Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
(Practical Applications)
Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act Of 1976, no part of this
professional publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the proper written permission of Dr.
William A. Kritsonis. No unauthorized reproduction of the text is permitted.
ISBN: 0-9770012-5-2
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
www.nationalforum.com
1
Research
(Practical Applications)
By
2
3
Dedication
This book is dedicated to any person that has taken a class from me over
the years. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
4
CONTENTS
Page
5
Page
Chapter 13: Descriptive Statistics ..................................................................... 81
Chapter 17: Getting Started With Research: Avoiding the Pitfalls ................... 96
Chapter 19: Ethics in Research on Human Subjects and the role of the
Institutional Review Board - Frequently Asked Questions ............................. 101
PART II: Fundamental Terms for Research and Basic Statistics ............. 110
6
PART I:
Practical Applications of
Research and Basic
Statistics
7
Chapter 1 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Development of Research
1. Key Points
a. Observations
b. Experience
c. Intuition
d. Hand me down
e. Revelation
f. Definition or Decree
g. Philosophy or Logic
h. Instinct
2. Centuries ago, medicine men, religious authorities, and elders were
knowledge sources. (No one questioned them.)
3. With time, people began to observe orderliness and cause and effect
relationships in the universe. Events were recorded and analyzed.
8
a. Developed the first approach to reasoning.
b. Deductive Method - moving from general assumptions to specific
Syllogism
1) Major Premise: All men are mortal.
2) Minor Premise: Socrates is a man.
3) Conclusion: Socrates is a mortal.
8. Centuries later, Francis Bacon expanded on similar concepts.
10. In 1930, John Dewey articulated detailed steps of the scientific method
or scientific approach as follows:
There are many ways to specifically approach the scientific method and
there are numerous generalizations of scientific approaches.
9
11. Researchers vacillate back and forth--inductive-deductive-inductive-
deductive. An example would be to hypothesize-observe, collect data-
reject hypothesis, reformulate new hypothesis-observe, collect more data-
partially accept hypothesis, and then collect more data.
12. Science
10
v. Homework improves academic achievement.
a. Population-----------------------parameter
b. Sample---------------------------statistic
c. Sample: a small proportion of a population selected for observation
and analysis
d. Statistic: a value from a sample used to infer the parameters of a
population
11
50 states---------------------Randomly choose 20 states.
20 states---------------------Randomly choose 80 counties.
80 counties------------------Randomly choose 50 school districts.
50 districts------------------Randomly choose 10 teachers from
each of the 50 school districts.
The total sample would consist of 500 teachers.
12
20. Two ways to Classify Research
a. Quantitative Research: (Measuring)
1) People and events are described with limited numerical data. This
research consists of a rich, literal description in a prose, narrative
form.
2) Interviews of people, students, and other sources are used to collect
information. Research is written in prose form.
3) There are five major approaches to qualitative research: narrative
inquiry, ethnography, phenomenology, case study, and grounded
theory (Creswell, 2008).
b. Descriptive
1) A description of what is.
2) Application of the scientific method to the acquisition and use of
current data to describe current conditions
13
Suggested Activities
2. Each group should answer the following: What two things would you
like to see changed in your profession or questions answered? How
could you use research to address that change? What types of
research could you use to answer your questions? How would you set
up the type of research needed to answer these questions? Share your
group activity with the entire class.
WEBSITES:
San Jose State University http://www2.sjsu.edu/depts/itl/graphics/induc/ind-
ded.html
14
Chapter 2 - William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Historical Research
Key Points
1. Is an attempt to arrive at conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends
of past occurrences that may help explain past and present events and
predict future events.
4. Sources of Information
a. Primary Sources
b. Secondary Sources
15
5. Characteristics of Historical Research
a. Guided by hypotheses or questions to be answered
b. Systematic collection of data
c. Objective evaluation of data
d. Limited to available data
e. Explanationnot just rehashing of the pastexplains why it
happened as it did
f. May investigate individuals, ideas, movements, institutions, cultural
circumstances, and movements
g. Employs the scientific method
16
1) Primary sources
2) Secondary sources
e. Synthesize data.
1) Conclusions
2) Generalizations
3) Explanation or hypothesis
17
SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITIES:
MAJOR QUESTION: How does your university compare today with the
institution which was 50 years ago?
SUBQUESTIONS:
A. What academic programs were offered sixty years ago that were
related to education?
B. What types of school facilities were available then?
C. What was the type of curriculum offered to students?
D. How large was the student body?
E. What was the ethnic make-up of the student body?
F. What role did the school play in the community, state and nation?
G. How many professors/instructors were employed?
Compare and contrast the data from 50 years ago with today.
18
Chapter 3 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Descriptive Research
Key Points
1. Characteristics of Descriptive Research
a. Is non-experimental: deals with natural, not contrived relationships
a. Descriptive Research
19
b. Correlational Research
c. Causal-Comparative Research
20
SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITIES:
1. Divide into groups of four to five students. Develop a chart listing the
different types of descriptive research. Compare and contrast each
type of research. Provide at least three examples of each type.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
21
2. Describe how you can use both activity analysis and trend analysis to
determine the types of teachers that will be needed in the next five
years for both an urban and rural school district. Look at factors of the
individuals job as well as the growth trends/declines and population
changes (increase in retirees opposed to school age children) for the
area. Select either an elementary, middle school or high school you
are familiar with and use both types of descriptive research methods to
determine what types of staff patterns would be needed for your
school.
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Chapter 4 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Experimental and
Quasi-Experimental Research
Key Points
1. Definition: determining what will happen under certain circumstances
a method of hypothesis testingIf this is done, what will happen?
