The Best Practices of Crisis Management

Nicole Lynch

The University of Maryland, College Park

What is Crisis Management?

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Crisis management is a fundamental organizational function. It is never a question

of if an organization will face a crisis, but a question of where and when the crisis

will occur (Larsson & Rudwall, 2010). Merriam-Webster (2011) defines a crisis as a

crucial time or state of affairs in which a decisive change is impending, especially one

with the distinct possibility of a highly undesirable outcome. Further, crisis management

is detailed as the process designed to prevent or lessen the damage a crisis can inflict on

an organization and its stakeholders (Institute for Public Relations, 2007, n.p.).

Crisis management substantiates as an umbrella term it encompasses a vast

grouping of functions and provinces. Managing a crisis is never complete, because it is an

equally proactive and reactive process. This means that when an organization is not in hot

water, its public relations team should be taking the precautionary measures to preserve

its stature. Accordingly, a culture of emergency preparedness should be evepresent

throughout an organization.

The Value of Crisis Management

Because every organization is vulnerable to crisis, crisis management is the

backbone of public relations. The unpredictable and often instantaneous nature of a crisis

manifests the potential to disfigure an organizations unblemished reputation. This is

where public relations professionals step in.

Public relations professionals must recognize the weight of public perception.

Fault is no longer the threshold of a crisis. If an organizations publics merely suspect it is

at fault, its entire image is at risk (Benoit, 1997). Therefore, practitioners in this field

have the power and purpose to mitigate crises before they dismantle an entire

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organization, even if there was no wrongdoing or misconduct. Without a seasoned public

relations team, an organization would not survive a crisis.

Crisis Management Best Practices

The purpose of the paper is to explore the best practices of crisis management in

the public relations field. The literature review presents an in-depth analysis of each crisis

management phase and arranges a sequential framework for addressing crisis

consequences.

Pre-Crisis Preparation

Jonathan Bernstein of Bernstein Crisis Management (2016) warns, The days of

playing ostrich burying your head in the sand and hoping the problem goes away are

gone (n.p.). Bernstein pushes professionals to be cognizant of any presages of a

forthcoming crisis. Crisis Management: Planning for the Inevitable the most widely-

read crisis management book advises public relations professionals to view and plan

for the inevitability of a crisis in much the same way one views and plans for the

inevitability of death and taxes: not out of weakness or fear, but out of the strength that

comes from knowing you are prepared to play the hand that fate deals you (Fink, 1986,

p. 2).

The foremost practices of pre-crisis preparation are two-fold. According to

Timothy Coombs, Ph.D. (2007), organizations are best equipped for a crisis when they

update their crisis management plan annually and pre-draft crisis management

statements.

The Halo Effect

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Research confirms a favorable pre-crisis reputation shields organizations against

reputation loss in comparison to organizations withstanding unfavorable pre-crisis

reputations (Claeys & Cauberghe, 2014). This cognitive bias was termed The Halo Effect

by psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1920. His phenomenon indicates that an evaluation

of one specific attribute of an organization generalizes to the global evaluation of the

entire organization. In other words, a figurative halo influences ones habitual judgments

towards an organization. In public relations, an approving Halo Effect enhances an

organizations pre-crisis prestige to deflect the potential reputation damage from a

crisis (Coombs & Holladay, 2006, p.123). Organizations can nurture customer loyalty

and satisfaction through transparency, expertise and amiability.

Crisis Management Plan

Failing to plan is planning to fail. It is constructive to call to mind that Noah

started the construction of his arc before it began to rain (Augustine, 1995). Like Noahs

arc, a crisis management plan is pre-crafted to guide an organization through fully

managing a crisis while preserving a composed public image.

Research in the United States and Europe shows 80 perfect of companies lacking

well-conceived contingency plans are forced out of business within two years of suffering

a major crisis (Jaques, 2009). In contrast, a study by Holland and Gill (2006) concluded

that 99 percent of organizations that implemented crisis management plans discerned

them to be valuable in responding to crises.

The paramount element of a pragmatic crisis management plan is its flexibility.

Due to the abrupt nature of a crisis, malleable response modules are indispensable

because real crises rarely directly match planning scenarios (Harvard Business School,

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2002, n.p.). Because a crisis never occurs the same way twice, each crisis management

plan should distinguish unique warning signs, key publics, relevant media contacts,

emergency personnel, and response guidelines for the crisis management team to assess

(Institute for Crisis Management, n.d.).

Crisis Management Team

In addition to the written plan, a harmonious crisis management team is core to

successfully managing the crisis at hand. A modest-sized team of senior personnel who

are knowledgeable in public relations, law, security, operations, finance and human

resources should be assembled (Coombs, 2007). The roster is compromised of the first

responders in the event of a crisis. When facing a crisis, it is impossible to reverse time.

For this reason, it is imperative that the team will come together when the possibility of

an event exists, not just when a crisis occurs, according to The MHA Consulting Team

(2016, n.p.).

