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Corrosion
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Corrosionisanaturalprocess,whichconvertsarefinedmetaltoamore
chemicallystableform,suchasitsoxide,hydroxide,orsulfide.Itisthe
gradualdestructionofmaterials(usuallymetals)bychemicaland/or
electrochemicalreactionwiththeirenvironment.Corrosionengineeringis
thefielddedicatedtocontrollingandstoppingcorrosion.

Inthemostcommonuseoftheword,thismeanselectrochemicaloxidation
ofmetalinreactionwithanoxidantsuchasoxygenorsulfur.Rusting,the
formationofironoxides,isawellknownexampleofelectrochemical
corrosion.Thistypeofdamagetypicallyproducesoxide(s)orsalt(s)ofthe
originalmetal,andresultsinadistinctiveorangecolouration.Corrosion Rust,themostfamiliarexampleof
canalsooccurinmaterialsotherthanmetals,suchasceramicsorpolymers, corrosion
althoughinthiscontext,theterm"degradation"ismorecommon.
Corrosiondegradestheusefulpropertiesofmaterialsandstructures
includingstrength,appearanceandpermeabilitytoliquidsandgases.

Manystructuralalloyscorrodemerelyfromexposuretomoistureinair,but
theprocesscanbestronglyaffectedbyexposuretocertainsubstances.
Corrosioncanbeconcentratedlocallytoformapitorcrack,oritcan
extendacrossawideareamoreorlessuniformlycorrodingthesurface.
Becausecorrosionisadiffusioncontrolledprocess,itoccursonexposed
surfaces.Asaresult,methodstoreducetheactivityoftheexposedsurface,
suchaspassivationandchromateconversion,canincreaseamaterial's
corrosionresistance.However,somecorrosionmechanismsarelessvisible Volcanicgaseshaveacceleratedthe
andlesspredictable. extensivecorrosionofthisabandoned
miningmachinery,renderingit
almostunrecognizable

Contents
1 Galvaniccorrosion
1.1 Galvanicseries
2 Corrosionremoval
3 Resistancetocorrosion
3.1 Intrinsicchemistry
3.2 Passivation
4 Corrosioninpassivatedmaterials
4.1 Pittingcorrosion
4.2 Welddecayandknifelineattack Corrosiononexposedmetal,
4.3 Crevicecorrosion includingaboltandnut
5 Microbialcorrosion
6 Hightemperaturecorrosion
7 Metaldusting
8 Protectionfromcorrosion
8.1 Surfacetreatments
8.1.1 Appliedcoatings
8.1.2 Reactivecoatings
8.1.3 Anodization
8.1.4 Biofilmcoatings
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8.2 Controlledpermeabilityformwork
8.3 Cathodicprotection
8.3.1 Sacrificialanodeprotection
8.3.2 Impressedcurrentcathodicprotection
8.4 Anodicprotection
8.5 Rateofcorrosion
9 Economicimpact
10 Corrosioninnonmetals
10.1 Corrosionofpolymers
10.2 Corrosionofglasses
10.2.1 Glasscorrosiontests
11 Seealso
12 References
13 Furtherreading
14 Externallinks

Galvaniccorrosion
Galvaniccorrosionoccurswhentwodifferentmetalshavephysicalor
electricalcontactwitheachotherandareimmersedinacommon
electrolyte,orwhenthesamemetalisexposedtoelectrolytewithdifferent
concentrations.Inagalvaniccouple,themoreactivemetal(theanode)
corrodesatanacceleratedrateandthemorenoblemetal(thecathode)
corrodesataslowerrate.Whenimmersedseparately,eachmetalcorrodes
atitsownrate.Whattypeofmetal(s)touseisreadilydeterminedby
followingthegalvanicseries.Forexample,zincisoftenusedasa
sacrificialanodeforsteelstructures.Galvaniccorrosionisofmajorinterest
tothemarineindustryandalsoanywherewater(containingsalts)contacts
pipesormetalstructures.

Factorssuchasrelativesizeofanode,typesofmetal,andoperating Galvaniccorrosionofaluminium.A
conditions(temperature,humidity,salinity,etc.)affectgalvaniccorrosion. 5mmthickaluminiumalloyplateis
Thesurfacearearatiooftheanodeandcathodedirectlyaffectsthe physically(andhence,electrically)
corrosionratesofthematerials.Galvaniccorrosionisoftenpreventedby connectedtoa10mmthickmild
theuseofsacrificialanodes. steelstructuralsupport.Galvanic
corrosionoccurredonthealuminium
Galvanicseries platealongthejointwiththesteel.
Perforationofaluminiumplate
Inanygivenenvironment(onestandardmediumisaerated,room occurredwithin2years. [1]
temperatureseawater),onemetalwillbeeithermorenobleormoreactive
thanothers,basedonhowstronglyitsionsareboundtothesurface.Two
metalsinelectricalcontactsharethesameelectrons,sothatthe"tugofwar"ateachsurfaceisanalogousto
competitionforfreeelectronsbetweenthetwomaterials.Usingtheelectrolyteasahostfortheflowofionsinthe
samedirection,thenoblemetalwilltakeelectronsfromtheactiveone.Theresultingmassfloworelectriccurrent
canbemeasuredtoestablishahierarchyofmaterialsinthemediumofinterest.Thishierarchyiscalledagalvanic
seriesandisusefulinpredictingandunderstandingcorrosion.