2. Law of the Single Variable: If all variables are held constant except
one, any changes in the outcome are due to changes in that one variable.
3. Experimental Grouping
a. Experimental Group vs. Control Group
4. Variables
23
2) Organismic Variable: attribute of the subjects that cannot be
controlled.
c. Dependent Variable: outcome; condition or characteristic that
appears, disappears, or changes according to manipulation of the
independent variable (Results).
d. Confounding Variable: aspect of a study that can influence the
dependent variable, which can be confused with the effects of the
independent variable.
5. Experimental Validity
b. History: events in the course of the study that may influence the
dependent variable
24
g. Interaction of Selection and Maturation: When subjects can choose
the group to which they will belong, the variable that directed their
choices may have undue influence on the dependent variable.
f. John Henry Effect: subjects work harder because they realize they
are competing with others.
25
8. Controlling Threats to Experimental Validity
a. Remove the Variable: variable is not considered in results.
9. Experimental Design
a. Definition: procedures of the study that enable valid conclusions by
controlling the following:
26
c. Quasi-Experimental Design: used when random selection is not
available
11. In studying experimental design, the following Campbell and
Stanley symbols are used:
27
Pre-experimental design, the least adequate of designs, is
28
15.Quasi-Experimental Designs
a. The Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent-Groups Design
1) O X O
O C O
2) No random selection
3) Pretest is used as covariate.
16. Factorial Designs: used when more than one independent variable is
involved
29
SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITY:
30
Chapter 5 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Qualitative Research
Key Points
1. Qualitative research is sometimes called naturalistic inquiry.
31
6. The advantage of using multiple data collection techniques is that the
researcher gets a broader or more in-depth view of a school or a situation.
Reality will reveal itself this way.
9. The disadvantage is that the researcher may get too close to the people
being interviewed. Depending on the level of analytical ability of the
research, the relationship might bias the study.
32
A qualitative study can support
a quantitative study, which will present
a better picture of reality and truth.
2. Identify the steps needed to collect data on the topic discussed in activity
#1. What can each group member do to ensure they do not let their own
biases effect the collection of data? How could triangulation be used to
collect data on your groups topic of interest?
33
Chapter 6 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
2. Types of Validity
a. Content: Questions should deal with content covered and the objective
taught.
34
3. Correlation Coefficient: The procedure quantifies the relationship of
paired variables.
Example:
-1 0 .7.8.9 1
35
6. Types of Reliability of Test or Questionnaire/Opinionnaire
Example:
If there are 50 questions on a test or questionnaire, answer
only the odd numbered items. Score this part. Next, answer only the
even numbered items, and score this part. Your score should be very
close on each part. This premise is also true for different forms of a
test.
36
f. Clear directions with definitions of important terms
g. Avoid asking two questions in one item. Keep questions short and
concise.
1) Cover letter
2) Signed and Approved Permission letter
3) Questionnaire
37
i. Code the questionnaire for follow-up.
k. Scale to use.
Note: If one must use a scale, the Likert scale is the most common and
the most practical.
38
SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITIES:
39
Chapter 7 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
1. The reason for statistics is that there are numerical data in educational
research. You will have to interpret, understand, and treat data.
1) Nominal
a. Names or classifies someone or something
b. Examples
i. Social security numbers
ii. License plate numbers
iii. Bank account numbers
iv. Student identification numbers
2) Ordinal
a. Names, classifies, and ranks someone or something
b. Examples
i. Class rank
ii. Sports rank
1) Interval
a. Names, classifies, ranks, and has equal intervals between
numbers
40
b. Has no true zero point
2) Ratio
a. Names, classifies, ranks, has equal intervals, and has a true zero
b. Examples
i. Test scores
ii. Height of students
X
ii. b. X
N
iv. Example:
2
4 4.8 = X
5 5 24.0
6 20
7 40
X = 24 40
N = 5
X = 4.8
c. The mode is the number that occurs most often in a data set.
41
d. One purpose of the mean and median is to represent the typical
score.
d. When the distribution of scores is such that most scores are at one end
and there are relatively few at the other end (skewed distribution), it
is better to use the median because it is a better indicator of test
scores.
1) Symbol: SS
2) Formula: X X 2
c. Variance: the average squared units of deviation from the mean
1) Symbol
i. Sample: S 2
ii. Population: 2
2) Formulas:
2
X
2
X
i. N
N
SS
ii.
N
42
iii. The variance is a value that describes the distance that scores
are dispersed or spread from the mean.
iv. This value is very useful in describing the characteristics of a
distribution.
1) Symbol
i. Sample: S
ii. Population:
2) Formulas
i. 2
2
X
2
X
ii. N
N
1) It is symmetrical.
2) The mean, median, and mode are all at the same point right down
the center.
3) The curve is the highest at the mean.
4) Most of the scores cluster or crowd around the mean and decrease
as they move away from the mean.
5) The curve theoretically never touches the baseline.
43
6. Normal curve
Percent of cases
under portions of
the normal curve
34.13% 34.13%
13.59% 13.59%
2.15% 2.15%
.12% .12%
(Standard Deviation)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
68.26% Percentage of
frequencies in a
95.44% normal
distribution
99.74%
99.98%
44
Very few scores will extend above or fall below
34.13% 34.13%
13.59% 13.59%
2.15% 2.15%
.12% .12%
(Standard Deviation)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
.1% 2.3% 15.9% 50% 84.1% 97.7% 99.9% (Percentiles)
45
Very few scores will extend above or fall below
a. Conceptual Way:
(raw SS
2
score)
X X X X X 2 SS
N
2
2 6 -4 16 8
4 6 -2 4 5 40 Square of 8
= 2.8
6 6 0 0 40
8 6 +2 4
10 6 +4 16
X =30 0 40
X 6 SS 40 (Sum of Squares)
Md 6 2 8 (Variance)
46
Measures of Measures of
Central Tendencies Variability
X 6 SS 40
Md 6 2 8
2.8
b. Computational Way
2
X
2
2
X
2
X X
X X 2 N N
N N
220
302
220
302
2 4 5 5
5 5
4 16
6 36
8 64
10 100
X 30 220
900 900
220 220
X 6 5 5
5 5
6
5 30
47
SS 40 Sum of Squares
2 8 Variance
2.8 Standard deviation
9. Correlation
a. Correlation is the linear relationship between two or more variables.
