Study of Partially Premixed Burners

Bernardo de Mascarenhas Santos Passos de Sousa

Thesis to obtain the Masters of Science Degree in

Mechanical Engineering

Supervisor: Prof. Edgar Caetano Fernandes

Examination Committee

Chairperson: Prof. Mrio Manuel Gonalves da Costa

Supervisor: Prof. Edgar Caetano Fernandes

Members of the Committee: Doutora Ana Filipa da Silva Ferreira

May 2014


I
Agradecimentos

Em primeiro lugar agradeo ao meu orientador, Professor Doutor Edgar Fernandes, pelo
apoio, conselhos e meios que me disponibilizou ao longo desta dissertao.

Agradeo tambm ao Professor Doutor Mrio Costa pelos conselhos dados e pela
disponibilizao das suas instalaes durante parte dos ensaios.

Ao Sr. Manuel Pratas, bem como aos meus colegas do laboratrio de combusto, Antnio
Duarte Silva, Bruno Bernardes, Francisco Costa, Joo Pina e Tiago Carvalho, gostaria tambm de
agradecer todo o apoio prestado durante os ensaios.

Ao Sr. Frade e Sr. Pedro das oficinas da rea Cientfica de Energia do Departamento de
Engenharia Mecnica, agradeo por toda a ajuda e profissionalismo, que foi crucial em determinadas
fases da presente dissertao.

Aos meus amigos e colegas de laboratrio, nomeadamente ao Eduardo Cordeiro, Carlos

Tribuna, Diogo Carmo, Janana Mercia, Joo Cunha, Teodoro Trindade, Toms Lcio e Jos
Rodrigues agradeo pela entreajuda, disponibilidade e ambiente que proporcionaram ao longo deste
perodo. Um obrigado particular ao Toms Lcio, pela participao directa que teve nesta
dissertao.

Aos meus restantes amigos do IST, em particular ao Alexandre Alcntara, Antnio

Maximiano, Antnio Msca, Caio Pereira, Frederico Lopes, Nuno Gil, Nuno Ramos, Pedro Costa,
Ricardo Maximino, pelo companheirismo, amizade e ajuda mostrados ao longo destes ltimos anos,
que levaram muitas vezes ao sucesso.

Ao meu primo Frederico Santos e ao meu amigo Gonalo Feijo, agradeo pela ajuda
prestada.

minha namorada Carmo, a quem atribuo parte do meu sucesso, agradeo pelo apoio a
todos os nveis ao longo destes anos.

minha famlia... em especial minha irm Constana, a quem fao votos de sucessos
acadmicos futuros. E por ltimo, mas no menos importantes, aos meus pais. Aos quais estou
eternamente grato pelo amor, dedicao e investimento dados, permitindo-me adquirir as ferramentas
necessrias para alcanar sucessos futuros.

II
Resumo

A presente dissertao centra-se no estudo de um queimador de rasgos rich-lean. A

influncia da geometria do queimador, ar secundrio e pr-misturas ricas e pobres foi avaliada em
relao aos limites de estabilidade e emisso de poluentes. Vrias geometrias foram testadas, a fim
de determinar o impacto na estabilidade pr-misturas pobres de metano e propano. Posteriormente, a
melhor geometria de metano foi escolhida para realizar testes de estabilidade de chamas triplas. Com
os novos limites definidos, as emisses de NOx, CO e HC foram avaliadas. As principais concluses
foram :

1) A geometria do queimador revelou ser determinante na estabilidade de chamas de pr-mistura

pobres para caudais elevados. Diferentes gases mostraram tendncias de estabilidade opostas, o
que se atribuiu s diferentes propriedades dos combustveis.

2) Para a configurao de chama tripla utilizada, o gradiente de razo de equivalncia e o nmero de

Reynolds da pr-mistura rica revelaram ser factores de grande importncia na estabilidade de chama.
O ar secundrio reduziu a estabilidade da chama. A chama tripla demonstrou ser mais estvel que a
correspondente de pr-mistura pobre.

3) No que diz respeito as emisses de poluentes, verificou-se um melhor compromisso para uma
razo de equivalncia global perto da estequiometria. Este parmetro mostrou ser um indicador til
na previso de emisses de poluentes e na compreenso da dinmica global destas chamas . O ar
secundrio no geral vantajoso, excepto quando utilizado em excesso. A razo de equivalncia rica
mostrou vantagens e desvantagens dependendo da espcie emitida.

