Está en la página 1de 12

Materials Science and Engineering, 73 (1985) 65-76 65

Aging Dependence of the Bauschinger Effect in Aluminum Alloy 2024

TULIN K. HIDAYETOGLU, PAUL N. PICA and W. L. HAWORTH


Department of Metallurgical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, M148202 (U.S.A.)
(Received October 1, 1984)

ABSTRACT have shown that, under certain conditions,


precipitation-hardening alloys may exhibit
A l u m i n u m alloy 2024 initially in the T4 inflected or "anomalous" stress-strain hyster-
(naturally aged) condition and subjected to esis loops during cyclic loading. The inflec-
additional aging at an elevated temperature tions, when observed, are present only during
may exhibit inflected stress-strain hysteresis the first few fatigue cycles and disappear
loops when it is subsequently fatigue cycled gradually as cycling proceeds. They can be
at room temperature. We have characterized attributed to a m e m o r y effect [1 ] whereby
the development o f inflected loops in this ma- dislocations stored during forward straining
terial as a function o f aging time at 190 C. move reversibly when the loading direction is
Inflections are absent in the T4 condition, reversed, leading to relatively easy recovery of
appear during the first fatigue cycle in under- strain and a correspondingly large Bauschinger
aged material and are strongly developed after
effect [4]. There is controversy about the de-
aging to peak strength or s o m e w h a t beyond.
tailed microstructural mechanism underlying
In all cases, the inflections disappear rapidly
these observations, however. Stoltz and
with continued cycling. Coincident with the
Pelloux suggested that the effect depends on
appearance o f inflected loops there is a dra-
the presence of non-shearable precipitate par-
matic increase in the Bauschinger back stress
ticles in the alloy, whereas Plumbridge et al.
o b and the Bauschinger strain [3 as a function
concluded that shearable particles are a pre-
o f aging time, and the fatigue response shifts
requisite for inflected loops to be observed.
rapidly from pronounced cyclic hardening to
Although previous studies [1, 3] have con-
moderate cyclic softening. The surface ap-
trasted the appearance of hysteresis loops in
pearance o f the material over the final strain underaged and overaged material, the develop-
cycle changes from sharply defined relatively ment of hysteresis loop inflections with pro-
coarse planar slip at zero stress in the T4 con- gressively increasing aging time in a precipita-
dition to diffuse slip with very little surface tion-hardening alloy has apparently not been
offset in material exhibiting a strongly in- investigated in detail. In this paper we show
flected hysteresis loop. These observations are h o w inflected loops develop and h o w the cor-
consistent with the development o f non-shear- responding Bauschinger parameters change as
able precipitate particles during aging at 190 aging occurs in aluminum alloy 2024. The re-
C. Glide dislocations stored as Orowan shear sults are analyzed in terms of Masing's [5] and
loops around such particles during forward Asaro's [2] models of kinematic hardening.
deformation may assist reverse deformation
at a low stress during the second part o f the
cycle, giving rise to the inflected hysteresis 2. PROCEDURE
loops. The hysteresis behavior is s h o w n to be
quantitatively in agreement with stress-strain Cylindrical specimens with a 1.27 cm gauge
curves derived on the basis o f a model o f length and a 0.62 cm diameter were machined
kinematic (memory-dependent) hardening. from round bar stock (1.27 cm in diameter)
of aluminum alloy 2024 in the T4 (naturally
aged) temper. Most specimens were then aged
1. INTRODUCTION
at 190 + 1 C in oil for times ranging from 0
Studies b y Stoltz and Pelloux [1], Asaro to 336 h. A few specimens were aged in air
[2] and Plumbridge et al. [3], among others, for 2 h at 300 + 2 C. Fully reversed axial