2) Types of correlation
i. Positive correlation
a) A perfect positive correlation is +1, which is rarely if
ever encountered.
b) Correlations of .7, .8, and .9 indicate a high positive
correlation.
c) Examples of positive correlation: As one increases, the
other has a tendency to increase.
48
John 1 2
Bob 2 4
Mark 3 6
Bill 4 8
Jeff 5 10
49
b. Negative correlation
1) A perfect negative correlation is -1, which is rarely if ever
encountered.
2) Examples of negative correlation: As one increases, the other has a
tendency to decrease.
c. No correlation
1) A perfect lack of correlation is zero; however, rarely would it fall
exactly on zero, such as in case of 1, .2, or .3
2) Examples of no correlation
Height and IQ
50
10. Three ways to Interpret Coefficient of Correlation (Pearsons r)
a. .90 .80 .70 Rule
(high) (strong) (moderate)
1) Formulas
X Y
XY
r N
X 2 X Y 2 Y
2 2
N N
Sum of Squares Sum of Squares
of X of Y
X Y
XY N
r
SS X SSY
51
2) Example
X X2 Y Y2 XY
John 1 1 2 4 2
Bob 2 4 2 4 4
Bill 3 9 3 9 9
Joe 4 16 4 16 16
Sam 5 25 5 25 25
15 55 16 58 56
56 1516
r
5
106.8
SS X X 2
X
2
55
152
55
225
55 45 10
N 5 5
SSY Y
Y
2
2
58
16 2
58
256
58 51.2 6.8
N 5 5
56 48
68
8
8 .2
52
X and Y have a lot in common.
r 2 .94 (Given X, one could tell 94% of the time what Y would be.
a. z score
2) Formula
XX
z
X raw score
X mean
standard deviation
53
12. Normal Distribution Problems
(1) 3 and -3 ______ (5) 1 and -1 ______ (9) -.5 and 1.2 ______
(2) 0 and 1 ______ (6) 0 and .5 ______ (10) 1.3 and 2.4 ______
(3) 0 and 6 ______ (7) 1 and -2 ______ (11) 1.5 and -1.5 ______
(4) 2 and -2 ______ (8) 0 and -6 ______ (12) 0 and 2 ______
54
Directions: Treat each of the following as if distribution is normal. What
percent of scores lie between each of the following pairs of raw scores?
(population mean = 32 population standard deviation = 3)
3. Does the mean differ from the median? Why or why not?
8. Using the mean and the standard deviation, plot these test scores to
see where they fall in a distribution around the mean.
55
Chapter 8 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
2. Null Hypothesis
d. The .05 alpha level is often used as a standard for rejecting the null
hypothesis, which means that 95 times out of 100 the results are not
due to chance.
e. The .01 alpha level is a more rigorous test. It means that 99 times out
of 100, the results are not due to chance.
56
3. z test: One-tailed Test
Acceptance Area
95%
Rejection Area
5%
X +1.65 (z score)
57
4. z test: Two-tailed Test at .05 alpha level
b. A researcher thinks the scores of the sample will be different from the
established scores.
47.5% 47.5%
2.5% 2.5%
-1.96 X +1.96
58
6. Degrees of Freedom
1) Characteristics
2) No population mean
3) No
4) Compares the means of two different independent groups
5) Example
6) Group X has been taught with Method A; compute the mean.
7) Group Y has been taught with Method B; compute the mean.
8) The researcher wants to determine if one method is better than the
other method.
9) Formula for Independent t Test
X Y
Independent t
X
2 X 2
Y
2 Y 2
N N
n n 1
X Y
SS X SSY DF N1 N 2 2
N N 1
DF (Degrees of Freedom)
59
4. Used in medical, agricultural, and educational research
1) Characteristics
i. Pre and post tests (pairs)
ii. Only involves one group
iii. c. D X Y
2) Formula
X Y
Correlated t
2
D
2
D
N
N 1
N
DF N 1
3. Example
60
c. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
d. Pearsons r (correlation)
1) Characteristics
i. Measures the degree of relation between two variables.
ii. Determines the degree of linear relationship between two
variables.
2) Formula
X Y
XY
N
X
2 X 2
Y
2 Y 2
N N
61
Chapter 9 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
1. Title Page
a. Title:
1. Use enough descriptive words to catalog the title by ERIC and
Resources in Education.
2. Example:
The Effects of Collective Negotiations on Teacher Job Satisfaction in
the Temecula School District in southern California.
b. Style You also want to include the name of the institution granting
the degree. The title page is not typically paginated.
2. Introduction to the Study
a. This part should be relatively short and capture the readers attention.
d. The operative word for this section is brief. Keep in mind, the
proposal is not the completed study.
3. Review of Literature
62
a. This component reviews pertinent literature and information relevant
to your topic.
g. Ensure you cite the recognized work on a topic. Some topics have an
abundance of literature. You want to ensure that you have cited those
works that are central, critical, and significantly established on your
topic. As an example, if you included Critical Race Theory as a
framework in your study, you want to ensure you have cited those
authors who have contributed significantly to the articulation of this
theory.
