ABSTRACT

The science of identification of person through the examination of fingerprints is known as

Dactylography. Fingerprints are playing vital role in the criminal investigation because evidence
of fingerprint is considered as conclusive evidence in the court law. It is very accurate and
cheapest method of identification of person. Fingerprint Identification is the method of
identification using the impressions made by the minute ridge formations or patterns found on
the fingertips. No two persons have exactly the same arrangement of ridge patterns, and the
patterns of any one individual remain unchanged throughout life. Fingerprints offer an infallible
means of personal identification. Other personal characteristics may change, but fingerprints do
not. Fingerprints can be recorded on a standard fingerprint card or can be recorded digitally and
transmitted electronically to the fingerprint bureau for comparison. By comparing fingerprints at
the scene of a crime with the fingerprint record of suspected persons, officials can establish
absolute proof of the presence or identity of a person. People can be identified by their
fingerprints. This assertion is supported by the philosophy of friction ridge identification, which
states that friction ridge identification is established through the agreement of friction ridge
formations, in sequence, having sufficient uniqueness to individualize. Main purpose of this
paper is to know the procedure of comparison of crime scene print with suspected prints and also
attempted to understand the basic principles of fingerprints, legal aspects, types of fingerprint
patterns and ridge characteristics of fingerprints.

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HISTORY
The concept of forensic science is not a new one in India , though its the application was not
known by our Indian the use of fingerprint which was also known as Trija by the illiterates was
induced centuries ago as it was known at that time as well that the same are inimitable. Ancestors
in the present scientific form but its detailed reference can been seen from our literature written
2300 years ago like the Kautilyas Arthashastra.

The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping
punishment. Criminal investigations and trials relied on forced confessions and witness
testimony. However ancient sources contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow the
concepts of forensic science that is developed centuries later, such as the "Eureka" legend told of
Archimedes (287212 BC).1

In ancient India too, medical opinion was frequently applied to the requirements of the law. By
law the minimum age for the marriage of girls was fixed at 12 years; the duration of pregnancy
was recognized as being between 9 and 12 lunar months with an average of 10 months and there
is evidence that doctors had to opine on such cases.

Sir William Herschel was one of the first to advocate the use of fingerprinting in the
identification of criminal suspects. While working for the Indian Civil Service, he began to use
thumbprints on documents as a security measure to prevent the then-rampant repudiation of
signatures in 1858. In 1877 at Hooghly (near Calcutta) he instituted the use of fingerprints on
contracts and deeds and he registered government pensioners' fingerprints to prevent the
collection of money by relatives after a pensioner's death. Herschel also fingerprinted prisoners
upon sentencing to prevent various frauds that were attempted in order to avoid serving a prison
sentence.2

In 1897 a Fingerprint Bureau was established in Calcutta (Kolkata), India, after the Council of
the Governor General approved a committee report stating that fingerprints should be used for
1 http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Forensic_science.html

2 Herschel, William James (November 25, 1880). Skin Furrows of the hand. Nature 23(578):76

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the classification of criminal records. Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau, before it
became the Fingerprint Bureau, were Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose. Haque and Bose
were Indian fingerprint experts who have been credited with the primary development of a
fingerprint classification system eventually named after their supervisor, Sir Edward Richard
Henry. The Henry Classification System, codevised by Haque and Bose, was accepted in
England and Wales when the first United Kingdom Fingerprint Bureau was founded in Scotland
Yard, the Metropolitan Police headquarters, London, in 1901. Sir Edward Richard Henry
subsequently achieved improvements in dactyloscopy.

In the 19th century, it was discovered that almost any contact between a finger and a fixed
surface left a latent mark that could be made visible by a variety of procedures (e.g., the use of a
fine powder). In 1894 in England the Troup Committee, a group established by the Home
Secretary to determine the best means of personal identification, accepted that no two individuals
had the same fingerprintsa proposition that has never been seriously refuted. In 1900 another
committee recommended the use of fingerprints for criminal identification. Fingerprint evidence
was first accepted in an Argentine court inthe 1890s and in an English court in 1902. Many other
countries soon adopted systems of fingerprint identification as well.3

INTRODUCTION
The identification of criminals through fingerprints was the first important break-through in the
scientific investigation of crime. As usual, the judiciary and the public took some time to believe
in the utility of fingerprints as a scientific aid.4 The same is now recognized throughout the
world. The importance of fingerprints in criminal investigation is immense, because they are:

Unique: Ridge pattern of each finger has individuality. The patterns vary not only from one
individual to another, but they are different in the same individual on each finger. Duplication of
pattern has never been observed. Nor the same is expected.

3 http://www.ijsrp.org/research-paper-1214/ijsrp-p3674.pdf

4 http://www.jbino.com/docs/Issue02_04_2013.pdf

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 Permanent: The fingerprints of an individual do not change throughout his life. In fact, the
ridges appear before birth. They start appearing during third or fourth month of pregnancy. They
remain even after the death of the individual ever till the epidermal skin is destroyed by fire,
putrefaction or is eaten by insects or other creatures.

In a murder case the body of the victim was partially burnt and buried. The same was discovered
many days after the murder. The body was completely disfigured and could not be identified.
The investigating officer got removed the remaining skin pieces from the tips of the fingers
through a doctor. He sent them to fingerprint bureau along with the one authentic print of the
deceased available on his will. The bureau confirmed the identity of the deceased. The digital
skin pieces were recovered and sent to the finger print bureau. The fingerprints of the deceased
tallied with the fingerprints of the convict, available in the records, the permanence of
fingerprints permits identification of an individual even after many years, if his finger print
record is available. Many criminals have been identified through this medium after years of
absconding.5

Universal: All individuals and hence all criminals carry this medium of identification. The finger
digits and surface of the hands carry the friction ridges. The fingers have more intricate patterns.
They allow easier individualization and classification. A criminal uses his hands in the
commission of crime. He leaves marks at the scene of occurrence or on the objects which come
in contact in the commission of crime. There are fair chances of occurrence of finger prints,
therefore in all types of crime.

