Changing-Tides Final Low-Res-081516

CHANGING TIDES
How Sea-level Rise Harms Wildlife and Recreation

Economies ALONG THE U.S. EASTERN SEABOARD
Changing Tides: HOW SEA-Level Rise Harms Wildlife and recreation Economies Along the U.S. Eastern Seaboard 1
Changing Tides
How Sea-level Rise Harms Wildlife

and Recreation Economies ALONG
THE U.S. EASTERN SEABOARD
Copyright 2016 National Wildlife Federation
Lead Authors: Lauren Anderson, Patty Glick, Shannon Heyck-Williams, and Jim Murphy.
We appreciate the work and dedication to conservation of all National Wildlife Federation staff and our 50
affiliate partners, which help make efforts like this possible. In particular, we wish to thank the following
contributors to this report:
Catherine Bowes, Zach Cockrum, Hilary Falk, Manley Fuller, Melissa Gaydos, Tim Gestwicki, Steve Gilbert,
Brenna Goggin, Ben Gregg, Amber Hewett, Christopher Hilke, Nicole Holstein, Tara Losoff, Jim Lyon, Todd Martin,
Jen Mihills, Eric Orff, Vanessa Pea, Ed Perry, Joshua Saks, Taj Schottland, Bruce Stein, and Ron Warnken.
This report was made possible by the many donors and supporters of the National Wildlife Federation.
Suggested citation: Anderson, L., P. Glick, S. Heyck-Williams, and J. Murphy. 2016. Changing Tides: How Sea-Level
Rise Harms Wildlife and Recreation Economies along the U.S. Eastern Seaboard.
National Wildlife Federation: Washington, DC.
Cover image: Loggerhead sea turtle. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission.
National Wildlife Federation

1990 K Street NW
Washington, DC 20006
www.nwf.org
2 Changing Tides: HOW SEA-Level Rise Harms Wildlife and recreation Economies Along the U.S. Eastern Seaboard
Table of CONTENTS
Executive Summary.................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION............................................................................. 4
Effects of Sea-level Rise on Americas East Coast .................. 5
State Impacts: The Cost of Rising Seas in the Southeast,

Mid-Atlantic, and Northeast...................................................... 7
Southeast Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Florida: The Everglades and Florida Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Georgia: Sapelo Island and Blackbeard National Wildlife Refuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
South Carolina: Santee Delta and Santee Coastal Reserve ....................................................................... 10
North Carolina: Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge and the Outer Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Mid-Atlantic Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Virginia: Chesapeake Bay and the Back Bay Island National Wildlife Refuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Maryland: Assateague Island and Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge .................................................... 14
Delaware: Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Pennsylvania: John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
New Jersey: Delaware Bay and Egg Island Wildlife Management Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
New York: Gateway National Recreation Area and Jamaica Bay ............................................................... 19
Northeast Region ............................................................................................................................ 20

Connecticut: Long Island Sound and Barn Island Wildlife Management Area ............................................ 20
Rhode Island: Ninigret Pond and Ninigret National Wildlife Refuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Massachusetts: Plum Island and the Great Marsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
New Hampshire: Hampton-Seabrook Estuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Maine: Acadia National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Taking Action............................................................................. 25
Policy Recommendations: Two Pillars for Climate Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
ENDNOTES................................................................................... 29
Changing Tides: HOW SEA-Level Rise Harms Wildlife and recreation Economies Along the U.S. Eastern Seaboard ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Royal terns. Photo: Rachel Kramer.
S tates along the Eastern Seaboard are already

feeling the impacts of climate change. Climate
change, which is caused by the atmospheric
build-up of heat-trapping greenhouse gases (GHGs)
from fossil fuel combustion and other human activities,
as fish and waterfowl and support robust tourism and
recreation economies. They also serve as natural buffers
against potentially damaging storms and, increasingly,
against rising sea levels.
contributes to higher ocean temperatures (which As GHG emissions have increased over the last century,
in turn have been linked to increased intensity and warming seawater has expanded, glaciers have melted,
frequency of hurricanes) and sea-level rise. As such, and the great ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica
our coasts and communities, even ones inland, are have begun to weaken and break off into the ocean.
facing growing challenges from erosion, saltwater This has led to an 8 inch rise in global average sea level
intrusion, and floods. These impacts have far reaching over the past century. As global temperatures continue
consequences for both natural and human communities to increase, further sea-level rise is inevitable. Exactly
along the coast from Miami to Maine. how much and how fast sea-level rise will occur in the
decades to come is difficult to determine, as it depends on
Coasts are critical to wildlife and people. Communities how much global GHG emissions will increase and how
across the region depend on coastal beaches, bays, glaciers and ice sheets will react to rising temperatures.
and islands for a wide array of benefits. These unique What is clear, however, is that the more GHG emissions
ecosystems provide crucial habitat for wildlife such continue to increase, the higher sea level will climb.
Projections for sea-level rise give reasons for the near future, by taking actions to resist impacts and
concern. According to the 2014 U.S. National Climate improve coastal resiliencea strategy referred to as
Assessment, global average sea level is estimated to adaptation. In the wake of increasingly dire projections
rise another one to four feet by the end of this century, for sea-level rise, however, it is equally essential that we
with some areas seeing even greater increases due to prevent the worst outcomes by significantly reducing
localized factors such as land subsidence.1 the nations greenhouse gas emissionsa strategy
known as mitigation.
Even at the lower end of sea-level rise projections, the
impacts on wildlife habitats and human communities To protect our communities and natural resources, we
could be devastating. And yet, recent science suggests should swiftly implement a two-pronged strategy of
that the higher-range scenario underestimates the mitigation and adaptation: 1) dramatically reduce our
amount of sea-level rise we could experience. In this GHG emissions to slow and eventually stop the impacts
scenario, sea levels are projected to rise by 6.6 feet of climate change, and 2) proactively prepare for
by 2100 if drastic emission cuts are not made soon.2 impacts that cannot be avoided.
Totals could reach well over that amount within a few
centuries if the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets melt Americans are eager for answers. At the start of 2016,
significantly. Recent evidence suggests this scenario is 70% of Americans believed that climate change was
increasingly likely if GHG emissions continue to rise.3,4 occurring.8 As people increasingly experience the
Consider that under a 6.6 foot sea-level rise scenario negative consequences of carbon pollution, the need for
alone, large areas of coastal cities, including parts of action becomes clearer.
Boston, Atlantic City, Charleston, Virginia Beach, and
Miami, would be under water.
In addition to sea-level rise, climate change presents

another risk to our coasts: more intense and damaging
storms. An increase in the frequency and intensity of
Atlantic hurricanes since the early 1980s has been
linked, in part, to warmer surface water temperatures.5
While projections for the future are somewhat
uncertain, studies suggest that in the coming decades
the number of the strongest (Category 4 and 5) storms
will increase and that the amount of rainfall associated
with hurricanes will be greater. Sea-level rise is
exacerbating the impacts of storm surges by allowing
the incoming domes of water to reach farther inlanda
trend that is expected to continue.6 By mid-century,
certain areas could experience 100-year flooding
events (i.e., that have a 1% annual chance of occurring)
more frequentlyeven annuallybecause higher sea
levels make them more likely to occur. 7
As the risks from sea-level rise continue to grow, so,

too, has the impetus for states and communities to
prepare for changes that are occurring, or will occur in Cormorant. Photo: Candy Childrey.
Horned grebe pair. Photo: Ken Conger.
Policymakers on the federal, state and local levels This report demonstrates the risks to wildlife,
can and should reduce carbon emissions by enacting recreation, and local economies of sea-level rise by
policies that speed the transition from carbon-intensive illustrating key impacts in 15 eastern U.S. states:
fossil fuel extraction, development and combustion to Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina,
clean renewable energy sources, and by incorporating Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
carbon storage incentives and requirements into New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts,
forestry and land use decisions. In light of the growing New Hampshire, and Maine. It then lays out policy
evidence that human-induced climate change is already solutions to both mitigate the threat of, and adapt to, a
altering our landscape and natural resources, America changing climate. Specifically the report recommends:
must become far more diligent in its effort to craft
meaningful and efficient solutions.
Mitigation Adaptation
Set a carbon price to achieve economy-wide Assess coastal climate risks and craft plans to reduce
emission reductions those risks
Implement the Clean Power Plan to transition to a Curb development that degrades the resilience of
clean energy economy coastal ecosystems
Expand wildlife-friendly renewable energy such as Improve opportunities for habitat migration
responsibly developed wind and solar Reform coastal permitting policies to encourage
Limit methane waste from oil and gas development natural infrastructure
Reduce and better account for carbon impacts of Reform the National Flood Insurance Program
fossil fuel development to stop encouraging development in risky areas
Support clean transportation such as low-emission Ensure adaptation policies benefit all members of
vehicles and public transit society, including those most vulnerable
Enhance ecosystem carbon storage and sequestration
INTRODUCTION
T he East Coast is fortunate to have a

tremendous diversity of tidal waterways,
wetlands, barrier islands, and other coastal
habitats, which support a wide variety of fish and
wildlife species and enhance the economies and quality
Even under the low-end sea level projections, which
assumes, optimistically, that the world will achieve
significant near-term reductions in GHG emissions,
coastal communities will face significant impacts. Yet
there is compelling evidence that even the high-end
of life of nearby communities. Each year, beach projections, which assume a continued increase in
visitation, recreational fishing, and wildlife viewing global emissions, likely underestimate potential sea-
activities alone contribute tens of billions of dollars to level rise.12 For example, research shows that, under
East Coast states.9 a 4C (7.2F) increase in global average temperature,
accelerating ice loss on Greenland and Antarctica would
These ecosystems also have natural abilities to adapt contribute to possibly hundreds of feet of sea-level rise
to the dynamic conditions along eastern shorelines. within a matter of just a few centuries.13,14
Barrier islands naturally shift and reform after
storms, and tidal marshland has an extraordinary Whats more, sea-level rise is not uniform along the
ability to adapt to changes in inundation and salinity nations coastlines. A number of factors, including
from saltwater intrusion. However, these remarkable variability in ocean currents and vertical land
capacities are being overwhelmed by sea-level movement, can affect relative sea level changes at
rise, particularly where such habitats have already regional and local scales. In many places along the
been damaged by development, coastal armoring East Coast, for example, land subsidence due to
(developing physical barriers such as sea walls), and soil compaction and activities such as groundwater
other activities. extraction mean that actual sea-level rise will be
greater than the global average and, thus, will have
The extraction, development, and combustion of fossil more significant impacts.
fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas are the primary
forces driving human-caused climate change. For Global Average Absolute Sea Level Change: 1880 - 2014
Americas coastal communities, accelerating sea-level
rise due to the expansion of warming ocean water and
melting glaciers and ice sheets is among the most
direct and certain consequences of climate change.
The average global sea level rose about 8 inches over
the past century, and since the early 1990s the rate
of sea-level rise has been accelerating.10 As global
temperatures continue to increase, further sea-level
rise is inevitable.
Recent scenarios developed for the 2014 U.S. National

