Lecture 8 - Final For Posting

Reservoir Geomechanics
In situ stress and rock mechanics applied to reservoir processes

Mark D. Zoback
Professor of Geophysics

Week 4 Lecture 8
Stress Concentrations/Vertical Wells Chapter 6
Outline
Section 1
Stress Concentration Around Vertical Wells
Section 2
Wellbore Breakouts (Compressive Wall Failures)
Section 3
Drilling Induced Tensile Failures (Tensile Wall
Failures)
Section 4
Other Factors Affecting Breakouts
2
Stanford|ONLINE gp202.class.stanford.edu

After Kirsch (1898)
Local stress field

perturbed due to
the borehole
Figure 6.1 pg. 169
3

Kirsch Eqns. Vertical Well, Stress Field (SHmax, Shmin)
Internal Pressure P0, measured from SHmax
1 R2 1 4 R 2 3R 4 P0 R 2
rr = ( SH ma x Sh min 2 P0 )(1 2 ) + ( SH ma x Sh min)(1 2 + 4 ) cos 2 + 2
2 r 2 r r r
1 R2 1 3R 4 P0 R 2
= ( SH ma x + Sh min 2 P0 )(1 + 2 ) ( SH ma x Sh min)(1 + 4 ) cos 2 2 T
2 r 2 r r
r2
zz = Sv 2 ( SH ma x Sh min) 2 cos 2
R
R Wellbore radius
1 2 R 2 3R 4 r radial distance from center
r = ( SH ma x Sh min)(1 + 2 4 ) sin 2
2 r r
Equations 6.1 - 6.3 pg. 170
4

Parameters for Figures 6.2, 6.3, & 6.5
S H max = 90 MPa

S H max orientation is N90 E (east - west)
Sv = 88.2 MPa (depth 3213m)
Sh min = 51.5 MPa
Pp = Pmud = 31.5 MPa
Example Parameters pg. 170
5

Concentration of Hoop Stress
Figure 6.2 a,b,c pg. 171 6


Stress Concentration at the Wall of a Vertical Well
Compressive and tensile wellbore failure is a direct result of the stress concentration around
the wellbore that results from drilling a well into an already-stressed rock mass. In a
homogeneous and isotropic elastic material in which one principal stress acts parallel to
the wellbore axis, the effective hoop stress and radial stress at the wall of a cylindrical,
vertical wellbore (overburden stress, Sv is a principal stress acting parallel to the
wellbore axis) is given by the following equation:
= Shmin + SHmax - 2(SHmax - Shmin) cos2 - 2P0 - P T
rr = P
where is an angle measured from the azimuth of the maximum horizontal stress, SHmax,
Shmin is the minimum horizontal stress, P0 is the pore pressure, P is the difference
between the wellbore pressure (mud weight) and the pore pressure, and T is the
thermal stress induced by the cooling of the wellbore by T.
The effective stress acting parallel to the wellbore axis is:

zz = SV - 2(SHmax - Shmin) cos2 P0 - T
where is Poisson's ratio.

7

Outline
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Failures)
Section 4
8

Stress Concentration Around a Vertical Well
9

Wellbore Failures
SHmax
wBO



Compressional Wellbore Failures
Stress-induced wellbore breakouts form due to compressive wellbore failure that occurs
within the region of maximum compressive stress around a wellbore. In a vertical well,
the zone of compressive failure is centered at the azimuth of minimum horizontal far-field
compression, as this is where the compressive hoop stress is greatest.

Wellbore breakouts were first identified using 4-arm magnetically-oriented caliper
logs associated with Schlumberger dip meters. Careful analysis yields reliable stress
orientations.
Clear identification of breakouts requires the use of acoustic televiewer data (UBI,
CBIL, CAST).
6-arm dip meter data (Baker Hughes and Halliburton) require especially careful
analysis to distinguish breakouts from tool eccentricity, key seating, etc.
The caliper data from 4- and 6- arm electrical image data (FMI, STAR, or EMI)
cannot be used to detect small wellbore breakouts because of the large pad widths of
these tools.
Breakouts can sometimes be seen as out-of-focus zones on the image data
11

A Simple View of Wellbore Stability
12

Regional Stress Field in the Timor Sea
13

Why Wellbore Failure So Effectively
Samples the Stress Field
At the point of minimum compression around the wellbore (i.e, at = 0,

parallel to SHmax), Equation (1) reduces to
min = 3Shmin - SHmax - 2P0 - P - T
Whereas, at the point of maximum stress concentration around the

wellbore (i.e, at = 90, parallel to Shmin),
max = 3SHmax - Shmin - 2P0 - P - T
max - min = 4 (SHmax- Shmin)

