ASM Handbook

Volume 21
Composites
Prepared under the direction of the
ASM International Handbook Committee

Daniel B. Miracle and Steven L. Donaldson, Volume Chairs

Scott D. Henry, Project Editor

Charles Moosbrugger, Technical Editor
Gayle J. Anton, Editorial Assistant
Bonnie R. Sanders, Manager of Production
Nancy Hrivnak and Carol Terman, Copy Editors
Jill Kinson, Production Editor
Kathryn Muldoon, Production Assistant
William W. Scott, Jr., Director of Technical Publications

Editorial Assistance
Jill Brown
Kelly Ferjutz
Edward J. Kubel, Jr.
Heather Lampman
Elizabeth Marquard
Beverly Musgrove
Mary Jane Riddlebaugh
Juli Williamson

Material Park, Ohio 44073-0002

www.asminternational.org
 Copyright 2001
by
ASM International
All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner.

First printing, December 2001

This book is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. It brings together a wealth of information from
worldwide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range problems.
Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES,
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR
A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to
be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication
is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are
outside of ASMs control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind,
whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the
purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL
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CIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLI-
GENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specication is essential.
Therefore, specic testing under actual conditions is recommended.

Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in
connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright,
or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent,
copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement.

Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ASM International

ASM Handbook
Includes bibliographical references and indexes
Contents: v.1. Properties and selectionirons, steels, and high-performance alloysv.2. Properties and selectionnonferrous alloys
and special-purpose materials[etc.]v.21. Composites

1. MetalsHandbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Metal-workHandbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee. II. Metals
Handbook.
TA459.M43 1990 620.16 90-115
SAN: 204-7586
ISBN: 0-87170-703-9

ASM International
Materials Park, OH 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org

Printed in the United States of America

Multiple copy reprints of individual articles are available from Technical Department, ASM International.
Foreword

ASM International is proud to offer Composites as Volume 21 of the ASM Handbook. The
nominal basis for this volume was the Engineered Materials Handbook, Volume 1, published in
1987. However, this new edition is, to a large degree, a brand new volume. New or greatly
expanded coverage is provided, in particular, in the Sections on constituent materials, analysis and
design, and processing. New sections have been added to address the important topics of main-
tenance, repair, and recycling. Coverage of polymer-matrix composites has been enhanced to
address the latest materials advances and new application areas. Coverage of metal-matrix and
ceramic-matrix composites has been revamped and greatly expanded to reect the increasing
industrial importance of these materials.
With the release of this new edition of the Composites volume, it seems like a natural transition
for it to become part of the ASM Handbook series. The Metals Handbook series was renamed the
ASM Handbook in the mid-1990s to reect the increasingly interrelated nature of materials and
manufacturing technologies. Since that time the ASM Handbook has incorporated increasing
amounts of information about nonmetallic materials in each new and revised volume. ASM expects
that other volumes in the Engineered Materials Handbook will become part of the ASM Handbook
when they are revised.
Creating the new edition of this monumental reference work was a daunting task. We extend
thanks and congratulations on behalf of ASM International to the Volume Chairs, Dan Miracle
and Steve Donaldson, and the Volumes 13 Section Chairs for the outstanding job they have done
in developing the outline for the revision and guiding its development. Our gratitude is also due
to the over 300 international experts from industry, academia, and research who contributed as
authors and reviewers to this edition. In addition, we express our appreciation to the ASM Inter-
national editorial and production staff for their dedicated efforts in preparing this volume for
publication.

Aziz I. Asphahani
President
ASM International

Michael J. DeHaemer
Managing Director
ASM International

iii
Policy on Units of Measure
By a resolution of its Board of Trustees, ASM International has
adopted the practice of publishing data in both metric and customary
U.S. units of measure. In preparing this Handbook, the editors have
attempted to present data in metric units based primarily on Syste`me
International dUnites (SI), with secondary mention of the correspond-
ing values in customary U.S. units. The decision to use SI as the pri-
mary system of units was based on the aforementioned resolution of
the Board of Trustees and the widespread use of metric units through-
out the world.
For the most part, numerical engineering data in the text and in
tables are presented in SI-based units with the customary U.S. equiv-
alents in parentheses (text) or adjoining columns (tables). For example,
pressure, stress, and strength are shown both in SI units, which are
pascals (Pa) with a suitable prex, and in customary U.S. units, which
are pounds per square inch (psi). To save space, large values of psi
have been converted to kips per square inch (ksi), where 1 ksi 1000
psi. The metric tonne (kg 103) has sometimes been shown in me-
gagrams (Mg). Some strictly scientic data are presented in SI units
only.
To clarify some illustrations, only one set of units is presented on
artwork. References in the accompanying text to data in the illustra-
tions are presented in both SI-based and customary U.S. units. On
graphs and charts, grids corresponding to SI-based units usually appear
along the left and bottom edges. Where appropriate, corresponding
customary U.S. units appear along the top and right edges.
Data pertaining to a specication published by a specication-
writing group may be given in only the units used in that specication
or in dual units, depending on the nature of the data. For example, the
typical yield strength of steel sheet made to a specication written in
iv
customary U.S. units would be presented in dual units, but the sheet
thickness specied in that specication might be presented only in
inches.
Data obtained according to standardized test methods for which the
standard recommends a particular system of units are presented in the
units of that system. Wherever feasible, equivalent units are also pre-
sented. Some statistical data may also be presented in only the original
units used in the analysis.
Conversions and rounding have been done in accordance with
IEEE/ASTM SI-10, with attention given to the number of signicant
digits in the original data. For example, an annealing temperature of
1570 F contains three signicant digits. In this case, the equivalent
temperature would be given as 855 C; the exact conversion to 854.44
C would not be appropriate. For an invariant physical phenomenon
that occurs at a precise temperature (such as the melting of pure silver),
it would be appropriate to report the temperature as 961.93 C or
1763.5 F. In some instances (especially in tables and data compila-
tions), temperature values in C and F are alternatives rather than
conversions.
The policy of units of measure in this Handbook contains several
exceptions to strict conformance to IEEE/ASTM SI-10; in each in-
stance, the exception has been made in an effort to improve the clarity
of the Handbook. The most notable exception is the use of g/cm3 rather
than kg/m3 as the unit of measure for density (mass per unit volume).
SI practice requires that only one virgule (diagonal) appear in units
formed by combination of several basic units. Therefore, all of the
units preceding the virgule are in the numerator and all units following
the virgule are in the denominator of the expression; no parentheses
are required to prevent ambiguity.
Preface
It should be apparent with just a quick glance through this Volume
that a great deal of technical progress has been made since the rst
edition was published in 1987 (as Engineered Materials Handbook,
Volume 1). Much of the earlier promise of high performance organic-
matrix composites (OMCs) has been fullled. These materials are now
the preferred design solution for an expansive scope of applications.
Earlier concerns related to high cost and marginal manufacturability
have been satisfactorily addressed through high volume and innovative
design and manufacturing, including extensive use of unitized design
and construction. A clear example of the success in these areas is il-
lustrated by the growing use of high-performance composites in the
commodity applications of civil infrastructure. Nonetheless, cost and
manufacturability continue to be areas of vigorous development and
hold hope for signicant future advancements, along with the devel-
opment of composite materials with higher specic properties, higher
operating temperatures, and improved supportability. One can expect
to see broad advances in innovative structural concepts and certica-
tion methods in the future.
The progress in metal-matrix composites (MMCs) has been equally
remarkable. Although only marginal coverage was warranted in the
rst edition, MMCs now represent a signicant material option in the
international marketplace. The world market for MMCs was over 2.5
million kg (5.5 million pounds) in 1999, and an annual growth rate of
over 17% has been projected for the next several years. Signicant
applications are in service in the aeronautical, aerospace, ground trans-
portation, thermal management/electronic packaging, and recreation
industries. The ability to offer signicant improvements in structural
efciency and to excel in several other functional areas, including ther-
mal management and wear, and to utilize existing metalworking infra-
structure have aided this progress. Continued future extension into both
new and existing markets is expected.
While ceramic-matrix composite (CMC) technology is still largely
centered in the research and development phase, signicant advance-
ments have been made. Some commercial applications now exist, and
strategies for growing market insertion are being pursued. The tradi-
tional motivation of structural performance and environmental resis-
tance at the highest application temperatures continue to provide in-
centive for development. Recent important research accomplishments
provide growing optimism that signicant aeropropulsion structural
applications will be elded in the coming decade.
The primary objective of ASM Handbook, Volume 21, Composites
v
is to provide a comprehensive, practical, and reliable source of tech-
nical knowledge, engineering data, and supporting information for
composite materials. Coverage of OMCs and MMCs is provided in a
balanced fashion that reects the maturity of each material class. Given
the current status of CMC materials, less coverage is provided, but it,
too, is focused in areas of current industrial importance. This Hand-
book is intended to be a resource volume for nonspecialists who are
interested in gaining a practical working knowledge of the capabilities
and applications of composite materials. Thus, coverage emphasizes
well-qualied information for materials that can be produced in quan-
tities and product forms of engineering signicance. This Volume is
not intended to be a presentation of fundamental research activities,
although it certainly provides an important reference for scientists en-
gaged in the development of new composite materials. The full range
of information of importance to the practical technologist is provided
in this Volume, including topics of constituent materials; engineering
mechanics, design, and analysis; manufacturing processes; post
processing and assembly; quality control; testing and certication;
properties and performance; product reliability, maintainability, and
repair; failure analysis; recycling and disposal; and applications.
This new edition builds on the success of the version published as
Volume 1 of the Engineered Materials Handbook. Information on
OMCs has been updated to reect advancements in this technology
eld, including improvements in low cost manufacturing technologies
and signicantly expanded applications in areas such as infrastructure.
Progress in MMCs has been particularly dramatic since the previous
edition, and new information on these materials provides an up-to-date
comprehensive guide to MMC processing, properties, applications, and
technology. CMCs also have entered service in limited applications
since the previous edition, and the coverage of these materials reects
this progress. These three classes of composites are covered in each
Section of the Volume as appropriate to provide a unied view of these
engineered materials and to reduce redundancies in the previous edi-
tion.
We would like to offer our personal, heartfelt appreciation to the
Section Chairpersons, article authors, reviewers, and ASM staff for
sharing both their expertise and extensive efforts for this project.
Daniel B. Miracle
Steven L. Donaldson
Air Force Research Laboratory
Ofcers and Trustees of ASM International (20002001)
Aziz I. Asphahani Trustees Subi Dinda
President and Trustee Thomas G. Stoebe DaimlerChrysler Corporation
Carus Chemical Company University of Washington R.G. (Gil) Gilliland
Gordon H. Geiger Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Robert C. Tucker, Jr.
Vice President and Trustee UT-Battelle, LLC
University of Arizona Praxair Surface Technologies, Inc.
E. Daniel Albrecht Andrew R. Nicoll
Michael J. DeHaemer Sulzer Metco Europe GmbH
Secretary and Managing Director Advanced Ceramics Research, Inc.
ASM International W. Raymond Cribb
John W. Pridgeon Alloy Products
Treasurer Brush Wellman Inc.
Allvac Walter M. Grifth
Ash Khare Air Force Research Laboratory
Immediate Past President and Trustee Kathleen B. Alexander
National Forge Company Los Alamos National Laboratory

