CHAPTER 14 Plane Polar Coordinates and Spherical Coordinates Although cartesian, or rectangular, coordinates are the first ones we [earn to use and use most often, they are not always the most convenient. For ex system has @ natural center of symmetry, as in the case of an atom wit ample, if the hits massive ‘nucleus at its center, itis much more convenient to use spherical coordinates, which are constructed with exactly such systems in mind. Thee are many examples of Problems that become much easier by using the appropriate choice of coordinate system, Usually, the symmetry of the system will suggest which of a number of §vailable coordinate systems to use. In this chapter, we'll study polar coordinates and spherical coordinates and learn how to express vector quantities, such as the {gradient andthe divergence, in these coordinate systems 14.1 Plane Polar Coordinates Instead of locating a point in a plane by the two coordinates (x,y), we can locate i equally wel by specifying its distance r fom the origin, and the angle @ that | {he line from the origin to the point makes with the postive x axis (Figure 1.1) The coordinates r and @ ae called polar coordinates. We sh ard allow 0 to vary from 0 to 2. You can see from Figure | Petween rectangular coordinates and polar coordinates isi ey) all restrict r to r > 0 r 14.1 that the relation en by \ x=rcos@ and rsing (4) and Figure 14.4, The specification ofthe location of a point ina plane by polar a6 te ene eS (142) coordinates (8) Paxtyy?180 Figure 14.2. The point y= v3 Figure 14.3. A geometrical ‘construction of the differential area ‘element in polar coordinates. The 7 r ‘and Equation 14.2 says that estan Use each of these relations to calculate @ for the point (x = 1, y = ~v3) (Figure 14.2). SOLUTION: In this case,r you'll find that (x? + y2)'?? = 2, Using a hand calculator, ra ( none of which is correct! The point lies in the third quadrant, and the ‘correct answer is 180° + cos~'(1/2) = 240°. The problem here is that the arceosine, arcsine, and arctangent are multivalued functions. oS) Consider an integral ofthe form I= ff ara seo» (143) ‘over some region R in the xy plane. What is the form of the corresponding integral in polar coordinates? Let's realize atthe outset that dxdy does not become simply ‘drd@. To see just what it does become, refer to Figure 14.3, where you can see the differential area element that is mapped out when r changes by dr and & changes by d@. Because dr and d® are infinitesimally small, the area is essentially rectangular, with sides dr and rd@ (the arclength) as indicated in Figure 14.3. Thus, the correct transformation of a differential area element in cartesian coordinatesChapter 44: Plane Polar Coordinates and Spherical Coordinates, to plane polar coordinates is dixdy —> rdrdé, and so we have daw rdnao ass in polar coordinates. Therefore, Equation 14.3 becomes. r= |f cara 50.0 ass in polar coordinates. Let's use Equation 14.5 to determine the area bounded by a closed curve (in which case f(r.) = 1). Figure 14.4 shows a curve called a cardioid. (Many curves in polar coordinates have colorful names. The School of Mathematics at the University of St, Andrews, Scotland, has an outstanding tutorial website— wwnwshistory.mes.st-and.ac.ul/history/— with a “Famous Curves Index” that gives interactive access to almost 100 “famous curves,” with names such as Freeth’s nephroid, Fermat's spiral, and the conchoid of de Sluze.) Anyway, the equation for the cardioid shown in Figure 14.4 is r = a( +c0s9). Because we are given r(@), Equation 14.5 becomes an 2 ap fel arr=} | aor) 49(1 + c0s0F bh Oh z fe ‘The integral [act (146) is not easy to evaluate by elementary methods, but Equation 14,5 provides a stan- dard trick to evaluate it. First write /? as Pe face Payee = [OP acayee an Notice that we did not write 1? as fo dx Jo" dx e-®*", whatever that notation would mean. We must use two different dummy integration variables when we express /? asa double integral, as in Equation 14.7. Now we convert Equation 14.7 to plane polar coordinates and obtain Pe [f rardoe (148) Let's look at the integration limits of r and 6. The tegion of integration in Equation 14.7 is the entire first quadrant (0 < x < ooand0 < y < 00). Therefore, the limits of r and @ are 0 0, sind. What does tis Calculate the area enclosed by the curve described by r = 2cos28(lemniscate ‘of Beroulli). Be sure to sketch the curve first in order to determin the limits on 8. Remember that r > 0 Express the following points given in cartesian coordinates in terms of spherical eoordinates: (x,y,z): (1.0.0); (1,0): (0.0.1); (0,0, ~1, Deseribe the graphs ofthe following equations in spherical coordinates: @r WG=7/4 (©) b=n/2 Use Equation 14.12 1 determine the volume of a hemisphere of radius a Use Equation 14.14 to determine the surface area of a hemisphere of radius a Evaluate the integral 08? # sin’ # de by leting x = cose, A 2p, hydrogen atom obits given by 1 Wx” Show that Ya, isnormalized. (Don't forget to square Yap, frst) {As hydrogen atomic orbit is given by 1 Way = (2 = ren? vem Tyee Show tat Va, is normalized (Do forget to square ya, fst) Ve, “sind sing Show hat . n@.9=(2) "ene ¥K@.0)= 2) “ono sd . wiee= (2) "etsine are orthonormal over the surface ofa unit sphere Evaluate the integral of cos@ and cos? 6 over the surface ofa unit sphere We frequently use the notation dr to represent the volume element in spherical coordinates. Evaluate the integrals Chapter 14: Plane Polar Coordinates 1444 45, 46. nd Spherical Coordinates 189 ‘where the integral is overall space (in ather words, ver all possible values of. 0, and 6). ‘Show thatthe two functions f(r: @) = 2° cos and f(r, 8) = (2— re"? cosé are orthogonal over all space (in ather words, over all possible values ofr, 8, and @).. ‘We shall transform ¥? from two-dimensional cartesian coordinates to polar ‘coordinates inthis problem and the next problem. Ifa function f(r, @) depends upon the polar coordinates rand 2, then the chain rule of partial differentiation 9-9...» (O20), For simplicity, we shall assume that r is equal toa constant, so that we can ‘ignore terms involving derivatives with respect tor. Using equations 1 and 2, uy om) (8) <8#(8) 0 "@)-E@)-0]). fel and that Similarly, show that (35 and that BL PL 1 Generalize Problem 14-15 othe ease of «particle moving in a plane under the influence of a central force; in other words, convert pee “an to plane polar coordin Equation 149), this time without assuming that risa constant (see1. I8 ls, 14-20, 1421 1422 Chapter 44: Plane Polar Coordinates and Spherical Coordinates Show that u(r, 8, @) coordinates, Vu = 0, ‘sin8 cos ¢ satisties Laplace's equation in spherical ‘Show that u(r.) = 1? sin? 80824 satistes Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates, V2u Derive Equations 14.28 and 14.2. Determine the Fourier transform of f(r) = erin where a isa constant. irae" ~ ‘We determined the conversion of te differential area element from cartesian r drd®) geometvcally using Figure 14.3. There isan analytic method that we cen use to make the transformation, whichis given by ax/ar ax/ae Wy/8r ay/ao \here the determinant on the right side here is called « Jacobian determinant. (See Chapter 17 fora discussion of determinants) If we substitute Equae tions 14.1 into equation 1, we find dxdy = dro a cos —rsing sind reos@ axfar 64/00) _ = = Hoos? + sin? ay/ar ayyae | : a in agreement with Equation 144. This procedure is readily extended to three dimensions. Use the three-dimensional extension of equation 1 to derive Equation 14.12, Derive Equation 14.24,