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Journal of Wine Research

ISSN: 0957-1264 (Print) 1469-9672 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cjwr20

Food and Wine Production Practices: An Analysis


of Consumer Views

Sharon L. Forbes , Ross Cullen , David A. Cohen , Stephen D. Wratten &


Joanna Fountain

To cite this article: Sharon L. Forbes , Ross Cullen , David A. Cohen , Stephen D. Wratten &
Joanna Fountain (2011) Food and Wine Production Practices: An Analysis of Consumer Views,
Journal of Wine Research, 22:1, 79-86, DOI: 10.1080/09571264.2011.550763

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09571264.2011.550763

Published online: 12 Apr 2011.

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Download by: [Deakin University Library] Date: 20 March 2017, At: 04:26
Journal of Wine Research, 2011, Vol. 22, No. 1,
pp. 7986

Food and Wine Production Practices: An Analysis of


Consumer Views

SHARON L. FORBES, ROSS CULLEN, DAVID A. COHEN,


STEPHEN D. WRATTEN and JOANNA FOUNTAIN
Original manuscript received, 22 October 2009
Revised manuscript received, 22 October 2010

ABSTRACT This study was designed to ascertain the degree to which consumers are concerned about
human health and environmental issues arising from both food and wine production. In particular,
this study sought, for the rst time, to compare consumer perceptions regarding food production
practices and wine production practices. Interviewer-administered questionnaires were completed
with 109 consumers inside supermarkets, general liquor stores and specialty wine stores in the city
of Christchurch, New Zealand. In general, consumers expressed a high level of concern regarding
the effects of agricultural (food) production practices on both their own health and on the health
of the environment. Consumers were found to be less concerned about the effects of wine production
practices on their health and the environment, but a large segment reported that they did not know
how wine was produced and thus had not, as yet, formed either positive or negative views about
the effects of wine production practices. At a practical level, this paper suggests that wine
marketers have a window of opportunity in which to positively inuence the large number of
consumers who currently do not hold any views regarding the effects of wine production on their
health or the environment. This paper is of signicant value because it provides a unique
comparison of consumer views regarding food production and wine production and it has added to
our knowledge of the green consumer.

Introduction
This exploratory study is designed to measure and analyse consumer perceptions of the
effect of both food and wine production on human health and environmental
well-being. In particular, the study aims to understand whether the reasonably
well-documented consumer concerns regarding general agricultural (food) production
will also apply to viticultural production. It also seeks to understand consumer

Sharon L. Forbes, Commerce Faculty, C316b, PO Box 84, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, Christchurch,
New Zealand (E-mail Sharon.Forbes@lincoln.ac.nz); Ross Cullen and David A. Cohen, Faculty of Com-
merce, Lincoln University, New Zealand; Stephen D. Wratten, Bio-Protection Research Centre, Lincoln
University, New Zealand; Joanna Fountain, Faculty of Environment, Society & Design, Lincoln University,
New Zealand
ISSN 0957-1264 print/ISSN 1469-9672 online/11/010079-8 # 2011 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09571264.2011.550763
80 SHARON L. FORBES ET AL.

perceptions regarding wine production in order to identify whether a competitive


advantage could be gained through the adoption of environmentally sustainable
initiatives.

Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses


Consumers and Conventional Food Production
A number of authors have noted that consumers are becoming increasingly concerned
about the effects of conventionally produced food on both their own health and on the
health of the environment (Lyons et al., 2004; Brugarolas Molla-Bauza et al., 2005;
Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006). Such concerns are not new. Blair and Sachs (1988) exam-
ined consumer views regarding the use of pesticides and food safety. The study reported
that 71% of respondents thought that pesticide treated fruits and vegetables were
hazardous to personal health. A similar number felt that pesticides were hazardous
to water quality and 80% believed that pesticides posed a danger for wildlife. Respon-
dent views regarding personal health and environmental issues were almost equal in
strength, but the level of concern felt by consumers was found to have greatly increased
over the period from their previous 1965 study (Blair and Sachs, 1988).
This concern has persisted through the close of the twentieth century and now well
into the twenty-rst. An American report revealed that almost 90% of consumers were
concerned about the condition of the environment, whilst one in two reported switch-
ing product brands because of perceived environmental friendliness. Moreover, around
half reported that they looked for environmental labelling on products (Phillips, 1999).
Steenkamp (1997) forecasted several important consumer trends regarding agricul-
tural products. One of these trends related to a desire to consume products which are
perceived to be natural and healthy. Another trend was growing consumer resistance to
products which have been produced using environmentally unfriendly practices
(Steenkamp, 1997). Whilst consumption of green or environmentally friendly pro-
ducts is still relatively small, the spectacular growth in this market segment over
recent years appears to conrm Steenkamps (1997) forecasted trends.
Several authors have noted the growth of green consumerism and the increased con-
sumption of products which have been produced using organic or sustainable practices
(Stisser, 1994; Lyons et al., 2004; Saunders et al., 2004; DSouza et al., 2006). Indeed,
Lyons et al. (2004) noted that organic food is the fastest growing sector in the global
food industry. Exports of organic products from New Zealand have grown from a
value of NZ$12 million in 1997 to NZ$120 million in 2006. The increased consumer
demand for green food products, especially in Europe, is likely to have been inuenced
by recent well-publicised food safety scares, including BSE, dioxin, and foot and mouth
disease (Lyons et al., 2004; Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006).
Aside from responding to consumer demands, environmentally focused producers
have also been inuenced by retailer demands, new industry regulations, improved
government legislation, and their own environmental philosophies. A number of
studies have suggested that producers are going green in order to respond to retailer
demands for improved food safety and quality (Lyons et al., 2004; Bhaskaran et al.,
2006). In addition, environmentally focused producers are often able to differentiate
their products and thus gain a competitive advantage in aggressive markets (Adrian
and Dupre, 1994; Peattie, 2001; Marshall et al., 2005; Brugarolas Molla-Bauza et al.,
2005; Warner, 2007).
FOOD AND WINE PRODUCTION PRACTICES 81

Based on the review above and trends in the global food industry, our rst hypotheses
are thus:
H1a: Consumers will have a high level of concern for the effects of convention-
al agricultural production practices on human health.
H1b: Consumers will have a high level of concern for the effects of convention-
al agricultural production practices on the environment.

Consumers and Conventional Wine Production


Conventional wine production practices result in similar environmental issues to those
incurred through food production practices: groundwater depletion, water pollution,
efuent run-off, toxicity of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides, habitat destruction,
and loss of natural biodiversity. Californian residents have recently protested their con-
cerns with the local wine industry over a number of these issues (Marshall et al., 2005;
Warner, 2007). The use of synthetic chemicals in vineyards is now common in many of
the worlds wine producing nations (Sharples, 2000), and New Zealand is no exception.
The Pesticide Action Network Europe (PAN, 2008) noted that grape production
accounts for 3% of all cropland in the EU, but is responsible for 15% of synthetic pes-
ticide applications. PAN (2008) also reported that between 1993 and 2003 the level of
synthetic pesticides applied to grapes produced in the EU increased by 22%, and
studies have concluded that about one third of these applied pesticides will be trans-
ferred into wine.
Consumer concern has been reected in an increased demand for organic wines, and
a widening selection of these products are now being stocked by supermarkets and
liquor stores, especially in the Northern Hemisphere (Sharples, 2000). Other research-
ers have noted, however, that consumers appear to have an expectation that wine is a
healthy product which is produced in an environmentally sustainable manner (Bisson
et al., 2002).
Changes are also happening in some wine producing countries or regions. Sharples
(2000) noted that the organic vineyard area in France increased by 30% between 1997
and 1998, whilst growth has also occurred in California where 4% of the total vineyard
area is now organic. Both the Australian and New Zealand wine industries have
stressed the importance of adopting environmentally responsible practices in order to
meet the needs and expectations of their consumers (AustralianWine, 2002;
Winegrowers, 2007).
Based on the similarities between conventional agricultural and conventional viticul-
tural practices, our second hypotheses are:
H2a: Consumers will have a high level of concern for the effects of convention-
al viticultural production practices on human health.
H2b: Consumers will have a high level of concern for the effects of convention-
al viticultural production practices on the environment.

Comparison of Food Production and Wine Production


No previous research appears to have compared consumer views regarding food and
wine production practices. Safety scares and environmental issues in the food industry
have received signicant media attention and, at least so far, there has been relatively
little corresponding media focus on production practices in the wine industry. Thus,
our nal hypotheses are:
82 SHARON L. FORBES ET AL.

H3a: Consumers will be more concerned by the effects of conventional agri-


cultural practices on their health than they will be by viticultural production
practices.
H3b: Consumers will be more concerned by the effects of conventional agricul-
tural practices on the environment than they will be by viticultural pro-
duction practices.