Climate Assessment (NCA) suggest that sea-level rise This graph depicts annual absolute sea level change averaged
will range from an additional 8 inches (over 1992 over the entire Earths ocean surface. The tidal gauges measure
levels) to 6.6 feet by the end of the century, with a mid- relative sea level along the coast and satellite images examine
range estimate of 1-4 feet.11 absolute sea level change over the entire ocean. Source: EPA,
Climate Change Indicators in the United States.
Effects of Sea-level Rise
ON Americas East Coast
T here are numerous impacts from sea-level

rise along the East Coast. In this report,
we focus on nine ways in which sea-level
rise is predicted to affect key East Coast natural systems
that are vital for wildlife, recreation economies, and
stands to lose the most in financial assets of any coastal
city$3.5 trillion. New York City is ranked third,
after the coastal city of Guangzhou in China.15 While
mega cities like New York and Miami have the most
economic assets at risk, poorer areas along the coast
local communities. have less ability to adapt to or escape the impacts of
sea-level rise and extreme weather events. This means
they, too, are highly vulnerable to impacts of climate
NINE IMPACTS OF SEA-LEVEL change, which threatens important values such as
RISE ON NATURAL SYSTEMS social and cultural cohesion. The populations of coastal
communities are also expected to increase in the future,
AND COMMUNITIES: placing more people in danger and adding risk to socio-
economic systems.
1) Increased coastal flooding: Many cities
along the Eastern Seaboard of the United States face
2) Saltwater intrusion into the freshwater
increasing risk of coastal flooding. Based on a global
that supplies communities and wildlife:
analysis that ranks cities for exposure of vulnerable
Sea-level rise will impact the fresh water table along
assets to coastal flooding in 2070 (due to both climate
the coast as salt water seeps into freshwater aquifers.
change and other socio-economic factors), Miami
INCREASED
COASTAL
FLOODING
CULTURAL SALTWATER
IMPACTS INTRUSION
LOSS OF
OUTDOOR BEACH
NINE IMPACTS
RECREATION EROSION
INCOME
OF SEA-LEVEL RISE
LOSS OF
LOSS OF
HUNTING AND
WETLAND
FISHING
BUFFER
OPPORTUNITY
ZONES
GREATER
LOSS OF DAMAGE
PROPERTY FROM
VALUES WEATHER
EVENTS
Contaminated aquifers can pollute the freshwater 6) Loss of property values: Local governments
needed for agriculture and drinking water. This change rely on property tax revenue that comes from seaside
in salinity will also harm, and result in the loss of, homes and businesses. As sea levels continue to rise,
coastal habitats such as tidal freshwater marsh.16 In both property values and business opportunities in
addition, saltwater intrusion can damage infrastructure many areas are likely to decline. At least $1.4 trillion
such as irrigation, wastewater and drinking water worth of property in the United States is within one
treatment facilities, and septic tanks. eighth of a mile from the coast,25 and storm surge from
hurricanes can travel miles inland.26 In some parts of
3) Beach erosion: Beaches provide tourist low-lying Florida, every foot of sea-level rise will result
attractions and critical barriers between the ocean in the shoreline moving inland 500 to 2,000 feet.27
and coastal property. Nearly half of Floridas beaches
are designated as critically eroding, which has forced 7) Loss of hunting and fishing
the state to replenish the beaches with millions of opportunities: As the seas warm from rising global
cubic yards of sand. According to a 2013 review, temperatures, some marine species are moving north
Florida has spent $393 million over the last decade toward cooler ocean waters. This shift in distribution
on sand replacement.17 Erosion also affects many leads to disruption in coastal ecosystems as prey and
species, such as shorebirds and turtles, which rely on predator species become separated.28 This effect will
healthy beaches for nesting and migration. be compounded by sea-level rise as it alters coastal
ecosystems. Juvenile species that depend on coastal
4) Loss of wetland buffer zones: Coastal tidal marshes for their development will lose habitat
wetlands provide vital habitat for birds and fish, and from inundation. The multi-billion dollar fishing
also offer coastal communities flood storage (absorbing industry will be impacted, disturbing the coastal
and storing flood water), storm surge buffers, erosion communities that depend on reliable fishing as a food
control, and water quality improvements.18 Land use source or economic engine. Hunting opportunities
changes, hurricanes, and sea-level rise are increasing such as for waterfowlmay also be impacted by
the rate of coastal wetland loss in the U.S.19 Increased habitat changes to coastal wetlands and disruption of
inundation from sea-level rise is overwhelming the food sources.29
ability of tidal marshes to adapt, resulting in damage to
these ecosystems. In the Delaware region, one acre of 8) Loss of wildlife, natural places, and
tidal wetlands are collectively being lost every day.20 outdoor recreation income: Other species like
shore birds and sea turtles, a tourist draw in many
5) Greater damage from more frequent areas, could face altered ecosystems and habitat loss as
and severe extreme weather events: As the oceans warm and sea level increases. The economic
the climate continues to change, extreme weather value of coastal recreation in the United States is
events are expected to occur more often, resulting between $20 billion and $60 billion annually for beach-
in greater damage in areas already experiencing going, angling, birdwatching, and snorkeling/diving.30
effects of sea-level rise. Costs associated with these
weather events have increased significantly over the 9) Cultural impacts: In the case of local
past decades, exacerbated by sea-level rise and other communities that depend on coastal ecosystems for
factors.21 Already, average losses caused by recent subsistence fishing and farming, sea-level rise could
hurricane winds, land subsidence, and sea-level rise dramatically change their way of life. For example,
are estimated to be $14 billion per year.22 In 2005, the Seminole Tribe of South Florida depends on a
Hurricane Katrina alone caused an estimated $134 healthy Everglades ecosystem to preserve their
billion in damages.23 Hurricane Sandy in 2012 caused cultural heritage.31
an estimated $50 billion in damages.24
State Impacts: The Cost of Rising
Seas in the Southeast, Mid-Atlantic,
and Northeast
Southeast
ME
Florida
Out of all U.S. states, Florida is most

NH
vulnerable to sea-level rise, in large
part because much of the state is at or
NY MA
near sea level. The Miami region has the
CT largest amount of exposed assets and the
RI
fourth-largest population susceptible to sea-level
rise in the world.32 Other areas of coastal Florida, such
PA NJ
as Tampa Bay, also are highly vulnerable to sea-level
DE
rise. With a $60 billion beach tourism industry,33 the
MD
impacts of sea-level rise have the potential to severely
harm Floridas economy.
VA
Coastal erosion is becoming a growing problem,
with increasing demands to replace sand on eroding
NC beaches. A recent study by the Army Corps of Engineers
found that Miami-Dade County will need roughly 20
million cubic yards of sand (or the equivalent of over
SC 10,000 football fields covered in 1 foot of sand) over
the next 50 years to maintain its beaches.34 The county
GA has used up nearly all of its offshore sand sources,
and will need to find acceptable alternative sources
for future projects. According to estimates in Miami-
Dade Countys FY 2013-2014 Proposed Budget and
Multi-Year Capital Plan, the county will need to spend
FL more than $32 million on beach erosion and sand
replacement between 2013 and 2017. Miami-Dades
estimated beachfront property is valued at more than
$14.7 billion, not including infrastructure;35 overall, $69
billion worth of property is at risk of flooding in less
than 15 years in Florida.36
Eastern seaboard states affected by rising seas
Bonefish. Photo: Luyen Chou.
the cumulative impacts to coastal ecosystems that are

Sea-level rise and other climate stressors have already deprived of historic freshwater inflow from the
raised concerns among Floridas citizens. A June Everglades. Today, efforts to restore the Everglades are
2015 poll of Floridas 27th Congressional District, among the largest restoration programs in history.
including Miami, found 81 percent of respondents
believe climate change is a problem and 82 percent This vast watersheds ecological communities are
want Congress to support economical ways to
home to many unique plants and animals, of which 67
mitigate it.37
species are listed as threatened or endangered. As the
coastal biological communities shift inland with the
rising seas, the Everglades are beginning to change.
Fish and wildlife that depend on coastal habitats also
Sawgrass habitat, which is intolerant of salt water, is
are at risk. Florida, along with other states on the East
being replaced with mangrove habitat. On average, the
Coast, is part of the Atlantic Flyway. As sea level rises,
Everglades slope upwards from the southern Florida
bird species could lose the habitats they rely on to rest
coast by two inches per mile, so for every two inches
and forage for food on their long migration. According
of sea-level rise we can expect to see a mile of the
to National Audubon Society, the horned grebe, brown-
Everglades altered.39 Depending on how fast sea-level
headed nuthatch, and wood stork are expected to be
rises, even mangroves may not be able to keep pace
seriously impacted by climate change.38
with the shifting habitat.40
The Everglades and Florida Keys

