MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES OF THE ONE LAPTOP PER CHILD INITIATIVE: THE CASE OF MONGOLIA

Student Number: 11M51175 Name: John AUXILLOS Supervisors: Shinobu YAMAGUCHI & Jun-ichi TAKADA

This study employs a multi-phased pragmatic mixed-methods research that investigates the impact of the One
Laptop Per Child (OLPC) initiative introduced in Mongolian in 2008. The OLPC is a non-profit organization founded
by Nicholas Negroponte in 2005 to empower the worlds underserved children, following the constructivist learning
theory, through purposely built low-cost and rugged laptops filled with educational software. In Mongolia, 46 schools
were given a total of 12,100 OLPC XO1 laptops and this research analyzes both quantitative and qualitative data
collected between December 2011 and May 2013 from the stakeholders. The findings indicate that children develop
differently and the impact also proliferated to the community. While these findings are not generalizable, it builds a
case for further research.

1. Introduction 2. Literature Review

Over three decades ago, Seymor Papert, a protge of a
Swiss development psychologist named Jean Piaget,
suggested that it is possible to design computers so
that learning to communicate with them can be a
natural process and when computers are designed
suitably, it was envisioned that learning to
communicate with it, as suggested by the
constructionist learning theory, will change how
learning takes place. (Papert, 1980, p. 6). In 1980,
Papert and Nicholas Negroponte conducted an
experiment in Dakar, Senegal and found that children
they encountered would learn how to use the computer
similar to middle-class Americans (Negroponte, 1996).
These ideas and experiments lead to the launch of the
One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) initiative in 2005 with a
goal of designing, manufacturing, and distributing
laptops with a target price of 100 USD for children
between the ages of 6 to 12 in underserved areas in the
world.
The OLPC is a non-profit organization and its
vision is also embodied in its name. Thoughtful design
of laptops is believed to create learning opportunities
for children. What they envisioned is not that of a
teacher in a classroom teaching, but rather children
exploring and building a mental model of ideas and
knowledge using a laptop. Around the world, there are
54 countries with OLPC deployments to date (One
Laptop Per Child, 2011)
In Mongolia, the OLPC initiative was introduced
by two MIT students, Enkhmunkh Zurgaanjin and Jan
Jungclaus. By late 2007, a Memorandum of
Understanding was made between OLPC and the
Mongolian government to introduce the laptop to
children in the rural area and in Ulaanbaatar City
(Embassy of Mongolia, 2007). A total of 12,100 OLPC
XO1 laptops were distributed throughout the country to
46 schools.
The objective of this research is twofold. The first
is to document and understand the impact of the OLPC
XO1 laptops distributed in Mongolia since 2008 on the
children and other stakeholders. The second is to
conduct this research using a pragmatic mixed methods
approach, a methodological exercise, to be able to
illicit breadth and depth in understanding the context of
the stakeholders of the project.
There is widespread belief that there is a need to do
research on ICT in education as it is generally
believed that ICTs can empower teachers and learners,
promote change and foster the development of 21st
century skills, but data to support these beliefs are still
limited. (Trucano, 2005, p. 5)
In the studies conducted over the past decade,
impact of the use of computers and its software on
student learning achievement scores has not been
found (Angrist, 2002; Institute of Education Sciences,
2007). Specifically, in a two-year randomized
evaluation of the Computer for Education project in
Columbia published in 2009, there was little impact on
math and Spanish test scores (Barrera-Osorio &
Linden). In a large-scale randomized evaluation of the
OLPC program in Peru after 15 months of
implementation in 319 primary schools found no
evidence of effect on test scores in Math and Language
(Cristia, Ibarrarn, Cueto, & Santiago, 2012).