Method
Shoppers in New Zealands second biggest city, Christchurch, were intercepted and
interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Interviews took place inside supermar-
kets, general liquor stores, and specialty wine stores and occurred at various times
over a seven-day timeframe in February 2008.
The questionnaire began with a qualifying question to ensure that the respondents
were consumers of wine. A series of statements and Likert scales anchored from 1
strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree were read to the respondents to ascertain
their views regarding agricultural food production, human and environmental
health. A dont know option was also included on the presented scale as a valid
option. A series of similar statements were then used to gather respondent views of
wine production and its effect on human and environmental health. In terms of meth-
odology, this study has adopted a quantitative approach similar to that of other
research into consumer views regarding topics such as the environment, sustainability
and buying behaviour (Weatherell et al., 2003; Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006; Collins
et al., 2007). The quantitative data were collected using scaled questionnaire items,
some of which were adopted or adapted from previous research (Blair and Sachs,
1988; Wandel and Bugge, 1997). Data were analysed in SPSS using descriptive stat-
istics and t-tests.
A total of 203 consumers were approached by the interviewer and 109 agreed to take
part, giving a response rate of 54%. Analysis revealed that 57% of respondents were
female and 43% were male. Unsurprisingly, a majority of the respondents who were
intercepted inside supermarket stores were female (64%), whilst a majority of those
who were interviewed in specialty wine stores were male (89%). The age of the respon-
dents represented in the sample ranged between 18 and 60+ years old. The sample
contained a high proportion of those aged over 60 (32%) reecting the consumers
who are most likely to be in stores during working hours, with around 15% aged less
than 35 years, and 53% aged between 35 and 59 years of age. The sample had a
higher than average level of education, with over 41% of the respondents having
attained an undergraduate or postgraduate degree.

Results
Respondent perceptions regarding the effects of agricultural food production on their
health and on the health of the environment are illustrated in Table 1. Overall,
54% of respondents believed that agricultural practices were harmful to the environ-
ment and a noteworthy 80% were concerned by the effects of agricultural practices
on the environment. In terms of human health, 78% of respondents felt that agricul-
tural chemicals used in food production were dangerous to them. Responses to these
statements indicated that consumers were concerned by conventional agricultural pro-
duction practices on both their own health and on the well-being of the environment,
and therefore provided strong support for both H1a and H1b.
FOOD AND WINE PRODUCTION PRACTICES 83

Table 1. Consumer perceptions (%) of conventional agricultural food


production.
Strongly Strongly Dont
Statement disagree Disagree Neither Agree agree know

Generally, agricultural practices are 5 49 14 29 1 3


not harmful to the environment
I am concerned about the effects of 0 7 13 67 13 0
agricultural practices on the
environment
The use of agricultural chemicals (such 0 9 13 61 17 0
as weed killers, insecticides and
fungicides) in food production is
dangerous to my health

Table 2. Consumer perceptions (%) of viticulture and wine production.


Strongly Strongly Dont
Statement disagree Disagree Neither Agree agree know

Grape growing and winemaking 1 19 15 34 0 30


practices are safe for the
environment
The use of agricultural chemicals in 1 15 11 43 1 29
grape growing is harmful to the
environment
Agricultural chemicals used in grape 0 17 13 44 2 24
growing are dangerous to my
health
I am condent the wines I buy are 0 11 13 65 6 5
safe for me to drink

Respondent views regarding the effects of viticulture and wine production on human
health and on the health of the environment are illustrated in Table 2. With regards to
the environment, only 20% of respondents believed that grape growing and winemak-
ing practices were not safe and less than half (44%) thought that the agricultural
chemicals used in grape growing were harmful to the environment. Over 70% of
respondents were condent that the wine they purchased was safe to drink; however,
46% perceived that the agricultural chemicals used in grape growing were dangerous
to their health. A considerable number of respondents did not know whether they
agreed or disagreed with these statements; this large group of consumers lacked knowl-
edge of the wine production process. These results did not provide strong support for
H2a and H2b.
Finally, calculations were performed to compare the strength of consumer views
regarding the effects of both food and wine production practices. The neither and
dont know cases were omitted from these calculations as these did not indicate any
denitive view regarding food and wine production practices. A paired samples t-test
indicated that respondents had, on average, signicantly higher concern for the
effects of agricultural chemicals on human health in food production than they had
about wine production, t(61) 4.2, p .000, d .53. Similarly, another paired
samples t-test indicated that respondents had a signicantly higher concern for the
84 SHARON L. FORBES ET AL.

effects of food production on the environment than they had about wine production,
t(52) 2.9, p .005, d .40. For both environment and human health, consumers
exhibited a higher level of concern with food production practices than with wine pro-
duction practices, thus providing support for H3a and H3b.