0025-5416/85/$3.30 Elsevier Sequoia/Printed in The Netherlands


66

fatigue tests were then conducted in air at stress equal to 0.55o. These definitions ensure
room temperature, using an electrohydraulic that o b and/3 are determined at points close to
machine operated in total strain control at a the point of maximum inflection in the reverse
frequency of 0.015 Hz. Longitudinal strain flow curve for aging times where an inflection
was measured by means of a clip-on resistance is observed. They also provide a consistent
gauge; the total strain range at each aging time method of determining the Bauschinger effect
was selected to produce a plastic strain range parameters when no inflection occurs in the
of +4.0 X 10 -3 over the first fatigue cycle. A hysteresis loop.
few specimens were metallographically pol-
ished to a 0.05 pm surface finish using standard
mechanical techniques prior to fatigue cycling; 4. RESULTS
the Nomarski interference contrast technique
was then used to observe, by optical micro- The forward flow stress of aluminum alloy
scopy, the changes in surface topography 2024 at 2 X 10 -3 offset plastic strain (Le. the
caused by cyclic deformation. conventional yield strength) and the initial
yield stress at 2.3 X 10 -5 plastic strain (o 0 in
eqn. (3)) are shown as a function of aging
3. BAUSCHINGER E F F E C T PARAMETERS time beyond the T4 temper in Fig. 1. Aging
at 190 C first causes the room temperature
The Bauschinger effect can be characterized yield strength to fall below the T4 value, o r
quantitatively by means of the Bauschinger then rises rapidly to a maximum after aging
back stress o b and the Bauschinger strain/3. Ob for about 10 h and falls gradually with further
is the mean internal stress impeding dislocation aging up to 336 h, the longest aging time in-
motion in the forward direction;/3 is a measure vestigated. The initial yield stress Oo follows a
of the extent of strain recovery when the stress similar curve, at lower values of stress. Fully
is reversed. overaged material (2 h at 300 C (Fig. 1, open
We assume that the forward flow stress o symbols)) has the lowest strength.
on the first cycle can be expressed as a sum- Representative first-cycle hysteresis loops
mation of the initial yield stress o0, a stress Od are shown in Fig. 2 for selected aging times
arising from irreversible dislocation strength- beyond the T4 condition. Underaged material,
ening, and the back stress o b. Thus, from T4 to aging for up to 2 h at 190 C, ex-
hibits " n o r m a l " hysteresis loops with no in-
at = o0 + Od + Ob (1)
flection (Figs. 2(a) and 2(b)). Aging for 4.5 h
The back stress assists the deformation when produces loops which are noticeably flattened
the loading direction is reversed, so that the (i.e. there is a linear stress-strain region at in-
reverse flow stress or is given by termediate plastic strain) during the first re-
verse cycle and second forward cycle. This
O r = O 0 -~- {7d - - O b (2)
effect is shown in Fig. 2(c) where after aging
Hence the Bauschinger back stressis given by for 5.5 h the flat regions are just beginning to
the expression develop into inflections. Further aging (7 h)
produces a clearly inflected hysteresis loop
Gf -- G r
O b -- (Fig. 2(d)), and the inflection becomes pro-
2 gressively more pronounced with increased
Ao aging time at 190 C (Figs. 2(e) and 2(f)) up
= -- (3) to at least 336 h (Fig. 2(g)). In strongly over-
2 aged material, however, the first-cycle hyster-
where Ao is the conventionally defined esis loop exhibits only a very slight inflection,
Bauschinger stress. Equation (3) enables us to as shown in Fig. 2(h) for a specimen aged for
determine the Bauschinger back stress from 2 h at 300 C.
the experimentally observed hysteresis loops The Bauschinger back stress Ob and disloca-
as a function of aging time. The reverse flow tion-hardening stress Od, determined using
stress is measured at a (reverse) offset plastic eqn. (3) and eqn. (1) respectively, are shown
strain of 3.4 X 10 -3 in these experiments, and as a function of aging time at 190 C in Fig. 3.
the Bauschinger strain is measured at a reverse The back stress is small (approximately 10
67

500.

400.

%%%%%

2~ %%%.%
'- J" %
100
'~ 0:, i ,b 160 ,0b0
BGINGTIMF'(h)
Fig. 1. Room temperature yield strength as a function of aging time starting from the T4 condition: , 2 l0 -3
offset strain, aging at 190 C; m, 2.3 10-5 offset strain, aging at 190 C; o, u, yield strengths after 2 h at 300 C.