Inimitable: Successful forgery of fingerprints has not been reported so far. Near perfect forgeries
have been attempted. It is possible that the advancement of science may bring the forgery still
closer to perfection but complete success in the enterprise is extremely difficult, if not
impossible. For all practical purposes it may be taken that it is not possible to forge a fingerprint.
This is important because no person can deny his or her fingerprints. The identification through
fingerprints is certain and infallible.

Classifiable : The scope for the classification of finger prints is large and yet the work is simple.
Records of millions of persons of persons can be classified and kept and retrieved easily.

5 C.J. in Public Prosecutor v. Kandasami Thevan AIR 1927 Mad. 696:27 Cr. L. J 1251

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Computerization of finger prints records, and hence their searches are becoming popular because
the computers have increased the efficiency beyond imagination. A search can be made virtually
in a jiffy with the computerized records.6

FINGERPRINTS

Finger print is the impression of the friction ridges present on the fingers, A friction ridge is a
raised portion of the epidermis on the fingers and toes, the palm of the hand or the sole of the
foot, consisting of one or more connected ridge units of friction ridge skin. The study as a means
o identification is also called Dactylography. When these friction ridges come in contact with any
smooth surface it leaves its impression behind which is developed with the help of various
developing techniques and matched with control sample (suspected fingerprint).

Palmer surfaces of the hands and of the soles of the feet have friction ridges. The ridges are the
raised portions of skin between furrows on either side. They are also known as Papillary or
epidermal ridges. The ridges flow in various directions giving rise to innumerable patterns. The
ridges have small pores, which exude perspiration. It spreads all over the surface. The

6 Forensic Science in Criminal Investigation, Dr. Jai Shanker Singh, Unique Law Publications

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evaporation of the perspiration concentrates its non-volatile constituents, notably, the common
salt, oil, and the albumins. Whenever the epidermis comes in contact with a surface, they are left
there on in small quantities. The deposits take the pattern of the ridges. The mark is latent due to
the colourless nature of the perspiration residues. But it can be developed to give a visible print.
The rough and the fibrous surfaces do not give decipherable patterns. The prints are visible when
the surface of hand is smeared with coloured powders or liquids. The mark may be distinct
impression if the receiving surface is pliable such as butter, dust, putty, wet paint, mud, wet clay,
kneaded flour, any semi-solid substance or warm wax (paraffin or sealing wax).7

Legal Aspects Specimens and the Constitutions:

It was previously contended that in an accused is forced to give his finger prints, it is equivalent
to compel him to be a witness against himself. This is against article 20(3) of the Indian
constitution, which provides that no person, accused of any offence shall be compelled, to be a
witness against himself case were rejected by the high courts on the plea that taking of finger
prints against the will of the accused amounted to compel him to be a witness against himself.
Ultimately the Supreme Court considered this matter in one case. A bench of seventeen judges
has decided that taking of finger prints even against the wishes of a person is not against the
constitution. The controversy is thus settled.

Authorities
The taking of finger prints is covered by various sections of the Identification of prisoners Act:
Section 48 of the Act permits a police officer of the rank of sub-inspector or an investigating
officer (in offences covered by chapter XIV of the (Cr.P.C) above this rank to finger print an
accused, arrested for an offence punishable with at least one years rigorous imprisonment.
Under section 4 and 6 of the Act, a first class magistrate can direct any person to be finger

7 https://owlcation.com/humanities/fingerprinting

8 Taking of measurements, etc., of non-convicted persons.Any person who has been arrested in
connection with an offence punishable with rigorous imprisonment for a term of one year or upwards
shall, if so required by a police officer, allow his measurements to be taken in the prescribed manner.

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printed, if in the opinion of the magistrate it will expedite investigation of the case. All means to
collect the specimens can be used. Section 73 of the Indian evidence Act 9 also covers finger
printing. The court may direct any person present in the court to give his finger prints, if the
same is required for comparison with questioned finger print by the court.

Finger Print Experts

The evidence of a finger print expert, a person especially skilled in finger prints, is considered
relevant evidence by virtue of section 45 of the Indian evidence Act. The person who is well
versed with the science of Fingerprints with experience in all the three steps followed in this
discipline.
1.Developing
2.Lifting and preserving
3. Matching and opinion

having knowledge and experience in the field is a Fingerprint Expert or Examiner.10

A fingerprint examiner has to prove the genuineness of the evidence by the scientific technique
which an expert uses and the relevancy of that technique for such examination in court of law.
The expert has to mention the parameters based on which opinion is formed whether matching or
vice versa.

Finger Prints Reports

9 Comparison of signature, writing or seal with others admitted or proved.In order to ascertain whether a
signature, writing or seal is that of the person by whom it purports to have been written or made, any signature,
writing, or seal admitted or proved to the satisfaction of the Court to have been written or made by that person may
be compared with the one which is to be proved, although that signature, writing, or seal has not been produced or
proved for any other purpose. The Court may direct any person present in Court to write any words or figures for the
purpose of enabling the Court to compare the words or figures so written with any words or figures alleged to have
been written by such person. 1[This section applies also, with any necessary modifications, to finger-impressions.]

10 http://www.indianforensic.org/fingerprint_forensics_ifo.html

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In view of the general recognition of the individuality of finger prints the code of criminal
procedure has been modified. The report of the director of a finger print bureau is accepted as
evidence like the report of a chemical examiner under section 293 of code of criminal procedure,
1973. The court may call the expert for evidence, if it so decides. Finger Print Bureau All the
major state in India, have finger print bureaus. In addition the central government has also a
central finger print bureau located at Delhi under the Department of National Crime Record
Bureau. The finger print record at the national level has been digitized and computerized. Any
police force in India can utilize its services. Finger prints bureau perform the following main
functions: Collect, classify and store the record. Eliminate the record of the dead persons. Search
and locate the finger prints records of a given person if it exists. Compare the finger prints. Visit
the scene of crime to locate, collect and ultimately compare the finger prints. Give evidence in
courts (or on commission) whenever required.

