the
with alcohol underachieving Mori boys to learn science
programme, reductions in offending reported
include single-sex programmes with role with academic and hauora (health and
from youth justice staff, and increased
models involved wellbeing) dimensions (Velde 2001).
engagement with prosocial activities (Sanders
and Munford 2001). offer leadership development and public Mentoring programmes using senior boys to
speaking support younger students (Stewart 2003).
When teenage boys talked about what they have adult counsellors available (Maniapoto- Boys-only classes (Gerritsen 1999c).
thought and felt about school they voiced the Jackson and Reriti 1997).
importance of relationships with peers and Tait, a New Zealand secondary school
with teachers. They appreciated teachers who While none of the school-based initiatives principal, travelled to Sydney and Melbourne
are fair and approachable, and perceived uncovered for this review have been the to see what secondary schools there were
unfairness was of great concern. Not all boys subject of robust evaluation, it is worth noting doing to address concerns about boys in
enjoyed physical activity and those who did where schools are directing their efforts: education. In the boys schools he found a
not found the emphasis on it demoralising. The Good Man project, headed by Celia strong emphasis on changing the culture of the
Most boys had experienced or been Lashlie, is trying to help boys forge a more school away from a traditional, macho, sport-
perpetrators of bullying; they said they were positive path through adolescence with the oriented culture. This was being attempted by
unlikely to report it (Weaver 2001). greater diversity in curricular and co-curricular
help of families and schools. The project is
programmes including greater emphasis on
gaining momentum as more schools seek to
Research with young Mori in schools in three performing arts, new philosophies of and
take part (Mussen 2003).
areas of New Zealand focused on asking them approaches to discipline, and a whole-school
There is a range of ways schools are trying to focus on literacy. Principals reported a key to
what programmes and services they believed
include more positive role models for boys culture change had been staff who were
were required to meet the needs of young
Mori. This qualitative piece does not claim to in schools (Gerritsen 1999). prepared to use methods which involved
be a definitive representation of the views of Encouraging fathers and other men who are dialogue with the boys rather than quick-fix
Mori youth. Themes that emerged were that important in the lives of boys to be more power methods. As well as focusing on school
programmes should: involved in their education is a strategy culture, some co-educational schools had
reflect and celebrate Mori culture some schools are trying (Dominion Post 12 introduced boys-only classes (Tait 2000).
incorporate a range of activities including March 2004).
physical activity and some exciting things

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 37


ELSEWHERE evidence base. Clear documentation of
An investigation into boys education in the objectives, programme components and
Australian Capital Territory encompassed a delivery, and agreement on indicators of
review of previous research, a quantitative success at the outset is a good start. The
analysis of motivational data from almost systematic collection of reliable information
2,000 Year 7 and Year 9 students, interviews on the indicators of success provides both
and focus groups with students, staff and invaluable feedback to programme staff, and
educators. From the analysis the author some evidence of the programmes effect. It
derived a number of principles on which will not establish conclusively the
programmes for improving boys educational programme was responsible for the effects
outcomes should be based. He advocates: observed, but it will quickly show if the
School-level strategies which include a programme is not making any difference.
gender equity framework, student input
into policies and procedures, support for
pedagogy, tackling anti-academic culture, 5.5 Principles of effective programmes
and addressing gender across the in areas of risk
curriculum.
Classroom and teacher level strategies which
include catering for diversity, providing This section of the review includes a wide
opportunities for success and effective range of programmes targeting several
feedback, promoting active learning, distinct areas of risk. The attempt to extract
prioritising relationships with students, the principles of effective programmes is
broad and authentic assessment, and indicative only. However, those developing
enhancing relevance, interest, variety and programmes addressing risk areas for young
curiosity. men would do well to consider:
Student level strategies which include Programmes can make a difference. The more
mentoring, role modelling, goal and target quality programmes available to young
setting, addressing negative peer influences, men the better.
student-centred programmes, and building The more individual, family, social and
student skills and competencies (Martin community strengths a programme can
2003). build, the better.
The need to both address risk factors and
build protective factors, thereby increasing
resilience.
5.4 Building evidence
The value of separate programmes
designed for young men, as distinct from
Almost every report exploring the issue of those designed for older adults.
what works in reducing young peoples risks A clear finding that interactive
and supporting their positive development programmes are more effective.
laments the lack of rigorously evaluated Employing programme staff who are able
programmes to learn from. This is not new, to establish warm and friendly
nor will it be addressed quickly. In the relationships while setting limits and
meantime programmes must be developed on enforcing rules.
the basis of the best available evidence. A whole person approach works better
It is unrealistic to expect that all or even most than a problem focus. Even when
New Zealand programmes will be evaluated addressing specific areas of risk,
with the necessary rigour to establish their programmes will be more effective if they
effectiveness. Nonetheless, programmes should engage with young mens other
consider what they can contribute to the needs as well.