Palavras-chave: combusto rich-lean, queimador de rasgos, chamas triplas, emisses de poluentes,

NOx, Metano

III
Abstract

The present thesis focus itself on a detailed study of a rich-lean slit burner. An assessment
of the influence of burners geometry, secondary air, fuel-rich and fuel-lean premixtures on the stability
limits and pollutants emission was carried out. Several geometries were tested in order to determine
their impact on methane and propane lean premixtures stability. Subsequently, the best methane
geometry was chosen to perform triple flame stability tests. With the new limits defined, NOx, CO and
HC emissions were assessed. The main conclusions were:

1) The slit burners geometry revealed to be determinant in lean premixed flames stability for higher
flow rates. Different gases showed opposite stability trends, which were attributed to fuels different
properties.

2) For the used triple flame configuration, the equivalence ratio gradient and the rich premixture
Reynolds number were found to be the major importance factors on stability. The secondary air has
proved to reduce flames stability. The triple flame is more stable than a corresponding lean premixed
flame.

3) Regarding pollutant emissions, an overall equivalence ratio closer to stoichiometry achieved the
best compromise. This parameter has shown to be a useful indicator in the prediction of pollutant
emissions and on the understanding of these flames global dynamics. The secondary air has
generally shown advantages except when used in excess. The rich equivalence ratio has shown both
advantages and disadvantages, depending on the emitted specie.

Keywords: rich-lean combustion, slit burner, triple flames, pollutant emissions, NOx, methane

IV
V
Table of Contents

Agradecimentos ...................................................................................................................................... II
Resumo .................................................................................................................................................. III
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. IV
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... VIII
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................ IX
Nomenclature ........................................................................................................................................ XI
1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background and Objectives ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Literature Review ....................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Triple Flames ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Nitrogen Oxides .................................................................................................................. 4
1.2.3 CO & UHC .......................................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Present Contribution .................................................................................................................. 8
1.4 Thesis Outline ............................................................................................................................ 8
2 Facilities, Techniques and Procedures ............................................................................................. 9
2.1 Experimental Setup .................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Measuring Techniques and uncertainties ................................................................................ 14
2.2.1 Stroboscopic light - Rotational speed estimation .............................................................. 14
2.2.2 Micromanometer ............................................................................................................... 15
2.2.3 Flue Gas Analyzers ........................................................................................................... 16
2.3 Fan Characterization ................................................................................................................ 17
2.3.1 Fan Rotational Speed ....................................................................................................... 18
2.3.2 Secondary Air Exit Velocity Profile .................................................................................... 19
2.4 Burners Exit Velocity Profile .................................................................................................... 21
2.5 Determination of the Cooling Water Flow Rate ........................................................................ 24
3 Results and Discussions ................................................................................................................. 27
3.1 Geometry Selection ................................................................................................................. 27
3.2 Triple Flames ........................................................................................................................... 31
3.2.1 Stability ............................................................................................................................. 31
3.2.2 Pollutant Emissions ........................................................................................................... 36
4 Closure ............................................................................................................................................ 57
4.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 57
4.2 Recommendations for future work ........................................................................................... 58
5 References ...................................................................................................................................... 59
6 Appendices ..................................................................................................................................... 62
6.1 Appendix A ............................................................................................................................... 62
6.2 Appendix B ............................................................................................................................... 65

VI
VII
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Properties of the used gases in NTP.................................................................................. 10

Table 2.2 Specifications of the micromanometer: Furness Controls FCO 12 (Model 2) .................... 15

Table 2.3 Velocity measurements maximum errors ........................................................................... 16

Table 2.4 Flue gases analyzers characteristics ................................................................................. 17

Table 2.5 Fan characterization - measured rotational speed ............................................................. 18

Table 2.6 Transversal velocity average for each fan power condition. Velocity in m/s. ..................... 20

Table 2.7 Longitudinal velocity average for each fan power condition. Velocity in m/s. .................... 21

Table 3.1 Tested geometries in the lean stability limit assessment - width and thickness in
millimetres. .................................................................................................................................... 27

Table 3.2 Gas flow rates defined for the stability tests for both methane and propane ..................... 27

Table 3.3 Selected conditions for rich-lean stability limits assessment with 0% of fan power ........... 33