63
b. Opposing conclusions are a good way to set up the statement of the
problem. Ensure you provide those details that help the reader
understand the problem from a broader perspective as well as localized to
your specific population of the study.
6. Research Questions
a. In this part, you will break down the Purpose of the Study into several
pertinent research questions.
7. Hypotheses
64
a. For quantitative studies, the research questions are put in statistical
terms in this section.
8. Definitions
a. In this part, define terms specific to your study that may not be
familiar to the outside reader.
9. Assumptions
a. Any assumed aspect the researcher may take should be duly stated.
11. Methodology
65
a. This section includes the following four parts:
1) Participants
i. Describe participants or sample (who and where).
ii. The population may be described in this part.
2) Instrument
i. Give details about the test or instrument and specific
materials.
ii. Validity and reliability may be discussed.
3) Procedures
i. Describe a step-by-step process of the researchers plan of
action.
ii. The timeline and permission to conduct the study may be
included.
4) Data Analysis
i. Describe how the data will be analyzed.
ii. The following information should be included:
iii. The type of statistical test that will be used, whether or not
means will be compared, and whether or not charts or graphs
will be included.
a. State why this study is worthy of the time and effort that will go into
it.
c. Example: Data derived from this study will serve as a guide to school
districts in similar settings that are also considering the collective
bargaining process.
13. References
66
a. References should be relevant, recent, and cited in the American
Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association
(MLA), or any other required format.
3. Define terms that may not be familiar to the outside reader that would
be related to your study.
67
Chapter 10 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
1. Title
2. Abstract
3. Table of Contents
68
5. Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
a. This section is basically the part in the proposal that was labeled
Methodology.
b. Describe in detail what was done/will be done in the study.
c. Some information in this section may have to be changed because the
information here will state what was actually done, not what the
researcher planned to do as was stated in the proposal.
a. Describe in prose and in chart or graph form the numerical results and
data analysis of the study.
b. Do not explain, summarize, or conclude in this chapter.
c. Tell and show only the results. Do not attempt to explain the results.
69
10. Appendices
The following is a checklist of items which are typically included in a graduate research project,
thesis, or dissertation. Not all of the suggested categories are necessary or appropriate for all
studies, and the order of items within chapters may vary somewhat. These items are intended to
serve as a guide:
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
________ Introduction
________ Background of the problem (e.g., educational trends related to the problem, unresolved
issues, social concerns)
________ Statement of the problem (basic difficulty - area of concern, felt need)
________ Research Questions to be answered or investigated
________ Hypothesis or Hypotheses statements if needed or specified by advisor.
________ Purpose of the study (goal oriented) -emphasizing practical outcomes or products
________ Importance of the study - may overlap with the statement of problem
________ Assumptions (postulates)
________ Delimitations of the study (narrowing of focus)
________ Limitations of the study (after the study has been conducted)
________ Definition of terms (largely conceptual here; operational definitions may follow in
Methodology Chapter)
________ Organization of the Study....Outline of the remainder of the thesis or proposal in
narrative form.
70
Note : In some highly theoretical studies the chapter "Review of Literature" may need to
precede "The Problem" chapter so that the theoretical framework is established for a
succinct statement of the research problem and hypotheses. In such a case, an advance
organizer in the form of a brief general statement of the purpose of the entire
investigation should come right at the beginning of the "Review of Literature" chapter.
71
CHAPTER V : SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
________ Brief summary of the study and findings portion from Chapter IV
________ Conclusions (Often restatement of the research questions key topics or variables and final
conclusions analyzing the answers)
________ Recommendations (practical suggestions for implementation of findings)
________ Recommendation for further study
ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE DOCUMENT
1. Copyright Page
2. Title Page
3. Signature Page
4. Abstract
5. Dedication Page
6. Acknowledgments
7. Table of Contents
8. List of Tables
9. List of Figures
10. Body text, divided into chapters designated by upper case Roman numerals
11. References in the specified style manual format
12. Appendices and supporting documents
13. Human Subjects Review Approval document
14. Authors Vita
TABLES/FIGURES
1. Tables and/or figures should appear no more than one page from where they are first
referenced
2. Tables and/or figures may be placed in the appendices and referenced in the body text
3. Tables and/or figures are identified by chapter and number. ( Example: Table 4.1
would be first table to appear in chapter 4)
MARGIN SETTINGS:
1. 1 Left margin and 1 inch top, bottom and right margin or other university set
specifications
SPACING
1. Double spaced throughout the document
2. Indent each paragraph first line .05
PAPER
1. 100 percent cotton, 20-pound bond
FONT AND SIZE
1. Arial, Bookman, Times New Roman or similar font recommended
2. Size: Standard 12 font
PAGINATION
1. Every page should be assigned a number.
2. Preliminary pages, small Arabic numbers (i, ii, iii, iv etc) in the center at bottom of
each numbered page
3. Abstract receives the first numbering at the bottom and in the center
4. First page of each chapter should be in the center at the bottom of the page in the
footer
72
5. All other pages should have numbers in the upper right hand side of the page
http://www.dissertation.com This site has a number of great tips, feature articles and a
monthly newsletter related to the dissertation process.
http://www.jsmusic.org.uk/students/dissertations/dissertations_checklist.html This
site contains a valuable checklist for help with organizing and completing the document.
http://www.academicladder.com/dissertation/dissertation-coaching-help.htm
Academic ladder provides a free bi-weekly tips subscription to help conquer some of the
problems and issues that arise in writing the dissertation or thesis.
