Chapter Two

IRISH STEP DANCING MILIEUS

Irish step dancers are socialized within a competitive environment. Competitions

are, for many dancers, the main forums in which they perform, and many teachers train

their dancers for competitions instead of public performances. The local competition is

known as the “feis” [pronounced “fesh”], which is pluralized “feiseanna” or, commonly,

“feises.” Feiseanna are usually hosted by either a particular school or a community

organization dedicated to supporting the feis, which is generally held yearly. Although

the feis is often hosted by one particular school, feiseanna are generally open to entrants

from multiple schools. In the organization An Coimisiún le Rince Gaelacha (further

discussed below), any teacher who is registered with the organization my submit students

to be judged at the feis.

Two types of dance competitions are held at a typical feis—solo dances and ceílí

dances (group dances). Figure choreographies and dance dramas may also be performed

in some competitions, but these are generally rare. 1 At the local feis, dancers compete in

different grades or levels for solo dances. The names of these levels vary from region to

region, and from country to country. In the Western United States Region, the

competition levels are: Beginner 1 (Beginner), Beginner 2 (Advanced Beginner), Novice,

Prizewinner, Preliminary Championship, and Open Championship. Each of these

competitions is age-graded, so that one might compete in beginner 2 for a dance, and be

assigned to the “15 and Over” category, for example. Dancers move up the levels by

achieving a first place in competition with a sufficient number of dancers, or, in the lower

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levels, by placing in the top three. For each of the first four grades, the dancer competes

in seven competitions: reel, slip jig, light jig, single jig (softshoe dances), hornpipe, treble

jig, and traditional set (hardshoe dances). A dancer must generally advance all of his or

her dances to the prizewinner level before he or she can move into preliminary

championships. After moving into championships, the dancer will perform three dances:

one hardshoe dance, one softshoe dance, and a hardshoe traditional set. The traditional

sets performed at the lower levels are standardized across all schools, whereas the

traditional sets performed by champion dances are original choreographies developed by

particular teachers. For a dancer to move from preliminary championships to open

championships—the highest level of competitive Irish step dancing—he or she must

receive first place in three separate championships that enroll five or more competitors. It

can take a great deal of time for dancers to advance through all of the levels, and, indeed,

many dancers never reach open championships. Becoming a champion is, for many

dancers, a goal and an aspiration.

“Adult” competitions are separate from children’s competitions. These

competitions generally have fewer levels, and, in most competitions there is no

championship category. A few number of feiseanna do feature championship

competitions for Adult competitors, but these are largely symbolic, feis-specific, and do

not reflect a broader system. It should be noted that dancers of any age technically can

compete at the youth level, but most adult beginner dancers are not encouraged to do so.

Dancers are not generally separated by sex or gender until they reach the very

highest levels of competition. There are some competitions at lower levels that are

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segregated by gender, but these competitions do not count in terms of moving up the

levels. Competitions such as these are referred to as “specials,” of which the most

common in the Western United States region are the “boys’ special” and the “slip jig

special” (for girls).

Dancers who reach the level of championships can qualify to dance in the

regional Oireachtas, which is the qualifier for the Oireachtas Rince na Cruinne (the

World Championships, “all-Worlds” or “Worlds”). At the Oireachtas, dancers are

separated according to the year of their birth for most of the levels, although dancers who

are nineteen and twenty years of age compete together, and dancers who are twenty one

and over compete in one single category. Dancers must qualify by placing in a

championship or performing well at the Oireachtas to qualify for the final type of

regional competition, the nationals (for example, the North American National

Championships and the All-Ireland Championships). The World Championships is the

highest championship, to which competitive dancers proceed after placing in the top

ranks of their age group at either their regional Oireachtas or a national championship.