Fingerprint patterns

Fingerprint patterns are determined by the configuration of the ridge appearing on the distal
phalange of the finger. It is the shape and direction of the ridges, along with a consideration of

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type line, delta and core, that constitute a fingerprint pattern. The three basic pattern types- Arch,
Loop and Whorl- subdivided into nine subtypes for the purpose of classification.11

Plain Arch : is the most simple of all the fingerprint patterns and is easily distinguished. In plain
arches ridges enter on one side of the impression and flow or tend to flow out on the other side
with a rise or wave in the centre. There may be numerous ridge formations such as ending ridges,
bifurcations, dots and islands involved in this type of pattern, but they all tend to follow the
general ridge contour, i.e. they enter on one side, make a rise or a wave in the centre, and flow or
tend to flow out on the other side ;Tented Arch is the one in which most of the ridges enter upon
one side of the impression and flow or tend to flow out upon the other side as in the plain arch
type, however, the ridge or ridges at the centre do not.

Loops: In terms of fingerprints, as well as in the general application of the word loop, there
cannot be a loop unless there is a recurve or retrieval of one or more of the ridges along with the
other pre-requisites. A pattern possesses several requisites before it may be classified as a loop.
However, this type of pattern is the most common and constitutes about sixty to sixty five
percent of all prints. A loop as that type of fingerprint pattern in which one or more of the ridges
enter on either side of the impression, recurve, touch or pass an imaginary line drawn from delta
to core, and terminates or tend to terminate on or towards the same side of the impression from
where such ridge or ridges entered. A loop has one core and one delta. Loops are subdivided into
two main types Radial Loop and Ulnar Loop according their positioning and the flow of the
ridges. The terms radial and ulnar are derived from the Radius and Ulna bones of the forearm.

11 http://www.jbino.com/docs/Issue02_04_2013.pdf

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The classification of loop is based on the direction of the loops flow on the hand
(not on the fingerprint slip or card).12

ULNAR LOOP is so called because the ridges flow or terminate in the direction of ulna bone of
the forearm. In case of right hand fingers, the ridges slant towards right side and for the left hand
fingers, the slant of the ridges is towards left side.

RADIAL LOOP is so called because the ridges flow or terminate in the direction of radius bone
of the forearm. In case of the right hand fingers, the ridges slant towards left and in the left hand
fingers, the slant is towards right side.

WHORLS : A whorl is characterized by a circular pattern having one or more ridges revolve
around the core making a complete circle. The whorl is that type of pattern in which at lest two
deltas are present with a recurve in front of each. Whorl type patterns occur in about thirty
percent of all fingerprints. It is important to note that this is a very general definition. This
pattern, however, may be subdivided for extension purposes in large groups where whorls are
predominant. Even though this extension may be used, all types of whorls are grouped under the
general name of whorl and are designated by letter W. WHORL consists of the simplest form
of whorl construction and is the most common of the whorl subdivisions. It is designated by the
symbol W for both general classification and extension purposes. It has two deltas and at least
one ridge making a complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval,circular or any variant of a circle.
An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must touch or cross at least one of the recurving
12 https://owlcation.com/humanities/fingerprinting

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ridges within the inner pattern area. A recurving ridge, however, which has an appendage
connected with it in the line of flow, cannot be considered as a circuit. An appendage connected
at that point is considered to spoil the recurve on that side.

CENTRAL POCKET LOOP is a composite pattern in which most of the ridges take the form of
a loop. However, one or more ridges recurve around the core to form a centre pocket. The circuit
may be spiral, oval, circular or any variant of a circle. The central pocket loop has two deltas
present and falls within the whorl group for the purpose of classification. An imaginary line
drawn between the two deltas must not touch or cross any of the recurving ridges within the
inner pattern area.

TWINNED LOOP such type of pattern also there are two distinct loops combined into one print
i.e. one resting upon the other. The core ridges have their exit always on the opposite sides of the
deltas in this pattern. It is also called S type of pattern as it appears S letter.

LATERAL POCKET LOOP is a pattern in which there are two distinct loops, but each of these
loops which are interlocked like the two parts of the English letter S. Hence it is called as S
type of pattern. In this type of pattern, there two distinct loops combined into one print i.e. one
resting on another or one loop serves as side pocket to the other loop. This pocket is formed by
the downward bending on one side of the ridge of the other loop before they recurve. The ridges
about the centre i.e. the core lines have their exit always on the same side of the delta.

ACCIDENTAL pattern is one which comprises of two or more different types of patterns in a
single print. Such as loop resting on whorl, whorl resting on loop and arch with central pocket
etc. any pattern which do not fall under any of the above conventional category can be treated as
accidental pattern. As these patterns occur rarely, it is called as accidental.

CHANCE PRINTS AT CRIME SCENE

In forensics, latent fingerprints are marks left at the scene of a crime which may not be
immediately visible to the naked eye. To expose latent fingerprints, technicians use fingerprint
powder, fuming and other techniques. Identifying latent fingerprints is an important part of
evidence collection and many technicians specialize in retrieving fingerprints from crime scenes

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and analyzing them in the lab in order to assist law enforcement with apprehending criminals. 13
The hands and feet are naturally oily, due to the glands, which secrete sweat, a mixture of water,
salts and other trace compounds. The sweat adheres to the friction ridges of the finger and when
a finger is placed on a surface such as glass, plastic or wood, an impression known as fingerprint
will be left behind. The natural oils of the body preserve the fingerprint, which is utterly distinct;
no two humans have the same fingerprints. Sometimes, latent fingerprints are made from
substances other than sweat such as blood, other body fluids, or paint.

When investigators arrive at a crime scene, one of the first things they do after photographing the
entire scene is dust for latent fingerprints. Dusting for fingerprints ensures that no prints are
missed, even if patent fingerprints, prints readily visible to the naked eye, are evident.
Specialized fingerprint powder is gently brushed over surfaces which may hold fingerprints to
see if any appear. If latent fingerprints emerge after dusting, they are photographed and then
carefully lifted with clear tape before being affixed to fingerprint cards. For difficult surfaces,
another process known as fuming may be used to find latent fingerprints. Fuming can be used for
very old fingerprints, because it causes a chemical reaction with trace substances which may be
left behind by a fingerprint, even if the sweat itself is gone.

Fingerprints may be found and collected at crime scenes, and later used to link suspects to the
scene of the crime. Fingerprints can sometimes be seen on their own, such as prints on glass. But
often they are not visible to the eye, and so methods14 of making prints visible are used.