Corrosionremoval

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Oftenitispossibletochemicallyremovetheproductsofcorrosion.Forexample,phosphoricacidintheformof
navaljellyisoftenappliedtoferroustoolsorsurfacestoremoverust.Corrosionremovalshouldnotbeconfused
withelectropolishing,whichremovessomelayersoftheunderlyingmetaltomakeasmoothsurface.Forexample,
phosphoricacidmayalsobeusedtoelectropolishcopperbutitdoesthisbyremovingcopper,nottheproductsof
coppercorrosion.

Resistancetocorrosion
Somemetalsaremoreintrinsicallyresistanttocorrosionthanothers(forsomeexamples,seegalvanicseries).
Therearevariouswaysofprotectingmetalsfromcorrosion(oxidation)includingpainting,hotdipgalvanizing,and
combinationsofthese.[2]

Intrinsicchemistry

Thematerialsmostresistanttocorrosionarethoseforwhichcorrosionis
thermodynamicallyunfavorable.Anycorrosionproductsofgoldor
platinumtendtodecomposespontaneouslyintopuremetal,whichiswhy
theseelementscanbefoundinmetallicformonEarthandhavelongbeen
valued.Morecommon"base"metalscanonlybeprotectedbymore
temporarymeans.

Somemetalshavenaturallyslowreactionkinetics,eventhoughtheir
corrosionisthermodynamicallyfavorable.Theseincludesuchmetalsas
zinc,magnesium,andcadmium.Whilecorrosionofthesemetalsis Goldnuggetsdonotnaturally
continuousandongoing,ithappensatanacceptablyslowrate.Anextreme corrode,evenonageologicaltime
exampleisgraphite,whichreleaseslargeamountsofenergyupon scale.
oxidation,buthassuchslowkineticsthatitiseffectivelyimmuneto
electrochemicalcorrosionundernormalconditions.

Passivation

Passivationreferstothespontaneousformationofanultrathinfilmofcorrosionproducts,knownasapassivefilm,
onthemetal'ssurfacethatactasabarriertofurtheroxidation.Thechemicalcompositionandmicrostructureofa
passivefilmaredifferentfromtheunderlyingmetal.Typicalpassivefilmthicknessonaluminium,stainlesssteels,
andalloysiswithin10nanometers.Thepassivefilmisdifferentfromoxidelayersthatareformeduponheating
andareinthemicrometerthicknessrangethepassivefilmrecoversifremovedordamagedwhereastheoxide
layerdoesnot.Passivationinnaturalenvironmentssuchasair,waterandsoilatmoderatepHisseeninsuch
materialsasaluminium,stainlesssteel,titanium,andsilicon.

Passivationisprimarilydeterminedbymetallurgicalandenvironmentalfactors.TheeffectofpHissummarized
usingPourbaixdiagrams,butmanyotherfactorsareinfluential.Someconditionsthatinhibitpassivationinclude
highpHforaluminiumandzinc,lowpHorthepresenceofchlorideionsforstainlesssteel,hightemperaturefor
titanium(inwhichcasetheoxidedissolvesintothemetal,ratherthantheelectrolyte)andfluorideionsforsilicon.
Ontheotherhand,unusualconditionsmayresultinpassivationofmaterialsthatarenormallyunprotected,asthe
alkalineenvironmentofconcretedoesforsteelrebar.Exposuretoaliquidmetalsuchasmercuryorhotsoldercan
oftencircumventpassivationmechanisms.

Corrosioninpassivatedmaterials

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Passivationisextremelyusefulinmitigatingcorrosiondamage,howeverevenahighqualityalloywillcorrodeif
itsabilitytoformapassivatingfilmishindered.Properselectionoftherightgradeofmaterialforthespecific
environmentisimportantforthelonglastingperformanceofthisgroupofmaterials.Ifbreakdownoccursinthe
passivefilmduetochemicalormechanicalfactors,theresultingmajormodesofcorrosionmayincludepitting
corrosion,crevicecorrosion,andstresscorrosioncracking.

Pittingcorrosion

Certainconditions,suchaslowconcentrationsofoxygenorhighconcentrationsof
speciessuchaschloridewhichcompleteasanions,caninterferewithagiven
alloy'sabilitytoreformapassivatingfilm.Intheworstcase,almostallofthe
surfacewillremainprotected,buttinylocalfluctuationswilldegradetheoxidefilm
inafewcriticalpoints.Corrosionatthesepointswillbegreatlyamplified,andcan
causecorrosionpitsofseveraltypes,dependinguponconditions.Whilethe
corrosionpitsonlynucleateunderfairlyextremecircumstances,theycancontinue
togrowevenwhenconditionsreturntonormal,sincetheinteriorofapitis
naturallydeprivedofoxygenandlocallythepHdecreasestoverylowvaluesand
thecorrosionrateincreasesduetoanautocatalyticprocess.Inextremecases,the
sharptipsofextremelylongandnarrowcorrosionpitscancausestress Diagramshowingcross
concentrationtothepointthatotherwisetoughalloyscanshatterathinfilm sectionofpittingcorrosion
piercedbyaninvisiblysmallholecanhideathumbsizedpitfromview.These
problemsareespeciallydangerousbecausetheyaredifficulttodetectbeforeapartorstructurefails.Pitting
remainsamongthemostcommonanddamagingformsofcorrosioninpassivatedalloys,butitcanbepreventedby
controlofthealloy'senvironment.