Members of the ASM Handbook Comittee (20002001)

Craig V. Darragh
(Chair 1999; Member 1989)
The Timken Company
Bruce P. Bardes (1993)
Materials Technology Solutions Company
Rodney R. Boyer (19821985; 1995)
Boeing Company
Toni M. Brugger (1993)
Carpenter Technology Corporation
Henry E. Fairman (1993)
Cooperheat/MQS Inspection Inc.
Larry D. Hanke (1994)
Materials Evaluation and Engineering Inc.
Jeffrey A. Hawk (1997)
U.S. Department of Energy
Dennis D. Huffman (1982)
The Timken Company
Dwight Janoff (1995)
FMC Corporation
Kent L. Johnson (1999)
Engineering Systems Inc.
Paul J. Kovach (1995)
Stress Engineering Services Inc.
Donald R. Lesuer (1999)
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Huimin Liu (1999)
Ford Motor Company
William L. Mankins (1989)
Metallurgical Services Inc.
Dana J. Medlin (1998)
Zimmer Inc.
Srikanth Raghunathan (1999)
Nanomat Inc.
Mahi Sahoo (1993)
Natural Resources Canada
Karl P. Staudhammer (1997)
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Kenneth B. Tator (1991)
KTA-Tator Inc.
George F. Vander Voort (1997)
Buehler Ltd.
George A. Wildridge (2000)
Borg Warner Morse TEC Corporation
Dan Zhao (1996)
Johnson Controls Inc.

Previous Chairs of the ASM Handbook Comittee

R.J. Austin C.H. Herty, Jr. W.J. Merten
(19921994) (Member 1984) (19341936) (Member 19301936) (19271930) (Member 19231933)
L.B. Case D.D. Huffman D.L. Olson
(19311933) (Member 19271933) (19861990) (Member 1982) (19901992) (Member 19821988,
T.D. Cooper J.B. Johnson 19891992)
(19841986) (Member 19811986) (19481951) (Member 19441951) N.E. Promisel
E.O. Dixon L.J. Korb (19551961) (Member 19541963)
(19521954) (Member 19471955) (1983) (Member 19781983) G.J. Shubat
R.L. Dowdell R.W.E. Leiter (19731975) (Member 19661975)
(19621963) (Member 19551958, W.A. Stadtler
(19381939) (Member 19351939)
19601964) (19691972) (Member 19621972)
M.M. Gauthier G.V. Luerssen R. Ward
(19971998) (Member 1990) (19431947) (Member 19421947) (19761978) (Member 19721978)
J.P. Gill G.N. Maniar M.G.H. Wells
(1937) (Member 19341937) (19791980) (Member 19741980) (1981) (Member 19761981)
J.D. Graham W.L. Mankins D.J. Wright
(19661968) (Member 19611970) (19941997) (Member 1989) (19641965) (Member 19591967)
J.F. Harper J.L. McCall
(19231926) (Member 19231926) (1982) (Member 19771982)

vi
Authors and Contributors

R.C. Adams Karl K. Chang Lynda Fiorini

Lockheed Martin Aeronautical Systems DuPont XC Associates Inc.
Suresh Advani K.K. Chawla Gerald Flanagan
University of Delaware University of Alabama Materials Sciences Corporation
David E. Alman N. Chawla Mark S. Forte
U.S. Department of Energy Arizona State University Air Force Research Laboratory
Finn Roger Andressen Eric Chesmar Marvin Foston
Reichhold AS United Airlines Lockheed Martin Aeronautical Systems
Keith B. Armstrong Richard J. Chester Luther M. Gammon
Consultant Aeronautical and Maritime Research The Boeing Company
B. Tomas A strom Laboratory C.P. Gardiner
IFP SICOMP AB S. Christensen Defence Science & Technology
Amit Bandyopadhyay The Boeing Company Organisation, Australia
Washington State University William F. Cole II Nicholas J. Gianaris
Yoseph Bar-Cohen United Airlines Visteon Corporation
Jet Propulsion Laboratory Bruce Crawford Ian Gibson
Robert J. Basso Deakin University The University of Hong Kong
Century Design Inc. George Dallas Lawrence A. Gintert
Mark Battley TA Instruments Concurrent Technologies Corporation
Industrial Research Limited Jonathan Goering
Joseph R. Davis
Joseph J. Beaman, Jr. Davis & Associates Albany International Techniweave Inc.
University of Texas at Austin John W. Goodman
J.A. DiCarlo
John H. Belk NASA Glenn Research Center Material Technologies Inc.
The Boeing Company J.H. Gosse
Cynthia Powell Dogan
Tia Benson Tolle The Boeing Company
U.S. Department of Energy
Air Force Research Laboratory Michael N. Grimshaw
Roderick Don Cincinnati Machine
Barry J. Berenberg University of Delaware
Caldera Composites Olivier Guillermin
Steven L. Donaldson Vistagy Inc.
John Bootle Air Force Research Laboratory
XC Associates Inc. H. Thomas Hahn
Louis C. Dorworth Air Force Ofce of Scientic Research
Chris Boshers
Abaris Training Resources Inc.
Composite Materials Characterization Inc. Paul Hakes
Richard H. Bossi Richard Downs-Honey High Modulus New Zealand Limited
The Boeing Company High Modulus New Zealand Limited
William C. Harrigan
David L. Bourell T.E. Drake MMC Engineering Inc.
University of Texas at Austin Lockheed Martin Aerospace
L.J. Hart-Smith
Dennis Bowles Lawrence T. Drzal The Boeing Company
Northrop Grumman Corporation Michigan State University
Brian S. Hayes
Jack Boyd G. Ehnert University of Washington
CyTech Fiberite Inc. Menzolit-Fibron GmbH
Dirk Heider
Maureen A. Boyle D. Emahiser University of Delaware
Hexcel Corporation GKN Aerospace Edmund G. Henneke II
Shari Bugaj Roger W. Engelbart Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
FiberCote Industries Inc. The Boeing Company State University
Frank Burzesi Don O. Evans John M. Henshaw
XC Associates Inc. Cincinnati Machine University of Tulsa
Flake C. Campbell Richard E. Fields G. Aaron Henson III
The Boeing Company Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control Design Alternatives Inc.