73
Chapter 11 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
1. Definitions of Statistics
2. Examples
a. Descriptive Statistics
b. Inferential Statistics
1) Definitions
74
i. A method of reaching conclusions about immeasurable
populations using sample evidence and probability
4) Example
5 million 5th grade students (population) Teach using Method A
4. Population
75
5. Sample
b. Example
1) Of five million fifth grade students (population),
100 students were randomly selected (sample).
2) 60 male 40 female
students students
6. Parameter
a. Definitions
1) A numerical characteristic of a population
2) A statistic of a population
3) A measurement of a population
b. A constant
7. Statistic
a. Definitions
1) A numerical characteristic of a sample
2) A measurement of a sample
b. A variable
76
9. Variable
b. Examples
1) Height
2) Gender
3) Weight
4) Test scores
i. I. Q.
ii. IOWA
iii. LEAP
iv. ACT
e. Examples of treatment
1) Different book
2) Different teaching method
3) Male/female teachers
4) Experience of teachers
5) Time of day
77
Chapter 12 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
78
4) More useful than nominal but still not that useful
5) Not exact
6) Hides things
7) Intervals are not equal.
8) No math is involved
9) Ranking is not mathematical.
10) Cant get an average rank
Example
Mrs. Smith thinks there is a correlation between how students rank in math
and science.
Mary 5 4
Joey 3 5
Alice 4 2
Sam 1 3
Bob 2 1
What does this 1 ranking really mean? We do not know how the class as a
whole performed. It could mean this student scored 60/100. That is why it is
maintained that ordinal data (ranking) hides information.
Instead of ranking, Mrs. Smith should use the actual test scores of students
because they are more specific data.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Bottom
top
79
2. Parametric Data: Data which are normal. (Continuous)
1) Interval Data
2) Names, ranks, and has equal intervals between numbers
b. Ratio Data
1) Names, ranks, has equal intervals, and has a true zero point
2) Examples
i. Height
ii. Time
iii. Distance
iv. Some test scores (i.e. a teachers test)
v. Speed
vi. Weight
vii. Income
80
Scales of Different Types of Data
average
As you move farther from the average, the percentage gets smaller.
81
Chapter 13 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Descriptive Statistics
1. Two Types of Descriptive Statistics (Summarize/describe test scores.)
a. Three Measures of Control Tendencies
1) Mean: arithmetic average
4) Examples
i. X
X 30
X 6
N 5
2
4 N 5
6 middle score Median 6
8 Mode none
10 (no score occurs more
than any other)
X 30
bimodal 3 trimodal 2
3 2
Summation of 3 2
4 3
4 3
4 3
4
4
4
ii. Y
82
X 30
X 6
N 5
2
2 N 8
4 Median 5.5
5 To obtain the median, Mode 2
6 take the average of
8 the two middle Note: To obtain the median, find
10 numbers the average of the two middle
12 numbers, 5 and 6.
Y 49 5 5.5 = median
+6 2 11.0
11 10
Summation of 10
10
3. Types of Distribution
a. Normal Distribution
b. Positively Skewed Distribution
c. Negatively Skewed Distribution
83
e. The scores cluster around the mean. As you move farther to the left or
right, there are fewer and fewer scores.
f. Half of the scores are above the mean, and half of the scores are
below it.
g. Most people score around the mean.
h. The curve never touches the baseline and goes forever in both
directions because it is a theoretical model.
i. Example
57 58 58 59 59 59 60 60 60 60 61 61 61 62 62 63
Normal
Distribution
The same amount of
numbers are on either
side of 60; therefore,
the mean, median, and
mode are located at
the same place.
a. The mean, median, and mode are not located at the same point.
84
b. Outliners cause distortion and cause the mean to be pulled to the right.
c. When the mean is pulled to the right, you have a positively skewed
distribution.
h. Example
57 58 58 59 59 60 60 60 61 61 62 69
The median is 60, however 69 is the outliner and causes the mean to be
greater than the median.
6) Example
50 59 59 60 60 60 61 61 62
The median is 60, however 50 is the outliner and causes the mean to be
lower than the median.
7. Facts to Remember
85
9. The mean can be pulled to the right or left.
10. In skewed distributions, use the median to report a class average.
2) Sum of Squares: The sum of the squared units of deviation from the
mean; the central mathematical point from which
everything in parametric statistics is based around
5) Symbols for
Population Sample
SS SS
2 S2
S
for Mean
Population Sample
X or F or Y or Z or MSU
(anything with a bar over it)
Note: Always ask if you are computing the standard deviation for a
population or a sample. The formula is slightly different.
86
Conceptual Way (slow way)
2
Raw Deviation Sum of Variance Standard Deviation
Scores Mean from Mean Scores (for population) (for population)
X X X X X X 2 SS
N
2
2
and s2
Raw Variance Standard Deviation
Scores (for population and sample) (for population)
X
2
2
X
2
X
2
X
X X 2 N N
N N
2
X
2
X
Sum of Squares: N
N
X 2
X
2
Variance: N
N
X
2
X
2
X
2
X
2
Standard Deviation: N N
N N 1
87
Central Measures and Variability
Directions: Find all central measures (mean, median, and mode) of all
distributions.
Find all measures of variability (sum of squares, variance, and
standard deviation) of distributions.
