Chap 6 - Quantitative Method For Quality Management

Quantitative methods for quality management
Quantitative Methods for

Quality Management
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Objective
To understand the various methods for

quantitative measurement of quality.
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Scope
 Quality management by measurement
 Management tools for Quality Improvement
 The Seven QC Tools
• Problem identification tools
 Problem analysis tools
• Statistical Process Control
 Software Quality Measurements
• Productivity measures
• Complexity measures
 Baselining
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Quality management by measurement

 Measurement strongly advocated as a crucial factor on the
road to quality improvement.
 Measurement of quality is key to improvement of quality.
 Quality of the product as well as the process has to be
measured and monitored.
 The initial step in quality improvement is
• To measure the product or process and find the baseline or
the current situation.
• Plans for improvement are then based on this.
 To monitor by keeping track of the progress, measurement
has to be iterated.
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 Dr. Deming emphasized the use of statistical methods to find
out the sources of defects, in his 14 quality principles.
 No exact way for determining that quality is being delivered.
 Measurement provides a quantified record of quality.
 Tells the organization performance.
 This information essential to manage quality.
 Measurement must be an integral part of the organization‟s
work process.
 There are seven basic QC tools for problem identification and
analysis
 Seven management tools for quality improvement are also
there. Main Menu 5 of 52

 Statistical process control makes use of statistical methods to
monitor process performance.
 Statistical methods are used.
• Determining whether or not the process is under control
• To help identify root causes that are causing defects.
 These tools can be used individually as well as in

combination.
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Management Tools for Quality Improvement

 Seven management tools widely used for quality improvement
allow the manger to easily explore and simplify problems that are
too complex.
 Affinity Diagram
• Also known as the KJ diagram.
• Groups large amounts of data, into logical categories, by
mutual affinity.
• Used for providing initial structure in problem exploration.
• Structures answers to questions like „ what is going on in the
complex situation?‟
• Useful in establishing a quality policy and to implement it.
• Can be represented graphically as nested squared ellipses that
are concepts, with sub groupings within it.
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Affinity Diagram
 Relations Diagram
• Identifies relationships between specific items, factors or
ideas related to a central issue to be addressed.
• Provides clarity to intertwined relationships in a complex
situation in order to find an appropriate solution.
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Relation Diagram
• A network of cause-effect relations.

• Often used to trace through answers to „why is it
happening?‟ questions.
• Useful in designing steps to counter market complaints,
planning to eliminate latent defects in products etc.
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 Tree Diagram
• Enables the development of specific action items to
address a subjective goal.
• Often used to relate means to ends, which in turn are
means to more general ends.
• Helps answer „how?‟ questions. „How do we do this?‟
Tree Diagram
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 Matrix Diagram
• Allows a logical look at the relationships between a group
of items.
• Items might represent a cause-effect relationship for
solving problems or what-how relationship for attaining
goals and objectives.
• Method identifies corresponding elements involved in a
problem situation or event.
• Elements are arranged in rows and columns on a chart that
shows the presence or absence of relationships among
collected pairs of elements.
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 Popularly used for quality function deployment to transform
the desires of the customer into the language required to
implement a product.
 Relates multiple alternatives to multiple consequences of
each.
 Often used to answer „which?‟ questions.
 „Which things to do to satisfy customer‟s requirements?‟
Matrix Diagram
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 Matrix data analysis
• Quantifies and arranges matrix diagram data and
mathematically analyzes it.
• Makes information easy to visualize and comprehend too.
• The only numerical analysis method.
Matrix Data Analysis Diagram
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• Can be used to analyze
• Production processes where factors are complexly
intertwined
• Causes of non conformities that involve a large volume of
data.
 Process decision program chart
• Enables potential problems to be identified during the
planning phase of a complex and critical project
• Helps to develop contingencies and preventive measures.
• A diagram of the flow of alternative possibilities and
counter measures for each.
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Process Decision
Program Chart
 Used to design responses to possible setbacks, answers to

„what if?‟ questions.
 Can be used to implement countermeasures to minimize non
conformities in the manufacturing process etc.
 Simple graphical tool that can be used to mitigate risk in
virtually any undertaking.
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 Activity network diagram
• Called the arrow diagram
• Utilized by PERT or CPM methods.
• Very useful for scheduling events and identifying
bottlenecks.
• Typically used to answer „when?‟ question.
Activity Network
Diagram
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The Seven QC Tools