13 http://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/csp-evidence-photography-at-the-crime-
scene.html

14 http://www.forensic-medecine.info/fingerprints.html

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Procedures in Photographing Fingerprints
Establish the Location of the Fingerprint

The diagram and notes on a latent print card identify the original location of the fingerprint.

If you are going to photograph a fingerprint, the location of the fingerprint must be established.
While you could use midrange photographs to show where each fingerprint is located in the
scene, the use of numerous midrange photographs to show the locations of small items can
become confusing. A better technique is to forego the midrange photographs and use the
diagram and notations on the latent print card to identify the original location of each fingerprint.
This can be done by including a scale in the closeup photograph of each fingerprint. On the
scale write the evidence item number that will be used on the latent print card. Be sure the scale
and the item number appear in the closeup photograph of the fingerprint. Then the location of
the fingerprint in a photograph can be related to a latent print card on which the fingerprints
location was diagramed and described.15

Close- up Photograph

While there are specialized cameras designed for fingerprints, a 35 mm or good quality digital
camera with a macro lens or closeup accessory can be used for fingerprint photography. Using a
tripod helps with the positioning of the camera and also steadies the camera. This is important
since depthoffield is shallow in closeup photographs. Precise focusing can be made with a

15 http://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/csp-evidence-photography-at-the-crime-scene.html

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camera mounted on a tripod. Photograph the latent with the cameras film plane parallel to the
fingerprint surface. In order to get as much detail recorded on the film as possible, position the
camera so the frame of your viewfinder is filled with the fingerprint and scale.

Exposure

Some fingerprints can be photographed using ambient (existing) light. Ambient light exposures
of fingerprints with normal contrast can be exposed using the cameras exposure system if the
fingerprint and its background are of normal reflectance. If the background is lighter or darker
than normal, then the exposure should be determined by metering off an 18 percent gray card.
For example, when photographing a black powdered fingerprint on a white background, the
camera will normally underexpose the photograph and detail in the photograph will be lost. This
is because most of the image is white and reflects more light than a normal background. In such
a situation you should meter off an 18 percent gray card to determine the correct exposure
settings.

In this photograph of palm prints the oblique angle of the flash was too low, creating shadows in
the textured wall covering. The shadows obscure the friction ridge detail of the palm print.

Artificial light (from electronic flash, flood lamps, flashlight, etc.) can be effective in
photographing fingerprints. Oblique lighting is used for most photographs of fingerprints. The
most effective way to insure you are using the best angles of lighting is preview the
photograph by looking at lighting from several different angles. To do this, position a strong
light source, such as a flashlight, at different angles to find the light angles that reveal the best

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detail in the fingerprint. As you move the lighting you will see the results you will get by looking
into your viewfinder. At this point you can photograph the fingerprint using the lighting from
the flashlight or you can position your electronic flash at the best angles for the
photographs.

Whether using available light, electronic flash, or other illumination sources, bracketing of
exposures should be considered. Bracketing may reveal more detail in low contrast or faint
fingerprints. Underexposing the film will separate the steps on the white end of the gray scale.
Overexposure will separate the steps on the black end of the gray scale. The latitude for black
andwhite film is generally two fstops underexposure and six fstops overexposure.

Fingerprint on drinking glass using transmitted lighting position a diffused light source
behind the glass.
Photographing Specific Types of Fingerprint Subjects

Dusted fingerprints with good visible detail can usually be photographed without special lighting
techniques.Fingerprint impressions in soft substances (e.g., wax, putty, clay, adhesive tape,
grease, or dust) require the use of oblique lighting at a low angle. This will create small shadows
in the impression. Preview the effect with a flashlight.

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Fingerprints on porous surfaces (textured wall coverings, wood, brick, etc.) may need almost a
90degree lighting angle to avoid the creation of shadows in the surfaces texture, which would
interfere with the recording of fingerprint detail. Preview the effect with a flashlight. Fingerprints
on glass (windows, drinking glasses, etc.) can be photographed by placing a white card behind
the glass and using a low oblique angle of light. They can also be photographed by using
transmitted (back) lighting by positioning a diffused light source behind the glass.

METHODS

Powder And Tape - Probably the most well-known method of detecting latent prints is dusting
for them. A variety of powders are used in dusting for prints, many containing aluminium or
carbon. This finely crushed powder is gently applied to a surface, and the minute particles of
powder cling to the print residue, making it visible to the human eye. These prints are then lifted
using adhesive tape. For dusting to work, the surface that is being dusted must be completely dry
and relatively free of other contamination.

Magna Brush - This is a magnetic wand that attracts iron. It is dipped in iron dust, and the
particles cling to it. This is then used the same as dusting using carbon and aluminium powders.
The Magna Brush is also less messy, as any excess iron particles can be easily collected with the

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Magna Brush. A variety of fluorescent colours are available for this, and some of these powders
reflect alternative light sources such as UV and lasers.

The cyanoacrylate fuming method - The cyanoacrylate fuming method, also known as the
superglue fuming method, has proved to be another very useful way of detecting latent prints.
This method was first used by the Criminal Identification Division of the Japanese National
Police Agency in 1978. Shortly after this it was adopted in the US, and now it is a commonly
used method of detecting prints. Most superglues are methylcyanoacrylate or ethylcyanoacrylate.
This reacts with the traces of amino acids, fatty acids, and proteins in fingerprints as well as the
moisture in the air, making them visible.

Ninhydrin - Another common method of fingerprint detection is the use of ninhydrin. This is
sprayed, swabbed or dripped onto the surface. Ninhydrin reacts with the amino acids in the
prints, forming a purple or pink compound.

Iodine Fuming - Iodine crystals are placed in a glass tube known as a fumer. The examiner then
blows into the fumer, causing the transformation from solid to gas. The iodine vapours are
emitted from the other end, and if the tube is aimed at a latent print, it will become visible for a
short time.

Silver Nitrate - Silver Nitrate is a less toxic way of detecting prints on paper. Silver chloride
turns black in light, and one of the components of sweat is sodium chloride. The silver nitrate is
placed with distilled water and applied to the paper. The paper is exposed to light, and any prints
will turn black.