1) 2) 3) 4)
11 12 13 14
11 12 13 14
12 13 14 15
13 20 16 15
13 20 17 18
13 23 18 18
14
5) 6) 7) 8)
3 3 3 3
3 6 9 8
3 9 12 11
4 12 12 12
4 15 12 12
5 15 12 13
9) 10) 11)
2 4 1
4 4 1
6 4 10
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Chapter 14 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Types of Distributions
Key Points
1. Mesokurtic Distribution
c. Example:
34.13% 34.13%
13.59% 13.59%
2.15% 2.15%
.12% .12%
(Standard Deviation)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
.1% 2.3% 15.9% 50% 84.1% 97.7% 99.9%
89
2. Platykurtic Distribution
a. This distribution is basically flat.
c. Example:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3. Leptokurtic Distribution
5
5
5
5
5
2 3 4 5 6 7
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Chapter 15 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Formulas
one sample
based on
normal X M
z distribution z0
(population
standard N
deviation) is
known
critical z is
always 1.65
at .05 alpha
level
one or two X M
tailed t0
S
t is
N
unknown
one sample DF N 1
X Y
two different
2 2
Independent independent X 2 X Y 2 Y
t groups N N
Test no
no population n n 1
mean DF n1 n2 2
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Name of Test Characteristics Formula
DF N 1
measures the
degree of X Y
Pearsons r relation XY N
(Correlation) between two
X 2 X Y 2 Y
2 2
variables
determines N N
the degree of
linear
relations
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Chapter 16 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
93
3. The most frequently applied mathematical operations in statistics include
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
If you know how to count, measure, add, subtract, multiply, and divide,
then you ALREADY possess the skills necessary to do statistics.
94
c. Statistical software such as the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (S.P.S.S.) and S.A.S. make the analysis of your data very
systematic and complete including tables, graphs and charts.
6. In a very short time you will realize that you can use your existing skills
but will use them MORE skillfully when you include statistics.
b. You will learn to use your findings and conclusions to make better
informed educational decisions.
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Web Resources for SPSS
http://www.utexas.edu/its/rc/tutorials/stat/spss/spss1/index.html
http://www.ats.ucla.edu/STAT/mult_pkg/whatstat/default.htm
http://www.stat.tamu.edu/spss.php
http://www.spsstools.net/spss.htm
http://cs.furman.edu/rushing/mellonj/spss1.htm
http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/spss/examples/default.htm
http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/courses/c1/spss/toc.htm
http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/spss/modules/default.htm
http://data.fas.harvard.edu/projects/SPSS_Tutorial/spsstut.shtml
http://www.cas.lancs.ac.uk/short_courses/intro_spss.html
http://www.cas.lancs.ac.uk/short_courses/notes/intro_spss/session1.pdf
http://www.bris.ac.uk/is/learning/documentation/spss-t2/spss-t2.pdf
http://calcnet.mth.cmich.edu/org/spss/toc.htm
http://www.indiana.edu/~statmath/stat/spss/
http://dl.lib.brown.edu/gateway/ssds/SPSS%202%20Hypothesis%20Testing
%20and%20Inferential%20Statistics.pdf
http://dl.lib.brown.edu/gateway/ssds/SPSS1%20Finding%20and%20Managi
ng%20Data%20for%20the%20Social%20Sciences.pdf
http://www.shef.ac.uk/scharr/spss/index2.htm
http://www.itc.virginia.edu/research/sas/training/v8/
http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/sas/sk/
http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/sscc/pubs/stat.htm
http://web.fccj.org/~jtrifile/SAS2.html
http://www.utexas.edu/cc/stat/tutorials/sas8/sas8.html
http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/sas/modules/
http://www.psych.yorku.ca/lab/sas/
http://instruct.uwo.ca/sociology/300a/SASintro.htm
http://web.utk.edu/~leon/jmp/
http://www.stat.unc.edu/students/owzar/stat101.html
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Chapter 17 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Solution: Write the purpose and research questions with clarity and
simplicity. Allow expert writers to critique your work and take their
suggestions seriously.
Solution: Examine all research questions included in your study and rank
them in order of the significance and usefulness. If any data do not help
97
fulfill the purpose of your study, then these should be dropped so that the
other areas can stand out.
Solution: Read everything you can get your hands on systematically sort
the types of studies and conceptual areas. Your study will take on a well-
informed vision of what more needs to be known.
Solution: Do not title your work until you understand the research
problem well and the purpose that your study will reflect. Avoid selecting
98
a cool sounding methodology until you are certain that there it will help
you answer the specific things that you need to know.
8. A major pitfall includes the use of catchy phrases or terms are to define
the purpose and problem while little attention is paid to the significance of
a study. Study may be well done, or even interesting, but may not be very
useful.
9. If the study is not sufficiently delineated and structured, the time or effort
required to complete the study becomes overwhelming.
Solution: Listen to your professors when they tell you the study may take a
lot longer if it is not narrowed in scope or focus. Provide a
recommendations for further research section in your work so that
extraneous matters may be addressed in the future by you or other
researchers.
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Chapter 18 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
6. Results should be for the good of society and unattainable by any other
means i.e. the preservation of appropriate and ethical standards should
never be comprised.
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7. Beneficence - To promote understanding and shed light on the human
condition. Ensure protection of those participating in the study.
2. What steps should researchers take to ensure all areas of informed consent
are addressed in their research study? Share your discussion with the class.
3. What steps would you take to make sure you are not involved in unethical
conduct in research? Share your discussion with the class.
