Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 61 (2016) 2529

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

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Utilization of rice husk and poultry wastes for renewable energy

potential in Pakistan: An economic perspective
Ghaffar Ali a,n, Muhammad Khalid Bashir a,b, Hassan Ali c, Muhammad Hamid Bashir d
a
Institute of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan
b
USPCAS-AFS, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan
c
Department of Rural Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan
d
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present work reports the potential of rice husk mixed with poultry waste as an alternative source to
Received 7 May 2015 generate energy. The rice husk and poultry waste have substantial potential for the production of power
Received in revised form and energy. The energy obtained from this process is renewable energy which is considered
16 January 2016
environment-friendly. Using this technology, the timber used as fuel in the power plants can also be
Accepted 3 March 2016
saved from its depletion. The studies show that two types of benets can be obtained from such tech-
nology that is power generation and cleanliness of the environment. Benet gains in the rst year are
Keywords: less due to the xed installation cost of the biogas plant but afterwards the benet gains are larger. The
Renewable energy benet-cost analysis shows that the installation of biogas plant using rice husk with poultry waste is
Rice husk
feasible in Pakistan. In anaerobic fermentation process biogas is produced in the absence of oxygen. The
Economic analysis
by-products such as bio-slurry produced during the anaerobic fermentation process can be utilized as
Biogas
Self-sufcient energy fertilizer to enhance the soil fertility and reduce the import bills of synthetic fertilizers. The generation of
renewable energy by using rice husk and poultry waste is economically feasible, socially sound and
environment-friendly.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1. Study area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2. Data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3. Size of biogas plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4. Composition of bio-slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5. Benet-cost ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3. Results and discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1. Benet-cost analysis results as compared to timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

1. Introduction the harmony of human anthropogenic framework and the green

range additionally makes deciency of ecological assets [1]. The
Energy is one of the essential components of life but the environmental resources are ordered in two sorts; renewable and
crumbling of environment not just makes unsteadiness between non-renewable [2,3]. There are numerous harmful elements that
inuence the environment in the form of greenhouse effects. A
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: 92419200161x2802.
greenhouse gas (GHG) ingests and emits radiation within the
E-mail addresses: ghafar.gs@gmail.com, dgali@uaf.edu.pk (G. Ali). warm infrared range [4]. Recently, the advancement of renewable