While only dancers from the specific region can compete in the regional

Oireachtas, dancers from any place in the world can compete for most national

championships (with the exception of Australia’s national championship). Dancers at the

World Championships are allotted a certain number of places per region based upon the

number of dancers competing in the regional Oireachtas. For any regional competition, a

minimum of three dancers will qualify, even if there are only three dancers in the entire

competition (which sometimes is the case for male dancers). However, as the number of

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dancers increases, the number of qualifiers for the Worlds in the age group

proportionately increases. For example, in the Under 19 and younger age groups, the top

three dancers in the Oireachtas competition automatically qualify for the Worlds, and

then once the number of competitors is lower than ten, an additional person will qualify

for each additional multiple of ten participants. For the older age groups, the procedure is

similar, except the top five dancers qualify, and the additional dancers are allocated when

there are an additional five dancers. 2 Dancers can also qualify for the World

Championships at the national competitions, or if they have won a medal in the prior

year’s World Championships they will requalify, but they must also “participate” in their

regional Oireachtas—although this participation might include registering and walking

up on the stage in a cast.

Most Irish step dancers will never qualify for the World Championships at all. It

is fairly difficult to achieve the status of champion alone, much less to place in the top

few of an Oireachtas competition. However, the fact that for most dancers this feat is

unachievable does not stop dancers from wanting it, from working for it, and from

dreaming about it. Achievement in many Irish step dancing schools, and according to

many dancers, is proportional to standing and rank in competition. Indeed, it is not

uncommon for dancers to cry when receiving poor placements, or to become very

frustrated when they do not achieve their goals. Dancers are discussed, and are accorded

respect, with reference to their rank. A particular teacher’s reputation is often based upon

how well his or her dancers, particularly champions, perform in competition. Both

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dancers and teachers informally rate schools as good or bad according to who achieves

the most success in competitions.

Irish step dancing competitions are particular environments with their own

peculiar traditions and customs, roles and structures. A feis is often held at a large hotel

or resort, although feiseanna are sometimes held in such locations as church halls, school

gymnasiums, or convention centers. A feis may have a few different rooms, each housing

a stage, or a large open area where there are multiple stages. The stage surface is

generally made of plywood, and taped onto the floor. Each stage will usually have its

own live musician. The most common types of musical instruments played are

accordions and pianos. When the competitions are being conducted, the sonic experience

is ever-present, and tunes are generally repeated over and over for every different level of

competition, throughout the day. Dancers on each stage will run through the succession

of dances for their age grade and level. Depending on the number of dancers, the process

of going through every competition level can take between one and two full days. At

larger competitions, such as the Oireachtas, the event will take place over about a three-

day weekend, and, at the World Championships, the competitions run for approximately

a week.

Dancers competing at a feis will be registered by their teacher in advance, and

have paid fees to participate. Upon arriving at the feis, they will sign in and receive their

number, on which will be listed their competitions. The long process of dressing oneself

for the competition will generally take place at various phases throughout the feis, being

just completed before the dancer takes place on the stage. Female dancers go through

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steps of dressing which may begin with the donning of a t-shirt, bloomers (underwear

worn under the dress) and long, glued-up-to-the-calves, “poodle socks,” to makeup

application, to the addition of the wig and the tiara, and finally to the donning of the

dress. Dancers in various states of dress and undress wander throughout the halls of the

feis. Unless dancers have to compete at the very start of the day, they will have a great

deal of time to rove around the feis. During this time, they may interact with friends,

watch other dancers compete, practice their steps, or look at the products offered by

vendors.

When it is nearly time for a dancer to compete, she will make sure her costume is

perfect, tie her number around her waist, and put on her dancing shoes. She will then

advance to the side of the stage to register with a stage monitor, who coordinates

competitions. As each competition occurs, it will either be announced, or a set of cards

showing the competition number, style of the dance, the level of competition, and the age

level will be displayed on a board. At the lower levels, multiple dancers, commonly up to

thirty or even fifty, will line up and walk out on to the stage. Lower level dancers will

face a single adjudicator, who will make a note of their numbers. The musician will start

playing, two dancers will step out, and they will perform two entirely different dances at

the same time. Beginner dancers will perform two steps on both right and left feet, which

adds up to 32 bars of music. After the first two dancers finish, they will extend their right

legs, point their toes, bow, and file to the back of the stage. Even before the first pair has

left the stage, the second pair will already have begun to dance. Dancers continue down

the line until everyone has had a chance to perform. When everyone has finished, all of