WEBSITES
APA Research Ethics and Regulation
http://www.apa.org/science/research.htm
Research Ethics
http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/308/308lect10.htm
101
Chapter 19 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
102
for conducting research on human subjects established by the Helsinki
Agreement and a series of declarations referred to as the Belmont
Report. These principles are detailed in the Common Rule as follows:
a. informed consent
b. protection of confidentiality or anonymity of all human subjects
c. acknowledging the right of the subject not to participate in a study
d. ensuring that subject is aware of his or her right to discontinue the
study at any time without adverse consequence
e. ensuring that the study provides a benefit to the community
f. ensuring that the study has a direct benefit for the subject
participating in the study
g. ensuring that the subject is aware of the risks involved in the study
h. ensuring that the researcher has found less invasive or intrusive
ways to obtain the same information
i. that the individual subject has given permission to be deceived
during an experimental study
j. that parents have granted permission for children under the age of
18 to participate
k. that any psychological or physical harms will be remedied with
expenses paid by the researchers
l. that the researcher is protected from possible harms or is taking
informed risks
m. specific measures for achieving each of the above has been spelled
out
n. that these measures are meticulously followed
No. However, all studies that will involve gathering data from the public
or that will be published in some form must be reviewed before
university officials will approve the protocol. To accommodate social
science research and historical research expedited review protocols are
submitted. Studies that must be reviewed meet the following criteria:
103
f. there may be no community benefit or direct benefit for the
subject
g. there is a possible conflict of interest by researchers in the study
h. medical or mental health research
5. When my study has been approved by the IRB, are there any additional
requirements that researchers must follow?
Yes. The Common Rule states that research approved by an IRB may be
subject to further review for approval or disapproval by officials of the
institution under the following circumstances:
104
Chapter 20 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
4. Get to know your IRB members and their expectations for research.
Dont wait until you submit your proposal or go to the IRB meeting to
discover the requirements and preferences.
5. Assume that IRB members want to do a good job. Empathize with them
as you would someone who is in training for a new job.
105
6. Continue to conduct occasional conversations with IRB members after
your proposal has been approved. Over time IRB members will come
to view your research proposals with greater confidence.
7. Before IRB meetings listen carefully to IRB members talk to you about
research and ethics. Be prepared in non-public, non-confrontational
ways to share your concerns regarding their statements or written
comments.
These guidelines can help you get off to a good start without cynicism or
frustration. A positive working relationship with the IRB can promote good
professional health within your research community.
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Chapter 21 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
2. Determine the type of manuscript you want to write. (NOTE: You are
working on a manuscript. Many people call or interchange the term
article for manuscript. A MANUSCRIPT is work that is submitted for
possible publication. An ARTICLE is a manuscript that has been
published.)
107
3. It is also important to know what types of manuscripts a journal typically
publishes.
- The library should have current issues for your review. Many can be
found online.
- Review the types of article in several issues of the journal. Do they
accept a variety of topics for publication or do they have a theme for
each issue?
- Read the submission or author guidelines. Many can be found online.
- Examine the expertise of the members of the editorial board for ideas
on their research interests.
4. The acceptance rates of journals can range from 80% to 5%. Look at
publishing in journals where the turnaround time may be shorter.
Journals which have very high submission rates have high rejection rates.
Look at using your time wisely. Dont tie up an article for 18 months
if the journal has a low acceptance rate.
5. Ask colleagues which journals they have submitted manuscripts to. They
can give good advice on the where to and where not to for
submissions.
108
8. Schedule a time to write every day. Make it automatic! Thirty to ninety
minutes per day, or at least three times a week. This will help you to stay
on target and not get overwhelmed at the last minute when your writing
project is due.
9. Develop an outline for your manuscript. You can read the published
articles in the journal where you plan to submit and determine what type
of outline to develop.
10. Write your introduction and summary first. Most problems are found in
these sections. They become a guide to your manuscript (a roadmap)! It
will keep you focused on the route you are taking.
11. As you write make sure the manuscript indicate you know what is current
on that topic. Make sure to have at least one to two references from the
same year you plan to submit your manuscript.
13. Make sure that findings in your conclusion have been substantiated in
your paper.
14. When the paper is well organized and near completion, have a couple of
colleagues review and edit it.
109
require original manuscripts. Note the policy guidelines of the
respective journal.
16. Most editors will document they have received your manuscript through
a letter or email. If you do not receive a letter within a couple of weeks
documenting that your manuscript was received, then call or email the
editor to check to see if the manuscript was received. Remember FedEx
trucks and mail trucks have crashed and hurricanes have damaged mail.
Sometimes forces of nature and accidents prevent a manuscript from
reaching its designated recipients.
17. If you get an acceptance letter, GREAT JOB!! If you receive a letter
indicating the manuscript was not accepted for publication, review the
editorial comments.
- Revise and resubmit if the editor indicates this action should be done.
- If you have questions about the comments made by reviews, contact the
editor and ask them for clarification.
- Ask the editor if they have a suggestion for another journal that might be
more appropriate.
- Revise and look at other potential journals for possible publication.
- Dont worry, your manuscript might not have been the right fit for that
journal or the right time to be submitted there.
- Sometimes a journal receives several manuscripts on the same topic. The
topic might be saturated. Look for another journal to submit the
manuscript.
- Take heart that everyone will get some rejection letters. One of your
authors had that experience four times on her first manuscript. Although I
kept writing other manuscripts and those were being accepted, the first
one was rejected four times. On the fifth submission, it was published.
NEVER GIVE UP, JUST KEEP SEARCHING FOR THE RIGHT
JOURNAL.