vii
Rikard B. Heslehurst Ajit K. Mal Naveen Rastogi
Australian Defence Force Academy University of California, Los Angeles Visteon Chassis Systems
Arlen Hoebergen Cary J. Martin Suraj P. Rawal
Centre of Lightweight Structures TUD-TNO Hexcel Corporation Lockheed Martin Astronautics
Leslie A. Hoeckelman Jeffrey D. Martin Scott Reeve
The Boeing Company Martin Pultrusion Group National Composite Center
Michael J. Hoke James J. Mazza Susan Robitaille
Abaris Training Resources Inc. Air Force Research Laboratory YLA Inc.
J. Anders Holmberg John E. McCarty Carl Rousseau
SICOMP AB Composite Structures Consulting Bell Helicopter
K. Horsting Douglas A. McCarville Paul A. Roy
Menzolit-Fibron GmbH The Boeing Company Vantage Associates Inc.
Warren H. Hunt, Jr. Colin McCullough C.D. Rudd
Aluminum Consultants Group Inc. 3M Company University of Nottingham
Michael G. Jenkins Lee McKague Daniel R. Ruffner
University of Washington Composites-Consulting Inc. The Boeing Company
James McKnight A.J. Russell
L. Kahn
The Boeing Company Dockyard Laboratory Pacic, DRDC
Georgia Institute of Technology
J. Lowrie McLarty John D. Russell
Vistasp M. Karbhari
University of California, San Diego Carol Meyers Air Force Research Laboratory
Materials Sciences Corporation Adam J. Sawicki
Kristen M. Kearns
Andrew Mills The Boeing Company
Air Force Research Laboratory
Craneld University Henry A. Schaefer
Shrikant N. Khot The Boeing Company
University of Delaware Daniel B. Miracle
Air Force Research Laboratory Jeffrey R. Schaff
Jeffrey J. Kilwin United Technologies Research Center
The Boeing Company Stephen C. Mitchell
General Electric Aircraft Engines Hans-Wolfgang Schroder
Jim Kindinger EADS Deutschland GmbH
Hexcel Corporation John E. Moalli
Exponent Failure Analysis Associates Mel M. Schwartz
Donald A. Klosterman Robert Moore Sikorsky Aircraft (retired)
University of Dayton
Northrop Grumman Corporation Daniel A. Scola
Frank K. Ko A.P. Mouritz University of Connecticut
Drexel University RMIT University Tito T. Serani
Greg Kress John Moylan
Delta Air Lines Steven M. Shepard
Delsen Testing Laboratories Thermal Wave Imaging, Inc.
Lawrence F. Kuberski Thomas Munns M. Singh
Fischer U.S.A. ARINC QSS Group Inc.
R. Kuhfusz John D. Neuner NASA Glenn Research Center
Menzolit-Fibron GmbH Hexcel Corporation Raj N. Singh
Joseph M. Kunze Steven R. Nutt University of Cincinnati
Triton Systems University of Southern California Cory A. Smith
Joe Lautner T. Kevin OBrien DWA Aluminum Composites
Gerber Technology Inc. U.S. Army Research Laboratory E. Murat Sozer
Richard D. Lawson Michael J. Paleen KOC University
The Boeing Company The Boeing Company Horst Stenzenberger
David Lewis III Awadh B. Pandey Technochemie GmbH
Naval Research Laboratory Pratt & Whitney Rich Stover
Hong Li Robert T. Parker Lockheed Martin Aeronautics
PPG Industries Inc. The Boeing Company Patricia L. Stumpff
R. Liebold Tim Pepper Hartzell Propeller Inc.
Menzolit-Fibron GmbH Ashland Chemical Company Joseph E. Sumerak
Shyh-Shiuh Lih Stanley T. Peters Creative Pultrusions Inc.
Jet Propulsion Laboratory Process Research Kirk Tackitt
Jim R. Logsdon Charles W. Peterson U.S. Army Research Laboratory
EMF Corporation Azdel bv E.T. Thostenson
Peter W. Lorraine Daniel R. Petrak University of Delaware
General Electric Company J. Gary Pruett R.S. Trask
Bhaskar S. Majumdar Hitco Carbon Composites DERA Farnborough
New Mexico Institute of Mining and Shahid P. Qureshi J. Tucker
Technology Georgia-Pacic Resins Inc. Southern Research Institute

viii
Rebecca Ufkes Jeff L. Ware Mike R. Woodward
Ufkes Engineering Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Lockheed Martin Aeronautics
Barry P. Van West James C. Watson Richard P. Wool
The Boeing Company PPG Industries Inc. University of Delaware
Anthony J. Vizzini David Weiss H.M. Yun
University of Maryland Eck Industries Inc. NASA Glenn Research Center
Frederick T. Wallenberger Mark Wilhelm F.W. Zok
PPG Industries Inc. The Boeing Company University of California, Santa Barbara
Paul J. Walsh D.M. Wilson A. Zureick
Zoltek Corporation 3M Company Georgia Institute of Technology
Stephen Ward Rod Wishart Carl Zweben
SW Composites Integrated Technologies Inc. (Intec) Composites Consultant

ix
Reviewers

John W. Aaron Ben R. Bognar Stan Chichanoski

The Boeing Company BP Amoco Chemicals Steinerlm Inc.
R.C. Adams Gregg R. Bogucki Bruce Choate
Lockheed Martin Aeronautical Systems The Boeing Company Northrop Grumman Corporation
John C. Adelmann Raymond Bohlmann Linda L. Clements
Sikorsky Aircraft The Boeing Company C & C Technologies
Suresh Advani Collin Bohn Todd Coburn
University of Delaware The Boeing Company Adroit Engineering
Suphal P. Agrawal Chris Boshers William F. Cole II
Northrop Grumman Corporation Composite Materials Characterization Inc. United Airlines
Klaus Ahlborn Dennis Bowles Doug Condel
Mitras Composites Systems Northrop Grumman Corporation John Cooney
Bob Allanson Alfonso Branca
GKN Westland Aerospace Bruce Cox
Top Glass s.p.a. DaimlerChrysler Corporation
David P. Anderson Mike Brun
University of Dayton Research Institute Jim Criss
General Electric Lockheed Martin Aeronautics
Donald A. Anderson Doug Brunner
The Boeing Company Alan Crosky
Lockheed Martin
University of New South Wales
Douglas L. Armstrong Bruce L. Burton
Fiber Innovations Inc. Maxwell Davis
Huntsman Corporation
Keith B. Armstrong J.G. Dean
Mark Bush
Consultant Lockheed Martin
University of Western Australia
B. Tomas A strom Thomas J. Dearlove
Rick Callis
IFP SICOMP AS General Motors Corporation
Hexcel Corporation
Mohan Aswani Leen Deurloo
Flake C. Campbell
Adzel bv
Mark Battley The Boeing Company
Industrial Research Limited, New Zealand Gene Camponeschi Herve Deve
NSWCCD 3M Company
Behzad Bavarian
California State University, Northridge Jay Carpenter Jose Manuel Luna Daz
Creative Tooling EADS-CASA Airbus
Matthew R. Begley
University of Connecticut Mark T. Carroll George DiBari
Lockheed Martin Aeronautics International Nickel
Arie Ben-Dov
Israel Aircraft Industry Patrick E. Cassidy Jack Dini
Southwest Texas State University Consultant
Tia Benson Tolle
Air Force Research Laboratory Gilbert B. Chapman II John Dion
DaimlerChrysler Corporation BAE Systems
Albert Bertram
Naval Surface Weapons Center K.K. Chawla Alan Dobyns
Edward Bernardon University of Alabama Sikorsky Aircraft
Vistagy Inc. N. Chawla Jim Door
R.T. Bhatt Arizona State University Duke Engineering
NASA Glenn Research Center Judy Chen Louis C. Dorworth
Greg Black The Boeing Company Abaris Training Resources Inc.
Northrop Grumman Corporation Richard J. Chester Timothy E. Easler
Tom Blankenship Aeronautical and Maritime Research COI Ceramics Inc.
The Boeing Company Laboratory Jim Epperson
George A. Blann Mark Chris Jay Fiebig
Buehler Ltd. Bell Helicopter Textron Warner Robins Air Logistics Center