14

Raising Mud Weight Increases Wellbore Stability
15

Breakout Width
Figure 6.3 a,b,c pg. 173

16

Raising Mud Weight
Figure 6.5 a,b pg. 177

17

Wellbore Stress Concentration
Same Depth, Different Stress States
18

Regional Stress Fields
19
Complex Stress Field

Figure 6.10 pg. 184 20
4-Arm Dipmeter Tool Schematic
21

Analyzing 4-Arm Caliper Log


Elongation Directions in the Visund Field
23

Keyseats in Bore Hole Televiewer (BHTV)
tan 2 x 1000ft = 35 ft
24

6-Arm Caliper Data
25
Figure 6.11a,b,c pg. 185
Comparison of Analysis Techniques
Figure 6.12a,b,c pg. 186
26

Quality Ranking System (Zoback and Zoback)
A B C D
Earthquake Focal Average P-axis or formal inversion of Well-constrained single-event Single-event solution Single composite solution
Mechanisms four or more single-event solutions in solution (M 4.5) or average of (constrained by first motions
close geographic proximity two well-constrained only, often based on author's Poorly constrained single-event
(at least one event M 4.0, single-event solutions (M 3.5) quality assignment) (M 2.5) solution
other events M 3.0) determined from first motions
and other methods (e.g., Average of several well-constrained Single-event solution for M < 2.5
moment tensor wave-form modeling, composites (M 2.0) event
or inversion)
Wellbore Breakouts Ten or more distinct At least six distinct breakout At least four distinct breakouts Less than four consistently
breakout zones in a single zones in a single well with with S.D. < 25o and/or oriented breakout or > 30 m
well with S.D. 12o and/or combined S.D. 20o and/or combined combined length > 30 m combined length in a single
length > 300 m length > 100 m well
Average of breakouts in
two or more wells in close Breakouts in a single well
geographic proximity with combined with S.D. 25o
length > 300 m
and S.D. 12o
Drilling-Induced Ten or more distinct tensile fractures At least six distinct tensile At least four distinct tensile Less than four consistently
Tensile Fractures in a single well fractures in a single well with fractures with S.D. < 25o and oriented tensile fractures with < 30
with S.D. 12o and S.D. 20o and encompassing a encompassing a combined m combined length in a single
encompassing a vertical combined length > 100 m length > 30 m well
depth of 300m, or more .
Tensile fracture orientations in a
single well with S.D. 25o
Hydraulic Fractures Four or more hydrostatic orientations Three or more hydrofrac orientations Hydrofac orientations in a Single hydrofrac measurements
in a single well with S.D. 12o depth in a single well with S.D. <20o. single well with at < 100 m depth
> 300 m 20o < S.D. <25o
Hydrofrac orientations in a single
Average of hydrofrac orientations for well with 20o.< S.D. <25o Distinct hydrofrac orientation
two or more wells in close geographic change with depth, deepest
proximity, measurements assumed valid
S.D. 12o
One or two hydrofrac orientations
in a single well
27
Table 6.1 pg. 189
Statistics of Azimuthal Data
n n
l i m i
li = cosi and mi = sin i ; l= i =1
and m = i =1
R R
n n
2 m
1
R = li + mi ; m= tan
i =1 i =1 l
N 1 81
k= ; sd =
N R k
Equations 6.10 - 6.15 pg. 190

28

Drilling Induced Tensile Fractures
A drilling-induced tensile wall fracture will be induced when
min = 3Shmin SHmax 2Pp P T

Ignoring T (for the moment) and assuming To ~ 0, a tensile fracture will
from at the wellbore wall when:

Pmud = 3Shmin SHmax Pp 0

This is the same equation for inducing a hydraulic fracture. What
distinguishes a drilling-induced tensile fracture from a hydraulic fracture
are:
Drilling-induced tensile fractures form when the mud weight is
comparable, or slightly greater than the pore pressure (but is not
comparable to S3). This only occurs for certain stress states and well
orientations.
Drilling-induced tensile fractures are limited to the wellbore wal.l
Because the fracture does not propagate into the formation, drilling-
induced tensile fractures are not associated with lost circulation or
drilling problems.
29

Outline
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Failures)
Section 4
30

Drilling-Induced Tensile Fractures

31

Wellbore Failures
SHmax
wBO




33

Visund Field Orientations
34
Drilling Induced Tensile Fractures Visund Field
35

Tensile Fractures in Vertical Wells Generally
Imply a Strike-Slip Faulting Environment
Earth (Strike-Slip Faulting)

S H max Pp
S h min Pp
= ( 2
)
2
+ 1 + = 3.1 for = 0.6
SHmax = 3.1 Shmin 2.1 Pp

SHmax = 3Shmin 2Pp + 0.1 (Shmin Pp)
Vertical Wellbore (Tensile Fractures)

= 3Shmin SHmax 2Pp = -T for T = 0

SHmax = 3Shmin 2Pp
Equations 6.16 - 6.19 pg. 191 36


Tensile Fractures in Vertical Wells
Figure 6.13 pg. 193

37

Outline
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Failures)
Section 4
38