110
PART II:
111
Fundamental Terms of Research and
Basic Statistics
112
that can be used to statistically equate groups that differ on a pretest or
some other variable
Archived research data data originally used for research purposes and
then stored
Back stage behavior what people say and do only with their closest
friends
Bar graph a graph that uses vertical bars to represent the data
113
Case study research research that provides a detailed account and
analysis of one or more cases
114
Cluster sampling type of sampling where clusters are randomly
selected
115
Confounding variable an extraneous variable that systematically
varies with the independent variable and also influences the dependent
variable
Control group the group that does not receive the experimental
treatment condition
Convergent evidence evidence that the scores on prior tests and the
current test designed to measure the same construct are correlated
116
Corroboration comparing documents to each other to determine
whether they provide the same information or reach the same conclusion
Debriefing a post study interview in which all aspects of the study are
revealed, any reasons for deception are explained, and any questions the
participant has about the study are answered
117
Dehoaxing informing participants about any deception used and the
reasons for its use
Direct effect the effect of the variable at the origin of an arrow on the
variable at the receiving end of the arrow
118
Directional alternative hypothesis an alternative hypothesis that
contains either a greater than sign or a less than sign
119
Equivalent-forms reliability a measure of the consistency of a group
of individuals scores on two equivalent forms of a test measuring the
same construct
Etic term outsiders words or special words that are used by social
scientists
120
Expectancy data data illustrating the number or percentage of people
that fall into various categories on a criterion measure
121
Extreme case sampling identifying the extremes or poles of some
characteristic and then selecting cases representing these extremes for
examination
Fully anchored rating scale all points are anchored on the rating scale
122
Going native identifying so completely with the group being studied
that you can no longer remain objective
123
Independent variable a variable that is presumed to cause a change in
another variable
124
Interaction effect when the effect of one independent variable depends
on the level of another independent variable
125
Interviewee the person being asked questions
Line graph a graph that relies on the drawing of one or more lines
126
Low-inference descriptors description phrased very close to the
participants accounts and the researchers field notes
Maturation any physical or mental change that occurs over time that
affects performance on the dependent variable
Median location the numerical place where you can find the median in
a set of order numbers
127
Memoing recording reflective notes about what you are learning from
the data
128
Multiple time-series design an interrupted time-series design that
includes a control group to rule out a history effect
129
Network diagram a diagram showing the direct links between
variables or events over time
Norms the written and unwritten rules that specify appropriate group
behavior
130
One-stage cluster sampling a set of clusters is randomly selected and
all of the elements in the selected clusters are included in the sample
Oral histories based on interviews with a person who has had directed
or indirect experience with or knowledge of the chosen topic
Order effect a sequencing effect that occurs from the order in which
the treatment conditions are administered
Panel study study where the same individuals are studied at successive
points over time
131
Participant feedback discussion of the researchers conclusions with
the actual participants
Percentile ranks scores that divide a distribution into 100 equal parts
Population the complete set of cases; its the large group to which a
researcher wants to generalize the sample results
132
Population validity the ability to generalize the study results to the
individuals not included in the study
133
Pretest-posttest control-group design a research design that
administers a posttest to two randomly assigned groups of participants
after both have been pretested and one of the groups has been
administered the experimental treatment condition
Problem of induction things that happened in the past may not happen
in the future
134
Qualitative research research relying primarily on the collection of
qualitative data
Ratio scale a scale of measurement that has a true zero point as well as
all the characteristics of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales
135
Reactivity an alteration in performance that occurs as a result of being
aware of participating in a study; it refers to changes occurring in people
because they know they are being observed
Replication logic the idea that the more times a research finding is
shown to be true with different sets of people, the more confidence we
can place in the finding and in generalizing beyond the original
participants
136
Research design the outline, plan, or strategy used to answer a
research question
Research plan the outline or plan that will be used in conducting the
research study
137
Sampling error the difference between the value of a sample statistic
and a population parameter
138
Selection selecting participants for the various treatment groups that
have different characteristics
Sequencing effects biasing effects that can occur when each participant
must participate in each experimental treatment condition
Simple case when there is only one independent variable and one
dependent variable
139
Simple random sampling the term usually used for sampling without
replacement
140
Standard scores scores that have been converted from one scale to
another to have a particular mean and standard deviation
Summated rating scale a multi-item scale that has the responses for
each person summed into a single score
141
Survey research a term sometimes applied to non-experimental
research based on questionnaires or interviews
Target population the larger population to whom the study results are
to be generalized
142
Theoretical validity the degree to which a theoretical explanation fits
the data
143
Type technique manipulating the independent variable by varying the
type of variable presented to the different comparison groups
Y-intercept the point where the regression line crosses the Y-axis
z-score a raw score that has been transformed into standard deviation
units
Note: These are common terms and are not attributed to any one source.
144
PART III:
Partial Listing of
Selected References
And Acknowledgements
145
Partial Listing of Selected References and Acknowledgements
Research
(Practical Applications)
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD (2011)
Directories
146
Yearbooks and Handbooks
Statistics
147
UNESCO Statistical Digest, Education Reference X L 11 S863
Periodicals
Basic Education
Educational Research
Educational Studies
Educational Theory
Journal of Education
148
National FORUM of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal
http://www.nationalforum.com/
Research in Education
Web Sites
149
Bureau of Labor Statistics www.stats.bis.gov
Condition of Education
Nces.ed.gov. /pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp? pubid=1999022
Eurostate europa.eu.int/comm../eurostat
Ferret www.edc.gov/nchs/datawh/ferret/htm
150
http://research.cse.ucla.edu
Boston.com-MCAS Tests
UNESCO www.unesco.org
151
www.ciera.org
National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy (NCSALL)
Gseweb.Harvard.edu/-ncsall
ED Pubs www.ed.gov/pubs/edpubs.html
152
ERIC Clearinghouses www.accesseric.org/sites/barak.html
Best, J. & Kahn J. (1998). Research in Education (8th Edition). Boston, MA:
Allyn & Bacon
153
Dillamn, D. (1978). Mail and Telephone Surveys: The Total Design Method.
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
154
PART IV:
155
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
156
program. He earned his PhD from The University of Iowa, Iowa City, MEd from Seattle
Pacific University, and BA from Central Washington University.
157
158