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.03.014
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
26 G. Ali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 61 (2016) 2529
Table 1
Resource availability of agriculture eld residues in Pakistan [33].
Crops Production (million tons) R/P ratio (fraction) Total residue Residue collected (million tons)
Cotton 2.21 2.76 6.10 2.14
Rice 5.56 1.76 9.76 3.42
Maize 3.11 2.00 6.22 2.18
Gram 0.48 1.60 0.77 0.27
Total 11.36 8.12 22.85 8.00
energy resources has been accelerated in response of environ-
mental issues, and energy safety. The use of renewable energy
does not cause any addition of carbon dioxide in the climate rather
than the fossil fuels [5]. The fundamental methods through which
energy can be got from biomass consists of trans-esterication,
pyrolysis, liquefaction, gasication, hydrogasication, anaerobic
and alcoholic fermentation and immediate burning. The advan-
tages of every technique depend on the required type and the
source of energy [6,7].
The history of biomass potential for biogas plants belongs to
old Persia and China. It was noted that spoiling vegetables produce
combustible gas. During thirteenth century the Chinese were uti-
lizing covered sewage tanks to generate power. In 1859, the rst
biogas plant was assembled at Bombay in the Indian Sub-
Continent to process the sewage [8]. Biogas refers to the gas pro-
cessed by the organic breakdown of organic matter without oxy-
gen (anaerobic fermentation). Biogas is the result of food chain in
which the sun's energy is trapped by green plants that are con-
sumed by the domesticated animals as fodder to generate energy,
fats, carbohydrates and proteins that the animals' body uses [9].
The waste-items that are discarded hold a mess of carbohydrates
and other food supplements and bers, which are the major
source of methane produced during the process of dung-
fermentation by anaerobic fermentation of microorganisms [10].
In developing countries, cookers/stoves, lamps, refrigerators
and engines are appliances commonly fueled by biogas [11]. Biogas
can be converted into electricity using a fuel cell, though this is
still considered a research area due to the need for very clean gas
and the cost of fuel cells [12]. In contrast, using biogas to fuel a
combustion engine and in turn an electric generator is a proven
means of producing electricity, given the wide availability of sui-
table generators. For example, in Pura, India a well-studied com-
munity biogas digester was used to fuel a modied diesel engine
and run an electrical generator [13]. Renewable energy (RE)
sources are the fastest growing energy source in the world and
various projections indicate that these resources will have huge
contribution in the future [14,15]. Pakistan mainly depends upon
the conventional energy resources and there is not much effort for
the utilization of RE resources for electricity generation. Due to
over dependence on fossil fuel, presently more than 60% of the
foreign exchange is spent for the import of energy [16,17].
Fig. 2 presents the historical trend of rice production for the last
45 years. As it can be seen clearly, an increasing production trend
that can be correlated with the world's increasing population is
depicted in the graph. The calculated trend for quantity of rice
husk represents an increase of around 1.5% per annum [18,19].
Pakistan has enormous biomass resources such as crop
remains, dung and feces, poultry waste, sugarcane bagasse and
wood that have health and other ecological risks [20]. Being the
source of energy, the potential of rice husk might be measured as
follows: 1 ton of rice paddy produces 220 kg of rice husk; 1 ton of
rice husk is equivalent to 410570 kW h electricity; Caloric value
is 3000 kilocalories per kilogram; moisture content is 512%.
Currently in Pakistan, rice husk is specically burnt in plants in
the boilers making the air contaminated [21]. There are numerous
Energy content (PJ/million tons) Potential (PJ)
14.65 31.28
13.80 47.15
17.20 37.44
15.91 4.27
61.56 120.15
800
Rice Production
700
Rice Husk Production
600
Million tons
500
400
300
200
100
0
1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Fig. 1. Historic trend of the world rice production and the calculated rice husk
output graphed based on [18,19].
issues while utilizing rice husk as it is exceptionally troublesome
to store it and handle it. It has vast volume, so there is need to
compact rice husk and then to use it [22]. Several researchers
studied the renewable energy and power generations for example
see [2330], all of them discussed and resulted renewable energy
potential, opportunities and usage in one or another way. Poultry
waste is a perfect subtract to prepare biogas. Poultry farms pro-
duce signicant amount of poultry-waste that is dumped out in
the open, initiating contamination in the environment [31].
Keeping in view the critical situation of energy shortage world-
wide, there is need to explore renewable energy sources to utilize
waste disposal by using 3Rs mechanism (reduce, reuse and
recycle) [32]. For the estimation of future potential of eld resi-
dues, the average yield and area under crops in case of rice, maize
and cotton for the period 20092025 has been projected based on
available data [3337]. For the remaining period, these values have
been projected on the basis of 15 years (20102025) average
annual growth rates of yield and area under crops of these
respective crops. In case of gram, the area and yield has been
projected on the basis of average annual growth rates of the 10
years (19982007). The projected area for the different crops and
the average yield for the period (20052050) are given in Table 1.
Moreover, rice production and rice husk production of world is
shown in Fig. 1. This also conrms that rice husk production is
signicantly more than other crop's residues and hence, it must be
utilized in order to generate renewable energy to cope with
energy crisis.
This paper presents the feasibility of proper use of rice husk
mixed with poultry waste. Rice husk mingled with poultry waste
to generate energy are used not only to generate sufcient power
but also used to conserve the environment as well by conserving
non-renewable fossil fuel resources and reducing the environ-
mental impacts of trash disposals. The main objective of this study
is to investigate the potential of biomass (rice husk and poultry
waste) as a source of renewable energy and to estimate the
 G. Ali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 61 (2016) 2529 27