There are various opinions about the OLPC
project in current literature. James (2010) questions the
need for the one laptop per child ratio that the OLPC
adopted, especially in the context of improving
education in developing countries. Mitras project in
India (2006) found evidence that groups of children
using a computer can have positive results. In Uruguay,
Hourcade (2008) found that in spite of problems with
infrastructure, hardware, and software problems, there
was a positive impact on children, the school, and the
town, with children specifically increasing their
interest in reading and writing. In Peru, researchers
found that cognitive abilities may increase through
using the programs on the laptop and it was reflected in
slight increases measured by Ravens Matrices (Cristia,
Ibarrarn, Cueto, & Santiago, 2012). In Nepal,
researchers claim that OLPC allowed teachers to fully
integrate ICT-based instruction since students can
continue learning outside the classroom (Bhatta, 2008).
Literature about the OLPC in Mongolia is limited.
No journal articles have been published thus far on this
country deployment. Therefore this study serves to
contribute towards understanding the OLPC
deployment in the Mongolian context. It furthers the
current literature by conducting a study with the use of
multiple perspectives.
3. Methodology
3.1. Mixed-Methods
Mixed-methods was chosen because of three reasons:
First, the research problem of this study is a complex
one that seeks to understand the relationship of a piece
of technology, the people who use it, and also in the
context of the community they are in. The second
reason is the limited information available for the
study, which is a reality in developing countries. The
third is the lack of a standard methodology for fully
assessing the impact of computers on children
(Trucano, 2005).
This study was conducted between December
2011 and May 2013 including six field visits to
Mongolia. Both quantitative and qualitative data
collection techniques were used to gather different
perspectives. It involved three phases.
3.1.1. Phase 1
The first phase focused on establishing a base of
knowledge in the case of Mongolia and seeks to
answer: 1. What is the context the OLPC was
introduced in Mongolia? 2. What is the extent of the
project implementation? 3. What are the available
information about the OLPC initiative in Mongolia? 4.
What are the opportunities and challenges the OLPC
initiative are facing in Mongolia?
Interviews and focus group discussions were
conducted with two members of the OLPC Project
Management Unit in Mongolia, 10 teachers, 4 training
managers, and 7 methodologists. A questionnaire was
also distributed to all 46 OLPC schools where 34
schools responded. This covered the following five
aspects: 1) the background of the school, 2)
infrastructure available at the school, 3) OLPC
distribution information, 4) status of the hardware, and
5) the views of the initiative.
3.1.2. Phase 2
The second phase was a quasi-experimental study
conducted with the use of two instruments. It intends to
understand the impact of the OLPC measured by
student learning achievement scores and a computer
attitude measure. Data was collected from 2000
students in November 2012 from 14 schools, where
half were control schools. Of the 7 pairs of schools, 3
pairs were from the capital city, and one pair of schools
was then selected from the northern, southern, eastern,
and western regions. Schools were paired on the basis
of location and advise from the local education
specialists.
The first instrument was the Mongolian National
Assessment of Primary Education Mathematics and
Reading for 5th graders, a student learning achievement
instrument developed, piloted, and administered in
2008 under the World Bank Rural Education and
Development project. Among 7 paired schools, 3 pairs,
one pair from Khovd province and two pairs from
Ulaanbaatar City, were selected for the analysis with a
total of 489 valid samples. The mathematics test
included questions relating to numeracy, algebra,
geometry, and probability while the reading test
covered topics on language use, meaning, grammar,
and an essay section. To analyze the data, the
following OLS (ordinary least squares) model was
used to estimate the effect of the OLPC XO1 laptops
on math score (1) and reading score (2), controlling for
relevant factors:
. = ! + ! .
+ ! .
+ ! . + ! 02.0
+ ! 14.0 + ! 16.0
+ ! 20.0
(1)
+ ! . .
+
. = ! + ! .
+ ! .
+ ! . + ! 02.0
+ ! 14.0 + ! 16.0
(2)
+ ! 20.0
+ ! . .
+
where math.score and reading.score represents the
outcome variable, and case.category is a dummy
variable for treatment assignment status. Control
variables include socioeconomic.index an 18-point
scale measuring available materials at home and school.
Other variables included are, student.sex (a dummy
variable), the number of family members (stq02.0), the
daily hours a student spends on homework (stq14.0),
the daily hours a student spends on house chores
(stq16.0), the daily hours a student spends watching
TV (stq20.0), and the total number of Grade 5 students
divided by the number of Grade 5 classes in a school
(student.class.ratio). Finally, error is the error term.