MPa) in the T4 condition, indicating that the changes monotonically as cycling proceeds.
Bauschinger effect itself is small at this stage There is a rapid change from cyclic hardening
of aging. However, ab begins to increase after to moderate cyclic softening between aging
aging for about 2 h at 190 C and increases times of 2 and 10 h at 190 C, the material
rapidly to about 1 0 0 - 1 1 5 MPa after aging for aged for 7 h being very nearly cyclically stable.
50 h or longer at this temperature. The value In the fully overaged condition (2 h at 300
of od, conversely, falls from over 100 MPa in C), however, cyclic hardening is observed
the T4 condition to about 25 MPa at long once again (a20/ol = 1.10). In all cases except
aging times. In fully overaged material (2 h at the overaged material, a stable hysteresis loop
300 C), however, the back stress is relatively is attained in less than 30 cycles.
low and od remains low. The Bauschinger
strain ~ behaves in a similar way to the back
stress on aging, as shown in Fig. 4./3 is small 5. DISCUSSION
(4 10 -4 approximately) in the T4 condition
and begins to change after aging for 2 h at The observed changes in mechanical prop-
190 C. It rises to a m a x i m u m of 4 10 -3 erties are consistent with a change in micro-
after aging for 50 h or longer. structure during aging from one containing
The inflections observed in the first-cycle shearable precipitate particles to one contain-
hysteresis loop at any given aging time rapidly ing non-shearable particles, in accordance
become less pronounced as cycling proceeds, with the general argument advanced by Stoltz
in agreement with previously reported results and Pelloux [1 ]. In the T4 condition and
[1, 3]. Typical behavior is shown in Fig. 2(g), during the very early stages of aging at 190 C,
for material aged for 336 h at 190 C, where the principal strengthening particles in alumi-
the inflection disappears after approximately num alloy 2024 are shearable Guinier-Preston
10 cycles. There is a small a m o u n t of cyclic (GP) zones which are small, finely dispersed
softening over the first few fatigue cycles at and fully coherent with the matrix [1 ]. When
this aging time. Whether the material cyclically such a material is strained in the forward di-
hardens or softens depends on the aging time rection, glide dislocations cut through a
employed, as shown in Fig. 5, where the ratio strengthening particle at some critical stress
O2o/Ol of forward flow stress on the twentieth that depends on the nature of the particle and
cycle to that on the first cycle is plotted as a its size. Thus the alloy will undergo planar
function of aging time. In all cases the strength slip, although the process may be imperfect
68

because of the presence of dispersoids in the The dramatic change in behavior which
0 . 1 - 1 pm size range in commercial aluminum occurs between aging times of approximately
alloy 2024. When the strain direction is re- 2 and 10 h at 190 C can be attributed to the
versed, GP zone cutting will occur in the development of strong non-shearable precipi-
reverse direction at a stress level comparable tate particles (presumably S') which dominate
with the forward yield stress. Slip should re- the mechanical response of the material at
main predominantly planar, and the stress- longer times. The initial and conventional
strain hysteresis loop exhibits a normal yield strengths rise rapidly (Fig. 1) in corre-
Bauschinger effect as shown in Fig. 2(a). The spondence to the presence of increasing num-
Bauschinger back stress Ob is relatively low bers of impenetrable precipitates. For a signif-
(Fig. 3), a large fraction of the strain hardening icant amount of plastic strain to occur it will
b e y o n d initial yield is irreversible (Od, Fig. 3) be necessary for an increasingly large propor-
and so the material cyclically hardens (Fig. 5). tion of the total mobile dislocation population

450 450

300. $00-

150- 150-

a
CL o.

II
2

-150 + -tSO +
/
-300. -300-

-450. i 4 5 0 , r i i i , , ,

-I.2 -0+9 -0.0 -0.3 0.3 o.6 o.t 1.2 -,+2 -o, -o+, -o5 o o., o, o., 1.2
(.) Strain (%) (b) Strain I%)

450 450

n
$00

150
y/ .J
300"

150'

-t50
/ -150

-$00 -300

-45o , , , --- ~ , , -450 , . , , , ,


-I.2 -0.9 -0.6 -o+3 o o.$ o.4 o.9 1.z -I.2 -0.9 -O.I -0.3 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
(C) Strain ~O/o) (d) Strain (.%)

Fig. 2 (continued).
69

450 450

300 300-

Y
(1.
"S
150

-150
// / ~E
150"

-150"
/
/

-300- -300-

-450 ~ ~ , -450 , , ,
-1.2 -o.g -0.0 -0.3 0~'~ 0.6 0.5 1.2 -1.2 -O.g -0.6 -0.3 0.3 O.I O.S 1.2
(e) Strain (%) ( ) Strain (~)

300 300-

g.