x
Richard E. Fields DeWayne Howell Stanley Levine
Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control CompositeTek NASA Glenn Research Center
Lynda Fiorini Kuang-Ting Hsiao John Lewandowski
XC Associates Inc. University of Delaware Case Western Reserve University
John Fish Donald Hunston Jian Li
Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company National Institute of Standards and The Boeing Company
Gerald Flanagan Technology Denny Liles
Materials Sciences Corporation Warren H. Hunt, Jr. BGF Industries Inc.
Marvin Foston Aluminum Consultants Group Inc. Mike Lindsey
Lockheed Martin Aeronautical Systems Frances Hurwitz Lockheed Martin
Rob Fredell NASA Glenn Research Center Steve Loud
U.S. Air Force Academy John W. Hutchinson Composites Worldwide Inc.
David H. Fry Harvard University David Maas
The Boeing Company Flightware
William Jandeska
H. GangaRao Tonu Malm
West Virginia University Dave Jarmon
United Technologies Metallvagen
Samuel P. Garbo John F. Mandell
Sikorsky Aircraft Michael G. Jenkins
University of Washington Montana State University
Slade Gardner Rod Martin
Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Paul D. Jero
Air Force Research Laboratory Materials Engineering Research Laboratory
C.P. Gardiner Frederick J. McGarry
Defence Science and Technology Richard A. Jeryan Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Organisation Ford Motor Company
Lee McKague
Rikard Gebart Eric Johnson Composites-Consulting Inc.
Lulea University of Technology Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University Stewart E. McKinzy
Gerald A. Gegel TWA Inc.
Guy M. Genin Robert M. Jones
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Aram Mekjian
Washington University Mektek Composites Inc.
State University
Dipankar K. Ghosh
Ronald J. Kander Greg Mellema
Vanderplaats R&D Inc.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute Abaris Training Resources Inc.
Nicholas J. Gianaris
and State University James D. Miller
Visteon Corporation
Vistasp M. Karbhari Cool Polymers
A.G. Gibson
University of Newcastle upon Tyne University of California, San Diego Robert J. Miller
Pratt & Whitney
John W. Goodman Allan Kaye
Materials Technologies Inc. BAE Systems Andrew Mills
Craneld University
Peter Grant Ronald J. Kerans
The Boeing Company Air Force Research Laboratory Daniel B. Miracle
Air Force Research Laboratory
Stephen A. Green Hamid Kia
Sikorsky Aircraft Jack Mitrey
Christopher J. Kirschling Ashland Chemicals
John Grifth Reichold Chemicals Inc.
The Boeing Company Peter Mitschang
James Klett Institute fur Verbundwerkstoffe GmbH
John Gruss Oak Ridge National Laboratory
The Boeing Company Dale Moore
Eric S. Knudsen Naval Air Systems
John W. Halloran Fiberline Composites A/S
University of Michigan A.P. Mouritz
Greg Kress RMIT University
Gail Hahn Delta Air Lines
The Boeing Company Alvin Nakagawa
Raymond B. Krieger, Jr. Northrup Grumman Corporation
William C. Harrigan Cytec-Fiberite Inc.
MMC Engineering Inc. James Newell
Neil M. Hawkins Arun Kumar Theodore Nicholas
University of Illinois Seal Laboratories Air Force Research Laboratory
Randy Hay Murray Kuperman T. Kevin OBrien
Air Force Research Laboratory United Airlines (retired) U.S. Army Research Laboratory
Paul Hergenrother Jeremy Leggoe Mark Occhionero
NASA Langley Research Center Texas Tech University Ceramic Process Systems
Mike Hinton Bradley A. Lerch Tim A. Osswald
DERA Farnborough NASA Glenn Research Center University of Wisconsin
Michael J. Hoke James Leslie Steve Owens
Abaris Training Resources Inc. ACPT Inc. Lockheed Martin
Richard C. Holzwarth Chris Levan Ron Parkinson
Air Force Research Laboratory BP Amoco Carbon Fibers Nickel Development Institute

xi
Steven Peake R. Ajit Shenoi Barry P. Van West
Cytec-Fiberite Inc. University of Southampton The Boeing Company
John Peters Robert L. Sierakowski James Vaughan
A&P Technology Air Force Research Laboratory University of Mississippi
Bruce Pfund Raymond J. Sinatra Albert A. Vicario
Special Projects LLC Rolls Royce Corporation Alliant Techsystems Inc.
Fred Policelli J.P. Singh Anthony J. Vizzini
FPI Composites Engineering Argonne National Laboratory University of Maryland
Richard D. Pistole Lawrence H. Sobel Shawn Walsh
Northrop Grumman Corporation (retired) Army Research Laboratory
Kevin Potter
University of Bristol Jonathan E. Spowart Steve Wanthal
UES Incorporated The Boeing Company
(Paul) Mack Puckett
David A. Steenkamer Stephen Ward
Naveen Rastogi Ford Motor Company SW Composites
Visteon Chassis Systems
W. Kent Stewart Charles R. Watson
Suraj P. Rawal Bell Helicopter Textron Pratt & Whitney
Lockheed Martin Astronautics Bob Stratton Kevin Waymack
James Reeder Brent Strong The Boeing Company
NASA Langley Research Center Brigham Young University David Weiss
David L. Rose Brent Stucker Eck Industries Inc.
Polese Company University of Rhode Island Dan White
Tom Rose Patricia L. Stumpff dmc2 Electronic Components Corporation
Carl Rousseau Hartzell Propeller Inc. Mary Ann White
Bell Helicopter Susan Sun Alliant Techsystems Inc.
Roger Rowell Kansas State University Paul D. Wienhold
Jerry Sundsrud Johns Hopkins University
C.D. Rudd
University of Nottingham 3M Company J.L. Willet
John Taylor USDA/ARS/NCAUR
Daniel R. Ruffner
The Boeing Company Borden Chemical Martin Williams
Roland Thevenin ADI Limited
John Russell
Airbus Mark Wilhelm
Air Force Research Laboratory
L. Scott Thiebert The Boeing Company
Adam J. Sawicki Air Force Research Laboratory D.J. Williamson
The Boeing Company The Boeing Company
Rodney Thomson
Robert E. Schafrik CRC for Advanced Composites Dale W. Wilson
GE Aircraft Engines Structures Ltd. Johns Hopkins University
Warren C. Schimpf Katie E.G. Thorp David Wilson
Advanced Fiber Technology Air Force Research Laboratory 3M Company
John R. Schlup Richard E. Tressler Warren W. Wolf
Kansas State University Pennsylvania State University Owens Corning
Daniel A. Scola Francois Trochu Ernest Wolff
University of Connecticut Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal PMIC
Mark Shea Willem van Dreumel Hugh Yap
The Boeing Company Ten Cate Advanced Composites bv Aerocell Inc.
Bill Schweinberg Richard Van Luven Chun Zhang
Warner Robins Air Logistics Center Northrup Grumman Corporation Florida State University