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the dancers will extend their right legs, point their toes, and bow. Throughout this

procession, the adjudicator has been taking careful notes and assigning scores to each

individual dancer. When she has finished recording all scores and is satisfied with the

placements she has given, she will ding a bell at her table. At this point, the dancers will

bow to the adjudicator, (and often) bow to the musician, and will file off stage in the

same order they used to enter. This process will be repeated for all seven dances in that

age group and level, with a brief pause for changing shoes between softshoe and hard

shoe competitions.

Championship competitions are run slightly differently. Dancers will perform

their hardshoe and softshoe dances in pairs, but they will only ascend to the stage two at a

time, and not in a large line. After the dancers have finished their first two “solo” dances,

they will move on to their set dances. Each traditional set has its own particular piece of

music that is performed at a specific speed. Individual dancers will perform their set

dances alone on the stage. At the World Championships or the Oireachtas, set dances are

performed only by dancers who have been recalled (that is, placed in the top half of the

competition), unless there are a very small number of dancers, in which case all of the

dancers perform their set dances. Dancers who compete in championships and dancers

who compete in the Oireachtas are judged by a panel of three adjudicators.

Championships are scored differently from non-championship competitions. All

three dances are included in the total championship score, whereas in lower levels each

dance is treated individually. In lower level dances, dancers are assigned their final rank

in a dance according to their raw scores. In contrast, in championships, dancers are given

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raw scores, and then these raw scores are transformed into rankings. Championship

rankings are assigned a certain number of standardized points, called “Irish points.” The

points a dancer receives from each adjudicator are added together for a final score, and

dancers are given their final standings based on these totals. A very high score received

from an adjudicator can significantly change one’s rank in the competition. Lower scores

are worth almost no “Irish points,” whereas higher scores within the first three to five

places receive the greatest bulk of the overall score count. A dancer who placed 1st, 30th,

and 15th in a dance would have an average lower than a person who scored 14th place

across the board in a conventional system of averages. However, in the Irish step dancing

system the first dancer would have a significant advantage over the second in the overall

ranking, because of the weight of their 1st place mark.

At the end of the competition day, when dancing is finished, awards are given out

in ceremonies. Lower-level dancers may or may not receive their awards (generally

medals) in these ceremonies, but championship dancers almost always receive their

trophies this way. In the United States, announcing is generally done in reverse order,

which builds up tension and excitement. Some announcers will announce the ranks of all

dancers in a particular competition, especially if a competition is very small. However, in

larger competitions and the Oireachtas, generally only members of the top half of the

competition are invited onto the award stage. The name and the school’s name for the

winner of each championship are often announced to the public. At very important

competitions, such as the Worlds, the dancer’s teacher will join the dancer onstage to

celebrate the award. These moments are idealized by any number of dancers, who

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practice with the goal of standing on the judge’s podium at the World Championships or

the Oireachtas, wearing the sash designating their placement, receiving the belt or crown,

and taking home the trophy.

Competition has significant effects on the ways dancers articulate their goals and

ambitions. The drive (and imperative) to succeed in competition shapes practicing habits,

the pace of change in steps, and the turnover in costume fashion. The intense competitive

hierarchy generated by emphasis on dancers’ results at feiseanna exerts impact on and

structures the awarenesses of Irish dancers. Dancers are intensely aware, not only of their

own placements in competition, but of the placements of others in their school, in their

region, and (if they have attained a very high level of dancing and have attended major

championships) in the world. Dancers are generally aware of whom in their school and

community is in what level of competition—who cannot get out of Novice, who always

places first in Open Championships, who has won the Oireachtas, who always places last

in championships. Dancers are aware of the people who beat them in competition and the

people they always beat, or feel they must always beat, to maintain their own self-respect.