-150 -150- ~

-300 -300-

- 4 5 0 ~ ~ -450 , , ,
-1.2 -o.0 -o., -o.3 o., o., o., ,.2 -1.2 -o., -o.0 -o., o 0.3 o., o., ,.,
(g) Strain (%) (h) Strain ~%)

Fig. 2. First-cycle stress-strain hysteresis loops for (a) the T4 material and for (b) 2 h, (c) 5.5 h, (d) 7 h, (e) 10 h,
(f) 24 h and (g) 336 h aging at 190 C and (h) at 300 C for 2 h. (g) shows the first, second, fifth and t w e n t i e t h
cycles.

to avoid the precipitates by either Orowan straining.* The mechanical hysteresis loops
looping or cross-slip; therefore, coarse planar shown in Fig. 2 therefore develop an inflec-
slip is expected to become less prevalent. The tion (corresponding to the reverse strain pro-
looping process, however, stores a population vided by the Orowan loops) whose magnitude
of mobile dislocations around each precipitate depends on the Orowan loop density and
particle. When the stress direction is reversed,
these dislocation loops are available to provide
a limited a m o u n t of strain in the reverse direc- *The reverse strain at a low stress may not be pro-
vided solely by the Orowan shear loops. Other possible
tion at a relatively low stress; only when they
sources of reversible strain are elastic stresses in the
are exhausted will it be necessary to raise the precipitate particles themselves [1 ] and pile-ups o f
reverse stress to a value approaching that of glide dislocations on slip planes b e t w e e n groups of
the forward stress in order to continue reverse O r o w a n loops [2 ].
70

00

4O

0 ,1/ Ol /L- E]
i 1'o ,6o lio --
AGING TIMF.(~)
Fig. 3. T h e B a u s c h i n g e r b a c k stress a b ($) a n d d i s l o c a t i o n - h a r d e n i n g stress a d (m) as a f u n c t i o n o f aging t i m e at
190 C: , o, 2 h at 300 C. a b is d e t e r m i n e d f r o m eqn. (3) a n d o d f r o m eqn. (1).

0,4'

z
n-
rv.
I-',
O~ 0.2"

0.0 0:1 i 1'0 160 l~ ~


flGING TIME(h)
Fig. 4. T h e B a u s c h i n g e r strain/3 as a f u n c t i o n o f aging t i m e at 190 C: o, 2 h at 300 C.

I.@

1.1

1"

O.g"
"--~ 0h i 1'0 1~
flGING TIMC Lh,~

Fig. 5. Cyclic h a r d e n i n g o r s o f t e n i n g b e h a v i o r : t h e ratio O2o/O 1 o f f o r w a r d flow stress o n t h e t w e n t i e t h cycle to


t h a t o n t h e first cycle is s h o w n as a f u n c t i o n o f aging t i m e at 190 C: o, 2 h at 300 C.
71

