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POWER SUPPLY
Description:
Power supply is the circuit from which we get a desired dc voltage to run the other
circuits. The voltage we get from the main line is 230V AC but the other
components of our circuit require 5V DC. Hence a step-down transformer is used to
get 12V AC which is later converted to 12V DC using a rectifier. The output of
rectifier still contains some ripples even though it is a DC signal due to which it is
called as Pulsating DC. To remove the ripples and obtain smoothed DC power filter
circuits are used. Here a capacitor is used. The 12V DC is rated down to 5V using a
positive voltage regulator chip 7805. Thus a fixed DC voltage of 5V is obtained.
Transformer is the electrical device that converts one voltage to another with little
loss of power. Transformers work only with AC. There are two types of
transformers as Step-up and Step-down transformer. Step-up transformers increase
voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-
down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage to a safer low
voltage. Here a step down transformer is used to get 12V AC from the supply i.e.
230V AC.
A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field,
which in turn induces a voltage in a second coil. Power can be transferred between
the two coils through the magnetic field, without a metallic connection between the
two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831 described this effect.
Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric
power applications.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers
have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of
alternating current electrical energy.[3] A wide range of transformer designs is
encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in
size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume to units
interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons.
According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in
each winding, according to eq. (1) in the secondary winding case, according to eq.
(2) in the primary winding case. [9] The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter
EMF.This is in accordance with Lenz's law, which states that induction of EMF
always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field.
The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to
the winding turns ratio according to eq. (3). common usage having evolved over
time from 'turn ratio' to 'turns ratio'. However, some sources use the inverse
definition.
According to the law of conservation of energy, any load impedance connected to
the ideal transformer's secondary winding results in conservation of apparent, real
and reactive power consistent with eq. (4).
The ideal transformer identity shown in eq. (5) is a reasonable approximation for
the typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both
being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio.
By Ohm's law and the ideal transformer identity:
the apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is derived in eq.
(7) to be equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load
impedance.
Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of
high permeability silicon steel. The steel has a permeability many times that of free
space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and
confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings. Early transformer
developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in
prohibitive eddy current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores
consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires.[56] Later designs constructed the core
by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use.
Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of
insulation.[57] The transformer universal EMF equation implies an acceptably large
core cross-sectional area in order to avoid saturation.
The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that
enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce
losses,[54] but are more laborious and expensive to construct. Thin laminations are
generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of very thin steel
laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.
One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-
shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of 'E-I
transformer'. Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to
manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip around a
rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two,
forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves
together with a steel strap. They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented
parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance.
A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is
removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush
current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few
cycles of the applied AC waveform. Overcurrent protection devices such
as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On transformers
connected to long, overhead power transmission lines, induced currents due
to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the core
and operation of transformer protection devices.[
Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with
low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal
alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the
transformer by its lower losses at light load.
RECTIFIERS
Rectifier losses
A real rectifier characteristically drops part of the input voltage (a voltage drop, for
silicon devices, of typically 0.7 volts plus an equivalent resistance, in general non-
linear)and at high frequencies, distorts waveforms in other ways. Unlike an ideal
rectifier, it dissipates some power.
An aspect of most rectification is a loss from the peak input voltage to the peak
output voltage, caused by the built-in voltage drop across the diodes (around 0.7 V
for ordinary silicon pn junction diodes and 0.3 V for Schottky diodes). Half-wave
rectification and full-wave rectification using a center-tapped secondary produces a
peak voltage loss of one diode drop. Bridge rectification has a loss of two diode
drops. This reduces output voltage, and limits the available output voltage if a very
low alternating voltage must be rectified. As the diodes do not conduct below this
voltage, the circuit only passes current through for a portion of each half-cycle,
causing short segments of zero voltage (where instantaneous input voltage is below
one or two diode drops) to appear between each "hump".
Peak loss is very important for low voltage rectifiers (for example, 12 V or less)
but is insignificant in high-voltage applications such as HVDC.
Rectifier Application
The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply
(AC to DC converter). Virtually all electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers are
used inside the power supplies of virtually all electronic equipment.
Converting DC power from one voltage to another is much more complicated. One
method of DC-to-DC conversion first converts power to AC (using a device called
an inverter), then uses a transformer to change the voltage, and finally rectifies
power back to DC. A frequency of typically several tens of kilohertz is used, as this
requires much smaller inductance than at lower frequencies and obviates the use of
heavy, bulky, and expensive iron-cored units.
Rectifiers are also used for detection of amplitude modulated radio signals. The
signal may be amplified before detection. If not, a very low voltage drop diode or a
diode biased with a fixed voltage must be used. When using a rectifier for
demodulation the capacitor and load resistance must be carefully matched: too low
a capacitance makes the high frequency carrier pass to the output, and too high
makes the capacitor just charge and stay charged.
Rectifiers supply polarised voltage for welding. In such circuits control of the
output current is required; this is sometimes achieved by replacing some of the
diodes in a bridge rectifier with thyristors, effectively diodes whose voltage output
can be regulated by switching on and off with phase fired controllers.
Thyristors are used in various classes of railway rolling stock systems so that fine
control of the traction motors can be achieved. Gate turn-off thyristors are used to
produce alternating current from a DC supply, for example on the Eurostar Trains
to power the three-phase traction motors.