With regards to dancing costumes, dancers are aware of what costumes “win” and what

costumes “lose,” as costume is perceived to have at least a minor impact on results.

Dancers feel the need to change their costumes as they become out of date. As of 2008,

the replacement cycle seems to have accelerated to approximately three years.

SOME SPONSORS OF IRISH STEP DANCING COMPETITIONS

The most prominent dancing organizations in terms of numbers and influence—as

measured, for example, by the number of dancers touring in prestigious professional

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shows such as Riverdance and Lord of the Dance, and who claim affiliation—appear to

be An Coimisiún le Rincí Gaelacha (An Coimisiún) and Comhdháil Múinteoirí Na Rincí

Gaelacha (An Comhdháil). An Coimisiún appears to be the largest Irish step dancing

organization in the world. It has a global reach and oversees organizations of teachers in

the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, and mainland

Europe. In addition, teachers certified by An Coimisiún can be found in areas such as

South Africa, Kenya, and Mexico. Under the direction of An Coimisiún, there are several

smaller governing organizations, such as the Irish Dancing Teachers Association of North

America (I.D.T.A.N.A.), which are further explained in the following section. An

Comhdháil, in contrast, has a smaller reach, and governs dancing teachers in Ireland,

Great Britain, Australia, the United States, and Slovakia. However, its reach in areas such

as the United States is considerably smaller than it is in Ireland, and there are few

feiseanna conducted by members of An Comhdháil in North America.

Numerous smaller Irish step dancing organizations exist around the world, but it

is extremely rare to find these organizations considered in Irish step dancing scholarship.

These organizations are often regional in scope and include Cumann Rince Dea Mheasa

(Ireland and the United Kingdom), the World Irish Dance Association (Mainland

Europe), Cumann Rince Naisiunta (primarily Ireland, although it has a limited reach into

other areas such as the United States), the Celtic Association of Irish Dance (United

Kingdom), the Festival Dance Teachers Association (Northern Ireland), Irish Dancing

Net (Germany), and the American Association of Irish Dancers and Teachers (United

States). In addition, Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Eireann, which is by and large an Irish music

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organization, also holds dancing and other cultural events globally. On occasion, the

organizations mentioned in this paragraph are documented in publications such as

International Irish Dancing and Culture Magazine, but that magazine’s coverage of the

organizations in question is erratic.

Irish step dancing is thus by no means homogenized in terms of its structure or

conception of authority. In addition, different dancing organizations often express

different principles in their platforms or statements of purpose. Some dancing

organizations are more conservative, some are more experimental, some are more closed,

some are more open, some are more hierarchical, and some are more egalitarian in terms

of authority. Some dancing associations have long histories, such as An Comhdháil,

which split off from organizations such as An Coimisiún after disputes, and Cumann

Rince Naisiunta, which separated from An Comhdháil due to a variety of internal

disagreements. However, some organizations (such as the World Irish Dance

Association) appear to have emerged within the past decade, likely as a result of the

general global popularity of shows such as Riverdance, and may have been facilitated by

the accelerated communication provided by the internet.

Finally, under organizations such as An Coimisiún, there are special bodies set up

for the sole purpose of organizing feiseanna directly. One such organization is the North

American Feis Commission (N.A.F.C.), which coordinates, registers and regulates

feiseanna across North America (Canada, the United States, and, within the twenty-first

century, Mexico), and, in coordination with An Coimisiún and the I.D.T.A.N.A., makes

rules for registered feiseanna to follow.