 Used for measurement and control.
 Meant to be used by everyone.
 Strategy for mass movement.
 The seven QC tools used for problem identification and
analysis are:
• Problem identification
• Pareto Analysis
• Cause and effect diagram
• Problem analysis
• Check sheet
• Control charts
• Histograms Main Menu 17 of 52
The Seven QC Tools

• Scatter diagram
• Stratification
 Tools introduced in the 1950s by Dr. Deming and Dr. Juran.
 Problem Identification Tools
• Pareto Analysis
• In problem solving, the first task is to identify the problem
areas.
• There will be numerous problems.
• Impractical to attack all these problems at once.
• Common question that arises is “ Which problem do I
tackle first?”
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The Seven QC Tools

• Rule of statistics called the 80-20 rule states that 20
percent of any activity will account for 80 percent of the
frequency.
• Pareto analysis one of the most powerful quality tools.
• Four steps to be followed in preparing a Pareto analysis
are as follows:
• Step 1 – Identify problem area.
• Step 2 – Identify and name causes of the problem.
• Step 3 – Document the occurrence of the cause of the
problem.
• Step 4 – Rank the causes by frequency using the Pareto
chart.
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The Seven QC Tools

100
80
60
Frequency of 40
Series1
Occurrence 20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Category of Errors
Pareto Analysis
 The Pareto chart is a bar chart.
 After Pareto Analysis, then action can be taken to first
address the largest cause of undesirable activity.
 Once that is solved the next biggest cause can be handled and
so on.
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The Seven QC Tools

• Cause and effect diagram
• A problem identification tool.
• Helps to know the real causes and the interrelations among
causes.
• A cause and effect diagram shows an effect at the right and
main causes of the effects off the horizontal axis.
• Main causes are in turn having effects that have sub causes
and so on down many levels.
• Enumerates the variety of causes rather than the frequency
of events.
• To solve a problem involves construction of a cause and
effect diagram.
• Also called a fishbone diagram or Ishikawa diagram
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The Seven QC Tools

• Named after the champion of this tool, Kaoru Ishikawa
a quality expert from Japan.
MAN MACHINE
Cause and Effect Diagram
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The Seven QC Tools

• Problem Analysis Tools
• Check Sheet
• Basic data collection mechanisms.
• Forms to gather and record data in an organized manner.
• Helps to determine the occurrence of an event or cause.
• Often referred to as checklist or tally sheet of events.
AX XB XCX X X XDX X X
Check Sheet
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The Seven QC Tools

• Control Charts
• A statistical technique.
• Assesses, monitors and maintains the stability of a process.
• Developed in 1924 by Control Walter Shewhart.
• Objective to monitor a continuous repeatable process and
the process variation from specifications or limits.
• A graph with limit lines to show acceptable range of quality
production.
• Helpful for spotting abnormal situations in standard
processes.
• Used to plot over time (left to right) the observed output or
status of a process.
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The Seven QC Tools

Upper Limit
Control Chart
Lower Limit
TIME
• In the figure the circled point is outside the control limits

and indicates that action should be taken to control such
variations.
• Does not actually control anything.
• A decision support mechanism that provides a basis for
action.
• Extensively used in Statistical Process Control.
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The Seven QC Tools

• Histograms
• Also called frequency distribution chart
• A bar graph of measured values (data sets) to display the
frequency of occurrences of the measured data.
• Provides a way to measure and analyze data collected about
a process or problem.
25
20
15
Frequency of 10
Occurrence 5
0
1 2 3 4
CPU sec. between
Histogram
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The Seven QC Tools

• Scatter diagrams
• Also called as plot.
• Shows the relationship that might exist between two
variables / factors.
• Can test for possible cause – effect relationships.
• Often referred to as correlation diagrams.
.
. .
. .
Scatter .
.
. .
. .
Diagram . . .
Illuminat . .
. .
ion Level
Inspection Mistakes
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The Seven QC Tools

• Used to display what happens to one variable when another
variable changes, in order to test a theory or make forecasts.
• Stratification
• A technique used to analyze / divide a universe of data into
homogenous groups.
• Plots many data points, typically with a measure of quality
on one axis and a variable that influence quality on the other
axis.
• The Japanese work force mastered these elementary tools
for quality control and got a head start in producing quality
products.
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Statistical Process Control