Discussion and Implications


This study provides support for previous research indicating that consumers are con-
cerned about the effect of conventional food production practices on human health
and environmental well-being (Lyons et al., 2004; Brugarolas Molla-Bauza et al.,
2005; Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006). In a study of American consumers, Blair and
Sachs (1988) reported that 71% of consumers thought that pesticides applied to food
were hazardous to their health; a similar 78% of consumers in this study believed
that the use of agricultural chemicals during food production were dangerous to
their health. The high level of concern regarding human and environmental health
expressed by consumers in this study suggests that a demand does indeed exist for
green food products in the New Zealand marketplace.
Despite research from the Northern Hemisphere suggesting that demand for green
wines has increased because of consumer health and environment concerns (Williams,
1992; Sharples, 2000), this study has found that the majority of New Zealand consu-
mers are unconcerned about the effects of wine production practices on their health
and on the environment. The level of concern consumers feel for wine production prac-
tices is signicantly less than their concern with conventional food production prac-
tices. This suggests that food quality and safety scares, and media attention
regarding these issues, have probably inuenced consumer views.
There were a large number of respondents who did not know how wine is produced
and who did not therefore hold either negative or positive views regarding wine pro-
duction practices. For example, one respondent in this study commented that there
was a complete lack of information for consumers as to how our wines are produced.
The wine industry has a window of opportunity in which they can issue information
and positively inuence the views of this consumer segment. Wineries who adopt
green initiatives can provide afrmative information to consumers in both local
and export markets. The use of eco-labelling and the provision of information relating
to the use of environmentally sustainable production practices are likely to differentiate
sustainable wines and offer a point of difference to these products in an over-supplied
global wine market. Pugh and Fletcher (2002) noted that Banrock Station wines had
achieved differentiation and international success through the connection of the brand
name to conservation activities.
Stisser (1994) suggested that those companies which undertake a long-term commit-
ment to the environment can improve consumer attitudes towards their products and
business. More recently, Nowak and Washburn (2002) reported that both consumer
trust and brand equity increased signicantly when wineries adopted environmentally
focused practices. Certainly, both the New Zealand and Australian wine industries
appear to be aware of the need to adopt sustainable production practices in order to
gain future advantages in the competitive global market. The Australian wine industry
has documented a desire to accelerate the adoption of environmentally sustainable
practices in order to meet consumer needs and expectations (AustralianWine, 2002).
Even more tersely, the New Zealand wine industry has told its members that there
will be little place in the international premium wine market for a product which
FOOD AND WINE PRODUCTION PRACTICES 85

has been produced in a vineyard or winery which is not environmentally sustainable


(Winegrowers, 2007).
This study has reported that consumers are less concerned with wine production
practices than they are by food production; however, it is extremely likely that even
a single well publicised wine safety or quality scare would increase the level of
concern that was identied in this study. By switching to environmentally sustainable
practices, wineries can ensure that consumer concerns regarding wine production
remain at a reasonably low level. At the same time, the wine industry should
educate consumers about how wine is produced so that they are well-informed and
less likely to be swayed by any negative or sensationalised media stories. In addition,
the wine industry should provide information to consumers about the various eco-
labels which are utilised by wine brands. It is important that the knowledge of consu-
mers is increased so they are able to make informed choices about environmental
impact when choosing wines to purchase.

Limitations and Further Research


The primary limitation of this study is that the sampling plan was focused on a single
geographical location and the sample size was reasonably small. In addition, the use of
an intercept technique may have resulted in a less representative sample. Whilst this
study measured consumer views regarding food and wine production and their pur-
chase intentions towards green products, it did not measure actual behaviour.
Thus, a limitation of this research is that of the attitude-behaviour gap which is
thought to exist; in other words, the environmental attitudes of consumers do not
necessarily translate into the purchasing of environmentally friendly products.
Further research in additional New Zealand cities and in major export wine markets
would be needed to conrm that these results are generalisable across a wider wine pur-
chasing population. As reported in the literature, consumer concerns about food safety
are predicted to be higher in Europe due to recent scares, thus it would be useful to
repeat this study in a European location to see if this prediction does hold true. It
would be interesting to determine what effects nationality would have upon consumer
views of food and wine production practices. Future research could also measure wine
consumption habits and purchasing behaviour in terms of environmentally friendly
products so that relationships between these additional variables and views regarding
wine production could be analysed.

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