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Focus on An Coimisiún le Rincí Gaelacha (The Irish Dancing Commission)

Because An Coimisiún appears to be the largest and most dominant Irish step

dancing organization around the globe, almost all of the statements in this thesis refer to

situations and phenomena within An Coimisiún, although some statements appear to be

true or similar for Irish step dancing culture in An Comhdháil. There is not enough

information available to this author on other organizations to note the differences

between An Coimisiún cultures and the cultures of other organizations. I thus address the

structure and history of An Coimisiún directly. I draw on rulebooks gathered from two

former teachers, a rulebook that is published on the internet, information that is published

on official and unofficial websites, internet messageboards and magazines, the works of

John Cullinane, and personal experience in making these assessments.

Perspectives for Assessing the Structure of An Coimisiún le Rincí Gaelacha

In looking at the impact of structure on organizations, we may employ a variety

of theories, including “rational systems theory,” “contingency theory,” and “institutional

theory.” In his 2008 book, Organizations: Management Without Control, sociologist

Howard Greenwald summarized these means of describing and understanding the

structure of organizations, ranging from theoretical models to aspects of observable

structure, to the importance of informal practices in the shaping of the actual functioning

of organizations.

According to Greenwald’s analysis, rational systems theory suggests that

structures of organizations are often directly related to the goals and objectives of the

organization as a whole. The observable structure is assumed to have a determinative

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effect over function and achievement of organizational goals (50-51). In contrast,

contingency theory assumes that the structure of an organization may be affected by

environmental variability, and variability among the members of the organization. This

variability may give rise to organizational differences among groups, some of which

may not be a direct result of, or of service to, the pursuit of a specific objective by the

institution as a whole (51-52). These theories have been merged by some scholars, who

assume that structures may be related both to the explicitly stated goals and objectives,

or may be driven by varying dynamics of individuals within an organization, as well as

environmental forces outside of it. This approach is referred to as the “rational-

contingency” theory of organizations (51). An additional theory, “institutional theory,”

suggests that organizations may, in addition to being shaped by the two former sets of

variables, be molded by the motivations, imperatives, ideological context, and historical

context of their founders or of individuals who were prominent earlier in their

organizations’ developmental processes (52-53). This final category of analysis may be

directly related to the age of the organization; older organizations may retain solidified

vestiges of their earlier formations that may or may not suit their current goals, whereas

the structures of younger organizations may be in the process of forming and thus more

malleable.

Some elements of structures may be more easily observed than others. Similarly,

some of the forces that shape structures may be difficult to immediately discern. Some

aspects that may be studied include an organization’s levels of “formalization,

centralization, hierarchy, complexity, and integration” (109). Other means of describing

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an organization’s structure include giving attention to its “locus of initiation, flexibility,

accessibility [both to outsiders and insiders], and opportunity ladders” (109). These

elements of institutional and organizational structure may be created, changed, or

reinforced by an array of factors. These may include the “organization’s size, age, [use

of] technology, [response to] environment, and leadership” as well as its stated

objectives or goals (118). These structural elements, and the forces that create and

maintain them, may be conceived of as falling into a continuum. Structures may be quite

variable between organizations—although also sometimes similar within a field or

between organizations that have comparable pressures and/or interests.

Structures may have a variety of tangible effects. For example, very hierarchical,

formalized or complex organizations may have difficulty coordinating effective multi-

directional communication between organizational levels or dimensions, and/or

soliciting new approaches and perspectives from members.

Functionality of structures may be “reinforced” or “undermined” in a multiplicity

of ways, both formal and informal. Change may be driven by actors at the “top” or at the

“bottom” of an organization. For example, adherence to a more rigid structure within an

organization may be maintained by a variety of means, including the employment of

instruction, correction, the spread of information, and resource allocation within the

organization (107). Contrarily, members at the “bottom” of the organization may

respond to these disciplinary measures by either overtly or covertly resisting them.

Cultural practices also shape the ways in which organizations function. Informal

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practices may be as structurally important as formal procedures in the functioning of an

organization.