 Key element of the quality process.
 Fundamental reality that the outputs of all processes vary
over time.
 According to Dr.Deming- the differences in the results of
processes are due to special causes or common causes of
variation.
 Special causes represent forces outside the process, acting
with an adverse effect.
 These are variations caused by special circumstances.
 Can be pinpointed to a specific location or time.
 If special causes are numerous then it follows that the process
is unstable and out of control.
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 Common causes lead to variations.
 These are the net effect of the numerous sources of variation
inherent in the current system.
 Determination of the type of cause is key to effective
intervention.
 The type of cause designates the responsibility for action.
 Correction of special causes requires action on the process.
 Common causes are inherent in the system.
 Must be resolved by those who create the system within
which the operations are performed.
 Hence SPC- a scientific measurement and decision-making
approach
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 Decisions and plans are formulated on the basis of actual
collection and evaluation of the correct measurement data.
 For repetitive processes subject to some kind of variability:
• Statistical process control keeps track of how the process is
performing.
 A sophisticated technique takes time, expertise and money to
introduce properly.
 Cannot be used as a casual way of monitoring process.
 Most effective method for determining cause is the control chart.
• Signals the existence of special causes, when they appear.
• Indicates the extent of variation resulting from common causes.
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upper
limit
lower
limit
special pattern
Fig. A Fig. B
 In the model given, the control limits serve as decision lines.

 These are limits derived from past experience.
 Denotes the range within which fluctuations are expected to
fall.
 Special causes are denoted by instances (circled) that fall
outside of control limits (Fig.A) or special patterns in the
plotted points (Fig.B).
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 SPC is a highly defined technique.
 Has a fundamental effect on the way in which the organization
operates.
 A process in statistical control enables prediction of future
performance.
 Brought huge advances in reliability of both machines and
processes, helping to control their inherent variability.
 In software development field, application of statistical process
control has found scope particularly in the following:
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• Studying previous programs in order to find the deficiencies
and improve the process that produced them.
• Real time monitoring of the present program to enable
signaling potential problems and institute appropriate
countermeasures.
• Assessment of schedule, cost and human resources of
previous projects in order to develop realistic schedules and
estimates.
• SPC methods facilitate process improvement by disclosing
the causes of variation.
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Software Quality Measurement

 Measurement of software quality has faced difficulty since it
is not based on quantitative laws.
 Software metrics is still a complex field continuously
evolving.
 Software quality is a complex mix of various factors that vary
across different applications and projects.
 Need for quality measurement has given rise to a number of
metrics that would measure different aspects of the software.
 Measurement gives a tool to communicate to your customers
the size of their request and extrapolate productivity, quality
and estimating accuracy.
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 Quality characteristics desired in software products defined in the
ISO standard guidelines for Information Technology Software
Product Evaluation Quality Characteristics are:
 Functionality
 Suitability
 Accuracy
 Interoperability
 Compliance
 Security
 Reliability
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 Maturity
 Fault tolerance
 Recoverability
 Usability
 Understandability
 Learnability
 Operability
 Efficiency
 Time behavior
 Resource behavior
 Maintainability
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 Analyzability
 Changeability
 Stability
 Testability
 Portability
 Adaptability
 Installability
 Conformance
 Replaceability
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 Metrics based on different attributes has been devised to measure
quality.
 Can be used to help estimate projects, measure project progress
and performance and quantify product attributes.
 Also required to compare softwares or projects.
 Examples of metrics include
• Product metrics, e.g. productivity measures and complexity
measures.
• Software development resource metrics, no. of people working
on a project.
• Software development process metrics, e.g. no. of lines of code
inspected. Main Menu 39 of 52