therefore on the number of impenetrable pre- slip bands. The bands are limited to a single-slip
cipitate particles. Because the Orowan loops system within any given grain and are charac-
provide a degree of low stress reversibility to teristic of relatively coarse planar slip. The
the deformation process, the Bauschinger uninflected hysteresis loop together with the
stress ob and strain/3 increase rapidly with in- low values of fl and o b and high value of a a
creasing loop density (Figs. 3 and 4) and the (Figs. 3 and 4) and the strong surface relief at
dislocation-hardening term ad decreases (Fig. visible slip steps are consistent with the idea
3). Because irreversible dislocation configura- that a substantial a m o u n t of the plastic strain
tions make only a small contribution to the accumulated in the forward half of the cycle
total strain during the first few strain cycles, is irreversible. In contrast, material aged suffi-
the material cyclically softens once the pro- ciently to develop a strongly inflected hyster-
portion of non-shearable particles becomes esis loop (24 h at 190 C (Fig. 6(b))) and sub-
significant (Fig. 5), indicating that fully re- jected to a comparable cycle of total strain
versible dislocation motion is not maintained exhibits extremely faint poorly defined slip
with continued cycling; presumably cross-slip lines; some relatively coarse surface rumpling
and dislocation tangling or cell formation is evident in both Fig. 6(a) and Fig. 6(b). Planar
neutralize the easily reversed Orowan loops. slip may still be occurring in the material aged
The behavior of the strongly overaged ma- for 24 h at 190 C but is extremely finely dis-
terial (2 h at 300 C) can be rationalized in persed and barely visible even under the relief-
terms of the further development of non- enhancing conditions of Nomarski interference
shearable precipitates during aging. At this contrast. The lack of surface relief after one
stage, we expect the strengthening particles to strain cycle together with the high values of
be relatively few and far between, and to and od are consistent with the easily reversed
present completely impenetrable barriers to dislocation motion which we infer from the
moving dislocations. Wide spaces between inflected hysteresis loop. Peak-aged material
particles make it possible for dislocations to subjected to a single half-cycle in tension only
move easily in the forward direction on initial (Fig. 6(c)) exhibits more surface relief than
loading, and so the yield strength is low. Be- comparable specimens subjected to a full cycle
cause of the large spacing between particles, of strain but still shows much finer and less
only a relatively small fraction of the mobile well-defined slip than the T4 material does.
dislocation density are stored as Orowan We infer that the change from shearable to
loops; so the inflection observed in the hyster- non-shearable precipitate particles causes slip
esis loop is correspondingly small (Fig. 2), and to be distributed much more finely as well as
the Bauschinger stress and strain are low increasing its reversibility at a low stress. It
(Figs. 3 and 4). Dislocation tangling will occur might be argued that, since the residual plastic
on repeated cycling, perhaps aided by the strain on unloading after the first cycle is
high stacking fault energy (and easy cross-slip) larger when the loop is not inflected, the dif-
brought a b o u t b y the low solute concentra- ference in surface relief between Fig. 6(a) and
tion in solid solution; so cyclic hardening is Fig. 6(b) merely reflects this difference in
observed (Fig. 5), and the inflection disappears residual plastic strain. Figure 6(d) demon-
after the first strain cycle. strates that this is n o t the case; the surface of
a specimen of T4 material cycled at only 0.7%
5.1. Metallography total strain is shown. In this case the residual
To obtain further insight into the slip char- plastic strain on unloading is identical with
acter of the material in the microstructural that for the peak-aged specimen in Fig. 6(b).
conditions corresponding to "normal" and in- The T4 specimen, however, still exhibits the
flected hysteresis loops, we examined the sharp well-defined slip bands and strong sur-
slipped surfaces by optical metallography. The face relief associated with coarse planar slip
surface appearance of metallographically pol- and irreversible dislocation motion.
ished specimens subjected to a single fatigue
cycle is shown in Fig. 6, together with the 5. 2. Models o f stress -strain hysteresis
corresponding hysteresis loop. T4 material Asaro [2] has shown that kinematic hard-
cycled to 0.9% total strain and unloaded (Fig. ening models can be used to interpret the hys-
6(a )) exhibits sharp fairly straight well-defined teresis behavior observed during strain cycling.
72

/7 S/
/-- /
STRAIN
30 #m
(a) I I

ul
IJi

I-
I/1

STRAIN
30 ~m
(b) I

Fig. 6 (for caption see facing page).


73

STRAIN
30 .um
(c) , ,

gel
;/
/
M.I
I--

STRAIN
(d) 30 ,umj

Fig. 6. Surface appearance (Nomarski interference contrast) o f specimens subjected to the strain cycles indicated,
starting f r o m the origin: (a) T4, +0.9% total strain; (b) aged for 24 h at 190 C, +-1.0% total strain; (c) aged for
o . +
24 h at 190 C, tensile half-cycle only; (d) T4, - 0 . 7 % total strain (residual plastic strain is identical with that for
(b)).
74

4SO
Following Asaro, we designate the models
k i n e m a t i c I (or KI) f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l non-
i n f l e c t e d loops and k i n e m a t i c III (KIII) f o r lI
300
i n f l e c t e d behavior. The models assume t h a t a iI

set o f internal p a r a m e t e r s (a,/3, 3', . . . ) can be ii I


used t o describe t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e , and these
p a r a m e t e r s are recoverable w h e n the strain is
reversed. T h e s e q u e n c e o f r e c o v e r y d e t e r m i n e s
t h e t y p e o f hysteresis l o o p observed; this is ~_
150