Structures of An Coimisiún le Rincí Gaelacha

The categories of analysis laid out by Greenwald, help to assess the formal and

informal structure of An Coimisiún le Rincí Gaelacha as an organization. An Coimisiún

is a non-commercial cultural organization that certifies teachers and adjudicators, and

directs the running of Irish step dancing competitions. However, many of its members

operate for-profit enterprises for the teaching of dancing. An Coimisiún was established

in the 1930s, and although there have been changes in the structure of the organization

since that time, the relative age of the organization makes it less flexible than newer

organizations. In addition, the mission of the founders has a strong influence over its

continued development. In particular, An Coimisiún is impacted by its Gaelic League

heritage in terms of valuing indigenous dancing, not encouraging mixing of dancing

styles with Irish dancing, mandating authentic dress and culture, maintaining a strict

hierarchy of authority, and emphasizing the Irish language, among other points. 3

An Coimisiún is a very large organization, with members spanning the globe. An

Coimisiún has several sub-organizations, or councils, including the Irish Dancing

Teachers Association of North America (I.D.T.A.N.A.), the Australian Irish Dancing

Association (A.I.D.A.), and the Traditional Irish Dance Association of New Zealand

(T.I.D.A.N.Z.). There are sub-units under many of these associations. For example, the

I.D.T.A.N.A. is divided up into seven different regions, each of which is self-governing

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to a degree. The size of An Coimisiún limits the ability of a small group of individuals to

fully govern all dancers—allowing for some variation, for example among regions.

An Coimisiún le Rincí Gaelacha is a fairly hierarchical organization with a

defined formal power structure that includes several formal governing positions. For

example, as of 2007, there is a President, sixteen Vice Presidents, a Chairman, two Vice

Chairs, a Treasurer, an Assistant Treasurer, a Public Relations Officer, and chairs for the

Coiste Gaeilge (Gaelic Committee), Examination Authority, Rules Committee, Music &

Dance, Oireachtas, Management & Finance, Overseas Development, Coiste Faire

(Watch/Observation Committee), and Costumes. Although there are many different

officers, and thus one might perceive many different loci of power, authority is in

general fairly centralized in core officers such as Presidents and Vice Presidents, or, for

regions, in regional officers. The hierarchical model An Coimisiún operates under does

not incorporate dancers into its formal structure, and registered teachers, in my

experience, are not all regarded equally according to the structure—although technically

they all have the same level of influence, and are able to vote and attend meetings.

Personal connections, relationships, and longevity in the organization all have an

influence on the amount of power one is able to garner in practice. While the explicit

structure might encourage transparency in terms of operations, it is also my experience

that most dancers are not aware of the structure, for the most part, although if they have

reached the higher levels of competition they will generally at least be aware of the

regional structures. Dancers are also not generally encouraged to articulate their

viewpoints in a formal manner to officials of An Coimisiún, and there exist very few

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formal grievance procedures for dancers within the organization, and fewer still of

which dancers are aware or utilize.

Membership in An Coimisiún le Rincí Gaelacha

Earning membership and participation in An Coimisiún takes place under highly

formalized routes. Each member of An Coimisiún has been certified by passing a

weekend-long set of intensive tests that are held in various locations around the world. A

person who has passed these examinations is referred to as a Teasgicoir Choimisiuin Le

Rincí Gaelacha (T.C.R.G.). In Ireland, these exams are held three times a year, and in

areas outside of Ireland, tests are held once or twice a year, according to the level of

demand in the country. Tests for dancing certification include a “practical test in

stepdancing,” a “written céilí dancing test,” a “practical test in teaching céilí dancing,” a

“practical test in teaching stepdancing,” a “written music test,” and (for residents of

Ireland) an “oral Irish language test” (An Coimisiún 2005, p. 2). The test sections are far

more intensive than these short categories might suggest and require a great deal of cold

memorization of solo dancing material, group dances, and many very similar pieces of

music. The candidate is assigned dances to demonstrate at random from a very large

pool of potential material, and must not deviate from the standard of the books from

which they study. The T.C.R.G. exam is daunting for even the most accomplished of

dancers and often requires at least a year of independent preparation, which is usually on

the dancer’s own initiative. People who do not pass the solo dancing portions of the

exam can receive the title of Teastas Múinteoireachta Rince Fóirne (TMRF), or teacher

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of figure dancing, and persons that do not pass some of the sections of the exam may

take it again.

