QuantumPhenomena

Considering light as a particle

ThephotoelectricEffect
If you shine radiation of high enough frequency onto the surface of a metal it will instantly emit electrons (photoelectrons)
For most metals, the necessary frequency of these photons falls in the ultraviolet range
Metallic bonding means that free electrons are able to move through metal and the electrons near the surface
absorb energy from radiation, making them vibrate
If an electron absorbs enough energy, the bonds holding it to the metal break and electron can be released
This is known as the photoelectric effect

The main results of this experiment lead to 4 main conclusions:

- For a given metal, no photoelectrons are emitted below a certain

frequency - the threshold frequency

- The photoelectrons are emitted with a variety of kinetic energies ranging

from 0 to some maximum value

- Intensity of the radiation is the amount of energy per second hitting an area
of the metal

- Number of photoelectrons emitted per second is proportional to the

intensity of the radiation, providing evidence for one to one interaction
between photons and electrons - particle model of light

ThresholdFrequency
The wave theory of light cannot explain why no photoelectrons are emitted below a certain frequency because this
idea suggests that each incoming wavefront of light would give surface electrons more and more energy until they
had enough to be emitted from the surface. The model would also not explain the range of kinetic energies of the
photoelectrons as it would suggest that the higher the intensity of the radiation the greater the kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons, but experiment shows that intensity has no effect on Ek

Max Planck suggested that light actually travels as discrete packets or quanta and the energy of this packet:

hc
E = hf =

Einstein then called these packets photons and said that they have a one to one particle- like interaction with an electron
in a metal surface. Each photon would transfer all its energy to one specific electron
Demonstratingthephotoelectriceffect
A zinc plate is attached to the top of
an electroscope and the zinc plate is negatively
charged (meaning metal in box is negatively
charged)
The negatively charged metal repels the
gold leaf (also just been negatively charged),
causing it to rise up
Shining UV light onto the zinc plate
causes electrons to be lost from zinc plate
due to the photoelectric effect
Metal in box loses negative charge and
so gold leaf no longer repelled and falls

If the zinc plate becomes positively charged,

photoelectric effect will only increase positive
charge as electrons lost from the metal. Gold leaf may move upwards as positive charge on metal and leaf increases.

Workfunctionandthresholdfrequency
When EM radiation is incident on a metal surface, one photon will give an electron energy equal to hf.
Before an electron can leave the metal surface, it has to have enough energy to break the bonds holding it
there. This energy is known as the work function () and is dependent on the metal.
If the energy gained by the photon is greater than the work function, then the electron will have some kinetic
energy. The greater the energy the electron gains, the greater its kinetic energy when it is emitted.
If the electron does not gain enough energy to leave the metal then it will just shake around a bit and then
release energy as another photon. Metal will heat up a bit but no photoelectrons emitted

fo = h For electrons to be released hf

MaximumKineticEnergy
The energy the electron gains from EM radiation is energy it absorbs from one photon minus work function and any
other energy losses. The minimum amount of energy an electron can lose is the work function, this would give max Ek.
However, some energy is lost when electrons leave the metal due to collisions with other particles. Deeper
electrons therefore lose more energy than surface electrons, giving rise to range of kinetic energies.

hf = + E k (max)

hf = + 1
2
mv (max)
2
-Thephotoelectricequation

The kinetic energy of the electrons is independent of the intensity of the radiation. If the radiation is above the threshold
frequency, then more photoelectrons will be emitted per second the higher the intensity because there will be more
one to one interactions between photons and electrons

StoppingPotential
The maximum kinetic energy of an electrons can be measured with the idea of stopping potential.
Photoelectrons emitted by the photoelectric effect can be made to lose their energy by doing work (transferring
their energy) against a potential difference.
The stopping potential - potential difference needed to stop the fastest moving electron with Ek (max).
Work done by potential difference is equal to energy it was carrying:

eVs =
Ek (max)

Energylevelsinatoms
The electron volt is a unit of measure of the energy that electrons carry
Electron volt - the kinetic energy carried by an electron after it has been accelerated from rest through a potential of 1
volt.

You can convert between eV and J with:

1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J

Electrons in an atom can only exist in discrete energy levels. Each level is
given a number where n=1 is the ground state and n= i s where the
electron has zero energy, electron has left the atom.
The ionisation energy - minimum energy required to remove an electron
from its ground state (energy of n=1)
Excited - when electrons gain energy and move up into higher energy levels
Electrons can move down energy levels by emitting photons.
However, since the energy levels within atoms only exist in discrete
levels, the photons released can only take specific energies
Excitation of electrons only occurs when the electrons absorb a
photon of an exact amount of energy that coincides to energy level
transition

Fluorescenttubes
Fluorescent tubes use the excitation of electrons and photon emission to produce visible light
They contain mercury vapour, across which a high voltage is applied
This accelerates fast-moving free electrons that ionise some of the mercury atoms, producing more free
electrons.
The electrons in the tube then collide with mercury atoms and excite the electrons to higher energy levels.
When electrons move back down in their levels, they release h igh energy photons that correspond to
wavelengths in the UV spectrum
A phosphorus coating on the inside of the tube absorbs these photons and electrons are excited in the
phosphorus atoms
Electrons cascade down energy levels and release photons that correspond to the visible spectrum
LineEmissionSpectra

If you split light up from a fluorescent tube

with a prism or a diffraction grating, you
get a line spectrum where each of the
bright lines correspond to the
wavelengths emitted by the source.
This gives information about the energy
levels of the atoms in the tube eg
phosphorus. The black region shows that
these particular wavelengths of visible
light were not emitted.

Lineabsorptionspectra

You get line absorption spectra when light with a continuous spectrum of energy (white light) passes through a cool
gas.
At low temperatures, most of the electrons in the gas atoms will be in their ground states. Photons of the correct
wavelength are absorbed by the atoms to excite electrons to higher energy levels.
These wavelengths are then missing from the continuous spectrum when it comes out of the other side of the gas.

If this is done with an excited gas (eg high temperature) then the lines are in the same place but the only light that
is emitted is the ones from the transitions of electrons into lower energy levels.
This is the example of the fluorescent tube above and the lines correspond for each spectra as ones absorbed in
first example due to electrons moving up in energy levels but in second image, same energy gap where
electrons moving down and emitting photons.