0
/ II
ii I
/
equivalent t o saying t h a t the material has plas-
tic m e m o r y . "actual
-150.
KI behavior, first described b y Masing [5], /

assumes t h a t r e c o v e r y occurs in t h e same se-


q u e n c e as f o r w a r d strain. Thus, if (~,/3, 3', .) -300
--KI
r e p r e s e n t f o r w a r d plastic strains in a set o f mi- Isot ropic
c r o s t r u c t u r a l elastic/plastic e l e m e n t s each o f
which has t h e same dimensions b u t a d i f f e r e n t -450.

yield point, t h e n t h e strains at yield in t h e


reverse d i r e c t i o n will be (2a, 2/3, 23', . . . ) in
-llO0 . . . . . . .
the same elements [2]. Thus, if t h e stress- -I.5 -I.2 -0.9 -0.6 -0.3 0 0.3 0.8 O.t

strain relationship in the f o r w a r d d i r e c t i o n is (a) Strain (.%1


o = f ( e ) , t h e n in t h e reverse d i r e c t i o n it can
be calculated f r o m o = 2 f ( e / 2 ) . Using this 450

relationship, Asaro calculated t h e reverse-flow


curves f o r several c o m m e r c i a l alloys o n t h e
300-
basis o f e x p e r i m e n t a l f o r w a r d - f l o w d a t a and
o b t a i n e d g o o d a g r e e m e n t with e x p e r i m e n t a l l y
observed d a t a f o r cyclically stable materials. 150-
He observed b e h a v i o r i n t e r m e d i a t e b e t w e e n
KI and isotropic h a r d e n i n g * f o r cyclically IS
h a r d e n i n g materials. In Fig. 7(a) we c o m p a r e :
the first-cycle hysteresis l o o p f o r T4 material
o b t a i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y with t h e calculated
-150-
KI curve. A l t h o u g h t h e actual curve exhibits a
slightly stronger Bauschinger e f f e c t t h a n pre-
d i c t e d b y the KI m o d e l , the a g r e e m e n t be- -300-

t w e e n t h e o r y and e x p e r i m e n t is very g o o d . In
c o n t r a s t , t h e curve based o n a m o d e l o f iso-
-450
t r o p i c hardening, also s h o w n in Fig. 7(a), does -I.2 -0.9 -0.$ -0,3 0 0.3 0.6 0.| 1.2

n o t agree with e x p e r i m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e fact (h) Strain (.%)

t h a t cyclic h a r d e n i n g is observed in t h e T4
c o n d i t i o n (Fig. 5) shows t h a t t h e alloy is be- Fig. 7. Comparison between experimental first-cycle
having isotropically t o some e x t e n t . We con- hysteresis loops and loops calculated on the basis of
clude t h a t plastic r e c o v e r y does o c c u r in T 4 kinematic hardening models (see text for explanation):
(a) T4, Asaro's KI model is used, also shown is an
material o n reverse loading (i. e. dislocation open loop calculated on the basis of isotropic harden-
m o t i o n is p a r t l y reversible) and t h a t plastic ing; (b) aged for 2 weeks at 190 C, Asaro's KIII
strain develops in t h e various m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l model is used.

*Isotropic hardening allows only for expansion of


the yield surface, whereas kinematic hardening permits elements in t h e same s e q u e n c e during b o t h
translation to occur. The isotropic curve is obtained
by assuming that a reverse stress numerically equal to f o r w a r d and reverse loading. This is c o n s i s t e n t
the forward stress must be applied before yielding can with t h e idea t h a t dislocations are n o t " s t o r e d "
occur. Thus, no plastic recovery is allowed. during f o r w a r d loading.
75