As parts of the Everglades wetlands become flooded
with rising seas, fish nursery habitat and other
Some of Floridas top tourist attractions, including the
sheltered wildlife areas will be lost. Some species will
Everglades and Florida Keys, are threatened by sea-
be able to migrate northward with shifting habitat,
level rise. In the Everglades, freshwater historically
but if seawalls are installed to protect property, these
flowed down from the north to meet the influx of
migration barriers will harm species and habitat,41
tidal water in the unique subtropical climate of South
including sea turtle nesting beaches. Salt water is also
Florida. This expansive wetland was reduced by half
beginning to seep into the freshwater aquifers that
in the 20th century by massive ditching, diking, and
supply the Everglades, polluting the water source for
wetland filling projects. Sea-level rise will exacerbate
seven million Floridians.
Florida is also known as the fishing capitol of the
world, and many prized fish species rely on the habitats
provided by the Florida Keys. Florida is the number
one destination in the U.S. for saltwater anglers (with
2.4 million state visits annually). Saltwater recreational
fishing brought in $7.6 billion and supported 109,341
jobs as of 2014.42 As the climate continues to change,
this Florida tradition will be impacted. The bonefish,
tarpon, and permits that support recreational fishing
in the Florida Keys generate an estimated $427 million
annually,43 but the subtropical and tropical flats upon
which these fish species depend are threatened by
sea-level rise.44 Seagrass beds and mangroves are
essential habitat for juveniles of several grouper species
(including gags), which take a relatively long time
to mature. As sea-level rise damages these delicate
ecosystems, fish stock could fall and anglers may not be
able to share the same fishing experiences with their
children and grandchildren.
Georgia
Since 1935, the sea-level gauge in

Savannah has measured a 9-inch
average increase.45 Approximately American oystercatcher. Photo: Hal and Kirsten Snyder.
675 square miles along the
Georgia coast are located below
Tidal freshwater systems are also threatened by
4.9 feet in elevation46much
sea-level rise. These delicate wildlife rich ecosystems
of which is within the National
depend on freshwater flow into Georgias estuaries and
Climate Assessments range of projected sea-level rise
are threatened by the encroachment of salt water from
by 2100. Chatham County alone, which contains the city
sea-level rise.52 The Savannah National Wildlife Refuge,
of Savannah, lies mostly below the 3-foot sea-level rise
located along the Savannah River, and the mouth of
projected. The county has approximately 6,100 homes
the Altamaha River, are two areas where changes in
and $2.1-billion worth of property at risk.47
salinity are altering freshwater habitats, exacerbated
by dredging projects.53 Vegetation is dying at an
Georgias economy is heavily dependent on tourism,
accelerated pace as salt water intrudes, increasing the
real estate, and the fishing industry. According to a 1997
likelihood that underlying sediment will degrade and
review by the Georgia Department of Industry, tourism
dissolve, further speeding the influx of salt water into
in coastal counties generated $1.9 billion in revenue.48
freshwater habitat.54
Georgia contains nearly one third of the existing tidal
saltmarshes along the East Coast of the U.S.nearly
400,000 acres.49 Many species that the fishing industry
depends on, including shrimp, blue crab, and oysters,
rely on the coastal salt marshes that are threatened by
sea-level rise.50 Unfortunately, the states salt marshes are
projected to decline by up to 45% by 2100.51
Sapelo Island and Blackbeard Island In 2008, South Carolinas natural resources contributed
National Wildlife Refuge nearly $30 billion in revenue and 230,000 jobs to the
states economy. The states beaches alone generate
Sapelo Islandconsidered by some to be the birthplace approximately $3.5 billion annually and support 81,000
of coastal ecologyis a low lying barrier island located jobs.62 Outdoor activities, including fishing, hunting
approximately 50 miles south of Savannah in the Duplin and wildlife viewing, contribute $2.2 billion annually to
River estuary. Sapelo Island and Blackbeard Refuge South Carolinas economy and support nearly 59,000
form Georgias characteristic coastlinelow lying jobs. Many of these valuable sources of revenue are
barrier islands with an eastern facing beach, dunes threatened by sea-level rise and its associated impacts.63
with some elevated forested land, and salt marshes on
the western side of the island. These systems create a
critical storm buffer for the mainland.55
Sapelo is part of the National Estuarine Research

Reserve System, which includes 27 reserves in 22
coastal states. The northern half of Sapelo Island is
comprised of the 5,618-acre Blackbeard National
Wildlife Refuge, which provides wildlife habitat,
including maritime forest, salt marsh, freshwater
marsh, and beach habitat. The island offers nesting
habitat for the loggerhead sea turtle and a variety of
shorebirds, including the American oystercatcher and
piping plover.56 Sea-level rise worsens coastal erosion
and flooding57 in these areas.
Sapelo Island, only accessible by boat and plane, is

also home to the Hog Hammock community, a Gullah-
Geechee settlement retaining West African traditions
and speaking a creole dialect. The community has a
long history with the land, including agriculture and
oyster harvesting.58 According to current sea-level rise
projections, this community will be almost entirely Blue crab. Photo: Sally Wyatt.
inundated by the end of the century.59,60

Santee Delta and Santee Coastal Reserve
South Carolina
Santee Delta has more than 20 square miles of
In South Carolina, nearly interconnected rivers, streams, and marshes. This web
700,000 people live in the of waterways makes up the largest delta on the states
Charleston area alone. It is a busy eastern coast.64 The nearly 24,000 acres of the Santee
seaport ranked eighth in the nation for value of Coastal Reserves offer important habitat for migrating
cargo handled and it is a popular tourist destination birds and other wildlife. The reserve supports many
known for its beautiful beaches. However, nearly outdoor activities, including hiking, birding, fishing,
$150 billion of property is threatened61 by sea-level rise and hunting. Changing salinity from sea-level rise has
in this picturesque coastal community. resulted in altered vegetation, which in turn impacts
duck populations and local duck hunting.
Red wolf. Photo: Christine Majul.
Sand dunes, beaches, and small barrier islands, like North Carolina
those found in Santee Delta, provide critical habitat for
migrating sea birds and the endangered loggerhead sea North Carolina is
turtle. Many of these small islands and coastal habitats severely threatened by
are bordered and protected by tidal marshes. sea-level rise and storm surge, with
projected regional s rising approximately
The tidal marshes in Santee Delta provide vital twice the global average due to a host of factors,
habitat to juvenile species that replenish fishery stock, including groundwater depletion, sediment
including shrimp, blue crab, and flounder. In addition compaction, and regional variations in ocean currents.
to this, the marshes shelter the smaller prey species
that large game fish depend on. As seas rise and more There are between 3.1 and 3.9 million acres of wetlands
extreme weather events occur, these critical ecosystems in coastal North Carolina66 and approximately 2.5
will continue to be damaged and marine species will million acres of estuarine waters. North Carolinas
suffer as a consequence. network of coastal waterways is the largest lagoon
on the East Coast and the second largest tract of
Wintering waterfowl depend on habitat in South estuarine habitat in the U.S.67 As sea levels rise,
Carolinas tidal wetlands, as does the states hunting changing water levels and salinity will impact these
industry. Rising sea level and changes in salinity coastal ecosystems. These areas are needed to shelter
could damage this critical habitat, and as ecosystems juvenile species of game fish and provide habitat for
shift inland to adapt to these changes, they could migrating bird species.
encounter development barriers (coastal communities)
in many cases.65 The value of property at risk to sea-level rise in just
four of North Carolinas counties over the next 75
Similar impacts are occurring in other critically years is $6.9 billion. The lost recreation value of
important coastal habitat conservation areas up and climate change-induced sea-level rise to local beach
down the coast of South Carolina, including ACE Basin, goers is projected to be $93 million a year by 2030
North Inlet/Winya Bay System, and Waccamaw River and $223 million a year by 2080 for the southern
National Wildlife Refuge. North Carolina beaches.68 Sea-level rise will also affect
coastal infrastructure. According to the National
Climate Assessment, the North Carolina Department of and eroded by rising seas, residents will pay the price.72
Transportation is raising the roadbed of U.S. Highway In 2014, the Outer Banks contributed $21.3 billion
64 across the Albemarle-Pamlico Peninsula by four from visitor spending to North Carolinas economy. In
feet, which includes 18 inches to allow for higher future addition to this, the island chain contributed 200,000
sea level. This project alone is expected to cost $244 jobs, $1.5 billion in federal tax revenue, $1 billion
million, yet considering sea-level rise in project design in state tax revenue, and $636 million in local tax
is likely to reduce risks of more costly damages to the revenue.73 The islands are also important stopover
road over the long term.69 areas for nesting and migratory birds (including the
eastern painted bunting), and iconic endangered
North Carolina is also ranked as one of the top species like loggerhead sea turtles, which spend
recreational saltwater sportfishing states in the U.S., considerable time in shallow coastal estuaries.
with $95.6 million in state and local tax revenues
generated in 2013.70 Rising seas will damage the coastal
habitats juvenile game fish need to mature, and the
Mid-Atlantic Region
fishing industry may suffer as a consequence.
Virginia
Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge
Many of Virginias coastal
and the Outer Banks
communities are
highly vulnerable
North Carolinas Alligator River National Wildlife
to sea-level rise. The Hampton Roads area, for instance,
Refuge is home to the only remaining wild population
home to a number of military facilities, is one of the
of North American red wolves, a species once declared
most at-risk population centers in the United States.
extinct in the wild. Unfortunately, the refuge is
Measurements of sea level at Sewells Point, Norfolk,
extremely vulnerable to sea-level rise and may be lost
show that water levels over the past 80 years have
entirely, with the majority of the land lying only a foot
risen 14.5 inches, significantly higher than the global
above sea level.71 Not only is sea-level rise threatening
average.74 This dramatic difference is in part due to
the refuge, but in the event of a hurricane the chances
gradual subsidence of coastal land in Virginia, which
of parts of it washing away are high. As salt water
exacerbates localized sea-level rise.
continues to creep inland, pine forest will die off to be
replaced with low-lying shrubs, which in turn will be
Sea-level rise has also worsened the impacts of coastal
replaced with saltwater marshes, which may then be
storms. Hurricane Isabel in 2003 caused $925 million
washed away into open water. This loss of habitat poses
in damages to insured properties75 in Virginia; an
a serious threat to the red wolf population and other
increase in extreme weather events will likely lead
wildlife that call the refuge home.
to even greater losses. Virginia Beach is the largest
city in Virginia, with a population of 450,000.76 The
Coastal ecosystems like this may be able to retreat
receding shorelines threaten the resorts, hotels, and
inland from the rising tides, but human development
restaurants tourists flock to, and there is potential for
such as roads or seawalls may hinder this ability.
significant economic impacts if the area continues to
Removing these barriers and building natural buffers,
like oyster beds, may help reduce impacts on these
vulnerable ecosystems. From a poll conducted by the
University of Virginia, 86 percent of
In view of the refuge are North Carolinas Outer Banks.
The people who live on these islands depend on Virginia Beach residents said that sea-
revenue from tourism, and as the beaches, estuaries,
and lagoons that these islands protect are inundated
level rise is a very important issue.
Piping plover and chicks. Photo: Kaiti Titherington/USFWS.
experience sea-level rise. From a poll conducted by Oysters, blue crab, and striped bass are among the
the University of Virginia, 86 percent of Virginia Bays most important resources.79 A 2008 study of sea-
Beach residents said that sea-level rise is a very level rise impacts on coastal habitats in the Chesapeake
important issue.77 Bay suggests that under a 27-inch rise in sea level, a
scenario that is in the mid-range of what is projected to
Chesapeake Bay and the Back Bay Island occur before the end of the century, much of Virginias
National Wildlife Refuge Chesapeake Bay wetland habitat would decline.80,81
The Chesapeake Bay has already experienced rising At the south end of the Bay, the 9,120-acre Back Bay
seas, warmer water temperatures, and longer periods Island National Wildlife Refuge provides outdoor
of extreme weather.78 Over the last 100 years water recreation opportunities for the city of Virginia Beach,
level in the bay has risen by nearly a foot, which is one of the biggest resort cities on the East Coast.
greater than the global average due to the relatively
high rate of land subsidence in the region. Much of the The Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain Bird Conservation Plan
Chesapeake Bay region will continue to face higher- identifies the American black duck, king rail, least
than average sea-level rise in the coming decades. bittern, and seaside sparrow as high priority species
in the refuge. Because of the refuges position along
Many of the bays coastal habitats are at risk from the East Coast, both southern and northern species
the impacts of sea-level rise, as is the regions natural overlap to result in high biodiversity, and over 350
resource-based economy. Over 500 million pounds of species of birds have been observed in the refuge.82 In
seafood come from the Bay every year. In Maryland and addition to this, the refuge has over five miles of beach
Virginia this drives $3.39 billion in sales, $890 million that loggerhead sea turtles use as nesting habitat at the
in income, and almost 34,000 jobs in the local economy. northernmost limit of their range.
Maryland
Maryland is known for its