Table 2 2.5. Benet-cost ratio

Different plant sizes with waste requirements and gas production.
The benet-cost ration was calculated as under:
Size of plant Quantity daily required Production of gas(per day)
(m3) (kg) The French economist Jules Dupuit credited with the creation
Poultry trooping Water of benetcost analysis. Benetcost analysis (BCA), sometimes
(kg) (L) called costbenet analysis (CBA), is a systematic process for cal-
culating and comparing benets and costs of a project [38,39],
25 170 200 2021
20 140 170 1719 decision or government policy.
15 100 125 1416 The benet-cost ratio (BCR) was calculated as follows:
10 60 85 1012
08 45 60 810
BCR P:W: of benefits=P:W:of costs 1
06 30 45 68
where P.W. stands for present worth
04 20 30 45
The net present worth (NPW) was calculated as follows.
NPW P:W: of benefits  P:W: of costs 2
economic benets and costs of using rice husk for biogas. To the
best of our knowledge such rare study has found in Pakistan that The internal rate of return (IRR) was calculated as follows.
explored the utilization of rice husk for biogas energy generation. 
IRR r1 r2  r1  NPV1=NPV1  NPV2 3
This paper is divided into four main sections: the introduction
is given in Section 1; methodology is explained in Section 2; where r1 and r2 are the lowest and the highest discount rates
results and discussions are part of Section 3; while Section 4 respectively. NPV1 and NPV2 are the values for the NPV at dis-
presents the conclusions drawn from this study. Acknowledgment count rates of r1 and r2.
is also provided after conclusion section.

3. Results and discussions

2. Methodology
2.1. Study area
Different surveys were conducted at control sheds (poultry),
and rice mills of Pakistan such as Iqbal Rice mill (the largest rice
mill in Pakistan). However, for benet-cost analysis one rice mill
(Iqbal rice mill) and one control shed of poultry (Arus control
shed) was taken as example.
2.2. Data collection
Primary as well as secondary data were collected during the
study in accordance with objectives. We have collected qualitative
as well as quantitative data from open-ended unstructured inter-
views with plant users and owners of rice mills. During the survey,
data were collected as follows: estimates of shed size, bird capa-
city, husk utilization and total cost; estimates of prices of poultry
trooping and ocks; estimates of xed cost of biogas plant
installation, its operational and maintenance, and other costs; and
benets to be obtained from the biogas plant operated by rice
husk and poultry waste as compared to timber fuel.
2.3. Size of biogas plant
The area required to install a biogas plant is approximately 2-
marlas (1 marla 272 ft2. Thus, 2 marlas is equal to 544 ft2. There
are different sizes of biogas plants which were used according to
the requirement and capacity. The selected plant size is 25 m3 in
which daily required quantity of poultry trooping is 170 kg and
water 200 l. Gas generated for 2021 h. Biogas plants of different
sizes and fuel components used are given in Table 2.
2.4. Composition of bio-slurry
Bio-slurry is a mixture of poultry manure and water in the
biogas plant after producing biogas out. It can be used as a ferti-
lizer for the enhancement of soil fertility resulting substantial
increases in the production of crops.
Pakistan produces 89 million tons paddy each year fabricating
1720% rice husk (2.3 million tons) and 2025% rice husk ash
(Economic Survey of Pakistan, 201112). Pakistan poultry coop-
eration and Federal Bureau of Statistics had made estimates of 675
million poultry birds producing huge poultry fertilizer along with
poultry shedding litter.
Fixed cost of plant installation is 1Rs. 150,000. Annual labor cost
is Rs. 27,375. Annual depreciation cost is Rs. 1500. Annual land
charges are Rs. 6000. Annual electricity charges are Rs. 18,360. The
annual cost for poultry drooping is Rs. 131,580. Total cost of the
plant installation and others is Rs. 334,815. Total cost of the plant
per year is Rs. 184,815 excluding xed charges. All these prices are
based on current market prices of Pakistan 2015).
3.1. Benet-cost analysis results as compared to timber
In this section a comparison of biogas plant operated by timber
and operated by biomass (rice husk and poultry waste) fuels is
presented. Results show that two types of benets can be obtained
from the project run by rice husk and poultry waste as fuel of the
plant. Not only timber of Rs. 79,800 can be saved per year but also
benets for Rs. 180,000 per year from by-product item (slurry) can
be achieved. Total benets in every year excluding rst year is Rs.
259,800. Benet gains in the rst year are Rs. 216,500, this is
because two months are required for installation and till the
production of the biogas energy. In the rst year, the cost is greater
(Rs. 334,815) than the benets (Rs. 216,500). This is because in the
rst month of the project few costs are unavoidable and those are
xed. For instance, in this project xed cost is Rs. 150,000, how-
ever, the benet gains would be returned after at least two months
of installation of the plant.
Keeping in view two centers (Arus control shed and Iqbal rice
mill) were taken as example to quantify the costs and benets of
using rice husk mixed with poultry litter to generate biogas. This
helped in comparing the overall benets and costs of initiating
such processes to generate renewable energies from the waste.
Table 3 shows the total estimations of shed size, bird capacity,
1
Rs. stands for Rupees which is Pakistani currency. 1 Rs 102 USD (May, 2015
exchange rate).
28 G. Ali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 61 (2016) 2529