Pittingresultswhenasmallhole,orcavity,formsinthemetal,usuallyasaresultofdepassivationofasmallarea.
Thisareabecomesanodic,whilepartoftheremainingmetalbecomescathodic,producingalocalizedgalvanic
reaction.Thedeteriorationofthissmallareapenetratesthemetalandcanleadtofailure.Thisformofcorrosionis
oftendifficulttodetectduetothefactthatitisusuallyrelativelysmallandmaybecoveredandhiddenby
corrosionproducedcompounds.

Welddecayandknifelineattack

Stainlesssteelcanposespecialcorrosionchallenges,sinceitspassivating
behaviorreliesonthepresenceofamajoralloyingcomponent(chromium,
atleast11.5%).Becauseoftheelevatedtemperaturesofweldingandheat
treatment,chromiumcarbidescanforminthegrainboundariesofstainless
alloys.Thischemicalreactionrobsthematerialofchromiuminthezone
nearthegrainboundary,makingthoseareasmuchlessresistantto
corrosion.Thiscreatesagalvaniccouplewiththewellprotectedalloy
nearby,whichleadsto"welddecay"(corrosionofthegrainboundariesin
theheataffectedzones)inhighlycorrosiveenvironments.Thisprocesscan
seriouslyreducethemechanicalstrengthofweldedjointsovertime.
NormalmicrostructureofType304
Astainlesssteelissaidtobe"sensitized"ifchromiumcarbidesareformed stainlesssteelsurface
inthemicrostructure.Atypicalmicrostructureofanormalizedtype304
stainlesssteelshowsnosignsofsensitization,whileaheavilysensitized
steelshowsthepresenceofgrainboundaryprecipitates.Thedarklinesinthesensitizedmicrostructureare
networksofchromiumcarbidesformedalongthegrainboundaries.[3]

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Specialalloys,eitherwithlowcarboncontentorwithaddedcarbon
"getters"suchastitaniumandniobium(intypes321and347,respectively),
canpreventthiseffect,butthelatterrequirespecialheattreatmentafter
weldingtopreventthesimilarphenomenonof"knifelineattack".Asits
nameimplies,corrosionislimitedtoaverynarrowzoneadjacenttothe
weld,oftenonlyafewmicrometersacross,makingitevenlessnoticeable.

Crevicecorrosion

Crevicecorrosionisalocalizedformofcorrosionoccurringinconfined
Sensitizedmetallicmicrostructure,
spaces(crevices),towhichtheaccessoftheworkingfluidfromthe
showingwiderintergranular
environmentislimited.Formationofadifferentialaerationcellleadsto
boundaries
corrosioninsidethecrevices.Examplesofcrevicesaregapsandcontact
areasbetweenparts,undergasketsorseals,insidecracksandseams,spaces
filledwithdepositsandundersludgepiles.

Crevicecorrosionisinfluencedbythecrevicetype(metalmetal,metal
nonmetal),crevicegeometry(size,surfacefinish),andmetallurgicaland
environmentalfactors.Thesusceptibilitytocrevicecorrosioncanbe
evaluatedwithASTMstandardprocedures.Acriticalcrevicecorrosion
temperatureiscommonlyusedtorankamaterial'sresistancetocrevice
corrosion.

Microbialcorrosion Corrosioninthecrevicebetweenthe
tubeandtubesheet(bothmadeof
Microbialcorrosion,orcommonlyknownasmicrobiologicallyinfluenced type316stainlesssteel)ofaheat
corrosion(MIC),isacorrosioncausedorpromotedbymicroorganisms, exchangerinaseawaterdesalination
usuallychemoautotrophs.Itcanapplytobothmetallicandnonmetallic plant[4]
materials,inthepresenceorabsenceofoxygen.Sulfatereducingbacteria
areactiveintheabsenceofoxygen(anaerobic)theyproducehydrogen
sulfide,causingsulfidestresscracking.Inthepresenceofoxygen(aerobic),somebacteriamaydirectlyoxidize
irontoironoxidesandhydroxides,otherbacteriaoxidizesulfurandproducesulfuricacidcausingbiogenicsulfide
corrosion.Concentrationcellscanforminthedepositsofcorrosionproducts,leadingtolocalizedcorrosion.