38 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


6.0
Conclusion
This report is based on the understanding that We need programmes that recognise males
most young men lead healthy and successful have a gender; programmes designed for boys
lives. It explores what is known about the and men that acknowledge, respect and
protective factors that keep them safe, and affirm things masculine. This does not mean
what has been discovered about programmes the reinforcement of traditional masculine
that develop and build those strengths in all stereotypes, but rather looking for ways to
young men, and in particular those have more explore with boys and young men what it
than their share of factors putting them at risk. means to be a man, and encouraging the
development of alternative models of
While much effort and energy in New Zealand manhood. Adult men need to be involved and
is going into programmes for young people, to see themselves as role models and mentors
there is much we do not know about the most for young men who may not have access to
effective ways of working with young men. We such models within their immediate circles.
know little about the impact of many existing
programmes. Male-focused programmes in this Programmes for males need a combination of
country are in their infancy and we need to action and reflection. Many young men enjoy
know much more about how they should look, physical activity and challenge, lots thrive on
and in what ways they might differ from hands-on and practical tasks, and they like
gender-neutral programmes. In-depth research to be useful. However, they also need to be
with young men about their experiences of the encouraged to reflect on what they are doing,
world, their aspirations and their problems is how they are relating, and what problem-
hard to find, and would be very useful for solving methods they are using to more
programme design. While we need to address deliberately build some of the strengths
these and other gaps, decisions need to be that will support their development.
made on the best evidence currently available.
Whatever the programme, relationships must
What is now appreciated is that strengths exist be a top priority. Young men need as many
in individuals, in families, in schools, among anchoring points contact with competent,
peer groups and in communities. Similarly, the caring and prosocial adults as possible.
programmes that build on those strengths will The commitment to relationships with young
need to be diverse in their focus and their people must be genuine on the part of adults.
location. We need programmes for building It will involve listening to young peoples views
individuals strengths; programmes in schools, and encouraging their participation. It may
programmes for families, and community- involve relinquishing the power vested in age
based programmes that can reach those young or position in favour of building a relationship
people whose links to their families and where power is shared and respect is mutual.
schools are weak.

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 39


40 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches
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44 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


Appendix Methodology
The brief How are strengths-based and male-focused
approaches actually delivered in a functional
The brief for this project was to produce a and practical way?
literature and best evidence review How does the identification of young males
investigating strengths-based and male-focused who could benefit from strengths-based
approaches to programme delivery for young and/or male-focused approaches occur, and
males, with particular emphasis on young how are they recruited?
males at risk of behaviours that harm
Have variations in the delivery, content, or
themselves or others.
results of strengths-based and male-focused
approaches been demonstrated for different
ethnic groups?
Key questions
What is the role (absent or otherwise) of
other males/peers and the impact that older
The key research questions which guided this
males/role models have on young males
review were:
(both before, and during the intervention)?
What are the characteristics of programmes
What gaps are there in the research and
that use strengths-based approaches?
understanding of issues affecting young
What indicators or factors suggest that
males and the behaviours they exhibit as
strengths-based approaches may be
responses to them?
appropriate for young male populations and
What areas of young male life are changed or
beneficial for those at risk?
addressed by strengths-based and/or male-
What are the characteristics of male-focused
focused approaches?
approaches and how do they differ from
gender-neutral approaches?
What indications are there that male-focused
approaches may deliver better outcomes for
The context and priorities for the review
young males than gender-neutral
This review sits within the Youth Development
approaches?
Strategy Aotearoa. The programmes and
How can young males (with particular
approaches reviewed have been examined for
reference to those at risk) best be supported consistency with the principles of the strategy.
to achieve better outcomes? Many sectors including justice, health,
Can strengths-based and/or male-focused education, and labour have an interest in
programmes be identified within the New approaches that help the development and
Zealand context? positive outcomes of young males. This review
What research or evaluations endorse seeks to highlight material that is directly
strengths-based and/or male-focused applicable, and can inform potential action
approaches to programme delivery? options and policy directions designed to
improve outcomes for young males, with
When are interventions most effective and
particular relevance to at-risk populations. For
what is the relative importance of timing?
this reason, wherever possible, the emphasis is
(That is, what are the best opportunities to
on New Zealand studies, programmes and
intervene and provide support to young
literature.
males.)
How have strengths-based and/or male-
focused approaches been used to promote
and achieve positive outcomes for young
males?

Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 45


How material was identified Review and analysis

Documents provided by the Ministry of Youth Within each section of this report priority
Development (MYD) were sourced from the has been given to methodologically rigorous
MYD library, previous MYD literature reviews, New Zealand material, followed by relevant,
and youth policy research papers. applicable international research and
Before the review was contracted the Ministry evaluation. Some descriptions of New Zealand
of Youth Development initiated a search of programmes are included.
New Zealand databases (Ministry of Social
Development Information Centre Database, While efforts have been made to identify and
Index New Zealand and the New Zealand locate New Zealand material, the scarcity of
National Bibliography), Austrom, the Social local research means a limited amount of
Sciences Index and an internet search. This research and evaluation from the US, the
was undertaken by the Ministry of Social United Kingdom, Australia and Canada has
Development Information Services using been included. While New Zealand has some
combinations of the following search terms: unique characteristics it also shares many
young, youth, males, men, boys, strengths- similarities with these countries and in terms
based, focused, programmes, projects, of social problems and programmes there is
interventions. much to be learned from experience elsewhere.
Care has been taken to make it clear whether
The material identified for review included: research reviewed originates from within or
programme evaluation beyond New Zealand.
programme theory
programme description The approach to review and analysis was to
socio/cultural history and analysis maximise the usefulness and application of the
findings and therefore their value to policy
research into young men and at-risk groups
developers and programme designers. The
opinion and comment.
exception to this is in the section on male-
focused approaches where the emphasis is on
Decisions about what would be retrieved were
a review of research into the development of a
made by the author on the basis of abstracts
masculine identity in New Zealand.
provided by the Ministry of Social
Development Information Centre. Priorities for
retrieval included:
evidence-based evaluation of New Zealand
programmes for young men, and research
into issues affecting young men
methodologically rigorous, relevant, overseas
evaluation and analysis
New Zealand research, history, comment and
opinion on males and masculinity in
New Zealand, and associated risks.

46 Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches


Young Males: Strengths-based and male-focused approaches 47

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