 Some of the metrics used commonly in projects are:
Attributes Metrics
Size SLOC (source lines of code)
Effort person hours
Cost currency
Complexity software (system software, embedded, GUI, data
category communications etc)
 Productivity Measures.
• Two popular productivity measures are:
• Size-oriented measures.
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• Function- oriented measures.
• Productivity defined as the amount of work that can be done in
a unit of time.
 Step 1
 Each function is classified as one of the following function types.
• External input type
• External output type
• Logical internal file type
• External interface file type
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 Step 2
 The system being measured is looked at in terms of 14 general
system characteristics.
 The degree of each characteristic‟s influence on the system is
estimated.
 The 14 characteristics are:
• Data communications –
• Distributed functions –
• Performance –
• Heavily used configuration –
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• Transaction rate –
• On-line data entry –
• End user efficiency –
• On-line update –
• Complex processing –
• Reusability –
• Installation ease –
• Operation ease –
• Multiple sites –
• Facilitate change –
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 The degree of influence is assigned to each of the above
characteristics from the following rating.
 0 = no influence 1 = insignificant 2 = moderate 3 = average
4 = significant 5 = strong influence throughout.
 Step 3
 After quantifying the function and system characteristics, an
unadjusted function count is produced by :
• The number of functions in each of the 15 categories is
multiplied by a predefined Weighting Factor.
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 The weighting figures from each category are added together
to produce an adjusted function count (A).
 The degree of influence ratings (0-5) for the 14 general
characteristics are added together to produce a total.
 The total is multiplied by .01, then the result is added to .65
(B).
 The actual function point metric is now calculated by
multiplying the adjusted function count A with B.
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 Complexity Measures
• Software quality is measured by looking at it from various
attributes points of view, like reliability, stability,
maintainability etc.
• Another good indicator of quality is correctness.
• This is looked at by determining the number of defects per size
unit of code.
• Referred to as the defect rate.
• Operational quality of the software is determined by measuring
the characteristics that define its performance.
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• These are:
• Processor utilization
• Memory utilization
• I/O performance
• Complexity.
 An appropriate measure of software complexity should cover
measurements of cost, time and reliability.
 McCabe‟s complexity metric:
• Count of the number of decision statements in a program.
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• Gives a fairly good correlation between complexity to bugs and
debugging difficulty.
• Advises partitioning routines whose metric exceeds ten.
• Good aid to productivity and complexity evaluation and should
be used as a rule of thumb measure.
 Some of the aspects, which are not taken into account for
measurements are:
• Severity of a bug is not taken into account.
• Some bugs would appear only under stress testing and these
are not identified in the present scenario.
• The impact of maintenance on the number of bugs is ignored.
• The number of bugs does not remain constant.
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Baselining
 Method used to determine the current performance, accuracy
or efficiency of products or processes.
 Used for the purpose of measuring progress or variances
from past performances.
 Baseline is a product or performance specification.
 Been formally reviewed and agreed upon, and documented.
 Forms the basis for any further development.
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Summary
 Measurement is a crucial factor on the road to quality
improvement. Measurement provides a quantified record of
quality.
 The seven management tools being widely used for quality
improvement are:
 Affinity diagram
 Relations diagram
 Tree diagram
 Matrix diagram
 Matrix data analysis
 Process decision program chart
 Activity network diagram
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Summary
 The seven QC tools used for problem identification and
analysis are:
• Problem identification
  Pareto Analysis
  Cause and effect diagram
• Problem analysis
  Check sheet
  Control charts
  Histograms
  Scatter diagram
  Stratification Main Menu 51 of 52
Summary
 Statistical Process Control is a scientific measurement and
decision-making approach.
 The quality characteristics that is desired in software products
are: Functionality, Reliability, Usability, Efficiency,
Maintainability and Portability.
 Two popular productivity measures are. Size-oriented
measures and Function- oriented measures.
 McCabe‟s complexity metric is a count of the number of
decision statements in a program.
 Baselining is the method used to determine the current
performance, accuracy or efficiency of products or processes
for the purpose of measuring progress or variances from past
performances. Main Menu 52 of 52

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Quantitative methods for quality management

Quantitative Methods for

To understand the various methods for

Quality management by measurement

Quality management by measurement

Quality management by measurement

 Statistical methods are used.

• Determining whether or not the process is under control

• To help identify root causes that are causing defects.

 These tools can be used individually as well as in

Management Tools for Quality Improvement

Management Tools for Quality Improvement

Management Tools for Quality Improvement

• A network of cause-effect relations.

Management Tools for Quality Improvement

Management Tools for Quality Improvement

Management Tools for Quality Improvement

Management Tools for Quality Improvement

Matrix Data Analysis Diagram

Management Tools for Quality Improvement

Management Tools for Quality Improvement

 Used to design responses to possible setbacks, answers to

Management Tools for Quality Improvement

The Seven QC Tools

The Seven QC Tools

The Seven QC Tools

The Seven QC Tools

The Seven QC Tools

The Seven QC Tools

Cause and Effect Diagram

The Seven QC Tools

The Seven QC Tools

The Seven QC Tools

• In the figure the circled point is outside the control limits

The Seven QC Tools

CPU sec. between

The Seven QC Tools

The Seven QC Tools

Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control

 In the model given, the control limits serve as decision lines.

Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

Software Quality Measurement

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