KIII behavior occurs when plastic strain loops becomes ineffective during successive
recovery occurs in the opposite sequence ( . . . . cycles as cross-slip and dislocation tangling
7, ~3, ~) on reverse straining. The last structure prevent the loops from moving at low values
formed on forward loading is the first to relax of reverse stress.
when the loading direction is reversed, and so
on. For example, if the last element of plastic
strain in the forward-loading sequence is re- 6. CONCLUSIONS
presented by the Orowan loops formed around
non-shearable precipitates, these loops can (1) In an aluminum alloy 2024-T4 subjected
reverse direction and provide the initial plastic to additional aging for times up to 336 h at
strain observed when the stress direction is 190 C, inflected stress-strain hysteresis loops
reversed. In Fig. 7(b) we compare the first- are observed during the first few cycles of
cycle experimental hysteresis loop for material subsequent fatigue testing at r o o m tempera-
aged for 2 weeks at 190 C b e y o n d T4 with ture, depending on the aging time. Inflections
the reverse-strain curve calculated from the begin to develop after the early stages of aging
KIII model. Both loops show strong inflec- and are strongly developed after aging to peak
tions, and the plastic work done during the strength or somewhat beyond. Strongly over-
cycle (the area of the loop) is reduced signifi- aged material exhibits only a very weak inflec-
cantly. The flow curve observed on reverse tion. In all cases the inflections disappear
yielding, however, is rounded in contrast with rapidly with continued cycling.
the sharp yield point predicted by the KIII (2) Coincident with the development of
model, implying that the barriers to dislocation inflected hysteresis loops as a function of ag-
motion during reverse yielding are reduced in ing time, there is a dramatic increase in the
some way. Asaro has suggested, for example, Bauschinger back stress ob and the Bauschinger
that the screening of precipitate particles strain t3, and the fatigue response shifts rapidly
from the glide dislocations by Orowan loops from cyclic hardening to moderate cyclic soft-
during reverse flow may contribute to this ening.
rounding of the reverse-yield region [2]. A (3) The surface appearance of the material
further point is that the alloy in its artificially over the first strain cycle changes from sharply
aged condition is closer to cyclic stability than defined planar slip with strong surface relief
in the T4 condition. This also implies that a at zero stress in the T4 condition to weakly
kinematic model (no cyclic hardening) pro- defined diffuse slip and very little surface relief
vides an appropriate description of the hyster- in material exhibiting a strongly inflected
esis behavior, although the small degree of hysteresis loop. This implies that dislocation
cyclic softening observed implies some micro- motion is finely dispersed and predominantly
structural instability which is not incorporated reversible in the latter case b u t not in the T4
into the model. Overall, we conclude that the condition.
KIII model fits the observations reasonably (4) These observations are consistent with
well and therefore that dislocations stored a specific model involving storage of glide dis-
during forward loading (presumably as Orowan locations in the form of Orowan loops around
loops) contribute strongly to the strain ob- strong precipitate particles during forward
served at low reverse loads in the artificially strain in those cases where inflected hysteresis
aged material. When the stored dislocations loops are observed. The stored dislocations
are exhausted, the reverse stress must then are available to assist reverse deformation at a
rise before the contribution of the next strain low stress during the second part of the strain
element (such as reversed Orowan looping in cycle, thus giving rise to the inflected loops.
the reverse direction) becomes appreciable. The disappearance of the inflections during
Finally, we note that with continued cycling continued cycling reflects a gradual loss of
the hysteresis behavior reverts from KIII to dislocation reversibility.
KI type, as shown in Fig. 2(g), consistent with (5) The hysteresis behavior observed in this
a shift in the sequence of operation of plastic material is quantitatively in agreement with
strain elements during reverse straining. Spe- stress-strain hysteresis loops derived on the
cifically, we expect this shift to occur as the basis of a model of kinematic (memory-de-
storage of dislocations in the form of Orowan pendent) hardening developed by Asaro.
76

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

1 R. F. Stoltz and R. M. Pelloux, Metall. Trans. A, 7


(1976) 1295-1306.
This paper is based in part on research 2 R . J . Asaro,ActaMetall., 23 (1975) 1255-1265.
performed by Paul N. Pica in fulfilment of 3 W. J. Plumbridge, E. G. Ellison and K. T. Norman,
senior thesis requirements, and by Tulin K. Met. Sci., 17 (1983) 369-378.
4 J. Bauschinger, Proc. Inst. Cir. Eng. (London), 87
Hidayetoglu in partial fulfilment of M.S. The- (1886) 463.
sis requirements, in Metallurgical Engineering 5 G. Masing, Wiss. Verfff. Siemens-Konzern, 3
at Wayne State University. (1927).

También podría gustarte