Table 3
Estimates of shed size, bird capacity, husk utilization and total cost.
Source: Calculated based on current market prices by authors.

Arus control shed

Shed size 425 ft  40 ft 17000 ft2

Bird capacity 30,000 birds
Husk utilization 3 trucks  70 2.1 ton
Husk utilization for 7 ocks in a yeara 210  7 14.7 ton
Total price for utilization of husk and 1470  300 Rs. 4,41,000 ($ 4200)
ocksb

a
1 truck contains 2800 kg of rice husk.
b
Price of rice husk is Rs. 300 per 40 kg.

Table 4
Prices of poultry drooping and ocks in Arus control shed.
Source: Calculated based on current market prices by authors.

Poultry drooping
Weight increase by 30% Fig. 2. Ash from rice husk.

Weight of one ock 4 trucks@70 maund per 2.8 ton

biogas plant installation using rice husk with poultry waste is
truck
Weight of 7 ocks annually 2.8 ton  7 19.6 ton feasible. The whole analysis spotlighted the usage of rice husk
Weight of 7 ocks annually in 19.6 ton  40 78.4 ton mixed with poultry drooping for the renewable energy generation
kilogram taking one shed and one rice mill as example. This could be
Market price per truck of poultry Rs. 6000/-
expanded to other mega mills and sheds at national level as per
drooping
Market price per ock of poultry Rs. 6000/-  4 trucks Rs. 24,000/- the need. Fig. 2 shows the ash from rice husk after usage.
drooping Having said that our results are pretty similar to the studies
Market price of 7 ocks annually Rs. 24,000/-  7 ock Rs. 168,000/- [40,41] conducted in Turkey and Thailand. Conclusively, they
Per kg price of poultry drooping Rs.1,68,000/- C78.4 ton Rs. 2.15/- mentioned that food consumption mainly consisting of coarse
grains and sweet potatoes to rice, subsequently leading to the
increase in the per capita rice consumption. However, continued
economic growth is expected to further shift the countries' eating
Table 5 preference from rice to a more balanced diet that may include
Feasibility of installing the biogas plant. meat, vegetable and fruits. This will lead to a decline in the per
Source: Calculated based on current market prices by authors. capita rice consumption as experienced by China, Thailand, South
Tools Criteria for feasibility Result value Decision
Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. Nonetheless, the per capita fall in rice
consumption in these countries will be compensated by the
Benetcost ratio Value of BCR should be 1.28:1 Project is growth in the per capita rice consumption of other countries
(BCR) greater than 1 feasible including in the United States, India, Vietnam, Myanmar, the Phi-
Net present Value of NPW should be Rs. 531147 Project is
lippines, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and in the Sub-Saharan African
worth (NPW) greater than zero or positive (US $5207) feasible
Internal rate of Value of IRR should be 63.47% Project is countries. Rice straw could be used with current heat and power
return (IRR) greater than opportunity feasible technologies in Thailand. With the supply system already in place,
cost of capital it could replace fossil fuels to reduce sulfur dioxide and green-
house gas emissions as well as prevent pollution from rice straw
open burning. Stoker boiler is a promising technology for heat and
husk utilization and total costs required. Such shed having the power generation already available in Thailand whereas gasica-
capacity of almost 30,000 birds at a time. The total cost for Arus tion technology is an important option for smaller capacity, less
control shed is USD 4200 which is not as high as per local than 1 MW [11,41,42].