A crisis leader is hand-picked to delegate and synthesize the divergent functions

of a crisis management team. Jamie Watters (2013), author of Disaster Recovery, Crisis

Response and Business Continuity, pinpoints a crisis leaders responsibilities as ensuring

that adequate action is planned and adequate progress is being made (n.p.). The leader

has to be confident in his/her own judgment while looking at themselves critically. They

have to be committed to action but flexible enough to change course if circumstances

warrant it (Jani, 2012, p. 2). Compelling crisis leaders act with thick skin and a steady

hand.

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Pre-Draft Messages

If an organization does not communicate immediately following a crisis, it forfeits

its greatest opportunity to preside over its events (Freeo, n.d.). It is in the best interests of

organizations to pre-draft messages to be disseminated to their key publics and

stakeholders in the case of a crisis. On hand messages are valuable resources when

knowledge of the crisis is gaining momentum and an initial response needs to be made to

inform the public. The preliminary statement should address the who, what, when and

where of the developing crisis (Freeo, n.d.).

Crisis Response

When a crisis arises, organizations have a window of up to twelve hours to gain

control (Small, 1991). Decisions have to be made as a crisis develops, even if the

consequences cannot be thoroughly weighed. Essentially, crisis response strategies

manifest three objectives: (1) shape attributions of the crisis, (2) change perceptions of

the organization in crisis and (3) reduce the negative affect generated by the crisis

(Coombs, 2007, p. 171).

Spokesperson

The spokesperson serves as the organizations intermediary in carrying out the

public mediation of a crisis. He/ she is charged with presenting the organization in the

most favorable light. Fundamentally, the goal of the spokespersons rhetoric is to

remove the psychological barriers within the audience (The U.S. Food and Drug

Administrations Office of Regulatory Affairs, n.d., n.p.).

To achieve this, the spokesperson is entrusted with making official statements

and addressing media inquiries throughout the entirety of the crisis response period

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(Freeo, n.d., n.p.). An impactful spokesperson is comfortable conversing with reporters

and skilled in directing responses to appropriate topics. During media conferences, the

delegate must establish credibility with the media, project confidence to the audience,

remain calm in stressful situations and be charismatic in his/her public appearance

(Freeo, n.d.). The spokesperson should acknowledge any looming uncertainties, taking

into account that it is better to say what you know, what you do not know, and what you

are doing to learn more (The California Department of Health Services, 2005, p.35).

Stealing Thunder

Attempts to conceal a crisis is unethical and nearly impossible under most

circumstances. Consequently, a major crisis combatant is having a hand in shaping the

medias representation of the crisis. Public relations professionals can steal thunder by

admitting to the crisis before it is announced by the media or other interested parties

possibly ones with malicious intent. Studies discern that stakeholders perceive an

organization more credibly if it willingly reveals information about the crisis itself

(Larsson & Rudwall, 2010). Congruent research by crisis communication professor An-

Sofie Claeys (2005) encourages organizations in crisis to steal thunder because

organizational self-disclosure helps to frame the crisis, establishing the power to portray

the crisis as less severe to outsiders (Claeys, 2005).

Image Restoration Discourse

Image restoration rhetoric is a powerful form of public relations discourse specific

to crisis response. Originated by William Benoit, Ph.D., image restoration theory

highlights formidable strategies that can restore an organizations reputation. His

blueprints can be interchangeably combined to expeditiously curb the crisis.

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A political communication expert, Benoit cautions public relations professionals

to evaluate image restoration discourse strategies on an individual basis. He advises that

if and only if the organization is actually at fault, it should admit so immediately. Not

only is this the morally right course of action, but falsely denying responsibility for

offensive actions risks substantially damaged credibility if the truth emerges (Benoit,

1997, p. 184). Following this, the public relations team should report plans of corrective

action to amend error causes and ameliorate future outcomes. Benoit (1997) argues,

While people frequently want to know whom to blame, it is more reassuring to know

that steps have been taken to eliminate or avoid future problems (p. 184).

Divergently, if the organization is not at fault, its public relations team is able to

shift the blame to mitigate its accountability. Doing so will alleviate responsibility and

help restore a tarnished image with no legal liability (Benoit, 1997, p. 184).

Post-Crisis Recovery

Once the havoc of a crisis curtails, the affected organization enters a renewal

period a period of postmortem, assessment, learning, and constitution of new

understandings of risk and risk avoidance (Reynolds & Seeger, 2005, p. 50). Investing

time to examine the crisis and making adjustments to plans and practices can pay off

when the next crisis occurs, or when you are fortunate enough to be able to avert the next

crisis (Pearson, 2002). Evaluation is paramount to improvement. Practical post-crisis

recovery bands together internal procedure and external correspondence.

Internally, it is necessary for the organization to conduct a performance analysis to

review the value of its crisis response initiatives (Baubion, 2013). Failure can result

from an ineffectual crisis management plan, poor execution of the crisis management

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plan, or both (Coombs, 2015, p. 163). Through meticulous evaluations, the crisis

management team can understand the source of its success and failures and can modify

its protocols accordingly.