Acceleratedlowwatercorrosion(ALWC)isaparticularlyaggressiveformofMICthataffectssteelpilesin
seawaternearthelowwatertidemark.Itischaracterizedbyanorangesludge,whichsmellsofhydrogensulfide
whentreatedwithacid.Corrosionratescanbeveryhighanddesigncorrosionallowancescansoonbeexceeded
leadingtoprematurefailureofthesteelpile.[5]Pilesthathavebeencoatedandhavecathodicprotectioninstalledat
thetimeofconstructionarenotsusceptibletoALWC.Forunprotectedpiles,sacrificialanodescanbeinstalled
localtotheaffectedareastoinhibitthecorrosionoracompleteretrofittedsacrificialanodesystemcanbeinstalled.
Affectedareascanalsobetreatedusingcathodicprotection,usingeithersacrificialanodesorapplyingcurrentto
aninertanodetoproduceacalcareousdeposit,whichwillhelpshieldthemetalfromfurtherattack.

Hightemperaturecorrosion
Hightemperaturecorrosionischemicaldeteriorationofamaterial(typicallyametal)asaresultofheating.This
nongalvanicformofcorrosioncanoccurwhenametalissubjectedtoahotatmospherecontainingoxygen,sulfur,
orothercompoundscapableofoxidizing(orassistingtheoxidationof)thematerialconcerned.Forexample,

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materialsusedinaerospace,powergenerationandevenincarengineshavetoresistsustainedperiodsathigh
temperatureinwhichtheymaybeexposedtoanatmospherecontainingpotentiallyhighlycorrosiveproductsof
combustion.

Theproductsofhightemperaturecorrosioncanpotentiallybeturnedtotheadvantageoftheengineer.The
formationofoxidesonstainlesssteels,forexample,canprovideaprotectivelayerpreventingfurtheratmospheric
attack,allowingforamaterialtobeusedforsustainedperiodsatbothroomandhightemperaturesinhostile
conditions.Suchhightemperaturecorrosionproducts,intheformofcompactedoxidelayerglazes,preventor
reducewearduringhightemperatureslidingcontactofmetallic(ormetallicandceramic)surfaces.

Metaldusting
Metaldustingisacatastrophicformofcorrosionthatoccurswhensusceptiblematerialsareexposedto
environmentswithhighcarbonactivities,suchassynthesisgasandotherhighCOenvironments.Thecorrosion
manifestsitselfasabreakupofbulkmetaltometalpowder.Thesuspectedmechanismisfirstlythedepositionofa
graphitelayeronthesurfaceofthemetal,usuallyfromcarbonmonoxide(CO)inthevaporphase.Thisgraphite
layeristhenthoughttoformmetastableM3Cspecies(whereMisthemetal),whichmigrateawayfromthemetal
surface.However,insomeregimesnoM3Cspeciesisobservedindicatingadirecttransferofmetalatomsintothe
graphitelayer.

Protectionfromcorrosion
Varioustreatmentsareusedtoslowcorrosiondamagetometallicobjects
whichareexposedtotheweather,saltwater,acids,orotherhostile
environments.Someunprotectedmetallicalloysareextremelyvulnerable
tocorrosion,suchasthoseusedinneodymiummagnets,whichcanspallor
crumbleintopowderevenindry,temperaturestableindoorenvironments
unlessproperlytreatedtodiscouragecorrosion.

Surfacetreatments
TheUSArmyshrinkwraps
Whensurfacetreatmentsareusedtoretardcorrosion,greatcaremustbe
equipmentsuchashelicoptersto
takentoensurecompletecoverage,withoutgaps,cracks,orpinhole
protectthemfromcorrosionandthus
defects.Smalldefectscanactasan"Achilles'heel",allowingcorrosionto
savemillionsofdollars
penetratetheinteriorandcausingextensivedamageevenwhiletheouter
protectivelayerremainsapparentlyintactforaperiodoftime.

Appliedcoatings

Plating,painting,andtheapplicationofenamelarethemostcommonanticorrosiontreatments.Theyworkby
providingabarrierofcorrosionresistantmaterialbetweenthedamagingenvironmentandthestructuralmaterial.
Asidefromcosmeticandmanufacturingissues,theremaybetradeoffsinmechanicalflexibilityversusresistance
toabrasionandhightemperature.Platingsusuallyfailonlyinsmallsections,butiftheplatingismorenoblethan
thesubstrate(forexample,chromiumonsteel),agalvaniccouplewillcauseanyexposedareatocorrodemuch
morerapidlythananunplatedsurfacewould.Forthisreason,itisoftenwisetoplatewithactivemetalsuchaszinc
orcadmium.

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Paintingeitherbyrollerorbrushismoredesirablefortightspacesspray
wouldbebetterforlargercoatingareassuchassteeldecksandwaterfront
applications.Flexiblepolyurethanecoatings,likeDurabakM26for
example,canprovideananticorrosivesealwithahighlydurableslip
resistantmembrane.Paintedcoatingsarerelativelyeasytoapplyandhave
fastdryingtimesalthoughtemperatureandhumiditymaycausedrytimes
tovary.