Each candidate for the T.C.R.G. must, in the 2000s, be recommended by a

registered teacher or adjudicator, who certifies that they are a “person of standing and a

suitable person to teach dancing to young people” and also “can perform all sections of

the T.C.R.G. examination… [at] an adequate standard of competency” (An Coimisiún

2005, p. 14). They must also have references from three “suitability witnesses” such as

teachers or police officers, who testify that the applicant meets the aforementioned

criteria of character. In addition, the candidate must pay a substantial fee simply to take

the test.

As registered members, teachers and adjudicators must pay a regular fee, register

their pupils (and include a registration fee for each dancer), and provide proof of public

liability insurance for their dancers.

Members of an Coimisiún are entitled to enter their dancers in official

competitions, vote on changes in competitive Irish step dancing rules, and attend a

variety of meetings for the governing bodies of competitive Irish step dancing. Persons

who have passed an additional examination can become official adjudicators—Ard

Diploma Coimisiún le Rincí Gaelacha (A.D.C.R.G.). Individual members do have the

ability to move up the power hierarchy, and assume positions of further authority.

However, many positions of formal authority are only attained after years, if not

decades, of involvement in the organization.

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Rules of An Coimisiún le Rincí Gaelacha

An Coimisiún has published a variety of rules that govern such things as

performance guideline (for example, appropriate speeds for music and costumes),

guidelines regulating school operations and maintaining barriers to entry in the

profession (such as rules limiting the ease of transfer of dancers from one school to

another, the prohibition of teaching of classes by uncertified assistant teachers, and the

creation of joint dancing schools or schools with more than one certified teacher),

documentation (bans on flash photography and videotaping at feiseanna), movements

that are not permitted, assistive devices (such as the banning of “bubble heels” on

hardshoes, the use of makeup and “artificial carriage aids” such as back braces) and the

running of workshops and dancing camps. These rules are sometimes enforced, and

sometimes (often) not enforced. These rules tend to spell out what things are not

considered acceptable by An Coimisiún, as opposed to directing what is acceptable, or

promoting specific outcomes. Penalties for the non-enforcement of rules are not clearly

spelled out within the dancing teachers’ manual and are probably subject to discretion

by the authorities of An Coimisiún (personal experience and other documents do not

lend further insights on this point). However, with every rule, there is the potential, the

possibility of enforcement. The rules carry a symbolic value that may exceed their actual

enforcement potential. However, the rules, which are generally only released to teachers,

are not transparent to the general public. This lack of universal comprehension of the

operational rules of An Coimisiún centralizes certain types of authority within the

registered members of the organization, and not their pupils.

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 Irish step dancers interact with a variety of environments and structures, which

are labeled here as “milieus.” These include the competition environment and the

organizations that govern that environment. One of these organizations, An Coimisiún le

Rincí Gaelacha, is global in terms of its membership and hierarchical in structure. Within

An Coimisiún, authority is increasingly concentrated as one goes up the levels. Official

information is controlled by the organization. Membership in the organization, and thus

voting rights, is determined by the achievement of a high level of skill and accreditation

by the organization. Competitors, although registered with the organization, do not have

determining power over its general direction. These factors influence the culture and

experience of participating in Irish step dancing.

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 ENDNOTES

1 Figure dances and dance dramas are choreographed by teachers, as opposed to being
performed “according to the book” of prescribed ceílí dances, Ár Rincí Fóirne (Our
Figure Dances).

2 This is because there are generally far fewer competitors in the older age groups, and
hence there would be very few World Championships qualifiers if no accommodations
were made.

3 Aside from some movements being incorporated from ballet, arm movements inspired
by cheerleading being performed in ceílí dances, and other movements, Irish dancing is
relatively insulated from developments in other forms.

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