3,100 miles of tidally-influenced
shoreline along the Atlantic coast
and Chesapeake Bay. Taking localized factors
such as land subsidence into consideration, the rate
of sea-level rise in the region is expected to be greater
than the global average.83 Under a scenario of three feet
of sea-level rise, which is consistent with mid-range
projections for the middle to the end of the century,
most of Marylands tidal wetlands could be lost and
over 200 square miles of the states land could be Bald eagle fishing in the Blackwater River. Photo: Joseph Glitter.
inundated with seawater.84
the greatest density of breeding bald eagles north of
Marylands coastal bays and the surrounding Florida. In addition to this, the Delmarva fox squirrel,
communities support a population of 40,000 residents which was recently removed from the endangered
and attract millions of visitors every year. The species list, has a substantial population in the forested
waterfront property value around Marylands bays is regions of the refuge.87
valued at $360 million. In addition, wildlife viewing is
valued at $45 million annually at non-market values According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
and fishing and shellfishing are valued at $3.3 million.85 Blackwater already has lost nearly 5,000 acres of
wetland to rising seas.
Assateague Island and Blackwater National
Wildlife Refuge The refuges marshland provides critical spawning
habitat for migratory fish and commercial shellfish.88
Along the Chesapeake Bay, the 27,000-acre Blackwater Situated along the Atlantic Flyway, Blackwater provides
National Wildlife Refuge protects more than one third an important resting ground for migrating birds. In
of Marylands tidal wetlands. These wetlands provide addition to this, marsh species like the saltmarsh
a critical buffer for inland communities, including the sparrow, seaside sparrow, clapper rail, and black
town of Cambridge.86 Blackwater has been designated rail depend on Blackwater. The economic value of
internationally as an Important Bird Area containing Blackwater, based on ecosystem services, is nearly
Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge. (Dark gray/green represents water.) Credit: USFWS.
$390 million,89 making it an important component of causes them to constantly shift, and in the case of
Marylands economy. As sea-level rises, this wildlife Assateague, it means the island is moving slowly
refuge is placed at risk. towards the coast and southward. Unlike other barrier
islands in Florida and New Jersey, Assateague has little
In addition to the Chesapeake Bay and Blackwater infrastructure and managers have chosen to work with
Refuge, Maryland also boasts Assateague Island, a the shifting sands instead of attempting to keep the
island with over 37 miles of beaches.90 This island island in its current place. As one of the first national
draws in 2 million tourists annually, which many local park units to account for climate change and sea-level
towns rely on as a source of revenue.91 The island is rise in its management plans, Assateague offers an
famous for its wild horses and ghost forests, stands example of how the natural processes of shifting barrier
of drowned pine trees. The nature of barrier islands islands can be utilized to improve resilience.92
Seaside sparrow. Photo: Matt Tillett.
Beach between Prime Hook community and Beach between Prime Hook community
Slaughter Beach before Hurricane Sandy. and Slaughter Beach after Hurricane
Sandy on October 31, 2012.
Credit: USFWS.
Delaware
A 2015 poll showed that 79 percent of Delaware
Delaware has 381 miles of shoreline, much of residents say immediate action should be taken on
it around Delaware Bay. As a state with the climate and 72 percent say immediate action should
lowest mean elevation in the nation,93 be taken on sea-level rise.99
Delawares shoreline and the associated
beaches and coastal wetlands are particularly
Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge
vulnerable to sea-level rise.94 Unfortunately,
Delawares famous beaches are eroding at
Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge, a part of
a rate of nearly 3.3 feet annually.95 A
Delawares extensive wetland habitat, is highly
recent climate change vulnerability
vulnerable to sea-level rise and more intense coastal
assessment for the state suggests that, under a
storms. Prime Hook was severely damaged during
potential sea-level rise scenario of 4.9 feet, the state
Hurricane Sandy in 2012 when the storm widened a
could lose 11% of its current land area.96 Along the
passage in the wildlife refuges protective dune system.
shore of the Delaware Bay, beaches are eroding at a
Prior to restoration efforts, the 4,000-acre network
staggering rate of nearly 33 feet per year.97 As coastal
of marshland had slowly been transformed into open
beaches and dunes are eroded, Delawares wetland
water and the protective beach had receded by about
habitat loses critical protection from rising water and
500 feet.100 When Hurricane Sandy hit the refuge the
storm surges.
protective beach was breached in multiple places,
flooding the marshes and communities around the
According to a 2010 study by the University of
refuge. Farm land was also flooded with salt water,
Delaware, the Delaware Estuary contributes over $10
damaging valuable agricultural land.101
billion in annual revenue to surrounding states from
economic activity related to recreation, water quality
To improve the resilience of Prime Hook National
and supply, hunting and fishing, forests, agriculture, and
Wildlife Refuge, the Disaster Relief Appropriations
parks. Within the state of Delaware, employment from
Act of 2013, through the Department of the Interior,
the estuary, both direct and indirect, supports over
awarded $39.8 million102 to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
10,500 jobs.98
Service. This effort aims to restore beaches and dunes,
improving coastal resilience along the Delaware Bay
and providing critical habitat for federally listed species
like the red knot and piping plover.
Even Inland Ecosystems Can Be
Affected by Sea-Level Rise:
The Case of Pennsylvania
While Pennsylvania is not a coastal state, it is still experiencing

the impacts of sea-level rise. The Delaware Estuary flows
into the southeast part of the state, and as sea level rises,
cities and communities along Delaware River tidal areas,
including Philadelphia, will be at risk. The U.S. National Climate
Assessment reports that sea level in Philadelphia has already
risen by 1.2 feet in 100 years. One 2010 study estimates that
156,000 people in Philadelphia (or 10% of the citys population)
will be impacted by high tides within the next century as waters
rise.103,104 Pennsylvania will also see erosion and changes in
salinity along its waterways. These changes will especially be felt
in the states freshwater wetlands.105
John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge
As part of the Delaware River estuary, John Heinz National Wildlife