Reactivecoatings
Galvanizedsurface

Iftheenvironmentiscontrolled(especiallyinrecirculatingsystems),
corrosioninhibitorscanoftenbeaddedtoit.Thesechemicalsformanelectricallyinsulatingorchemically
impermeablecoatingonexposedmetalsurfaces,tosuppresselectrochemicalreactions.Suchmethodsmakethe
systemlesssensitivetoscratchesordefectsinthecoating,sinceextrainhibitorscanbemadeavailablewherever
metalbecomesexposed.Chemicalsthatinhibitcorrosionincludesomeofthesaltsinhardwater(Romanwater
systemsarefamousfortheirmineraldeposits),chromates,phosphates,polyaniline,otherconductingpolymersand
awiderangeofspeciallydesignedchemicalsthatresemblesurfactants(i.e.longchainorganicmoleculeswith
ionicendgroups).

Anodization

Aluminiumalloysoftenundergoasurfacetreatment.Electrochemical
conditionsinthebatharecarefullyadjustedsothatuniformpores,several
nanometerswide,appearinthemetal'soxidefilm.Theseporesallowthe
oxidetogrowmuchthickerthanpassivatingconditionswouldallow.Atthe
endofthetreatment,theporesareallowedtoseal,formingaharderthan
usualsurfacelayer.Ifthiscoatingisscratched,normalpassivation
processestakeovertoprotectthedamagedarea.

Anodizingisveryresilienttoweatheringandcorrosion,soitiscommonly
usedforbuildingfacadesandotherareaswherethesurfacewillcomeinto
regularcontactwiththeelements.Whilebeingresilient,itmustbecleaned Thisclimbingdescenderisanodized
frequently.Ifleftwithoutcleaning,paneledgestainingwillnaturallyoccur. withayellowfinish.
Anodizationistheprocessofconvertingananodeintocathodebybringing
amoreactiveanodeincontactwithit.

Biofilmcoatings

Anewformofprotectionhasbeendevelopedbyapplyingcertainspeciesofbacterialfilmstothesurfaceofmetals
inhighlycorrosiveenvironments.Thisprocessincreasesthecorrosionresistancesubstantially.Alternatively,
antimicrobialproducingbiofilmscanbeusedtoinhibitmildsteelcorrosionfromsulfatereducingbacteria.[6]

Controlledpermeabilityformwork

Controlledpermeabilityformwork(CPF)isamethodofpreventingthecorrosionofreinforcementbynaturally
enhancingthedurabilityofthecoverduringconcreteplacement.CPFhasbeenusedinenvironmentstocombatthe
effectsofcarbonation,chlorides,frostandabrasion.

Cathodicprotection

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Cathodicprotection(CP)isatechniquetocontrolthecorrosionofametalsurfacebymakingthatsurfacethe
cathodeofanelectrochemicalcell.Cathodicprotectionsystemsaremostcommonlyusedtoprotectsteel,and
pipelinesandtankssteelpierpiles,ships,andoffshoreoilplatforms.

Sacrificialanodeprotection

ForeffectiveCP,thepotentialofthesteelsurfaceispolarized(pushed)
morenegativeuntilthemetalsurfacehasauniformpotential.Witha
uniformpotential,thedrivingforceforthecorrosionreactionishalted.For
galvanicCPsystems,theanodematerialcorrodesundertheinfluenceofthe
steel,andeventuallyitmustbereplaced.Thepolarizationiscausedbythe
currentflowfromtheanodetothecathode,drivenbythedifferencein
electrodepotentialbetweentheanodeandthecathode.

Impressedcurrentcathodicprotection
Sacrificialanodeattachedtothehull
Forlargerstructures,galvanicanodescannoteconomicallydeliverenough ofaship
currenttoprovidecompleteprotection.Impressedcurrentcathodic
protection(ICCP)systemsuseanodesconnectedtoaDCpowersource
(suchasacathodicprotectionrectifier).AnodesforICCPsystemsaretubularandsolidrodshapesofvarious
specializedmaterials.Theseincludehighsiliconcastiron,graphite,mixedmetaloxideorplatinumcoatedtitanium
orniobiumcoatedrodandwires.

Anodicprotection

Anodicprotectionimpressesanodiccurrentonthestructuretobeprotected(oppositetothecathodicprotection).It
isappropriateformetalsthatexhibitpassivity(e.g.stainlesssteel)andsuitablysmallpassivecurrentoverawide
rangeofpotentials.Itisusedinaggressiveenvironments,suchassolutionsofsulfuricacid.

Rateofcorrosion

Asimpletestformeasuringcorrosionistheweightlossmethod.[7]The
methodinvolvesexposingacleanweighedpieceofthemetaloralloytothe
corrosiveenvironmentforaspecifiedtimefollowedbycleaningtoremove
corrosionproductsandweighingthepiecetodeterminethelossofweight.
Therateofcorrosion(R)iscalculatedas

Theseneodymiummagnetscorroded
wherekisaconstant,Wistheweightlossofthemetalintimet,Aisthe extremelyrapidlyafteronly5months
surfaceareaofthemetalexposed,andisthedensityofthemetal(in
ofoutsideexposure
g/cm).

Othercommonexpressionsforthecorrosionrateispenetrationdepthandchangeofmechanicalproperties.