xii
Contents
Introduction to Composites ................................................. 1
Chairpersons: Daniel B. Miracle and
Steven L. Donaldson, Air Force Research Laboratory
Introduction to Composites ................................................. 3
A Brief History of Composite Materials ................................ 4
General Use Considerations ............................................... 5
Technology Overview....................................................... 7
Applications ................................................................. 12
View of the Future......................................................... 16
Constituent Materials....................................................... 19
Chairperson: Steven R. Nutt, University of Southern California
Introduction to Constituent Materials ..................................... 21
Constituent Material Forms..................................... 21
Selection Factors.................................................. 22
Introduction to Reinforcing Fibers ........................................ 23
Overview ........................................................... 23
PMC Reinforcing Fibers ........................................ 24
CMC and MMC Reinforcing Fibers.......................... 25
Summary and Conclusions ..................................... 25
Glass Fibers .................................................................... 27
Glass Fiber Types ................................................ 27
General-Purpose Glass Fibers.................................. 28
Special-Purpose Glass Fibers .................................. 29
Glass Melting and Fiber Forming ............................. 30
Important Commercial Products............................... 31
Carbon Fibers .................................................................. 35
History .............................................................. 35
Manufacture of Carbon Fibers ................................. 35
Properties and Characteristics of Carbon Fibers ........... 36
Typical Applications of Carbon Fibers ...................... 38
Anticipated Developments in Carbon Fibers................ 39
Aramid Fibers.................................................................. 41
Fiber Manufacturing ............................................. 41
Fiber Forms and Applications ................................. 41
Materials Properties .............................................. 43
Future Developments ............................................ 45
Ceramic Fibers................................................................. 46
Fiber Production .................................................. 46
Composite Applications ......................................... 46
Properties of Commercial Fibers .............................. 46
Fibers for High-Temperature CMC Applications .......... 48
Future Directions ................................................. 49
Discontinuous Reinforcements for Metal-Matrix Composites ....... 51
Reinforcement Roles............................................. 51
DRMMC Reinforcements....................................... 51
Reinforcement Chemistry ....................................... 55
Continuous Fiber Reinforcements for Metal-Matrix Composites ... 56
Aluminum Oxide Fibers ........................................ 56
Silicon Carbide Fibers ........................................... 56
Boron Fibers ....................................................... 56
Carbon Fibers ..................................................... 56
Future Outlook .................................................... 57
xiii
Fabrics and Preforms ......................................................... 59
Unidirectional and Two-Directional Fabrics ................ 59
Hybrid Fabrics .................................................... 60
Multidirectionally Reinforced Fabrics........................ 60
Prepreg Resins .................................................... 62
Woven Fabric Prepregs.......................................... 63
Unidirectional Tape Prepregs .................................. 64
Multidirectional Tape Prepregs ................................ 65
Tape Manufacturing Processes................................. 65
Prepreg Tow ....................................................... 66
Braiding ......................................................................... 69
Braiding Classifications ......................................... 70
Two-Dimensional Braiding..................................... 70
Three-Dimensional Braiding ................................... 72
Properties of Braided Composites............................. 74
Epoxy Resins .................................................................. 78
Base Resins ........................................................ 78
Epoxy Resin Curatives .......................................... 80
Modifiers ........................................................... 84
Epoxy Resin Model Formulations ............................ 86
Safety ............................................................... 88
Future Trends...................................................... 88
Polyester Resins ............................................................... 90
Polyester Resin Chemistry...................................... 90
Mechanical Properties ........................................... 91
Thermal and Oxidative Stability............................... 92
Chemical Resistance ............................................. 93
Ultraviolet (UV) Resistance .................................... 94
Electrical Properties .............................................. 94
Flame-Retardant Polyester Resins............................. 95
Bismaleimide Resins ......................................................... 97
BMI Resin Chemistry.................................................. 97
Bismaleimide Building Blocks................................. 97
Bismaleimide Resin Systems................................... 98
BMI Composites .......................................................100
Mechanical Properties ..........................................101
Composite Applications ........................................101
Resin Transfer Molding ........................................103
Cure and Post Cure Requirements ...........................103
Elevated-Temperature Applications..........................103
Conclusions .......................................................104
Polyimide Resins .............................................................105
Properties and Applications ...................................105
Chemistry of Condensation-Type Polyimides .............107
Chemistry of Addition-Type Polyimides ...................109
Preparation of Nadic End-Capped Amic Acid
Oligomer Resin Solutions..................................112
Constituent Properties of PMR-15 ...........................113
Current State of the Art ........................................113
Outlook ............................................................113
Phenolic Resins...............................................................120
Phenolic Resin Chemistry .....................................120
Phenolic Prepregs................................................121
Phenolic Honeycomb ...........................................121
Phenolic Pultrusion..............................................122
 Phenolic Filament Winding....................................122
Phenolic Sheet Molding Compounds........................123
Phenolics for Hand Lay-Up ...................................124
Conclusions .......................................................124
Cyanate Ester Resins ........................................................126
Cyanate Ester Chemistry .......................................126
Properties and Characteristics .................................127
Processing .........................................................129
Properties for Selected Applications.........................129
Outlook ............................................................131
Thermoplastic Resins........................................................132
Background .......................................................132
Categories and Characteristics ................................133
Product Forms....................................................134
Impregnation......................................................134
Processing .........................................................135
Costs ...............................................................136
Properties..........................................................137
Applications ......................................................137
Future Directions ................................................138
Molding Compounds ........................................................141
Sheet Molding Compounds....................................141
Bulk Molding Compounds.....................................144
Injection Molding Compounds ...............................145
Metallic Matrices.............................................................150
Aluminum Alloys................................................151
Titanium Alloys..................................................156
Conclusions .......................................................158
Ceramic Matrices.............................................................160
Pressure-Assisted Densification...............................160
Chemical Vapor Infiltration ...................................160
Melt Infiltration ..................................................160
Polymer Infiltration and Pyrolysis ...........................161
Sol-Gel Processing ..............................................162
Carbon Matrices ..............................................................164
Pure Carbon Forms..............................................164
Matrix Formation Methods ....................................165
Matrix Contribution to Composite Properties..............167
Future Directions and Needs ..................................168
Interfaces and Interphases ..................................................169
Interface and Interphase ........................................169
Interphase Thermodynamics...................................170
Surface Modification Strategies...............................171
Surface Modification Examples ..............................172
Fiber-Matrix Adhesion Measurements ......................173
Interphase Processing ...........................................175
Interphase Effects on Fiber-Matrix Adhesion..............175
Interphase and Fiber-Matrix Adhesion Effects
on Composite Mechanical Properties.....................175
Conclusions .......................................................178
Lightweight Structural Cores ..............................................180
Honeycomb .......................................................180
Balsa ...............................................................182
Foam ...............................................................182
Specifying Structural Core.....................................182
Sandwich Structures ............................................182
Bio-Based Resins and Natural Fibers ....................................184
Bio-Based Resins ................................................184
Neat Resin Properties ...........................................187
Triglyceride-Based Composite Materials ...................188
AESO and HSO/MA Glass-Fiber Composites ............189
Natural-Fiber Composites......................................189
Ballistic Impact Resistance of Soy-Resin Composites ...191
Biodegradable Composites ....................................191
Conclusions .......................................................192
Engineering Mechanics, Analysis, and Design......................195
Chairperson: Scott Reeve, National Composite Center
Introduction to Engineering Mechanics, Analysis, and Design.....197
Mechanics .........................................................197
xiv
Analysis ...........................................................197
Design..............................................................197
Micromechanics ..............................................................199
Physical Properties of Fiber Composites:
General Concepts.............................................199
Elastic Properties ................................................199
Thermal Expansion and Moisture Swelling ................202
Viscoelastic Properties..........................................204
Conduction and Moisture Diffusion .........................205
Macromechanics Analysis of Laminate Properties ....................207
Lamina Stress-Strain Relations ...............................207
Lamination Theory ..............................................209
Laminate Properties .............................................211
Thermal and Hygroscopic Analysis..........................215
Laminate Stress Analysis ......................................216
Strength and Failure.............................................219
Intra- and Interlaminar Cracking .............................224
Characterizing Strength from a Structural Design
Perspective .....................................................230
Background on Characterization .............................230
The Strength of Embedded Fibers under Arbitrary
Biaxial Loads..................................................231
The Strength of Embedded Fibers Characterized
at the Lamina Level..........................................233
Strength Properties for Polymer Matrices Confined
Between Fibers................................................235
Effects of Combined Loading on Matrix Failure
Envelope .......................................................237
Characterization of Progressive Matrix Damage ..........236
Empirical Failure Envelopes for Multidirectional
Laminates ......................................................238
Conclusions .......................................................240
Fracture Mechanics of Composite Delamination ......................241
Delamination Characterization ................................241
Delamination Analysis..........................................242
Delamination Prediction........................................242
Hygrothermal Behavior .....................................................246
General Considerations in Assessing Hygrothermal
Behavior ........................................................246
Resins or Matrices...............................................247
Reinforcements...................................................247
Processing .........................................................247
Diffusion ..........................................................247
Hygrothermal Testing and Conditioning....................248
Degradation Mechanisms and Failure Modes .............249
Properties..........................................................249
Fatigue and Life Prediction ................................................252
Fatigue Damage..................................................252
Fatigue Methodologies .........................................253
Delamination .....................................................256
Life Prediction Models .........................................256
Damping Properties..........................................................259
Unidirectional Composites.....................................259
Beams Cut From Laminated Plates ..........................262
Laminated Plates.................................................262
Woven Fibrous Composites ...................................266
Sandwich Laminates ............................................266
Effect of Temperature ..........................................266
Relationship Between Damping and Strength .............268
Composites Versus Metals.....................................269
Bolted and Bonded Joints ..................................................271
Fundamentals of Shear Load Transfer through
Adhesively Bonded Joints ..................................272
Nonuniformity of Load Transfer through