Refuge offers a quiet natural area in the city of Philadelphia. The 282
acres of the refuge protects the largest remaining fragment of freshwater
tidal marsh in the state. While some tidal marshes may accumulate enough
sediment or else shift inland to outpace rising water levels, John Heinz
National Wildlife Refuge is surrounded by the city of Philadelphia and likely
has limited ability to adapt. Salt water is also creeping closer to the refuge,
jeopardizing plant, animal, and microbial communities that may not be able to
adjust to changes in salinity.106
Located along the Atlantic Flyway, the refuge provides critical resting ground for
over 300 species of migratory birds. Visitor recreation expenditures accounted
for $1.4 million in 2011.107 State endangered species such as the least bittern and
yellow-crowned night heron depend on marsh habitat in the refuge and are likely to
be impacted by sea-level rise.108
Yellow-crowned night heron. Photo: James Diedrick
New Jersey
New Jerseys beautiful coastal

areas are responsible for approximately
70 percent of the states tourism revenue.109
The Jersey Shore is a tourist attraction for
people from around the country and offers
a huge economic benefit for the state.
In 2014 New Jersey received $36.4 billion of its GDP
from tourism, which also supports 508,000 jobs (10
percent of all jobs in the state). Half of this tourism
spending happens at the Jersey Shore. When Hurricane
Sandy hit the shore, its 127-mile stretch of beaches,
boardwalks, and rental properties were badly damaged,
contributing to the staggering $37 billion in total losses
from the storm.110,111
Some of New Jerseys best defenses against the impacts

of severe weather come from its barrier islands, dunes,
and beaches. The low-lying sandy areas create shelter
from storm impacts. The islands have a natural ability
to recover from storm surges as sand is pushed from
the side of the island impacted by water and wind to
Red knots and horseshoe crabs. Credit: Gregory Breese/USFWS.
the opposite side. This causes the islands to gradually
shift, which in turn enables ecosystems to move with
the islands. However, development, such as homes and As sea-level rise contributes to changes in salinity,
roads, hampers this ability. we can expect wildlife populations to decline and/or
shift up river.114 These coastal environments provide
Delaware Bay and Egg Island Wildlife critical nesting habitat for threatened and endangered
Management Area bird species, and offer a much needed resting place
for migrating birds. These unique birds, such as
Delaware Bay is known around the world for its oyster the endangered red knot, are a tourist attraction in
industry and the wildlife viewing opportunities created and of themselves, and with damaged habitat, their
by horseshoe crab and migratory birds. The oyster populations will continue to decline. These ecosystems
harvest alone is projected to generate up to $80 million are also important for economically significant species
of annual economic benefit, while wildlife viewing of fish and crab; as these systems continue to degrade
contributes $25 million in benefits to the Delaware Bay they will decrease the productivity of the sportfishing,
area and $34 million regionally.112 shellfishing, and commercial fishing industries.
In Delaware Bay, the 9,000 acre113 Egg Island Wildlife

Management Area offers an extensive network of
water trails through saltmarsh habitat filled with
birds and other wildlife. Outdoor explorers can go
bird watching, crabbing, and fishing in its network of
tidal waterways.
New York Gateway National Recreation Area and
Jamaica Bay
New York State has over
1,850 miles of tidally- New York State has an extensive network of wetlands,
influenced shoreline. In including those that occur in Jamaica Bay, Staten Island,
addition to supporting human and Long Island Sound. In many cases, these wetlands
communities both small and large, New Yorks have already been damaged from development and
coastal habitats host a diverse array of fish and wildlife pollution, but they still provide critical ecological and
species. Its wetlands and beaches offer breeding, economic benefits. New Yorks wetlands support more
nursery, migratory, and overwintering habitat for a biological diversity than other aquatic or terrestrial
range of bird species.115 In addition, New York is ranked ecosystems in the state. These wetlands also buffer
second nationally in terms of recreational sportfishing, coastal areas from the impacts of floods and provide
with $144.5 million generated in state and local tax wildlife viewing opportunities.
revenue from saltwater fishing in 2013.116
The Gateway National Recreation Area includes land
Problems of sea-level rise are compounded by more in New Jersey and New York27,000 acres in total.
intense coastal storms, posing a significant threat In New York State, this land includes the Jamaica Bay
to the states people and wildlife alike. In New York National Wildlife Refuge, Staten Island, Fort Tilden, Riis
State, Hurricane Sandy left 43 people dead, $19 billion Park, Floyd Bennett Field, and Canarsie Pier. Spanning
in damages, and resulted in the loss of $11 billion in 9,155 acres, Jamaica Bay National Wildlife Refuge
economic output following the destruction. Nearly a is one of the most important bird sanctuaries in the
quarter of New York City was without power, while Northeastern United States and one of the most popular
roads, tunnels, rail systems, and other transportation places to view migrating bird species, including the
infrastructure required extensive repairs, some of endangered piping plover. Over 330 bird species and 60
which are still ongoing.117 butterfly species have been observed in the refuge in
addition to many native reptiles and amphibians.118
New York Citys 520-mile coastline is protected in part

by its surrounding wetland system, and as sea level
rises, this barrier will become even more valuable.119
When Hurricane Sandy hit New York, the freshwater
ponds in Jamaica Bay were breached and the refuge
suffered extensive damage. Overall, Gateway suffered
$180 million in damage from Hurricane Sandy. With
extreme weather events occurring more frequently
from climate change, and a higher storm surge expected
from sea-level rise, the vulnerable marshes, recreation
areas, and wildlife viewing locations in Jamaica Bay are
likely to be at increased risk.
Any natural migration inland of these coastal wetland

areas will be hampered by the states highly developed
urban areas as well as the abundance of seawalls.
Bluefish. Photo: Richard Ling. Additional climate-driven stressors like more severe
storm surge and higher tides also further impact marsh
health, making coastal habitats less resilient.120
Northeast Region
Connecticut
Since 1960, sea level in

Connecticut has risen by
approximately six inches.121
In some areas along the
Connecticut coast the average shoreline erosion rate
is between one and three feet per year. With sea-level
rise and the compounding effect of more frequent
and severe storms, this rate is expected to increase.122
Hurricane Sandy caused more than 360,000 people
to be evacuated from areas along the coast123 and
recovery efforts cost $283 million in federal disaster
assistance.124 Coastal wetlands provide a critical buffer
against these impacts.
In Connecticut, coastal wetlands reduce storm damage