Economicimpact

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In2002,theUSFederalHighwayAdministrationreleasedastudytitled
"CorrosionCostsandPreventiveStrategiesintheUnitedStates"onthe
directcostsassociatedwithmetalliccorrosionintheUSindustry.In1998,
thetotalannualdirectcostofcorrosionintheU.S.wasca.$276billion(ca.
3.2%oftheUSgrossdomesticproduct).[8]Brokendownintofivespecific
industries,theeconomiclossesare$22.6billionininfrastructure$17.6
billioninproductionandmanufacturing$29.7billionintransportation
$20.1billioningovernmentand$47.9billioninutilities.[9]

Rustisoneofthemostcommoncausesofbridgeaccidents.Asrusthasa ThecollapsedSilverBridge,asseen
muchhighervolumethantheoriginatingmassofiron,itsbuildupcanalso fromtheOhioside
causefailurebyforcingapartadjacentparts.Itwasthecauseofthe
collapseoftheMianusriverbridgein1983,whenthebearingsrustedinternallyandpushedonecorneroftheroad
slaboffitssupport.Threedriversontheroadwayatthetimediedastheslabfellintotheriverbelow.The
followingNTSBinvestigationshowedthatadrainintheroadhadbeenblockedforroadresurfacing,andhadnot
beenunblockedasaresult,runoffwaterpenetratedthesupporthangers.Rustwasalsoanimportantfactorinthe
SilverBridgedisasterof1967inWestVirginia,whenasteelsuspensionbridgecollapsedwithinaminute,killing
46driversandpassengersonthebridgeatthetime.

Similarly,corrosionofconcretecoveredsteelandironcancausetheconcretetospall,creatingseverestructural
problems.Itisoneofthemostcommonfailuremodesofreinforcedconcretebridges.Measuringinstrumentsbased
onthehalfcellpotentialcandetectthepotentialcorrosionspotsbeforetotalfailureoftheconcretestructureis
reached.

Until2030yearsago,galvanizedsteelpipewasusedextensivelyinthepotablewatersystemsforsingleand
multifamilyresidentsaswellascommercialandpublicconstruction.Today,thesesystemshavelongago
consumedtheprotectivezincandarecorrodinginternallyresultinginpoorwaterqualityandpipefailures.[10]The
economicimpactonhomeowners,condodwellers,andthepublicinfrastructureisestimatedat22billiondollarsas
theinsuranceindustrybracesforawaveofclaimsduetopipefailures.

Corrosioninnonmetals
Mostceramicmaterialsarealmostentirelyimmunetocorrosion.Thestrongchemicalbondsthatholdthem
togetherleaveverylittlefreechemicalenergyinthestructuretheycanbethoughtofasalreadycorroded.When
corrosiondoesoccur,itisalmostalwaysasimpledissolutionofthematerialorchemicalreaction,ratherthanan
electrochemicalprocess.Acommonexampleofcorrosionprotectioninceramicsisthelimeaddedtosodalime
glasstoreduceitssolubilityinwaterthoughitisnotnearlyassolubleaspuresodiumsilicate,normalglassdoes
formsubmicroscopicflawswhenexposedtomoisture.Duetoitsbrittleness,suchflawscauseadramatic
reductioninthestrengthofaglassobjectduringitsfirstfewhoursatroomtemperature.

Corrosionofpolymers

Polymerdegradationinvolvesseveralcomplexandoftenpoorlyunderstoodphysiochemicalprocesses.Theseare
strikinglydifferentfromtheotherprocessesdiscussedhere,andsotheterm"corrosion"isonlyappliedtothemin
aloosesenseoftheword.Becauseoftheirlargemolecularweight,verylittleentropycanbegainedbymixinga
givenmassofpolymerwithanothersubstance,makingthemgenerallyquitedifficulttodissolve.Whiledissolution
isaprobleminsomepolymerapplications,itisrelativelysimpletodesignagainst.

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Amorecommonandrelatedproblemis"swelling",wheresmallmolecules
infiltratethestructure,reducingstrengthandstiffnessandcausingavolume
change.Conversely,manypolymers(notablyflexiblevinyl)are
intentionallyswelledwithplasticizers,whichcanbeleachedoutofthe
structure,causingbrittlenessorotherundesirablechanges.

Themostcommonformofdegradation,however,isadecreaseinpolymer
chainlength.Mechanismswhichbreakpolymerchainsarefamiliarto Ozonecrackinginnaturalrubber
biologistsbecauseoftheireffectonDNA:ionizingradiation(most tubing
commonlyultravioletlight),freeradicals,andoxidizerssuchasoxygen,
ozone,andchlorine.Ozonecrackingisawellknownproblemaffecting
naturalrubberforexample.Plasticadditivescanslowtheseprocessveryeffectively,andcanbeassimpleasaUV
absorbingpigment(e.g.titaniumdioxideorcarbonblack).Plasticshoppingbagsoftendonotincludethese
additivessothattheybreakdownmoreeasilyasultrafineparticlesoflitter.

Corrosionofglasses

Glassischaracterizedbyahighdegreeofcorrosionresistance.Becauseofitshigh
waterresistanceitisoftenusedasprimarypackagingmaterialinthepharma
industrysincemostmedicinesarepreservedinawaterysolution.[11]Besidesits
waterresistance,glassisalsoveryrobustwhenbeingexposedtochemically
aggressiveliquidsorgases.Whileothermaterialslikemetalorplasticsquickly
reachtheirlimits,specialglasstypescaneasilyholdup.