The coefficient ! is the parameter of interest and
corresponds to an estimate of the average treatment
effect. ! to ! are the coefficients of the control
variables.
The second instrument was the Computer
Attitude Measure for Young Students (CAMYS), a tool
to measure childrens disposition towards computers.
The CAMYS scale is presented as a 5-point Likert
scale (5 - strongly agree to 1 - strongly disagree) that
consists of twelve questions divided into three groups:
1) perceived ease of use; 2) affect towards computer;
and 3) perceived usefulness. Independent samples t-test
was used to compare the average CAMYS scores of 7
paired schools with a total of 1596 valid samples.
3.1.3. Phase 3
The third phase is a confirmation of the data collected
in the first two phases with the use of case studies. The
research questions of this phase are as follows:
1) What are the similar experiences of using the
OLPC in the different schools?
2) What are the similar issues of concern of the
different OLPC schools?
3) What are the similar observed impacts of the
OLPC across schools and different stakeholders of
the project?
 4) What are the unique practices of specific OLPC student sex and the daily hours a student watches TV,
schools that can lead to better implementation of the suggest the followings: 1) female students would score
initiative? 1.46 points higher on average; and 2) students who
Interviews and focus group discussions were spend longer hours watching TV would score 0.95
conducted with a total of 15 children, 22 teachers, 2 points higher.
parents, 5 school administrators, and 2 methodologists
from Tsast-Altai, a school in Khovd province, School . = 24.76 + 3.42.
#52 in the center of Ulaanbaatar city, and School #12 0.01.
in the periphery of Ulaanbaatar city. 2.16.
0.2402.0 + 0.1214.0
(4)
+ 0.3016.0 + 1.2920.0
4. Findings + 0.04. .
+
4.1. Findings from Phase 1
The reading results is ! = 0.065, 8,480 =
The OLPC initiative introduced in 2008 is the largest 4.187, < 0.001 . Variable of interest is
ICT in Education project for Mongolia. With 12,100
. = 3.42 and is statistically significant
laptops distributed to 46 schools, this was primarily a
at the 99% level, indicating that a student with an
rural project as 57% (26) schools that participated were
OLPC computer can score an average of 3.42 points
rural schools and 61% (7494) of laptops were
higher for a 52-point reading learning achievement test.
distributed to rural schools. Electricity was available
Similar to the math results, two significant control
for 89% (41) of the participating schools. Internet was
variables, student sex and the daily hours a student
available for 59% (27) schools but this does not
watches TV, suggest the following analysis: 1) female
indicate whether students themselves can access the
students would score 2.16 points higher on average;
internet on their laptops. As a matter of national policy,
and 2) students who spend longer hours watching TV
the OLPC XO1 laptops distributed are the property of
would score 1.29 points higher.
the state and parents must sign a tripartite contract with
Independent-samples t-tests were conducted to
their childs teacher and the school that binds parents
compare mean computer disposition as measured by
to any costs incurred when the laptop needs to be
the CAMYS instrument in OLPC and non-OLPC
repaired due to damages arising from their childs
schools. It was found that rural schools (Darkhan-Uul,
usage or loss. The OLPC initiative and responsibility
Dornogobi, Khovd, and Sukhbaatar) all exhibited
was handed to the Ministry of Education and Science,
statistical differences in the average computer
who formed a Project Management Unit (PMU) to
disposition of 5th grade students, whereas urban
oversee the program. Gaps were found on the
schools (UB Bayangol and UB Khaanuul) exhibited
understanding of the project objectives from the
similar average computer disposition. UB
different levels of the stakeholders. The OLPC vision
Songingnokhairhain is the exception to the urban
was to empower children by providing them with
schools group since and is likely because of its location
learning opportunities through the XO1 laptop. The
at the periphery of the capital city.
state understood the project as enabling access to
education. Teachers understood project as giving
children the opportunity to be exposed to ICT. At this 4.3. Findings from Phase 3
moment, the future of the OLPC initiative in Mongolia Schools that were visited indicated that children are
is uncertain as indicated by the PMU. able to develop a variety of skills as a result of the
OLPC program. Stakeholders have also indicated that
4.2. Findings from Phase 2 the OLPC has a positive benefit to teachers, parents,
and the community such as increasing teachers and
The result of the OLS Regression on the Mongolian
parents ICT skills. In one school a parent indicated
National Assessment of Primary Education
that because of the program, they are now willing and
Mathematics and Reading is as follows:
able to invest in buying their own computer and also
support repair costs of broken laptops.