costs by an estimated $13,000 per acre annually.125
These ecosystems are threatened by sea-level rise, but
with proper management and restoration, marshes
may be able to move inland. However, manmade
barriers such as dykes, levies, and other storm barriers
may impede this movement and result in the loss of Juvenile saltmarsh sparrow. Photo: Michael Mulqueen.
marshland. Approximately 30 percent of Connecticuts
historic marshland has been lost to human Barn Island is popular with birders and with hunters
development. Efforts to restore damaged wetlands during the fall season. The preserve has 290 acres of
began in the 1930s, and today the Connecticut saltmarsh habitat, 540 acres of woodland, and open
Department of Environmental Protection is recognized water. It supports nine state-listed species during the
as a national leader in tidal wetland restoration. Over breeding season, including the saltmarsh sharp-tailed
1,700 acres have been restored, offering benefits for sparrow,128 which is declining due to sea-level rise.129
wildlife and communities up and down the coast.126 These small endangered birds nest only in salt marshes,
many of which are expected to be flooded by rising sea
Long Island Sound and Barn Island levels.130 Barn Island was listed as a globally significant
Wildlife Management Area Important Bird Area in 2004. In addition to rare
birds, Barn Island also shelters a sea-level fen, a rare
At 1,320 square miles, the Long Island Sound is the saltmarsh habitat that is supplemented by upwelling
regions largest estuary, with a 600-mile coastline. fresh groundwater.131
Warming water temperatures, coastal erosion, and
rising sea levels pose a threat to the sounds wildlife The wooded areas of the island are expected to suffer
and coastal habitat.127 from saltwater inundation, and there has already been
evidence of black gum trees dying off. These forested
The 1,013-acre Barn Island Wildlife Management Area areas are expected to be pushed inland as the low-lying
is one of the largest and most ecologically diverse saltmarshes on the island are also forced inland by
coastal wildlife management areas along the sound. rising sea levels.132
Rhode Island Ninigret Pond and Ninigret National
Wildlife Refuge
Rhode Island is known for its 400
miles of beautiful beaches, hiking Ninigret Pond is part of a network of lagoons along
trails, and abundant wildlife refuges. Rhode Islands southern coast. These lagoons are called
The state has nearly 2,700 homes salt ponds by locals, and provide fishing and other
less than 1 meter (about 3.3 feet) outdoor recreation opportunities. These salt ponds
above current sea level, placing also support critical habitat for commercial species of
these properties well within the fish and shellfish and offer sheltered resting places for
range of sea-level rise projections.133 birds migrating along the Atlantic Flyway. Salt ponds
Meanwhile, local sea gauges show that since 1929 are protected by barrier beaches, but as sea level rises
water levels have already risen by nearly a foot, and storms become more frequent and severe, these
and impacts are already occurring in coastal towns beaches are being pushed inland.
like Providence. In addition, erosion rates in some
areas have doubled from 1990 to 2006 and certain The 872-acre Ninigret National Wildlife Refuge that
freshwater marshes along the coast have begun to backs up to the Ninigret salt pond is one of five refuges
transition to saltwater marsh.134 in Rhode Island. Ninigret Pond is the largest coastal salt
pond in the state, and over 250 bird species have been
Meanwhile, Rhode Island has already lost 53 percent recorded at the refuge, including the federally listed
of its historic salt marshes over the last 200 years due piping plover. The pond and adjacent wildlife refuge
to human alterations on the landscape. Nonetheless, by protect commercial species like the blue crab, bay
2100, coastal habitats such as salt marshes and barrier scallop, and winter flounder.136 In addition to offering
beaches will provide natural protective benefits to $5 wildlife habitat, the salt marshes around the pond help
billion worth of Rhode Island property.135 filter pollutants and provide a critical buffer for coastal
Bay Scallop. Photo: Seascout.
communities and fisheries. Salt marshes provide an
estimated $150 million in revenue from recreational
fishing and $75 million in revenue from commercial
fishing. Outdoor recreation accounts for $2.4 billion
consumer spending and supports 24,000 jobs in
Rhode Island.137
Massachusetts
Massachusetts has
over 1,500 miles of coastline. Sea level
around Boston has risen by 11 inches over
that last 100 years, higher than most of the East
Coast. This shift is due to both climate change and
natural subsidence. Coastal land is being lost at varying Least terns. Photo: Lauri Griffin.
rates in the state to erosion,138 with impacts being felt
along much of the coastline as well as the islands of level rise and increased erosion, many homes that are
Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. currently out of harms way will likely become prone
to flooding in the future. Property taxes on the island
Massachusetts beaches are some of the most popular generate $7 million annually in revenue for the towns of
recreation resources in the state, and the coastal Newbury and Newburyport.141 As houses and property
tourism and recreation economy supports 119,420 jobs are impacted by ever increasing storms, the economies
with a total annual output of $8.7 billion.139 Activities of these island communities will be strained.
associated with this sector include recreational boating,
saltwater angling, wildlife watching, and beach visits. Preventative measures to protect the island can be
expensive. However, there are cost-effective natural
Plum Island and the Great Marsh solutions, such as planting dune vegetation, restoring
salt marsh, and amending zoning regulations that may
Plum Island, along Massachusetts North Shore, is a ultimately provide the best chance at reducing the
barrier island known for its remarkable dune systems vulnerability of this barrier island.
and beaches. At 11 miles long, Plum Island spans
multiple towns. The northern third of the island Plum Island is encompassed by the much larger Great
consists of beaches, dunes, marsh, and some dense Marsh of Massachusetts. It is the largest salt marsh
residential development. The southern two thirds in New England. It is made up of over 20,000 acres of
of the island is devoted to the Parker River National salt marsh, tidal waterways, and beaches.142 The Great
Wildlife Refuge and contains a variety of coastal Marsh has been designated an Important Bird Area of
habitats that provide critical nesting habitat for rare international significance and provides habitat for a
and threatened species and refuge for migrating birds multitude of wildlife, including the piping plover and
along the Atlantic Flyway. On Parker River National least tern.143 A 2015 project was awarded $2.9 million
Wildlife Refuge alone over 300 species of birds have in funding to implement a suite of projects that work
been recorded, including 75 rare species.140 synergistically to increase the resiliency of the marsh
ecosystem and Plum Island barrier beach and in turn
Plum Island may be more stable than many of the reduce the vulnerability of the human communities.144
barrier islands to the South, but winter storms can Protecting and enhancing the Great Marsh and the
still wreak havoc on this island. A 2013 storm washed Plum Island barrier beach may be one of the most cost-
away several ocean-front homes. With anticipated sea- effective tools to reducing community vulnerability.
New Hampshire The estuarys 5,000 acres of coastal marshes and
tidal flats, in addition to providing the surrounding
New Hampshire has only 131 miles of communities with a buffer for rising seas, also provide
tidally-influenced coastline, the shortest critical habitat for breeding and migratory birds.150
of any state.145 Yet, the coast supports Designated an Important Bird Area, Hampton-Seabrook
a diversity of habitats that are Estuary is home to endangered and threatened species
threatened by sea-level rise and the such as the piping plover and common tern, and other
impacts of climate change. Sea-level important saltmarsh species like the willet.151 Under
rise, combined with coastal a potential sea-level rise scenario of 6.6 feet, only 300
subsidence, has resulted in water acres of the current saltwater marsh in New Hampshire
level rising by an average 0.7 inches are expected to remain intact.152 If barriers are removed,
per year since 1990.146 These factors make the New much of the saltwater marsh will be able to move
Hampshire coastline even more vulnerable to storm inland, but this migration may be blocked by towns and
surge from both Noreasters and hurricanes. These communities that line the coast.153
storms can cause extensive coastal flooding, especially
combined with the increased precipitation expected Fish species such as smelt, American shad, blueback
for the Northeast region in a changing climate. In 2012, herring, alewives, and winter flounder depend on
Hurricane Sandy resulted in $55 million in private New Hampshires estuarine waters for spawning and
insurance claims in New Hampshire. The insured value nursery habitat.154 In addition, shellfish species such
of properties in coastal areas of New Hampshire totaled as clams and scallops are hatched in estuaries. If sea
$64.0 billion in 2013.147 In 2011, Hurricane Irene caused level rises too quickly, these critical habitats will be
160,000 homes to lose power and shut down more than vulnerable to flooding and erosion.
250 roads.148
Maine
Hampton-Seabrook Estuary
Maines iconic coast could see major
The communities of Hampton and Seabrook are impacts from sea-level rise. One
protected by beaches and coastal marsh systems. A study estimates that a 3.3-foot rise
2012 study estimated the cost of sea-level rise for would submerge more than
Hampton, Hampton Falls, and Seabrook to be between 20,000 acres of coastal real estate
$1.9 and $2.8 billion.149 in Maine, destroying 53 miles of
road.155 Sea-level rise has the potential
to wash away $46.4 million of Commercial Street
area properties in Portland, an estimate that could
rise to $111 million by 2100.156 It would also result in
damage to some of the states most important tourist
destinations, severely impacting Maines $7.9 billion
tourism economy.157
Ecological damage from sea-level rise could also be

highly problematic for wildlife breeding habitat in sand
dunes, tidal marshes, and coastal wetlands, which are
used by hundreds of species. Maines most endangered
birds like the piping plover, saltmarsh sparrow, and
roseate tern are at particular risk as nesting grounds
are inundated faster than new sites can be established.
Common tern and chicks. Photo: USFWS.
Magnolia warbler. Photo: Silver Leapers.
Acadia National Park percent chance of occurring each year could happen
every year.160 Sections of steep rocky coastline make it
Acadia National Park is made up of a 47,000-acre extremely difficult for low lying ecosystems to migrate
system of islands, bays, and sounds, containing inland with rising seas, which may means rising seas
ecosystems like tide pools and estuaries that support could result in a dramatic loss of habitat along the
a wide variety of coastal wildlife. This unique park Acadia coast.
receives over 2 million visitors annually, making it one
of the most popular parks in the United States. In 2011, Acadia supports an amazing diversity of bird species,
the park generated $186 million for the Maine economy with 338 recorded in the park. One of the most popular
and supported over 3,000 jobs.158 families of birds, the colorful warblers, boast 22 species
in the park. Visitors come from around the world
Unfortunately, this beautiful park is at risk from sea- to enjoy Acadias amazing bird diversity. However,
level rise, which will send salt water into freshwater projected changes in habitat resulting from sea-level
ecosystems and change salinity, thereby damaging rise and other climate change-related stressors could
the habitat that wildlife depend on. Sea level at Bar alter the avian community, reducing the abundance of
Harbor has risen nearly nine inches since 1947.159 some species and increasing the abundance of more
Flooding from storm surges and extreme weather southern species.161 Many small, bright warbler species
events will further exacerbate all of these challenges, are expected to experience population declines as
and the likelihood of these events will increase as the a result of these disturbances. The Canada warbler,
climate continues to change. With a foot of sea-level Nashville warbler, and magnolia warbler are three
rise, a storm surge level that typically has only a ten warbler species at greatest risk.162
Taking Action
F ortunately, we can protect wildlife,

special places, and our communities from
the worst consequences of sea-level rise.
While there are numerous steps that can be taken
by every household, municipality, state, or business,
However, aggressively moving to a low carbon future
is not enough to protect vulnerable natural resources
and coastal economies and communities from sea-level
rise. Plus, by the time global emissions are successfully
curtailed, some amount of sea-level rise will already
we recommend here a two-pronged strategy of be set in motion, threatening our shores. Meanwhile,
federal policies to curb carbon pollution and enhance degraded ecosystems will further limit our ability to
ecosystem and wildlife resilience to a changing climate. withstand this and other climatic changes, as natural
defenses are weakened or eliminated. As such, it is
First, it is critical that we put in place policies that imperative for states and communities to pursue
greatly reduce the amount of greenhouse gases adaptation strategies that safeguard resources and
released into the atmosphere from industrial activities improve coastal resilience.
and land use changes, across every major sector of
the economy. This approachoften referred to as Whats more, some measures can function as both
climate mitigationmeans rapidly transitioning our climate mitigation and adaptation.163 For example,
power, transportation, and other sectors away from enhancing and protecting coastal habitats such as
reliance on carbon-intensive fossil fuels and towards wetlands and mangroves can play an important role
cleaner, responsibly developed wind and solar energy, in reducing climate change by absorbing carbon
as well as deploying more efficient vehicles that guzzle dioxide from the atmosphere, while at the same
dramatically less gasoline. It also means implementing time protecting coastal communities from sea-level
land use, agricultural, and forestry practices that rise and storm surge.
ensure our lands become storage reservoirs for, and not
sources of, carbon. Many carbon-friendly approaches to
land management are also good for the soil, crops, and
habitat, as well as the atmosphere.
ADAPTATION
MITigation
Two Pillars for Climate Action
Policy Recommendations
1) Mitigation
Set a carbon price: Economists and global