Half-wave Rectifier: It is the rectifier circuit that rectifies only half part of the AC
signal. It uses only a single diode. It only uses only positive part of the AC signal to
produce half-wave varying DC and produce gaps when the AC is negative.
Full-wave Rectifier: It is also called as Bridge Rectifier. A bridge rectifier can be
made using four individual diodes, but it is also available in special packages
containing the four diodes required. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses
the total AC wave (both positive and negative sections).
SMOOTHING
Capacitors come in many more sizes, shapes, and varieties than resistors,
though only a small handful are truly common. However, most capacitors are made
of the same basic stuff: a pair of conductive elements separated by an insulating
dielectric (see Fig. 5-9). This dielectric can be composed of many materials,
including air (in the case of a variable capacitor, as detailed in the next section),
paper, epoxy, plastic, and even oil. Most capacitorsactually have
many layers of conducting elements and dielectric. When you select a capacitor for
a particular job, you must generally also indicate the type, such as ceramic, mica,
or Mylar.
For the most part, capacitors are classified by the dielectric material they
use. The mostcommon dielectric materials are aluminum electrolytic, tantalum
electrolytic, ceramic, mica, polypropylene, polyester (or Mylar), paper, and
polystyrene. The dielectric material used in a capacitor partly determines which
applications it should be used for. The larger electrolytic capacitors, which use an
aluminum electrolyte, are suited for such chores as power supply filtering, where
large values are needed. The values for many capacitors are printed directly on the
component. This is especially true with the larger aluminum electrolytic, where the
large size of the capacitor provides ample room for printing the capacitance and
voltage. Smaller capacitors, such as 0.1 or 0.01 F mica disc capacitors, use a
common three-digit marking system to denote capacitance and tolerance. The
numbering system is easy to use, if you remember its based on Pico farads, not
microfarads. A number such as 104 means 10, followed by four zeros, as in
100,000or 100,000 Pico farads. Values over 1000 Pico farads are most often stated
in microfarads. To make the conversion, move the decimal point to the left six
spaces: 0.1 F. Note that values under 1000 Pico farads do not use this numbering
system. Instead, the actual value, in Pico farads, is listed, such as 10 (for 10 pF).
One mark you will find almost exclusively on larger tantalum and aluminum
electrolyticis a polarity symbol, most often a minus () sign. The polarity symbol
indicates the positive and/or negative lead of a capacitor. If a capacitor is polarized,
it is extremely important that you follow the proper orientation when you install
the capacitor in the circuit. If you reverse the leads to the capacitorconnecting
the positive lead (called the anode) to the ground rail instead of the negative lead
(called the cathode), for examplethe capacitor may be ruined. Other components
in the circuit could also be damaged. Fig. 5-10 shows some different capacitor
packages along with their polarity markings.
VOLTAGE REGULATION
Many of the fixed voltage regulators have 3 leads and look like power transistors,
such as the 7805 (+5V 1A) regulator shown on the above. If adequate heat sinking
is provided then it can deliver up to maximum 1A current. For an output voltage of
5v-18v the maximum input voltage is 35v and for an output voltage of 24V the
maximum input voltage is 40V.For 7805 IC, for an input of 10v the minimum
output voltage is 4.8V and the maximum output voltage is 5.2V. The typical
dropout voltage is 2V.
TOTAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY
Types of power supply
DC power supply
A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its load.
Depending on its design, a DC power supply may be powered from a DC source or
from an AC source such as the power mains.
AC-to-DC supply
Some DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy source. Such
power supplies will sometimes employ a transformer to convert the input voltage
to a higher or lower AC voltage. A rectifier is used to convert the transformer
output voltage to a varying DC voltage, which in turn is passed through
an electronic filter to convert it to an unregulated DC voltage.
The filter removes most, but not all of the AC voltage variations; the remaining AC
voltage is known as ripple. The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the
minimum amount of filtering that must be provided by a power supply. In some
applications, high ripple is tolerated and therefore no filtering is required. For
example, in some battery charging applications it is possible to implement a mains-
powered DC power supply with nothing more than a transformer and a single
rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with the output to limit charging current.
Linear regulator
The function of a linear voltage regulator is to convert a varying DC voltage to a
constant, often specific, lower DC voltage. In addition, they often provide a current
limiting function to protect the power supply and load from overcurrent (excessive,
potentially destructive current).
A constant output voltage is required in many power supply applications, but the
voltage provided by many energy sources will vary with changes in load
impedance. Furthermore, when an unregulated DC power supply is the energy
source, its output voltage will also vary with changing input voltage. To
circumvent this, some power supplies use a linear voltage regulator to maintain the
output voltage at a steady value, independent of fluctuations in input voltage and
load impedance. Linear regulators can also reduce the magnitude of ripple and
noise on the output voltage.
AC power supplies
An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply)
and lowers it to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well.
In modern use, AC power supplies can be divided into single phase and three
phase systems. "The primary difference between single phase and three phase AC
power is the constancy of delivery." AC power Supplies can also be used to
change the frequency as well as the voltage, they are often used by manufacturers
to check the suitability of their products for use in other countries. 230V 50 Hz or
115 60 Hz or even 400 Hz for avionics testing.
Electric vehicles are those which rely on energy created through electricity
generation. A power supply unit is part of the necessary design to convert high
voltage vehicle battery power.