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Amido Black - Amido Black is a chemical used to develop fingerprints in blood. A fixing agent
is first applied to the blood stain, and then amido black is used. There are other methods of
detecting latent prints, most similar to the techniques mentioned above. Some methods even
include laser technology. Different surfaces will require different techniques for developing

latent prints. For example, when developing a print on paper, Ninhydrin should be used, though
powders may work but not as effectively.16

When developing prints in blood, Amido Black should be used, and powder works best on non-
porous surfaces. When taking fingerprints from people, ink is rolled over the fingers and then the
fingers are pressed down on papers or cards. However when it comes to fingerprinting the dead,
it does not come so easy. If we are fingerprinting a corpse recently deceased, there is no problem.
However if we are dealing with decomposition or mummification where the skin has become
hardened and contracted, a special method is required.

Usually the fingers are soaked in a solution of glycol, lactic acid and distilled water, softening
the finger tissues. If the skin has been wrinkled by the damp, the fingers can be printed by either
use of a hypodermic syringe, gently manipulating the fingertips by hand, or removing the finger
skin altogether and mounting it to be printed. Fingerprints found at crime scenes are very rarely
fully intact, which means the quality of the print is lower, and can be more difficult to positively
match.

When multiple sets of prints are being compare, a certain number of characteristic points must be
a match. Worldwide there is no set number of how many points must match before it is accepted
as a match, but it does differ in some countries. For example, in the Netherlands 12 points are

16 http://www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/prints/how.html

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required, whereas in Africa only 7 points are required. It also differs within some countries too.
Paris has a requirement of 17 points, whereas the rest of France only requires 12.

Other Uses Fingerprints are not just used to connect criminals to crime scenes though. When
human remains are found, fingerprinting is a very common way of identifying them. Fingerprints
are also used for security reasons, such as on certain ID cards and as entrance control at
important buildings. No Prints In very rare cases some people are actually born without any
prints on their fingers, palms or feet. Though this can be a condition people are born with, some
peoples ridges degenerate during their lives.

Fingerprint Databases. Automated Fingerprint Identification System, or AFIS, is a database of

fingerprints taken and stored in the United States, though other countries such as Canada and the
United Kingdom also have their own AFIS. The prints may have been taken for a number of
reasons, and the system is used for a variety of purposes, including criminal identification,
receipt of benefits, background checks, and receipt of credentials.

The machine used to scan fingerprints is called the LiveScan Device. AFIS makes it possible to
sift through vast amounts of fingerprints every second, and the computer marks all minutiae
(individual characteristics) it recognises. The technician goes over these points the computer has
marked, submits the minutiae to a one-to-many search, and the computer gives the results with a
percentage of matched minutiae points. A latent print examiner then checks through the possible
matches to determine the most likely match.

The FBI-NCIC classification system and other techniques based on the HENRY FRACTION
assign numerical values to overall patterns on an entire set of ten prints. This allows the coding
and filing of millions of prints in an orderly manner. Tens of millions of prints are on file. In

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addition, police departments usually keep a file of UNIDENTIFIED PRINTS from open or
unsolved cases.

If matches are found at a later crime scene, it proves the same person was involved in both cases.
Also, as suspects are arrested and booked, their prints are compared with those in the file. Prints
are most commonly made or made in: PLASTIC, which are impressions left in soft material like
wax, paint, or putty; VISIBLE, which are made by blood, dirt, ink, or grease; and LATENT,
which are normally invisible and must be developed before they can be seen and photographed.
Print evidence is fragile.

A touch will destroy one. It's possible to develop prints from snow or mud, and small objects that
contain trace evidence also usually contain prints. Automobiles are a frequent source of prints.
The most common automobile locations are the door, trunk, hood handles, outside mirrors,
license plates, trunk release, emergency brake release, seat adjustment levers, seat belt buckle,
and rear view mirror. Prints are difficult to remove from rugs and furniture.

When fingerprint evidence is photographed, a complete record of all technical data about the
camera, lens, film, shutter speed, lens opening, illumination, camera position, distance from
object, and angle is also kept. This protects the police department from charges that it's the
photography which makes it look like a match. Also, in the interest of good public relations,
household furnishings are usually protected with a drop cloth while police are dusting for prints.
With photos, three different exposures are usually taken: a regular exposure, an underexposure,
and an overexposure. The most popular developing technique is DUSTING.

The principle upon which dusting works is simple. Most people's fingers carry a coating of
perspiration and oil. When fingers come into contact with any relatively smooth surface, the

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friction releases the oil from between the ridges. It is for this reason, fingerprinting is sometimes
called friction ridge pattern analysis. When powder is applied to the surface, it sticks to the oil
and brings out the pattern. Dusting is ideal on wood, metal, glass, plastics, Formica, and tile. It is
less than ideal on paper, cardboard, and leather. Powders vary in color, stickiness, photographic
and magnetic qualities.

The most common colors are black, white, gray, aluminum, red, and gold. The best color to use
is one in sharp contrast to the surface color. For example, a white or gray powder works best on a
dark surface, and a black powder works best on a whiter surface. In multicolor situations (such as
a magazine cover or cigarette pack), it's best to use a FLUORESCENT powder. When the dusted
object is exposed to ultraviolet light, the powder will glow, making the print show up regardless
of the background color.

With porous materials (such as leather, rawer wood surfaces, paper and cardboard), the preferred
technique is to use a MAGNETIC powder where finely ground iron particles are suspended onto
the surface using a magnetic wand. When a large area needs to be powdered, a large brush is
used, such as one made of ostrich feathers. Once a print is located, it is moved in on with a
smaller brush that's easier to manage. Before any brush is used, it is shaken until the bristles
spread apart and become fluffy.17

Powder is never poured directly from a jar. Instead, a little is poured on a piece of paper and
used as a palette. The tip of the brush is dipped in the powder, and then tapped gently to remove
excess powder. Brushing is done lightly, swinging it in short, fairly quick, uniform strokes. An
expert will try to follow the general direction of the ridges. The next step is called lifting the
print. Lifting involves using some adhesive material to remove the powdered print from the
surface.

17 https://ncforensics.wordpress.com/2013/06/20/techniques-for-collecting-and-
analyzing-fingerprints/

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The three most common lifting materials are hinged lifters, rubber lifters, and cellophane tape.
If tape is used, a high quality clear transparent tape is best, not some glossy or opaque magic
tape. The tape is unrolled a little at a time and folded over a bit to use as a tab for handling. It is
important that the handler not get their own fingerprints on the tape. The handler will pull on the
roll of tape so that the rest of the exposed tape is kept slightly taut, and cover the print area about
an inch beyond in the other direction.