institutions like the World Bank agree the most efficient
way to speed the transition to a lower carbon economy,
and to reflect the cost to communities, wildlife, and
habitat of high-carbon economic activity, is through
assigning a carbon price to fossil fuel-based processes
and products.164 Two primary policies include a carbon
tax, which would establish a specific feeideally at an
increasing rate over timeto discourage high-carbon
activities, and a cap-and-trade program, which would
auction off a declining number of pollution permits
over time, driving up the cost of available permits, thus
incentivizing lower carbon activities. A carbon price
could be constructed to drive pollution reductions
throughout the economy. Saltmarsh sparrow. Photo: Matt Tillet.
Implement the Clean Power Plan: One of the first Furthering their development necessitates, among
major policies the United States established to reduce other things, supporting tax credits to help level the
carbon emissions was the Clean Power Plan (CPP), playing field with subsidized fossil fuels, and improving
the first-ever federal limits on carbon pollution from transmission policies to ready the nations power grid
the power sectoruntil recently, our nations largest to accommodate more renewable sources. Federal and
single source of GHG emissions. The CPP was finalized state adoption of renewable energy portfolio standards
on August 3rd, 2015, and sets emission reduction also would drive demand. In particular, the United
requirements for individual states, giving them flexible States has a great opportunity to develop a vast offshore
pathways for achieving those reductions. On February wind resource that can provide clean, reliable power
9th, 2016, the Supreme Court issued a stay of the CPP to coastal states when it is most needed. Efficient and
and placed a hold on federal implementation while environmentally responsible permitting processes and
a lower court considers a legal challenge to the rule. clear state offshore wind goals and policies will further
Meanwhile, as a result of market forces and state and create markets for this massive, underdeveloped carbon
regional policies, plus certain federal tax incentives, the free power source. In addition, responsibly developed
United States is already rapidly transitioning away from utility, rooftop, and community solar projects will also
coal to clean, renewable energy sources like wind and provide a stepping stone to a clean energy economy.
solar. The CPP will further this trend, and many states When paired with energy storage technologies,
are rightfully taking steps now to implement the plan. distributed systems can offer communities resilience
in the face of a changing climate.
Expand renewable energy: As the United
States continues its transition away from harmful Regulate methane: Methane pollution (mostly
fossil fuels, we must responsibly develop wildlife leakage and flaring) from oil and gas production is a
friendly renewable energy. Wind powerboth on- key source of greenhouse gas emissions, and a waste
and offshoreand solar power provide increasingly of a valuable energy resource. Methane is the second
affordable clean alternatives to fossil fuel combustion. most prevalent greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide,
Loggerhead sea turtle. Photo: USFWS.
and has 80 times the global warming potential of until a reform process occurs. Such reforms should
carbon dioxide over a twenty year time period. The account for the real costs to the environment,
Environmental Protection Agency has finalized rules communities, and wildlife.
that will regulate methane emissions from new and
modified oil and gas operations. Additionally, the Support clean transportation: The transportation
Bureau of Land Management has proposed rules that sector recently surpassed electricity generation to
will limit methane waste from new, modified, and become the largest source of carbon pollution in the
existing sources on federal and tribal lands. These United States.166 Carbon dioxide emissions from this
regulations are a critical step to achieving emission sector have been rising since 2013. Significant emissions
reductions. However, the EPA needs to regulate the benefits are possible through strengthening federal clean
thousands of existing sources throughout the oil and car standards that improve fuel efficiency and lower
gas industry, a step that would have the impact of tailpipe carbon pollution, incentivizing public transit,
taking over 200 coal fired power plants off line.165 and designing cities and towns to lower vehicle miles
traveled. In addition to this, the United States must invest
Reduce and better account for carbon impacts in zero-emissions vehicle technologies and batteries,
of fossil fuel development: About 24 percent of and help build out needed electric vehicle infrastructure,
energy-related GHG emissions can be traced to fossil such as charging stations.
fuel development on our public lands. By far, the
largest sources of these emissions are coal extraction Enhance ecosystem carbon storage
and resulting combustion. Currently, coal companies, and sequestration: Today, U.S. forests, grasslands,
many of which are in or facing bankruptcy due to and soils offset approximately 15 percent of all U.S.
collapsing markets, are able to get inexpensive leases fossil fuel related emissions each year (equal to
through non-competitive bidding processes that fail half of all transportation emissions). A significant
to take into account costs, like mine reclamation and opportunity exists to expand policy measures to
carbon pollution, that are currently being borne by the increase this carbon storage capacity of our lands and
public. The Bureau of Land Management has put a halt forests. Measures can include: optimizing existing
on new coal leasing federal policies that could be tailored to promote
land use for carbon storage; developing carbon- processes make it cheaper and faster to install hard
inclusive forest management principles; incentivizing infrastructure, such as bulkheads, than to use softer
forest regeneration and afforestation that is good for and more natural approaches, despite the fact that
ecosystems and wildlife; and reducing risk of forest hard armoring is more environmentally damaging
conversion to settlement. and may eventually be overcome by rising seas.
Natural and nature-based features have the capacity
2) Adaptation in some situations to keep pace with sea-level rise
and to self-repair after damage from storms and
Assess climate risks and craft adaptation floods. They also provide many co-benefits such as
plans to reduce those risks: Assessing climate- improved wildlife habitat, improved water quality, and
related vulnerability of coastal communities and recreational value that hard infrastructure does not,
ecosystems provides a basis for developing adaptation making these soft or hybrid green-gray options more
strategies designed to reduce those risks and enhance cost efficient in many instances.
community and ecosystem resilience. Proactive
adaptation planning and hazard risk mitigation can Reform the National Flood Insurance Program:
significantly reduce the impact of hurricanes, coastal We should curb the use of taxpayer dollars to subsidize
storms, and other climate-amplified weather extremes. and promote the development and re-development of
environmentally sensitive and risky places in coastal
Eliminate or minimize harmful development areas and floodplains. Instead, the program should
practices and other threats that fragment or move toward risk-based rates for all properties, with
degrade coastal ecosystems: Intact, healthy means-tested assistance for those who cannot afford
coastal ecosystems are our first lines of defense against actuarial rates.
rising seas. Reducing existing stressors can improve the
overall health of coastal ecosystems, and improve their Ensure environmental justice: All policies should
capacity to adapt to sea-level rise. Invasive species, ensure that the benefits of resilience and adaptation
nutrient runoff, stream channelization, and hard efforts are justly distributed across society. Low
armoring of the shoreline are some of the threats that income, minority, and other historically underserved
can compromise the health of coastal ecosystems. populations tend to be on the front lines of the impacts
of climate change and sea-level rise, and can be made
Improve opportunities for habitat migration: even more vulnerable by poverty, linguistic isolation,
As sea levels rise, coastal ecosystems like marshes and poor infrastructure.
may have the natural capacity to migrate inland.
Development can block this shift, creating what is
known as coastal squeeze. This can lead to the
eventual disappearance of the natural ecosystems
that help protect communities and support local
economies. By conserving open space and zoning
appropriately, communities can manage their land in
ways that can enhance the capacity for ecosystems to
naturally adapt to rising seas.
Reform coastal permitting policies: The use

of natural and nature-based features, such as living
shorelines, should be encouraged for coastal protection
over hard infrastructure.167 Currently, permitting Razorbill. Photo: Stefan Berndtsson.
ENDNOTES
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50 Georgia Sea Grant, University of Georgia.
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78 The Chesapeake Bay Program. 2012. Climate Change. http://www.chesapeakebay.net/issues/issue/climate_change
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82 Carver, E. and J. Caudill, Ph.D. October 2013.
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100 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. November 2012. Impacts to Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge from Hurricane Sandy.
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102 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2016. Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge, Delaware.
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103 Hurdle, J. October 12, 2015. Philadelphia has much to lose if drastic global carbon reductions arent made, study says. StateImpact:
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104 The Nature Conservancy, NOAAs Office for Coastal Management, and Climate Central. The Sea Level Rise and Coastal Flood Web
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105 Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission. June 2004. Sea Level Rise Impacts in the Delaware Estuary of Pennsylvania.
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106 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge at Tinicum Comprehensive Conservation Plan, Chapter 3.
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107 Carver, E. and J. Caudill, Ph.D. October 2013.
108 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2015. John Heinz at Tinicum National Wildlife Refuge, Pennsylvania: Birds.
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109 New Jersey Climate Adaptation Alliance (NJCAA). 2013. Stakeholder Engagement Report: Coastal Communities. Climate Change
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110 State of New Jersey, Governor Chris Christie. November 28, 2012. Press Release: Christie Administration Releases Total Hurricane
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111 A Shore thing: A wave of people and spending is about to hit the Jersey Shore. May 30, 2015. The Economist.
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112 Delaware Riverkeeper Network. 2011. Economics of a Healthy Delaware River Jobs and Revenue Jeopardized by Deepening.
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River%20put%20at%20risk%206%2011%2010.pdf
113 Department of Environmental Protection, New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife. Egg Island Wildlife Management Area:
Cumberland County - Downe Township (map). http://www.njfishandwildlife.com/pdf/wmamaps/egg_isl.pdf