Adhesive Bonds...............................................274
Elastic-Plastic Adhesive Shear Model.......................277
Single-Lap Adhesively Bonded Joints ......................278
Stepped-Lap Adhesively Bonded Joints ....................278
Load Redistributions with Flawed and Damaged
Adhesively Bonded Joints ..................................280
 Fundamentals of Shear Load Transfer through
Mechanical Fasteners ........................................281
Single-Hole Bolted Composite Joints .......................282
Multirow Bolted Composite Joints...........................284
Practical Considerations........................................286
Instability Considerations...................................................290
Background .......................................................290
Orthotropic Plates ...............................................290
Finite Stack Effects .............................................291
Anisotropic Plates ...............................................291
Unsymmetric Plates .............................................292
Transverse Shear Stiffness Effects ...........................292
Hygrothermal Buckling ........................................293
Composite Sandwich Panels...................................293
Computer Codes .................................................293
Shell Panel Instability...........................................293
Damage Tolerance ...........................................................295
Definitions.........................................................295
Durability and Damage Tolerance Criteria .................295
Specific Criteria ..................................................295
Damage Tolerance Philosophy................................296
Compression After Impact Failure Mode...................297
Damage Tolerance Allowables Development..............299
Implementation of a Damage Tolerance Analysis
Methodology ..................................................300
Out-of-Plane Analysis.......................................................302
The Challenge ....................................................302
Out-of-Plane Analysis Techniques ...........................303
Conclusion ........................................................306
Analysis of Sandwich Structures..........................................308
Sandwich Panel Failure Modes ...............................308
Nomenclature and Definitions for Loads, Geometry,
and Material Properties......................................309
Strength Checks..................................................309
Stiffness and Internal Loads...................................310
Flat Panel Internal Loads and Stresses
Pressure Loading .............................................313
Curved Sandwich Panel Internal Loads and Stresses ....316
Local Strength Analysis Methods ............................317
Flat Panel Stability Analysis Methods ......................319
Finite Element Analysis ....................................................321
Overview of Finite Element Analysis .......................321
Homogenization..................................................322
3-D Solid Elements .............................................323
2-D Cylindrical Shell Elements...............................324
1-D Beam Elements.............................................326
Commercial Finite Element Analyses Codes ..............328
Numerical Examples ............................................328
Computer Programs..........................................................334
Evaluation Criteria ..............................................334
Reviews of Available Programs ..............................335
Internet Resources ...............................................343
Testing and Analysis Correlation .........................................344
The Building Block Approach to
Structural Qualification......................................344
Design Allowables Coupons ..................................345
Bolted Joints ......................................................347
Elements and Subcomponents ................................349
Conclusions .......................................................351
Design Criteria................................................................353
Overview of Design Criteria for Composites ..............353
Cost.................................................................354
Size .................................................................355
Mechanical Properties ..........................................355
Repeatability and Precision....................................357
Damage Tolerance and Durability ...........................357
Environmental Constraints.....................................358
Conclusions .......................................................359
Design Allowables ...........................................................360
Need for Design Allowables ..................................360
Development of Design Allowables .........................360
xv
Factors Affecting Design Allowables .......................360
Lamina Versus Laminate Allowables .......................361
Extending Laminate Results...................................362
Statistical Determination of Allowables ....................363
Ensuring the Validity of Allowables ........................365
Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing ...........................366
Overview ..........................................................366
Composite Draping Simulation ...............................366
Composite Hierarchy ...........................................367
Core Sample and Ply Analysis................................368
Producibility and Flat-Pattern Evaluations .................368
Laminate Surface Offset .......................................368
Engineering Documentation ...................................369
Flat-Pattern Export ..............................................369
Structural Analysis Interface ..................................370
Resin Transfer Molding Interface ............................371
Fiber Placement and Tape-Laying Interfaces ..............371
Laser Projection Interface......................................371
Design, Tooling, and Manufacturing Interaction ......................373
Selection of Composites Manufacturing Processes .......373
Process Considerations .........................................374
Preparation ........................................................374
Forming Processes...............................................375
Post-Processing and Fabrication ..............................376
Repair ..............................................................377
Conclusions .......................................................377
Cost Analysis .................................................................379
Composite Cost Tools ..........................................379
Cost Savings ......................................................381
Rapid Prototyping............................................................383
Review of Processes ............................................383
Direct Fabrication of Composite Structures................385
Freeform Tooling for Composite Part Lay-Up ............386
Design Guidelines............................................................388
Definition of Composites ......................................388
Analysis of a Composite Laminate ..........................389
Mold Design ......................................................391
Matrix-Resin Selection .........................................391
Typical PMC Processes ........................................391
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Shielding and
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Protection ...............393
Metal Plating .....................................................393
Fire Resistance ...................................................393
Thermal Conductivity...........................................394
Corrosion ..........................................................395
Fasteners...........................................................395
Engineering Mechanics and Analysis of Metal-Matrix
Composites.....................................................396
Micromechanics of Fiber-Reinforced MMCs..............396
Micromechanics of Discontinuously Reinforced
MMCs ..........................................................400
Local Failures of Fiber-Reinforced MMCs ................401
Macromechanics .................................................402
Fracture Toughness .............................................403
Software ...........................................................405
Fracture Analysis of Fiber-Reinforced Ceramic-Matrix
Composites.....................................................407
General Framework for Fracture Analysis .................408
Classes of Material Behavior..................................408
Constitutive Laws for Inelastic Straining ...................409
Stress Distributions in Notched Specimens ................411
Fracture Initiation................................................412
Crack Propagation ...............................................413
Environmental Degradation ...................................415
Conclusions .......................................................416
Manufacturing Processes .................................................419
Chairperson: B. Tomas Astrom, IFP SICOMP AB, Sweden
Introduction to Manufacturing of Polymer-Matrix Composites ....421
Outlook ............................................................422
Process Modeling ............................................................423
Classification Based on Dominant Flow Process .........423
Usefulness of Process Models ................................424
Ingredients of a Process Model ...............................425
Formulation of Models .........................................429
Composite Tooling...........................................................434
Advantages of Composite Tools..............................434
Disadvantages of Composite Tools ..........................435
Tool Design Overview .........................................435
Master Model or Pattern Design..............................437
Fiber and Fabric Selection .....................................437
Resins ..............................................................437
Surface Coat and Surface Ply .................................437
Tool Laminate Construction Techniques ...................438
Curing and Demolding .........................................438
Cutting and Trimming ..........................................438
Substructure Design .............................................438
Future Outlook ...................................................440
Electroformed Nickel Tooling.............................................441
Electroforming Process .........................................441
Mandrel Cost and Design Considerations ..................442
Comparison of Nickel and Other Tooling Materials .....443
Future Developments ...........................................444
Elastomeric Tooling .........................................................445
Bag-Side Elastomeric Cauls ...................................445
Thermal Expansion Molding Methods ......................447
Volumetric Analysis ............................................448
Open Molding: Hand Lay-Up and Spray-Up...........................450
Process Characteristics .........................................450
Applications ......................................................450
Process Description .............................................451
Materials...........................................................453
Component Properties and Characteristics .................453
Basic Design Guidelines .......................................455
Outlook ............................................................456
Custom Sailing Yacht Design and Manufacture .......................457
Yacht Structure...................................................457
Design Guidelines ...............................................458
Material Types and Forms .....................................460
Technique Characteristics......................................461
Outlook ............................................................465
Prepreg and Ply Cutting ....................................................466
History of Composites Ply Cutting ..........................466
Creating the Data ................................................466
Nesting the Pieces ...............................................467
Kitting..............................................................467
Cutting .............................................................468
Labeling ...........................................................469
Manual Prepreg Lay-Up ....................................................470
Technique Characteristics and Applications ...............470
Technique Description..........................................471
Component Properties ..........................................474
Design Guidelines ...............................................475
Outlook ............................................................475
Fiber Placement ..............................................................477
Applications ......................................................477
Materials...........................................................478
Part Design Considerations ....................................478
Outlook ............................................................479
Automated Tape Laying ....................................................480
History .............................................................480
Process Overview................................................480
Applications ......................................................481
Description of Equipment......................................481
Tape Laying Process Description ............................483
Typical Material Types and Forms ..........................484
Design Guidelines ...............................................484
Outlook ............................................................484
Curing ..........................................................................486
Preparation for Curing..........................................486
Autoclave Cure Systems .......................................487
xvi
Control Systems..................................................489
Other Process Cures.............................................490
Thermoplastic Composites.....................................491
Resin Transfer Molding and Structural Reaction Injection
Molding.........................................................492
Technique Characteristics......................................492
Applications ......................................................493
Technique Description..........................................494
Material Types and Forms .....................................495
Representative Component Properties.......................497
Design Guidelines ...............................................497
Outlook ............................................................499
Vacuum Infusion .............................................................501
Technique Characteristics......................................501
Applications ......................................................503
Technique Description: Theory and Background .........505
Technique Description: How Parts Are Made .............508
Equipment and Material Types and Forms.................510
Representative Component Properties.......................513
Design Guidelines ...............................................513
Outlook ............................................................514
Compression Molding.......................................................516
Process Description and Characteristics ....................516
Part Design and Process Engineering .......................517
Compression Molding of Glass Mat Thermoplastics.....518
Compression Molding of Long-Fiber Thermoplastics ...522