They will be careful not to get air bubbles under the tape. Bubbles destroy the value of the print.
The tape is gently rubbed over the print. After the tape is firmly in place, the print is lifted by
pulling the roll gently and evenly away from the surface. Then, there will be a quick application
of the tape to a card or piece of paper. Excess tape will then be cut away.
The new age of electronic fingerprint identification : Fingerprints are now processed
through the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification system. The fingerprints are
submitted electronically or by mail, processed on IAFIS, and a response is returned to the
contributing agency within two hours or less for electronic criminal fingerprint submissions.
Fingerprint processing has been reduced from weeks and months to hours and minutes with
IAFIS.18

Ridge Characteristics
18 http://www.jbino.com/docs/Issue02_04_2013.pdf

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The friction ridges have certain basic features which are present in sufficient number in every
fingerprint. These characteristic features could be made more elaborate on magnification or
enlargement of a fingerprint. A single fingerprint may possess as many as hundred or more
characteristic feature or the ridge detail is identified through the specific label attached to it
according to its construction and alignment in the pattern. The variety and peculiarity are proper
to itself as a whole, while the characteristic point refer to the ridge formation. Following are the
main characteristics of ridge formations commonly found in a fingerprint impression.19

1. Ridge Ending or Ridge Termination: This is a ridge placed between two other, more or less
parallel ridges. It ends abruptly and does not reappear .

2. Bifurcation or Diverging Fork: A ridge which leaves the left side of the pattern and divides
for a certain length into two parallel lines and at times into three forming a trifurcation

3. Enclosure: this is in the shape of an ellipse, and is formed by a ridge which bifurcates only to
fuse or converge again to a single ridge almost immediately, leaving a blank space within the
ridge. An enclosure may be of a small or large size. The extra large enclosure may be referred to
as a lake.

4. Convergence or Converging Fork: This is similar to divergence bifurcation but it is reverse or

a mirror image. It is formed by two parallel ridges which leaves the left side of the pattern and
fuse or converge to form a single ridge.

19 http://www.odec.ca/projects/2004/fren4j0/public_html/ridge_characteristics.htm

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5. Interjunction or Bridge: The junction of two parallel ridges by a short diagonal ridge which
meets the ridges at a very acute angle.

6. Fragment or Short Ridge: A ridge with ends which finishes abruptly, and of variable length.
The fragment may be small or large in size.

7. Hook or Spur: It is formed when a ridge bifurcates into two and one bifurcated ridge only
continues further while the other does not and appears to be attached to the ridge as an
appendage ridge at an angle. A hook may be an upward hook, a downward hook, a rightward
hook and a leftward hook .

8. Return: A single ridge which suddenly turns upon itself and returns the way it has come,
forming a rounded loop without a core.

9. Deviated Break: An interruption formed by two ridges, which, instead of stopping just before
they meet suddenly deviate, forming two ridge ending with a furrow between them.

10. Intersection: It is found when one ridge intersects or cuts another ridge.

11. Interruption or Natural Break: This is a natural break or interruption in a ridge. It is in its
formation similar to two ridge endings facing each other.

12. Point or Dot or Spot: A very small fragment of a ridge which is only as long as it is wide,
which usually found in the middle of an interruption or delta or between two ridges .

13. Dotted Ridge: This is a ridge which created by the dots or points.

14. Change-Over: It is formed when two parallel ridges change their places. One ridge is
interrupted while the other takes its place by passing through the break.

Fingerprint ScienceIs It Not A Genuine

Science?20

20 http://dactylography.com/

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One of the most popular, if not the most popular, fields in forensic science is fingerprint science.
Its function in law enforcement, history and technology has been tested for hundreds of years
already. We can always count on investigators to check for finger prints in crime scenes (be it in
real life or in television). However, amidst its glory, this discipline has been challenged a lot of
times, most notably for not being a true science.

Is Fingerprint Science Really One-Of-A-Kind?

A court case in the United States, Daubert vs Merril Dow Pharmaceuticals was among the well-
known challenges against fingerprinting being a science. Over the years, never has there been a
claim that two individuals share the same fingerprints, not even twins. Even injuring your fingers
does not alter the pattern in them. The ridges connected to projections called papillae would just
grow over the wounds. However, if these papillae are damaged, then the fingerprints are also
destroyed. This is why some criminals have been reported to mutilate their fingers to protect
themselves from being caught.

Faulty Hands, Not Science

There have been a handful of reports regarding errors on inaccurate fingerprint matches. Every
year, there are more than 1000 mismatched fingerprints. Such errors are corrected through DNA
testing. However, were the methods in this arguable science to be blamed? Apparently, the
problem lies on the analysts and enforcers themselves. But we can learn to sympathize with them
once we learn that they are dealing with millions of almost microscopic data after all. Human
error, as they would say. This is why forensic science as a whole must be taken with utmost
caution.

DNA Versus Fingerprint

Due to errors in the past, other methods of identification have been discovered. DNA analysis is
also among the more popular fields in forensics. Like stated previously, there are accounts in
which DNA analyses help investigators to confirm a positive result in case of doubt in finger
prints. However, this is also not infallible. For example, identical twins share the same DNA. In

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2004, a man was jailed for a rape case that he blamed on his twin brother and the case was
declared a mistrial since there was not enough evidence to know who really was the culprit. In
this case, we can see that fingerprinting and DNA work hand-in-hand (along with other forensic
disciplines) to provide accurate results. Just like how Math and Physics work hard together to
make our high school lives harder, if not miserable.

Fingerprint Science Is Indeed A Science

For as long as this field continues to maintain

systematic procedures and logic, despite its flaws, it cannot be stripped off its science title. Not
only does it have a long history to back it up, it also remains relevant and generally accepted in
the science community. After all, it has the most published materials in forensic science. We can
actually defend fingerprint science both in the courtroom as evidence with testimonies from
reliable experts and the laboratory as a discipline with applied principles approved by the
scientific public.21

IDENTIFICATION OF FINGER PRINTS &

LAW
The science of Finger Print identification -has reached a stage of perfection and thus assumes a
significant role in the day to day Administration of JUSTICE.

