Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
in Culture
Fanny M. Cheung Chinese University of Hong Kong
Fons J. R. van de Vijver Tilburg University and North-West University
Frederick T. L. Leong Michigan State University
We review recent developments in the study of culture and combined emic etic approach is then illustrated using two
personality measurement. Three approaches are de- examples, one from China and one from South Africa. We
scribed: an etic approach that focuses on establishing conclude with recommendations for future research and
measurement equivalence in imported measures of person- practice.
ality, an emic (indigenous) approach that studies person-
ality in specific cultures, and a combined emic etic ap- Three Approaches to Culture and
proach to personality. We propose the latter approach as a Personality
way of combining the methodological rigor of the etic
approach and the cultural sensitivity of the emic approach. Three approaches to the study of personality in its cultural
The combined approach is illustrated by two examples: the context can be distinguished: the cultural-comparative, or
first with origins in Chinese culture and the second in South etic, approach; the indigenous, or emic, approach; and the
Africa. The article ends with a discussion of the theoretical approach that combines elements of both etic and emic
and practical implications of the combined emic etic ap- studies (see the special issue on indigenous, cultural, and
proach for the study of culture and personality and for cross-cultural psychology of the Asian Journal of Social
psychology as a science. Psychology; Hwang & Yang, 2000). These three ap-
proaches resemble the three goals of cross-cultural psy-
Keywords: indigenous, personality, cross-cultural, emic, chology, which also describe three stages in the develop-
etic, combined emic etic ment of the field (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 2002).
A
The first goal is to transport and test (Berry et al., 2002,
long-standing challenge in studying the relation- p. 3); since modern psychology began in the West, studies
ship between personality and its cultural context have examined the applicability of Western models and
has been striking a balance between the search for theories in new, non-Western cultural contexts. This goal
universals in type or structure and the description of the corresponds to the stage of the imposed etic, in which the
rich variations in personality that are due to cultural and universal applicability of Western personality models is
contextual differences. There are two dominant ways of investigated. Such studies test Western ideas and constructs
looking at the interaction of personality and culture. One in other cultures to determine their generalizability and
way is to compare measures of personality across cultures; cultural validity; the methods used tend to be top-down and
studies that make such comparisons have been called etic Western in origin (e.g., linear, positivistic, strictly empiri-
studies (Pike, 1967). Generally, the goal of such studies is cal, and often lab-based). Apt examples in personality can
to address the universality of established Western person- be found in the work on the universality of the five-factor
ality models by examining the level of cross-cultural in-
variance of the personality structure. A second way to look
at personality and culture is through in-depth analyses of This article was published Online First January 24, 2011.
personality in a specific cultural context, often called emic Fanny M. Cheung, Department of Psychology, Chinese University of
studies. There is an increasing appreciation that even Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong; Fons J. R. van de Vijver, Department of
Psychology, Tilburg University, The Netherlands, and North-West Uni-
within a single psychological domain such as personality, versity, Potchefstroom, South Africa; Frederick T. L. Leong, Department
culture exerts effects on different levels (McAdams & Pals, of Psychology, Michigan State University.
2006), including display rules, characteristic adaptations, The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory studies mentioned in
and life meanings, and on different aspects of assessment this article were funded partly by Hong Kong Government Research
Grants Council Earmarked Grant Projects CUHK4333/00H, CUHK4326/
(Cheung, 2009a). In this article, we suggest that combining 01H, CUHK4333/00H, CUHK 4259/03H, CUHK 4715/06H, and
the rich literature and methods of both approaches in a third CUHK441609 and by direct grants from the Chinese University of Hong
approach, labeled the combined emic etic approach, is Kong (Grants 2020662, 2020745, 2020871, and 2020933).
necessary for advancing our understanding of personality We are grateful to Michael H. Bond and Merry Bullock for their
comments on an earlier version of this article.
in a culturally inclusive and integrative model. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Fanny
We begin by describing the historical context of the M. Cheung, Department of Psychology, Chinese University of Hong
three approaches, their strengths, and their limitations. The Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong. E-mail: fmcheung@cuhk.edu.hk