Glassdiseaseisthecorrosionofsilicateglassesinaqueoussolutions.Itisgoverned
bytwomechanisms:diffusioncontrolledleaching(ionexchange)andhydrolytic
dissolutionoftheglassnetwork.[12]BothmechanismsstronglydependonthepH
ofcontactingsolution:therateofionexchangedecreaseswithpHas100.5pH
whereastherateofhydrolyticdissolutionincreaseswithpHas100.5pH.[13]
Glasscorrosion
Mathematically,corrosionratesofglassesarecharacterizedbynormalized
corrosionratesofelementsNRi(g/cm2d)whicharedeterminedastheratiooftotal
amountofreleasedspeciesintothewaterMi(g)tothewatercontactingsurfaceareaS(cm2),timeofcontactt
(days)andweightfractioncontentoftheelementintheglassfi:

Theoverallcorrosionrateisasumofcontributionsfrombothmechanisms(leaching+dissolution)
NRi=NRxi+NRh.Diffusioncontrolledleaching(ionexchange)ischaracteristicoftheinitialphaseofcorrosion
andinvolvesreplacementofalkaliionsintheglassbyahydronium(H3O+)ionfromthesolution.Itcausesanion
selectivedepletionofnearsurfacelayersofglassesandgivesaninversesquarerootdependenceofcorrosionrate
withexposuretime.Thediffusioncontrollednormalizedleachingrateofcationsfromglasses(g/cm2d)isgiven
by:

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wheretistime,Diistheithcationeffectivediffusioncoefficient(cm2/d),whichdependsonpHofcontacting
waterasDi=Di010pH,andisthedensityoftheglass(g/cm3).

Glassnetworkdissolutionischaracteristicofthelaterphasesofcorrosionandcausesacongruentreleaseofions
intothewatersolutionatatimeindependentrateindilutesolutions(g/cm2d):

whererhisthestationaryhydrolysis(dissolution)rateoftheglass(cm/d).Inclosedsystemstheconsumptionof
protonsfromtheaqueousphaseincreasesthepHandcausesafasttransitiontohydrolysis.[14]However,afurther
saturationofsolutionwithsilicaimpedeshydrolysisandcausestheglasstoreturntoanionexchange,e.g.
diffusioncontrolledregimeofcorrosion.

Intypicalnaturalconditionsnormalizedcorrosionratesofsilicateglassesareverylowandareoftheorderof
107105g/(cm2d).Theveryhighdurabilityofsilicateglassesinwatermakesthemsuitableforhazardousand
nuclearwasteimmobilisation.

Glasscorrosiontests

Thereexistnumerousstandardizedproceduresformeasuringthecorrosion
(alsocalledchemicaldurability)ofglassesinneutral,basic,andacidic
environments,undersimulatedenvironmentalconditions,insimulated
bodyfluid,athightemperatureandpressure,[16]andunderotherconditions.

ThestandardprocedureISO719[17]describesatestoftheextractionof
watersolublebasiccompoundsunderneutralconditions:2gofglass,
particlesize300500m,iskeptfor60minin50mldeionizedwaterof
grade2at98C25mloftheobtainedsolutionistitratedagainst
Effectofadditionofacertainglass
0.01mol/lHClsolution.ThevolumeofHClrequiredforneutralizationis
componentonthechemicaldurability
classifiedaccordingtothetablebelow.
againstwatercorrosionofaspecific
baseglass(corrosiontestISO
Extracted
Amountof0.01MHClneededtoneutralize Na2O Hydrolytic 719). [15]
extractedbasicoxides,ml equivalent, class
g
<0.1 <31 1
0.10.2 3162 2
0.20.85 62264 3
0.852.0 264620 4
2.03.5 6201085 5
>3.5 >1085 >5

ThestandardizedtestISO719isnotsuitableforglasseswithpoorornotextractablealkalinecomponents,but
whicharestillattackedbywater,e.g.quartzglass,B2O3glassorP2O5glass.

Usualglassesaredifferentiatedintothefollowingclasses:

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Hydrolyticclass1(TypeI):

Thisclass,whichisalsocalledneutralglass,includesborosilicateglasses(e.g.Duran,Pyrex,Fiolax).

Glassofthisclasscontainsessentialquantitiesofboronoxides,aluminiumoxidesandalkalineearthoxides.
Throughitscompositionneutralglasshasahighresistanceagainsttemperatureshocksandthehighesthydrolytic
resistance.Againstacidandneutralsolutionsitshowshighchemicalresistance,becauseofitspooralkalicontent
againstalkalinesolutions.

Hydrolyticclass2(TypeII):

Thisclassusuallycontainssodiumsilicateglasseswithahighhydrolyticresistancethroughsurfacefinishing.
Sodiumsilicateglassisasilicateglass,whichcontainsalkaliandalkalineearthoxideandprimarilysodiumoxide
andCalciumoxide.

Hydrolyticclass3(TypeIII):

Glassofthe3rdhydrolyticclassusuallycontainssodiumsilicateglassesandhasameanhydrolyticresistance,
whichistwotimespoorerthanoftype1glasses.