Compression Molding of Sheet Molding Compounds ...525
Filament Winding ............................................................536
Advantages and Disadvantages ...............................537
Effects of Fiber Tension .......................................538
Materials...........................................................539
Shapes..............................................................540
Winding Patterns ................................................541
Tooling and Equipment ........................................542
Applications ......................................................544
Representative Component Properties.......................545
Design Guidelines ...............................................546
Fabrication Recommendations ................................547
Outlook ............................................................548
Pultrusion ......................................................................550
Technique Characteristics......................................550
Process Advantages .............................................550
Applications ......................................................551
Key Technology Areas .........................................552
Process Equipment ..............................................552
Process Tooling ..................................................555
Materials...........................................................555
Properties of Pultruded Products .............................559
Design Guidelines ...............................................561
Future Outlook ...................................................562
Tube Rolling ..................................................................565
Process Description .............................................565
Process Equipment and Techniques .........................565
Material Forms ...................................................566
Wrapping Techniques ..........................................567
Outlook ............................................................569
Thermoplastic Composites Manufacturing..............................570
Characteristics of Thermoplastic Composites..............570
Material Forms ...................................................571
Technique Descriptions ........................................571
Outlook ............................................................577
Processing of Metal-Matrix Composites ................................579
Processing of Discontinuously Reinforced Aluminum...579
Processing of Continuous Fiber-Reinforced
Aluminum......................................................584
Processing of Discontinuously Reinforced Titanium.....585
Processing of Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Titanium ...585
Processing of Other Metal-Matrix Composites............586
Processing of Ceramic-Matrix Composites .............................589
Cold Pressing and Sintering ...................................589
Hot Pressing ......................................................589
Reaction-Bonding Processes ..................................590
Infiltration .........................................................590
Directed Oxidation (Lanxide) Process ......................591
In Situ Chemical Reaction Techniques .....................592
Sol-Gel Techniques .............................................595
Polymer Infiltration and Pyrolysis ...........................595
Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis ............597
Electrophoretic Deposition.....................................598
Processing of Carbon-Carbon Composites..............................600
Preform Fabrication .............................................600
Densification Processing .......................................601
Protective Coatings..............................................603
Joining .............................................................605
Properties of Carbon-Carbon Composites ..................606
Post-Processing and Assembly ..........................................613
Chairperson: Flake C. Campbell, The Boeing Company
Introduction to Post-Processing and Assembly ........................615
Polymer-Matrix Composites...................................615
Metal-Matrix and Ceramic-Matrix Composites ...........615
Machining, Trimming, and Routing of Polymer-Matrix
Composites.....................................................616
Machining Operations ..........................................616
Cutting Tools For Machining .................................616
Peripheral Milling ...............................................617
Face Milling ......................................................617
Trimming..........................................................618
Secondary Adhesive Bonding of Polymer-Matrix
Composites.....................................................620
Adhesive Joint Design..........................................620
Selection Criteria ................................................620
Highly Loaded Joint Considerations.........................622
Epoxy Adhesives ................................................624
Surface Preparation..............................................626
Sandwich Structures ............................................627
Honeycomb Core ................................................628
Honeycomb Processing.........................................628
Syntactic Core....................................................628
Foam Core ........................................................628
Adhesive-Bonding Process ....................................628
Adhesive Application ...........................................629
Tooling.............................................................630
Inspection .........................................................632
Processing and Joining of Thermoplastic Composites................633
Economic Considerations ......................................633
Material Options .................................................634
Processing Methods .............................................636
Joining .............................................................638
Hole Drilling in Polymer-Matrix Composites ..........................646
Part Fit-Up ........................................................646
Drilling Considerations .........................................647
Reaming ...........................................................649
Countersinking ...................................................649
Hole Quality ......................................................649
Mechanical Fastener Selection ............................................651
Corrosion Compatibility........................................651
Fastener Materials and Strength Considerations ..........651
Bolt Bending......................................................652
Head Configuration Selection .................................652
Clamp-Up .........................................................653
Chamfering of Holes............................................653
Interference Fit Fasteners ......................................654
Lightning-Strike Protection....................................655
Hi-Lok and Lockbolt Fasteners...............................656
Eddie-Bolt Fasteners ............................................657
Blind Fasteners in Composite Structures ...................657
Screws and Nutplates in Composite Structures............658
xvii
Environmental Protection and Sealing ...................................659
Corrosion Control ...............................................659
Design Considerations ..........................................660
Sealing .............................................................660
Primer and Topcoat Systems ..................................663
Extrusion of Particle-Reinforced Aluminum Composites............666
Dies and Shapes .................................................666
Effects of Reinforcements .....................................667
Post-Processing and Assembly of Ceramic-Matrix
Composites.....................................................668
Machining and Finishing of CMCs ..........................668
Coating and Surface Treatments for CMCs ................669
Joining of CMCs.................................................669
Assembly of CMCs .............................................670
Nondestructive Evaluation .....................................670
Quality Assurance ..........................................................675
Chairperson: G. Aaron Henson III, Design Alternatives Inc.
Introduction to Quality Assurance ........................................677
In-Process Monitoring ..........................................677
Quality Assurance Factors .....................................677
Tooling and Assembly Considerations ......................677
Quality Assurance for Commercial Applications .........678
Nondestructive Testing and Data Fusion ...................678
Conclusions .......................................................678
Resin Properties Analysis ..................................................679
Component Material Tests.....................................679
Mixed Resin System Tests.....................................680
Prepreg Tests .....................................................680
Cured Resin and Prepreg Mechanical Properties .........681
Tooling and Assembly Quality Control .................................682
Tooling Quality Control ..............................................682
Documentation ...................................................682
Hand-Faired Master Models...................................682
Machined Master Models ......................................683
Second-Generation Patterns ...................................683
Composite Tooling ..............................................683
Metallic Tooling .................................................683
Composites Assembly Quality Control............................683
Methods for Simplifying and Improving Assembly
Operations......................................................684
Assembly Process Monitoring ................................684
Outlook for Composites Assembly ..........................684
Reinforcing Material Lay-Up Quality Control .........................685
Facilities and Equipment .......................................685
Material Control .................................................687
Lay-Up.............................................................687
Automated Tape Laying and Fiber Placement.............690
Numerically Aided Lay-Up....................................690
Cure Monitoring and Control..............................................692
Process Control ..................................................692
Resin Cure Sensing .............................................692
Flow Sensing .....................................................697
Practical Issues in Sensing Resin Cure and Flow .........698
Nondestructive Testing......................................................699
Ultrasonics ........................................................699
Air-Coupled Ultrasonics .......................................702
Laser Ultrasound.................................................703
Ultrasonic Spectroscopy........................................707
Lamb Waves......................................................708
Nonlinear Ultrasonics...........................................711
Acousto-Ultrasonics.............................................711
Radiography ......................................................712
Computed Tomography ........................................715
Thermography....................................................717
Low-Frequency Vibration Methods..........................718
Acoustic Emission...............................................718
Eddy Current .....................................................719
Optical Holography and Shearography......................719
Data Fusion .......................................................720
Standards ..........................................................721
Quality Assurance of Metal-Matrix Composites.......................726
Characterization Techniques ..................................726
Mechanical Testing..............................................727
Nondestructive Evaluation .....................................728
Testing and Certification .................................................731
Chairperson: Richard E. Fields, Lockheed Martin Missiles
and Fire Control
Introduction to Testing and Certification ................................733
Section on Testing and Certification.........................733
Overview of Testing and Certification...................................734
Differences Between Testing of Composites and
Testing of Isotropic Materials..............................734
Involvement of Certification Agencies ......................734
Understanding the Building-Block Approach..............735
Building-Block Levels..........................................735
Determining the Purposes of Testing........................736
Data Normalization..............................................736
Statistical Data Reduction......................................738
Test Program Planning ......................................................741
Development of Test Matrices ................................741
Testing Standards................................................742
Specimen Preparation...........................................743
Environmental Conditioning ..................................745
Instrumentation and Data Acquisition .......................747
Failure Modes ....................................................747
Data Interpretation and Recording ...........................747
Constituent Materials Testing..............................................749
Tests for Reinforcement Fibers and Fabrics ...............749
Tests for Matrix Resins and Prepregs .......................751
Lamina and Laminate Nonmechanical Testing ........................759
Per Ply Thickness................................................759
Constituent Content .............................................759
Density.............................................................760
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion and Coefficient
of Moisture Expansion ......................................760
Glass Transition Temperature.................................761
Thermal Conductivity, Diffusivity, and Specific Heat ...762
Lamina and Laminate Mechanical Testing .............................766
Failure Mode Analysis .........................................766
Tensile Property Test Methods ...............................767
Compressive Property Test Methods ........................769
Shear Property Test Methods .................................772
Flexure Property Test Methods ...............................774
Fracture Toughness Test Methods ...........................775
Fatigue Property Test Methods ...............................776
Element and Subcomponent Testing .....................................778
Test Methodology and Considerations ......................778
Standard Elements...............................................781
Nonstandard Elements and Subcomponents ...............789
Durability and Damage-Tolerance Testing .................790
Full-Scale Structural Testing...............................................794
Static Test .........................................................795
Durability (Fatigue) Test .......................................798
Damage Tolerance Test ........................................798
Properties and Performance.............................................801
Chairperson: Jeffrey Schaff, United Technologies Research Center
Properties and Performance of Polymer-Matrix
Composites.....................................................803
Materials and Properties Description ........................803
Axes Definitions, Symbols, and Special Property
Calculations....................................................805
Overview of Constituent Materials ..........................806