Thermoelastic Effects on Wellbore Stresses
The effect at the wellbore wall of a temperature difference T

between the wellbore fluid and the rock surrounding well is
given by the equation:
T = ( E T)/(1-)
where is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion and E is
Young's modulus.
For drilling-induced tensile fractures in the Visund field in the North

Sea, a cooling of ~30 C at a depth of ~2750 m resulted in T
= 1.7 MPa based on the following: = 2.4x10-6 C-1
(corresponding to a rock composed of 50% quartz), E = 1.9x104
MPa (from the measured P-wave velocity) and = 0.2 (based
on the P to S-wave velocity ratio).
Equation 6.22 pg. 193

39

Thermal Stresses and Breakout Formation
a)
c)

Cooling does reduce

breakout size (but not

very practical) -The effect on
tensile fractures is more
important (but still not as
important as mud weight).

b)

Figure 6.14 a,b,c pg. 194 40

Tensile Fractures in Vertical Wells
41

More on Compressional Wellbore Failure
Fixed Breakout Width After Initiation

42

Breakout Shapes Under Successive Episodes
of Failure wBO is constant
43
Breakouts > 90 ?
a)

wBO

b)
c)

44

Weak Bedding Planes Can Be a Source
of Wellbore Instability
45

Breakouts in Sands (Isotropic Strength)
Deviated Well
46

Anisotropic Strength Causes Unusual
Breakouts in Shale
47

Weak Bedding Planes Can Be a Source of
Wellbore Instability
48

Impact of Chemical Effects on Wellbore Stability
Mody & Hale (1993) model for chemical osmosis:

(Non time-dependent)
P = Pp + RT/V ln(Am/Ap)

P:
Near-wellbore pore pressure [MPa]

Pp:
Far-field pore pressure [MPa]

:
Membrane efficiency [ ], 0 1 (OBM has a membrane efficiency of 1)

R:
Gas constant, = 8.3 [J/(mol x degree Kelvin)]

T:
Absolute temperature [degree Kelvin]

V:
Partial molar volume of water [m3/mol]

Am:
Water activity in drilling fluid [ ]

Ap:
Water activity in pore fluid (an activity of 1 corresponds to fresh water) [ ]

Pore pressure in the near wellbore zone is affected by fluid transport due
to differences in water molar free energies of the drilling and pore fluids
(chemical osmosis).
Poroelasticity equations are explicitly correct only for zero time, just after
drilling.
49

Illustration of Mody & Hale Model
Mud Activity < Formation Fluid Activity Mud Activity > Formation Fluid Activity
(High Salinity Mud)
(Low Salinity Mud)

Wellbore
Formation
Wellbore
Formation

High PMud
High PMud

rr

rr

RT/V ln(Am/Ap)

Pp
Pp

RT/V ln(Am/Ap)

According to the Mody & Hale model, high salinity muds stabilize the formation,
because chemical osmosis causes a drop in formation pressure (increase in rr)
near the wellbore wall.
Conversely, a low salinity mud destabilizes the formation because chemical
osmosis charges the formation and rr increases near the wellbore wall.
50

A Simple View of Maintaining Wellbore Stability
51


52

Lecture 8 - Final For Posting

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Reservoir Geomechanics

In situ stress and rock mechanics applied to reservoir processes

Local stress field

Figure 6.1 pg. 169

Equations 6.1 - 6.3 pg. 170

Figure 6.2 a,b,c pg. 171 6

The effective stress acting parallel to the wellbore axis is:

Equations 6.4 - 6.6 pg. 174

Figure 6.4 a,b,c pg. 176 10

At the point of minimum compression around the wellbore (i.e, at = 0,

min = 3Shmin - SHmax - 2P0 - P - T

Whereas, at the point of maximum stress concentration around the

max = 3SHmax - Shmin - 2P0 - P - T

max - min = 4 (SHmax- Shmin)

Equations 6.7 - 6.9 pg. 174

Figure 6.3 a,b,c pg. 173

Figure 6.5 a,b pg. 177

Figure 6.9 a,b,c pg. 183 22

Figure 6.12a,b,c pg. 186

Equations 6.10 - 6.15 pg. 190

Figure 6.5 a,b pg. 177

Figure 6.4 a,b,c pg. 176 32

Figure 6.6 a,b,c pg. 179

Earth (Strike-Slip Faulting)

SHmax = 3.1 Shmin 2.1 Pp

Vertical Wellbore (Tensile Fractures)

= 3Shmin SHmax 2Pp = -T for T = 0

Equations 6.16 - 6.19 pg. 191 36

Figure 6.13 pg. 193

The effect at the wellbore wall of a temperature difference T

For drilling-induced tensile fractures in the Visund field in the North

Equation 6.22 pg. 193

Figure 6.13 a,b,c pg. 193

Fixed Breakout Width After Initiation

Mody & Hale (1993) model for chemical osmosis:

Figure 6.5 a,b pg. 177

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In situ stress and rock mechanics applied to reservoir processes