. = 23.03 + 2.37.
0.02.
1.46. 5. Discussion
0.1902.0 0.2714.0
(3) As a result of the interviews and focus group
0.0416.0 + 0.9520.0
+ 0.02. .
discussions with the different stakeholders, several
+ trends have emerged that can solicit further
investigation. 1) The OLPC lead a bottom-up adoption
The math results is ! = 0.050, 8,480 = of ICT. 2) Teachers worked together to teach
3.17, < 0.01 . The variable of interest was themselves ICT. 3) Teachers believe there is a positive
. = 2.37 and is statistically significant impact on childrens development. 4) Teachers were
at the 99% level. This indicates that a student with an able to find a means of maximizing the utility of the
OLPC computer can score an average of 2.37 points XO1 laptops. 5) The design of the XO1 laptop is a
higher for a 44-point math learning achievement test. deterrent to theft. 6) There was a positive acceptance of
In addition, two significant control variables, namely,
the OLPC initiative. 7) There are possible negative
repercussions.
As there is also no coherent national policy on
how the XO should be integrated into the curriculum,
every school had its own policy and a variation of its
implementation. It was observed that the integration of
the OLPC XO1 into the school curriculum was
influenced by Teachers motivation, school
administrator leadership, and methodologist leadership.
In terms of the impact of the OLPC initiative in
Mongolia, student learning achievement scores indicate
positive results. However, the low ! indicates other
factors to predict test scores are not present in the
model, and thus further investigation is required. On
the qualitative side, there are many interesting findings
from the teachers that should be used as areas to further
validate in future studies. The stakeholders who took
part in this study strongly believe in the positive effect
of the OLPC program. The positive effects, which
include communication skills and creativity, are not
measurable by student learning achievement tests.
6. Conclusion
Seymour Paperts idea of designing computers so that
learning to communicate with it as a natural process
that facilitated learning drove the creation of One
Laptop Per Child initiative. Mongolia is one of 54
countries around the world with OLPC XO1 laptops
deployed with the hopes to improve education.
This research studied the impact of the OLPC
initiative in Mongolia from multiple perspectives,
looking at learning achievement scores, computer
attitude measures, perspectives of children and the
different stakeholders.
The implementation of the OLPC initiative in
Mongolia started with a PMU overseeing the entire
deployment but later moved towards a model where the
school would be the center with its own policies and
sources of support for the program. Each school had a
different implementation because of a variety of factors
such as schools leadership, access to resources,
proximity to UB, support of the community, and
teachers ability to implement.
Student learning achievement scores indicate that
students with an OLPC computer can score higher for
both math and reading. While it is indicated that there
are some gains, these cannot be generalized for the
entire case of Mongolia as it did not pass some of the
rigors of randomized control tests. Computer attitude
measure on paired schools found rural schools all
exhibited statistical differences in the average
computer disposition of 5th grade students, whereas
urban schools, with the exception of the one located at
the periphery, exhibited similar average computer
disposition.
Interviews and focus group discussions with 68
stakeholders found that the OLPC was a positive
experience for children, teachers, parents, and the
community. The different stakeholders believe that
children have learned computer literacy and typing
skills, and it is also able to foster creativity,
communication, and independence.
On the other hand, the study also found there are
multiple challenges that teachers, parents, and school
administrators face, in planning and implementing
OLPC initiatives at school level, including financial
implications for the parents.
This research concludes that there is an impact in
several areas but it is not generalizable in entire
Mongolia, and thus, needs to be further studied.
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