During the recovery phase, public relations professionals are responsible for

reestablishing public trust and customer loyalty. Post-crisis management is characterized

by optimistic discourse and reform of failed elements of risk management towards

community leaders and publics (Janoske, Liu & Sheppard, 2012, p. 23). At the conclusion

of the renewal, operational and cultural changes may be necessary to ensure that history

does not repeat itself (Affect Public Relations Firm, n.d., p. 3).

Best Practices Takeaway

Time and time again, public relations professionals have employed these

strategies to salvage an organizations ruined reputation. From pre-crisis priming to post-

crisis reclamation, practitioners in the field see the plight through in its entirety.

Crises have exploited organizations in the corporate, nonprofit, and governmental

enterprises. An abundant history of crisis catastrophes has molded the best practices of

crisis management. Each crisis management phase warrants a specific chain of events for

public relations professionals to follow. Ultimately, the best practices of crisis

management unveil the salience of expecting the best, planning for the worst and

preparing to be surprised.

Analyzing case studies is serviceable because it reveals how organizations have

navigated through crises under real pressure. Public relations professionals have

maneuvered organizations out of crises both exceptionally and dreadfully.

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References

Affect. (n.d.). Crisis Management in the Social Media Age: A Guide to Integrating Social

Media in Your Crisis Communications Strategy [Pamphlet].

Augustine, N. R. (1995, November). Managing the crisis you tried to prevent.

Baubion, C. (2013). OECD Risk Management: Strategic Crisis Management [Pamphlet].

Benoit, W. L. (1997). Image repair discourse and crisis communication. Public Relations

Review, 23(2), 177-186. Retrieved from ScienceDirect database.

Bernstein, J. (2016). The 10 steps of crisis communications.

The California Department of Health Services. (2005). Crisis and Emergency Risk

Communication Tool Kit [Pamphlet].

Claeys, A.-S. (n.d.). 6 Reasons why organizations should never hesitate to steal thunder.

Claeys, A.-S., & Cauberghe, V. (2015). The role of a favorable pre-crisis reputation in

protecting organizations during crises. Public Relations Review, 41(1), 64-71.

Retrieved from ScienceDirect database.

Coombs, W. T., Ph.D. (2007). protecting organization reputations during a crisis: the

development and application of situational crisis communication theory.

Corporate Reputation Review, 10(3), 163-176.

Coombs, W. T., Ph.D. (2007, October 30). Crisis management and communications.

Coombs, W. T., Ph.D. (2015). Ongoing Crisis Communication: Planning, Managing, and

Responding (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Coombs, W. T., Ph.D., & Holladay, S. J. (2006). Unpacking the halo effect: reputation

and crisis management. Journal of Communication Management, 10(2), 123-137.

Crisis. 2011. In Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved March 2, 2016, from

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https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/crisis

Freeo, S. K. C. (n.d.). Crisis communication plan: a PR blue print. Institute for Crisis

Management. (n.d.). Crisis Plan Development.

Holland, R. J., & Gill, K. (2006). Ready for disaster? Communication World San

Francisco, 23(2), 20-24.

Jani, S.-N. (2002, September 12). What every leader needs to know about crisis

management: a conversation with Karen Schwartzman. Retrieved from

https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesleadershipforum/2012/09/12/what-every-

leader-needs-to-know-about-crisis-management-a-conversation-with-karen-

schwartzman/#34c63f1e684a

Janoske, Melissa, Brooke Liu, and Ben Sheppard. Understanding risk communication

best practices: a guide for emergency managers and communicators, Report

to Human Factors/Behavioral Sciences Division, Science and Technology

Directorate, U.S. Department of Homeland Security. College Park, MD: START,

2012.

Jaques, T. (2009). Issue management as a post-crisis discipline: identifying and

responding to issue impacts beyond the crisis. Journal of Public Affairs, 9(1),

35-44.

Larsson, J., & Rudwall, P. (2010). Crisis management - media's perception of crises in

organizations (Master's thesis, Lule University of Technology, Lule, Sweden).

The MHA Consulting Team. (2016, October 12). 10 characteristics of a successful crisis

management team.

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Pearson, C. (2002, January). A blueprint for crisis management. Ivey Business School,

66(3), 69.

Reynolds, B., & Seeger, M. W. (2005). Crisis and emergency risk communication as an

integrative model. Journal of Health Communication, 43-55.

Small, W. J. (1991). Exxon Valdez: How to spend billions and still get a black eye.

Public Relations Review. Greenwich, CT.: JAI Press Incorporated, 17(1), 9-25.

U.S. Food and Drug Administrations Office of Regulatory Affairs. (n.d.). Role of

spokesperson in an emergency. Retrieved from

https://www.orau.gov/cdcynergy/erc/Content/activeinformation/essential_principl

es/EP-spokesperson_content.htm

Watkins, M. (2002, September 30). Your crisis response plan: the ten effective elements.

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