investment point of view.
Table 4 elaborates the nancial analysis and ground based
estimations of poultry drooping and ocks at Arus control shed. It 4. Conclusions
is evident to see that price of managing the poultry drooping and
collecting the litter form the shed are not so high. All the prices are Rice husk is used in brick furnace as a fuel on small scale
calculated based on the current market prices of 2015. The price of production whereas it is wasted where large quantities of rice
poultry drooping is less than a US dollar per kg in the market. This husk are produced. Current practices show that it could be utilized
openly allows to create the market for utilization of such drooping to generate alternative energy especially in those countries with
for helping in renewable energy generation. Likewise Table 5 energy crisis. The present work reported the potential of rice husk
shows the results of different tools that are used to quantify the with poultry waste as an alternative source to generate energy in
feasibility of installing biogas plant. For this study mainly cost Pakistan. The common use of poultry droppings is as fertilizer, it
benet analysis is preformed to estimate the feasibility of such may be utilized to generate electric power as a primary source
projects using BCR, NPW and IRR tools. As we have seen that cost whereas the by-product (slurry) generated during the process may
of poultry drooping and husk collection is very affordable. The be useful for improving land soil fertility. As the domestic needs
benetcost ratio is very indicator that shows that such project is are increasing substantially, the exploration of innovative sources
feasible. NPW and IRR also indicate the same. IRR value is higher in the energy matrix are crucial to make the supply of gas available
than that of opportunity cost of capital and this it justies the to the households. The impact on environment produced in the
feasibility of installing such project. The results show that the creation of broilers can be mitigated using the waste in anaerobic
 G. Ali et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 61 (2016) 2529
production of biogas as a fuel for the generation of gas for
household usage. On the poultry farms, the biogas obtained from
rice husk and poultry waste can be used as a source of thermal
energy for chicks in heaters as well as fuel for internal combustion
engines to generate electricity. The efuents and solid wastes from
the anaerobic fermentation process can be used as fertilizer as the
wastes have high contents of proteins, minerals and vitamins.
Based on the BCR, NPW and IRR, it can be concluded that the
biogas plant installation using rice husk with poultry waste is
feasible. Therefore, the present study may contribute to under-
stand the utilization of rice husk with poultry waste for generating
the electricity presenting more effectively and efciently, and
minimizing the ecological hazards. The government of Pakistan
should allocate funds and technical support to commercialize this
technology. To solve the problems of power shortage in the
country, the public-private partnership projects should be
encouraged. Last but not least, the media, in parallel, should excel
the awareness among the communities highlighting the benets
of this technology.
Acknowledgment
Authors acknowledge the cooperation of Iqbal Rice Millss and
Arus Control Shed Faisalabad and farmers for providing the
information on rice husk and current market prices of different
commodities.
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