114 Cooper M., J.P., M.D. Beevers, and M. Oppenheimer. November 2005. Future Sea Level Rise and the New Jersey Coast: Assessing
Potential Impacts and Opportunities. Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University.
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115 New York State Department of State. April 2010. Natural Resource Program.
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116 American Sportfishing Association. 2013.
117 Cavalieri, J. and N. Wiktor. Staying Above the Waterline: The Cost and Impact of Climate Change in New York City. Fordham
University. http://www.stjohns.edu/sites/default/files/documents/FaithService/staying_above_the_waterline.pdf
118 New York Harbor Parks. 2016. Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge: A sanctuary for birds and other species.
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119 The Nature Conservancy. August/September 2015. Joining Forces to Benefit an Urban National Wildlife Refuge. http://www.
nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/newyork/new-york-newsletter-2015-augsept-115x80.pdf
120 PlanNYC and the City of New York Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg. May 2012. New York City Wetlands Strategy.
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121 Zervas, C. December 2009. Sea Level Variations of the United States, 1854-2006. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration: Silver Spring, Maryland. http://www.tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/Tech_rpt_53.pdf
122 State of Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection. March 13, 2009. Facing our Future: Natural Coastal Shoreline
Environment Adapting to Connecticuts Changing Climate.
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123 Preston, J., S. Patel, and M. Garcia. October 29, 2012. State-by-State Guide to Hurricane Sandy. The Lede (blog): The New York Times.
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124 Federal Emergency Management Agency. May 6, 2013. Six Months after Sandy, Connecticut Continues to Rebuild.
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125 Adaptation Subcommittee to the Governors Steering Committee on Climate Change. 2010. The Impacts of Climate Change on
Connecticut Agriculture, Infrastructure, Natural Resources and Public Health.

http://www.ct.gov/deep/lib/deep/climatechange/impactsofclimatechange.pdf
126 Connecticut Conference of Municipalities. August 2014. Beach Erosion on the Connecticut Coastline: A CCM Research and
Information Services Municipal Tool Kit. http://www.ccm-ct.org/sites/default/files/files/Beach_Erosion_on_CT_Coastline.pdf

127 State of Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection. March 13, 2009.
128 National Audubon Society. Connecticut, Important Bird Areas: Barn Island Wildlife Management Area.
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129 Shriver, G., K.M. OBrien, M.J. Ducey, and T.P. Hodgman. January 2016. Population abundance and trends of Saltmarsh (Ammodramus
caudacutus) and Nelsons (A. nelsoni) Sparrows: influence of sea levels and precipitation. Journal of Ornithology 157 (1): 189-200.
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130 The Connecticut Audubon Society. December 1, 2015. Connecticuts Vulnerable 6 Wildlife Species at High Risk Because of Climate
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133 University of Rhode Island Climate Change Collaborative. January 2013. Fact Sheet: Sea Level Rise in Rhode Island: Trends and
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136 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2015. Ninigret National Wildlife Refuge, Rhode Island.
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137 Haas, M. May 6, 2016. Recreation and Climate in Coastal Salt Ponds. Rhode Island Sea Grant.
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139 Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management. June 29, 2006. Report 1, An Assessment of the Coastal and Marine Economies of
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140 Massachusetts Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs. 2016. Great Marsh.
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142 The Great Marsh Coalition. The Great Marsh. http://www.greatmarsh.org/
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144 See: Stewart, D. January 26, 2015. The Great Marsh: Natures Flood Insurance. How NWF and its partners are bolstering coastal
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149 New England Environmental Finance Center, Edmund S. Muskie School of Public Service, University of Southern Maine. July 2012.
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151 NH Audubon. The Hampton-Seabrook Estuary Important Bird Area.
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153 New Hampshire Coastal Risk and Hazards Commission. March 18, 2016. Preparing New Hampshire for Projected Storm Surge,
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154 New Hampshire Fish and Game Department. http://www.wildlife.state.nh.us/fishing/species.html
155 Natural Resources Council of Maine. 2016. FAQs Regarding the Effect of Sea-Level Rise in Maine.
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156 Koenig, S. October 24, 2013. Sea-level rise will wash away $46.4 million worth of Portlands Commercial Street properties by 2100,
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portlands-commercial-street-properties-by-2100-architects-say/
157 Maine Office of Tourism. 2014 Maine Tourism Highlights. http://visitmaine.com/assets/downloads/FactSheet2014.pdf
158 Cui, Y., et al. February. 2013.
159 Star, J., N. Fisichelli, A.M. Bryan, A. Babson, R. Cole-Will, and A. Miller-Rushing. October 5-6, 2015. Acadia National Park Climate
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https://www.nps.gov/subjects/climatechange/upload/ACAD_ScenarioPlanningWorshopSummaryFINAL_20160531.pdf
160 Ibid.
161 Fiscichelli, N.A., W.B. Monahan, M.P. Peters, and S.N. Matthews. 2014. Climate Change and Birds of the Acadia National Park Region:
Projected Changes in Habitat Suitability for 130 Breeding Bird Species. Natural Resources Report, National Park Service. NPS/ACAD/
NRR 2014/840. https://www.nps.gov/subjects/climatechange/upload/Fisichelli_etal_2014_Climate-change-birds-ACAD_
20140912.pdf
162 Fisichelli, N.A., et al. 2014.
163 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Habitat Conservation: Coastal Blue Carbon.
http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/coastalbluecarbon.html.
164 See, for example: World Bank and Ecofys. September 2015. State and Trends of Carbon Pricing. Washington, D.C. http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2015/09/21/090224b0830f0f31/2_0/Rendered/PDF/
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165 Environmental Defense Fund. 2016. Strong national policy to cut methane pollution: Solution must apply to all pollution sources,
both current and future. https://www.edf.org/energy/strong-national-policy-cut-methane-pollution

166 Plumer, B. June 13, 2016. Power plants are no longer Americas biggest climate problem. Transportation is. Vox Energy and
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167 Small-Lorenz, S., B.A. Stein, K. Schrass, D.N. Holstein, and A.V. Mehta. 2016. Natural Defenses in Action: Harnessing Nature to
Protect our Communities. National Wildlife Federation: Reston, Virginia.

https://www.nwf.org/News-and-Magazines/Media-Center/Reports/Archive/2016/06-21-16-Natural-Defenses-in-Action.aspx
Great egret. Photo: Sandy Scott.
National Wildlife Federation
1990 K Street NW
Washington, DC 20006
www.nwf.org

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CHANGING TIDES

How Sea-level Rise Harms Wildlife and Recreation

How Sea-level Rise Harms Wildlife

National Wildlife Federation

Effects of Sea-level Rise on Americas East Coast .................. 5

State Impacts: The Cost of Rising Seas in the Southeast,

Northeast Region ............................................................................................................................ 20

Royal terns. Photo: Rachel Kramer.

S tates along the Eastern Seaboard are already

In addition to sea-level rise, climate change presents

As the risks from sea-level rise continue to grow, so,

T he East Coast is fortunate to have a

Recent scenarios developed for the 2014 U.S. National

T here are numerous impacts from sea-level

Out of all U.S. states, Florida is most

the cumulative impacts to coastal ecosystems that are

The Everglades and Florida Keys

Since 1935, the sea-level gauge in

Sapelo is part of the National Estuarine Research

Sapelo Island, only accessible by boat and plane, is

inundated by the end of the century.59,60

Maryland is known for its

Seaside sparrow. Photo: Matt Tillett.

While Pennsylvania is not a coastal state, it is still experiencing

John Heinz National Wildlife Refuge

As part of the Delaware River estuary, John Heinz National Wildlife

Yellow-crowned night heron. Photo: James Diedrick

New Jerseys beautiful coastal

Some of New Jerseys best defenses against the impacts

In Delaware Bay, the 9,000 acre113 Egg Island Wildlife

New York Citys 520-mile coastline is protected in part

Any natural migration inland of these coastal wetland

Since 1960, sea level in

In Connecticut, coastal wetlands reduce storm damage

Bay Scallop. Photo: Seascout.

Ecological damage from sea-level rise could also be

Common tern and chicks. Photo: USFWS.

F ortunately, we can protect wildlife,

Two Pillars for Climate Action

Set a carbon price: Economists and global

Reform coastal permitting policies: The use

Research Letters 7:021001.

Waters Edge: The crisis of rising sea levels, A Reuters Series.

Biol Fish 98:21232131. DOI 10.1007/s10641-015-0446-9.

since 1935. http://georgiaseagrant.uga.edu/article/sea_level_rise_in_georgia/

Shoreline projects in Georgia. Coastal Resources Division, Brunswick, GA.

Refuges Complex Comprehensive Conservation Plan. USFWS: Atlanta, Georgia.

Research Reserve System.

Sapelo Island NERR (vol. 3). http://www.sapelonerr.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Land-Owership-Paper2.pdf

Coastal Communities (project description). https://planning-org-uploaded-media.s3.amazonaws.com/legacy_resources/awards/

reform our fisheries. http://www.ncwf.org/soundsolutions

Impacts of Global Warming on North Carolinas Coastal Economy.

Smithsonian Magazine. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/40th-anniversary/rising-seas-endanger-wetland-wildlife-734892/?no-ist

March 2005. Hurricane Isabel Assessment. https://coast.noaa.gov/hes/docs/postStorm/Isabel_PostStorm_Summary.pdf

Sustainability Office, Bayfront Advisory Committee Presentation. https://www.vbgov.com/government/departments/planning/

Federation: Reston, VA. https://www.nwf.org/pdf/Reports/NWF_ChesapeakeReportFINAL12pg.pdf

change is happening. UDaily. http://www1.udel.edu/udaily/2015/feb/climate-change-poll-022315.html

Committee on Environment and Public Works.

A reporting project of NPR member stations. https://stateimpact.npr.org/pennsylvania/2015/10/12/philadelphia-could-avoid-some-

Tools Comparison Matrix. http://sealevel.climatecentral.org/matrix/PA.html?v=1

Sandy Damage Assessment of $36.9 Billion. http://nj.gov/governor/news/news/552012/approved/20121128e.html

Bristol, PA. http://www.delawareriverkeeper.org/sites/default/files/resources/Factsheets/Economics%20of%20a%20healthy%20

Cumberland County - Downe Township (map). http://www.njfishandwildlife.com/pdf/wmamaps/egg_isl.pdf