Thermoplastic-Matrix Composites ...........................807
Thermoset-Matrix Composites................................807
Properties of Metal-Matrix Composites .................................838
Discontinuously Reinforced MMCs .........................838
Hybrid Laminated Metal and Ductile Phase
Composites.....................................................848
Continuous Fiber Reinforced Composites ..................851
xviii
Properties and Performance of Ceramic-Matrix and
Carbon-Carbon Composites ................................859
Discontinuously Reinforced Ceramic-Matrix
Composites.....................................................859
Continuous Fiber Ceramic Composites .....................862
Carbon-Carbon Composites ...................................865
Product Reliability, Maintainability, and Repair ..................869
Chairpersons: Michael J. Hoke, Abaris Training Resources, Inc.
Rikard B. Heslehurst, Australian Defence Force Academy
Introduction to Product Reliability, Maintainability,
and Repair .....................................................871
Facilitating Effective Repair of Composite Structures ...871
Repair Issues for Specific Applications .....................871
Repair Standardization and Reliability Considerations ..871
Designing for Repairability ................................................872
Introduction to Designing for Repairability ................872
Design Guidelines ...............................................874
Design for Supportability ......................................880
Specific Examples ...............................................882
Repair Engineering and Design Considerations .......................885
Types of Repairs to Composite Structures .................885
Repair Requirements............................................885
Considerations Prior to, During, and After Repair
Action...........................................................887
Validation and Certification of Repairs .....................888
Design Guidelines ...............................................889
Pitfalls and Problems ...........................................891
Repair Applications, Quality Control, and Inspection ................893
Types of Damage ................................................893
Damage Detection in Field Conditions .....................893
Component Identification ......................................894
Paint Removal....................................................895
Repair Design ....................................................895
Repair Design Considerations.................................896
Repair Instructions ..............................................897
Repair Materials .................................................897
Curing Methods ..................................................897
Ship Structure Repairs ......................................................899
Repair Classification, Characterization, and Cycle .......899
Repair to Gel Coats .............................................900
Composite Patch Repairs.......................................901
Scarf Repairs .....................................................901
Step Repairs ......................................................903
Resin-Infusion Repairs .........................................904
Rehabilitation of Reinforced Concrete Structures
Using Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites ..........906
Structural Assessment ..........................................906
Composite Materials Reinforcing Systems for Concrete
Strengthening..................................................907
Properties of Polymer Composite Reinforcing
Systems .........................................................908
Materials Property Requirements for Design ..............909
FRP-Reinforced Concrete Behavior .........................910
Surface Preparation..............................................912
Composite Materials Applications ...........................912
Records ............................................................912
Acceptance Criteria .............................................912
Maintainability Issues .......................................................914
Types of Composite Structures ...............................914
Designing for Maintainability.................................915
Sources of Defects and Damage..............................915
Nondestructive Inspection Requirements ...................916
Design Recommendations .....................................917
Personnel, Facilities, and Equipment ........................918
Bonded Repair of Metal Structures Using Composites ..............922
Damage Assessment ............................................922
Repair Design ....................................................922
Repair Application ..............................................924
Repair Certification..............................................926
 Repair Examples.................................................927
Future Trends.....................................................928
Worldwide Repair Standardization .......................................931
Repair Types and Materials ...................................931
Training............................................................932
Major Standardization Issues..................................932
Product Reliability, In-Service Experience, and
Lessons Learned ..............................................934
Reliability .........................................................934
Context of In-Service Experiences within Aircraft
Operations......................................................935
Failure Modes ....................................................935
Part-Specific In-Service Experiences ........................937
Lessons Learned .................................................943
Failure Analysis .............................................................947
Chairperson: Patricia L. Stumpff, Hartzell Propeller Inc.
Introduction to Failure Analysis ..........................................949
Overview of Failure Analysis .................................949
Coverage of this Section .......................................949
Failure Causes ................................................................951
Design..............................................................951
Manufacturing ....................................................951
Improper Use .....................................................952
Failure Analysis Procedures ...............................................953
Review of Available In-Service Records, Materials
and Processing Methods, Print Requirements, and
Manufacturing Records .....................................953
Visual Analysis and Nondestructive Examination ........953
Verification of Materials and Processing Methods .......954
Determination of Fiber, Matrix, and Void Volume
Fractions and Verification of Ply Lay-Up
and Orientation................................................955
Review of Composites Processing Parameters ............956
Fractography and Surface Analysis ..........................956
Mechanical Testing and Stress Analysis....................956
Conclusions .......................................................957
Visual Analysis, Nondestructive Testing, and Destructive
Testing ..........................................................958
Visual Analysis ..................................................958
Nondestructive Test Techniques..............................960
Destructive Test Techniques ..................................962
Microscopy ....................................................................964
Sample Preparation..............................................964
Rough Grinding and Polishing................................966
Thin-Section Preparation.......................................967
Viewing the Specimen..........................................969
Thermal Analysis ............................................................973
Composite Failure Modes Affected by Matrix Resin ....973
Testing Approach................................................973
Thermal Analysis Techniques.................................973
Fractography ..................................................................977
Interlaminar Fracture Features ................................978
Translaminar Fracture Features ...............................985
Conclusion ........................................................986
Case Histories.................................................................988
Helicopter Rotor Blade Failure ...............................988
Composite Wing Spar Failure.................................990
Aircraft Rudder Failure.........................................991
Fatigue Properties and Quantitative Fractography
of Metal-Matrix Composites ...............................994
Fatigue Properties of Metal-Matrix Composites ..........994
Fatigue Testing of MMCs .....................................995
Fractography of MMCs under Plane-Strain
Conditions......................................................996
Failure Analysis of Ceramic-Matrix Composites .................... 1000
Characteristic Failure ......................................... 1000
Evidence of Failure Mechanisms........................... 1001
xix
Recycling and Disposal.................................................. 1003
Chairperson: Nicholas J. Gianaris, Visteon Corporation
Introduction to Recycling and Disposal of Composites ............ 1005
Recycling and Disposal of Polymer-Matrix Composites........... 1006
Driving Forces for Recycling of Composites ............ 1006
Disposing of Composite Scrap.............................. 1007
Recycling of Thermoset-Matrix Composites............. 1008
Recycling of Thermoplastic-Matrix Composites ........ 1010
Properties of Recycled Composite Fibers ................ 1011
Recycling and Disposal of Metal-Matrix Composites .............. 1013
Recycling of Aluminum MMCs ............................ 1013
Continuous Reinforced Aluminum MMCs ............... 1014
Quality Issues .................................................. 1014
Properties of Recycled Aluminum MMCs ............... 1015
Disposal of Aluminum MMCs.............................. 1015
Recycling Other MMCs ...................................... 1015
Applications and Experience .......................................... 1017
Chairpersons: Tia Benson Tolle, Air Force Research Laboratory
Warren H. Hunt, Jr., Aluminum Consultants Group Inc.
Introduction to Applications ............................................. 1019
Advanced Polymer-Matrix Composites ................... 1019
Metal-Matrix Composites .................................... 1019
Ceramic-Matrix Composites................................. 1019
Automotive Applications ................................................. 1020
Automotive Composites...................................... 1021
Design Challenges and Constraints ........................ 1021
Design Environments ......................................... 1023
Application Drivers and Constraints....................... 1023
High-Volume Composite Descriptions, Properties,
and Processes................................................ 1024
State-of-the-Art and Developing Technologies.......... 1026
Automotive Applications of Metal-Matrix Composites ............ 1029
Engine Applications........................................... 1029
Brake System Applications .................................. 1031
Driveshaft Applications ...................................... 1031
Other Applications ............................................ 1031
Conclusions ..................................................... 1032
Space Applications......................................................... 1033
Design Drivers and Challenges ............................. 1033
Environments ................................................... 1033
Design Processes and Trade-Offs .......................... 1033
Composite Materials Properties............................. 1035
State-of-the-Art Applications................................ 1036
New Developments and Future Needs .................... 1041
Aeronautical Applications of Metal-Matrix Composites ........... 1043
Aerostructural Applications ................................. 1044
Aeropropulsion Applications ................................ 1046
Aeronautical Subsystem Applications ..................... 1047
Implementation Strategy ..................................... 1048
View of the Future ............................................ 1048
High-Temperature Applications......................................... 1050
General Characteristics ....................................... 1050
Condensation-Type Polyimides............................. 1050
PMR Polyimides ............................................... 1050
Applications of PMR-15 ..................................... 1051
Aircraft Applications ...................................................... 1057
Early Commercial Applications ............................ 1057
Current Production Aircraft ................................. 1058
Military Applications ......................................... 1061
Outlook .......................................................... 1065
Applications of Carbon-Carbon Composites ......................... 1067
Material Properties ............................................ 1067
Applications .................................................... 1067
Conclusions ..................................................... 1070
Sports and Recreation Equipment Applications ..................... 1071
Historical Background ........................................ 1071
Bats, Rackets, and Clubs..................................... 1071
 Bicycling ........................................................ 1072
Winter Sports................................................... 1072
Aquatic Sports.................................................. 1073
Track and Field Equipment.................................. 1075
Archery Equipment ........................................... 1076
Conclusions ..................................................... 1076
Thermal Management and Electronic Packaging
Applications ................................................. 1078
Application Requirements and Candidate Materials.... 1078
Reinforcements................................................. 1080
Thermal Management Composites and Other Advanced
Materials ..................................................... 1081
Applications .................................................... 1082
Future Trends................................................... 1082
Marine Applications ....................................................... 1085
Naval Applications of FRP Composites .................. 1085
Leisure, Sporting, and Commercial FRP
Composite Craft ............................................ 1088
Offshore Applications of FRP Composites............... 1089
xx
Civil Infrastructure Applications ........................................ 1091
The Need for Infrastructure Renewal...................... 1091
Conventional Materials versus Composites .............. 1091
Seismic Retrofit Applications ............................... 1092
Repair and Strengthening of Beams and Slabs .......... 1093
Repair of Large-Diameter Pipes ............................ 1095
Replacement Bridge Decks .................................. 1096
New Structural Systems ...................................... 1097
Outlook .......................................................... 1098
Applications of Ceramic-Matrix Composites......................... 1101
Applications for Discontinuously Reinforced CMCs .. 1101
Applications for Continuous Fiber Ceramic
Composites................................................... 1106
Reference Information .................................................. 1111
Glossary of Terms ......................................................... 1113
Metric Conversion Guide................................................. 1137
Abbreviations and Symbols .............................................. 1140
Index .......................................................................... 1143