21 https://lpr.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/2/127.full.pdf

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Rai Bahadur Shri H.C.Bose of Calcutta has mentioned in his book: Finger Print Companion
that:- "Finger Prints are SELF-SIGNA TURES subject to no fault of observation or clerical error
and persistent throughout Life"22

Finger Prints serve to reveal an individuals True-Identity despite personal denial, assumed
names, changes in personal appearance resulting from age, disease or accidents. Thus the
question of Identification figures a good deal in both Criminal and Civil cases.

Identity of persons, living or dead, Known or Un-known, of things, or handwriting or finger

Prints or Foot Prints play part in establishing the Guilt or Innocence of the accused or In proof or
dis-proof of the case of the parties in civil matters. Because of its simplicity and economy the
practice of utilizing Finger Prints as means of identification referred to as DACTYLOSCOPY -
has become established and indispensable to the Modern Law Enforcement. DACTYLOSCOPY
- is based on the principles:

1. There are no two Identical Finger Prints and

2. Finger Prints are not-changeable thus-- Individuality and Persistency.

One of the earliest cases where the validity of fingerprint testimony was upheld was Emperor v.
Sahdeo23," where the reviewing tribunal in India held that if it was proven by competent expert
testimony that two finger impressions made at different times, however far apart, contain several
points of agreement and no points of disagreement in their ridge characteristics, no further
evidence was necessary to prove that they were made by the same finger.

In Jalaludin v. Emperor24 their Lordships said:- "It is reasonable deduction from experience that
NO TWO HUMAN BEINGS have the same thumb markings...... "

22 file:///C:/Users/dell/Downloads/art18%20(1).pdf

23 3 Nagpur, L. Rep. 1 (India 1904).

24 (13 Cr.L.J.563)

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Regarding Identification-there is both the evidence of fact of Identification, which is a matter of
Observance and also the Expert Evidence. The Expert Evidence deals not with the fact of
Observance, but instead certain devices are utilized that go to help in this process of
identification. On, the basis of those devices the Expert gives his OPINION. The matter is not so
easy as that of an Observance of a Fact, because it is a question of competency both of the
witness as of the methods employed. The Finger Print Expert has to convince the Court that by
the methods employed, he did reach at the right conclusion. The ultimate aim of the Court Is to
Impart Justice and doing so it incorporates the Opinion of the Finger Print Expert has to convince
the Court that by the methods employed, he did reach to at the right conclusion. The ultimate aim
of the Court is to impart Justice and doing so it incorporates the Opinion of the Finger Print
Experts, under Section-45 of the Indian Evidence Act. Section-45 of the Indian Evidence Act 25,
permits a person who possesses special qualifications in regard to a particular Science or depose
as an experts, witness in cases of such nature i.e. Finger Prints. The Section does riot particularly
mention regarding the skill of such persons, nor does it lay down any special qualifications for a
person to entitle him to call himself as an Expert.26

In United States Shipping Board v. The Ship 'St Albans'27, their Lordships observed:- "The
witness must have made a special study or acquired a special experience therein. That is he must
be skilled and have adequate knowledge of the subject".

It was held in Chitaman Dissil v. M.Lakshman28 that:- "The mere opportunity to see Finger
Prints does not make one an Expert. It is scientific study and outlook on the problem that is
required for an Expert. As such a Sub-Registrar is not an Expert on Finger Prints..." The

25 Opinions of experts.When the Court has to form an opinion upon a point of foreign law or of
science or art, or as to identity of handwriting 35 [or finger impressions], the opinions upon that point of
persons specially skilled in such foreign law, science or art, 36 [or in questions as to identity of
handwriting] 35 [or finger impressions] are relevant facts. Such persons are called experts.

26 http://scholarship.kentlaw.iit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1958&context=cklawreview

27 (AIR 1931, Privy Council 189)

28 (ILR Bom 101)

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competency or qualifications of a person who describes himself to be an Expert is left entirely to
the discretion of the Court/Judge. The real worth of the Expert will be judged by his keen
observations and correct interpretation of the Finger Print Patterns and the Ridge Characteristics.
The acceptability of his opinion will be solely dependent on his reasoning and the demonstration
of those reasons in Court.

In State of M.P. v. Sitaram Gajraj Singh 29 it was laid down:- "So no hard and fast rule can be
laid down. Each case has to be seen on ~; Its own merits and cases of well grouped
characteristics in a narrow area and patterns uncommon, SIX points or EVEN LESS may be
sufficient to fix the identity. In Mohan Lal v. Ajit Singh, AIR 1978 S.C. 1183, it was held as
follows:- "Similarly it is for a competent technician to examine and give his opinion whether the
identity can be established and if so whether this can be done on eight or even less identical
characteristics in an appropriate case."

In Jaspal Singh v. State of Punjab 30, their Lordships said:- "The science of identifying thumb
impressions is an EXACT SCIENCE and does not admit of any mistake." In re Govinda
Reddy31, it was held:- "The science of comparison of finger prints has developed to a stage of
EXACTITUDE. It Is quite possible to compare the impressions, provided they are sufficiently
clear and enlarged photography is available. The identification of finger impressions with the aid
of a good magnifying glass is not difficult, particularly when the photographs of the latent and
patent impressions are pasted side by side."

In Chauthl v. State32, it was held:- "In a case of forgery in which the accused denied having put
his thumb impressions, the accused was convicted on the evidence of the expert who gave his
opinion that the thumb impression was that of the accused after comparing the finger prints of
the complainant and the accused." As already mentioned earlier, finally it is the JUDGE/COURT

29 (Raipur MPLJ 197 (201): Cr.L.J. 1220 (1223)

30 AIR 1979 SC 1708. 1979 Cr.L.J. 1386)

31 (AIR) 1958 Mys. 177, Cr.L.J. 1489)

32 (1978 Cr.L.J. (NOC) 122 All.)

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who has to examine and decide the correctness of the conclusions of an Expert. In Bhaluka
Behara and others v. State33, their, Lordships said:- "If the finger prints are clear enough the
Court must verify the evidence of the expert by examining them with a magnifying glass if
necessary, and applying its own mind to the similarities or dissimilarities afforded by the finger
prints, before coming to a conclusion one way or the other. The science has developed to a stage
of exactitude. But the main thing to be scrutinised is whether the Expert's examination is
THROUGH, COMPLETE and SCIENTIFIC."