AcidclassDIN12116andalkaliclassDIN52322(ISO695)aretobedistinguishedfromthehydrolyticclassDIN
12111(ISO719).

Seealso
Anaerobiccorrosion
Chemicalhazardlabel
Corrosioninspace
CorrosionEngineering
Corrosivesubstance
Cycliccorrosiontesting
Dimetcote
Electronegativity
Electricalresistivitymeasurementofconcrete
Environmentalstressfracture
Faradayparadox(electrochemistry)
Forensicengineering
FRPtanksandvessels
Hydrogenanalyzer
Hydrogenembrittlement
Kelvinprobeforcemicroscope
Oxidationpotential
PittingResistanceEquivalentNumber
Redox
Reductionpotential
Periodictable
Rouging
Saltspraytest
Stresscorrosioncracking
Tribocorrosion
Zincpest

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References
1.GalvanicCorrosion(http://www.corrosionclinic.com/types_of_corrosion/galvanic_corrosion.htm).Corrosionclinic.com.
Retrievedon20120715.
2.MethodsofProtectingAgainstCorrosion(http://www.pipingtech.com/technical/bulletins/corrosion_protection.htm)
PipingTechnology&Products,(retrievedJanuary2012)
3.IntergranularCorrosion(http://www.corrosionclinic.com/types_of_corrosion/intergranular_corrosion_cracking.htm).
Corrosionclinic.com.Retrievedon20120715.
4.CreviceCorrosion(http://www.corrosionclinic.com/types_of_corrosion/crevice_corrosion.htm).Corrosionclinic.com.
Retrievedon20120715.
5.JEBreakell,MSiegwart,KFoster,DMarshall,MHodgson,RCottis,SLyon.ManagementofAcceleratedLowWater
CorrosioninSteelMaritimeStructures,Volume634ofCIRIASeries,2005,ISBN0860176347
6.R.ZuoD.rnekB.C.SyrettR.M.GreenC.H.HsuF.B.MansfeldT.K.Wood(2004)."Inhibitingmildsteel
corrosionfromsulfatereducingbacteriausingantimicrobialproducingbiofilmsinThreeMileIslandprocesswater".
Appl.Microbiol.Biotechnol.64:275283.doi:10.1007/s0025300314037.
7.[FundamentalsofcorrosionMechanisms,CausesandPreventativeMethods].PhilipA.Schweitzer,TaylorandFrancis
Group,LLC(2010)ISBN9781420067705,p.25.
8.GerhardusH.Koch,MichielP.H.Brongers,NeilG.Thompson,Y.PaulVirmaniandJoeH.Payer.CORROSIONCOSTS
ANDPREVENTIVESTRATEGIESINTHEUNITEDSTATES(https://web.archive.org/web/20110708193325/http://w
ww.corrosioncost.com/summary.htm)reportbyCCTechnologiesLaboratories,Inc.toFederalHighwayAdministration
(FHWA),September2001.
9."NACECorrosionCostsStudy".CorPro.com.NACE.Retrieved16June2014.
10.DanielRobles."PotableWaterPipeConditionAssessmentForaHighRiseCondominiuminThePacificNorthwest".
GSGGroup,Inc.DanRobles,PE.Retrieved10December2012.
11.Boltres,Bettine."WhenGlassmeetsPharma",2015ISBN9783871934322
12.A.K.Varshneya.Fundamentalsofinorganicglasses(https://books.google.com/books?id=P8g_MmVayYC&printsec=fro
ntcover).GulfProfessionalPublishing,1994ISBN0127149708.
13.M.I.Ojovan,W.E.Lee.NewDevelopmentsinGlassyNuclearWasteforms(https://books.google.com/books?id=rAL7G
U0ec8C&printsec=frontcover).NovaSciencePublishers,NewYork(2007)ISBN1600217834pp.100ff.
14.CorrosionofGlass,CeramicsandCeramicSuperconductors(https://books.google.com/books?id=xBkP6wVu_VgC&pri
ntsec=frontcover).D.E.Clark,B.K.Zoitos(eds.),WilliamAndrewPublishing/Noyes(1992)ISBN081551283X.
15.CalculationoftheChemicalDurability(HydrolyticClass)ofGlasses(http://glassproperties.com/chemical_durability/).
Glassproperties.com.Retrievedon20120715.
16.VaporHydrationTesting(VHT)(http://www.vscht.cz/sil/english/chemtech_ag/vht.htm)Archived(https://web.archive.org/
web/20071214030744/http://www.vscht.cz/sil/english/chemtech_ag/vht.htm)December14,2007,attheWayback
Machine..Vscht.cz.Retrievedon20120715.
17.InternationalOrganizationforStandardization,Procedure719(1985)(http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/c
atalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=4948).Iso.org(20110121).Retrievedon20120715.

Furtherreading
Jones,Denny(1996).PrinciplesandPreventionofCorrosion(2nded.).UpperSaddleRiver,NewJersey:
PrenticeHall.ISBN0133599930.

Externallinks
ChemicalResistanceofGlass(http://www.schott.com/tubing/english/
products/properties/chemicalresistance.html) WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoCorrosion.

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