The approach of an Expert should be IMPERSONAL, DETACHED and OBJECTIVE and aim at
testifying HONESTLY to the facts which may come to his knowledge, irrespective of
temptations which may be offered. Comparing two thumb impressions is just like READING
NATURES INDELIBLE WRITING. 34

The leading American case involving fingerprint evidence was decided in 1911 by the Illinois
Supreme Court.35 The defendant argued on appeal that fingerprint evidence is of a class of
testimony not admissible under the common law rules of evidence, and since there was no
Illinois statute authorizing it, the court should have refused to permit its introduction. Called
upon to decide this point for the first time in the United States, Justice Carter, in an exhaustive
opinion, held that fingerprint evidence, even though it may not be of independent strength, is
admissible with other evidence, as a means of identification and as tending to make out a case. It
was also held that expert testimony is not limited to classed and specified professions, but it is
admissible where the witnesses offered have peculiar knowledge or experience not common to
the world, which renders their opinions, founded on such knowledge and experience, an aid to
the court or jury in determining the issues. The court indicated that persons experienced in the
matter of fingerprint identification may give their opinions as to whether the fingerprints found at
the scene of a crime correspond with those of an accused, basing their conclusions upon a
comparison of the photographs of such prints with impressions made by the accused, there being

33 (AIR 1957 Orissa 172)

34 http://ijtr.nic.in/articles/art18.pdf

35 People v. Jennings, 252 Ill. 534, 96 N.E. 1077 (1911)

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no question as to the accuracy or authenticity of the photographs. It was further held in this case
that the weight to be given to the testimony of experts in the fingerprint identification is a
question for the jury.

In Shankaria vs State Of Rajasthan36 it was held that The most important thing, which is to be
kept in mind, is that the finger-prints of one individual do not tally with the finger-printsof any
other individual. The science of finger-prints is itself a complete science for the purposes of
identification.

As held in Musheer Khan @ Badshah Khan & Anr vs State Of M.P 37 that the finger-
prints could neither be substituted nor superimposed. In It will be noticed that under the Indian
Evidence Act, the word `admissibility' has very rarely been used. The emphasis is on relevant
facts. In a way relevancy and admissibility have been virtually equated under the Indian
Evidence Act. But one thing is clear that evidence of fingerprint expert is not substantive
evidence. Such evidence can only be used to corroborate some items of substantive evidence
which are otherwise on record.

The High Court has entirely based its order of conviction on the finger prints found at the place
of occurrence and there is no evidence as to how the finger prints of the accused persons were
collected by the Police and how they were dispatched to the forensic laboratory for the purposes
of comparison. The vital link in the evidence relating to finger prints is missing and as such, the
judgment of the High Court is liable to be set aside.38

In Mahmood vs State Of U.P.39it was held that the specimen finger-prints of the appellant were
not taken before or under the order of a Magistrate in accordance with Section 5 of the
Identification of Prisoners Act. This is another suspicious feature of the conduct of investigation.

36 26 April, 1978

37 28 January, 2010

38 Munna Kumar Upadhyaya vs State Of A.P.Tr.Pub.Prosecutor on 8 May, 2012

39 1 October, 1975

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In other words, the evidence of a finger print expert is not substantive evidence and can only be
used to corroborate some items of substantive evidence which are otherwise on record and could
not, therefore, have been one of the main grounds for convicting the appellant of the offences
with which he had been charged as rightly held in B.A.Umesh vs Regr.Gen.High Court Of
Karnataka.40

Hence, the Expert should invariably realize that in the finger print cases, the decision of the case
may depend only upon his opinion, and evidence. It is therefore desirable that an Expert's
opinion should be self-explanatory and the evidence should be presented in a clear and
convincing manner. He should live up to the Finger print Expert Method of Identification which
is - FOOL PROOF, IMMUTABLE and POSITIVE. It has undoubtedly become a TRUISM that
FINGER PRINTS NEVER LIE.

To quote A. Merrium Conner.... "Now you may love and run away Beware, you have a
THUMB, Before Its TESTIMONY you Will stand confused and dumb; You may commit the
perfect crime And prove an alibi, But those strang lines upon your thumb straight away your
words belie.41

40 1 February, 2011

41 J.T.R.I. JOURNAL First Year, Issue 2 - Year April June, 1995]

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CONCLUSION
Fingerprints are unique, and can be used to identify an individual without fear of erroneous
identification. This point is uncontradicted. Such identification by fingerprints may be explained
by duly qualified fingerprint experts at the trial. In the majority of jurisdictions, an expert witness
will be allowed to testify as to the ultimate fact that two fingerprints are identical, rather than
proffer an opinion as to their identity or non-identity.

Fingerprints found on a crime scene, developed, and compared with those of a defendant, are not
admissible in evidence if the crime scene prints could have been deposited there when the
accused was lawfully at that place. The prosecution, therefore, must prove that the crime scene
prints he offers in evidence are inconsistent with the defendant's alleged absence from the scene
at the time the crime was committed. Under the proper circumstances, some jurisdictions allow
the introduction of fingerprint record cards from foreign jurisdictions, provided such cards are
duly authenticated, for the purpose of providing enhanced punishment.

Law enforcement officers can fingerprint persons incident to a lawful arrest. In so doing, they do
not violate the constitutional privileges and immunities of the subject being fingerprinted.
Fingerprinting has become commonplace in our modern world, and is no longer associated solely
with crime. Many employers fingerprint their personnel; the armed forces keep fingerprint
records of all enlisted and civilian personnel; the FBI maintains its separate civilian fingerprint
file which has often been of great value in the identification of disaster and amnesia victims.
Fingerprinting is therefore not a "badge of crime," and does not subject a person to mortification
and humiliation per se. It is merely a procedure designed to establish identity, and its application

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has been regulated by statute in many states. A few states have statutes providing for the return or
destruction of fingerprint records after acquittal at trial, or upon release. The wording of the
statute controls, but the statutes have been construed strictly in favor of law enforcement.

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