Table 3.4 Selected conditions for rich-lean stability limits assessment with fan power of 9% and 25%
...................................................................................................................................................... 34

Table 3.5 Selected conditions for assessment of cooling water effect on pollutants emissions ........ 52

Table 3.6 Results of cooling water effect on pollutants emissions ..................................................... 53

Table 3.7 Selected conditions for pollutants emission assessment with fan's inlet sealed ................ 54

Table 3.8 Selected conditions for assessment of new geometry arrangement on pollutants emissions
...................................................................................................................................................... 55

Table 3.9 Results of geometrys new arrangement effect on pollutants emissions ........................... 55

VIII
List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Illustration of the used triple flame configuration ................................................................. 3

Figure 1.2 Schematic presentation of the triple flame structure showing the triple point, the two
premixed branches and the diffusion flame. Source: [7] ................................................................. 4

Figure 1.3 Triple flame structure - Interaction between the various reaction zones. Source: [19] ....... 4

Figure 1.4 Reaction path diagram illustrating the major steps in prompt NO formation. Source: [3] ... 6

Figure 2.1 Representation of the designed burner. Back view b) Top view and used referential c)
Front view ........................................................................................................................................ 9

Figure 2.2 Comparison between the sectional views of the patented rich-lean burner and the
developed burner: a) Rich-lean burner. Adapted from [4] b) Developed burner ............................ 9

Figure 2.3 Schematics of the experimental setup .............................................................................. 10

Figure 2.4 Illustration of the experimental setup ................................................................................ 11

Figure 2.5 Burners admission system - detailed view ....................................................................... 12

Figure 2.6 Representation of the combustion chamber ..................................................................... 13

Figure 2.7 Illustration of the setup used on the pollutant emissions measurements .......................... 13

Figure 2.8 Representation of the developed heat exchanger ............................................................ 14

Figure 2.9 Schematics of the cooling water system ........................................................................... 14

Figure 2.10 Auxiliary drawing to summarize the relation between N and fstrobe: (a) fstrobe < N; (b)
fstrobe = N; (c) fstrobe = 2N; (d) fstrobe = 3N ....................................................................................... 15

Figure 2.11 Micromanometer Furness Controls FCO 12 (Model 2) used for velocity
measurements ............................................................................................................................... 16

Figure 2.12 Pitot tube experimental setup used in velocity measurements ....................................... 16

Figure 2.13 Scheme of the used sample probe. Adapted from [31]. .................................................. 17

Figure 2.14 Fan Characterization: Determination of the Rotational Speed ........................................ 18

Figure 2.15 Schematic of the locations used for secondary air velocity measurements. ................... 19

Figure 2.16 Secondary air transversal velocity profile for each fan power. ........................................ 19

Figure 2.17 Secondary air longitudinal velocity profile for each fan power: a) X=-11mm b) X=45mm
...................................................................................................................................................... 20

Figure 2.18 Schematic of the locations used for burners exit velocity measurements ...................... 21

Figure 2.19 Burners exit velocity profiles for each fan power: a) Transversal Profile (Y=20mm)
b) Longitudinal Profile (X=7mm) c) Longitudinal Profile (X=11mm) d) Longitudinal Profile
(X=28.5mm)................................................................................................................................... 22

Figure 2.20 Slits exit velocity profile for an airflow rate of 45 SLPM.................................................. 22

Figure 2.21 Velocity profile development inside a duct. Adapted from [29] ....................................... 23

Figure 2.22 Cooling water temperature profile with 1 LPM of water flow rate: Determination of the
maximum temperature condition ................................................................................................... 24

IX
Figure 2.23 Cooling water temperature profile: Exit temperature versus water flow rate .................. 25

Figure 3.1 Rich-lean burner's half flute head: main parameters ........................................................ 28

Figure 3.2 Methane's geometries stability limit: lean premixture ........................................................ 29

Figure 3.3 Propane's geometries stability limit: lean premixture ........................................................ 29

Figure 3.4 Methane lean premixed flame: =0.67, Re=44 ................................................................. 30

Figure 3.5 Propane lean premixed flame: =0.67, Re=44 ................................................................. 30

Figure 3.6 Triple flames blowoff criterion - Opening of the lean flame tip .......................................... 32

Figure 3.7 Methanes triple flames stability limits - 0% of Fan Power ................................................ 33

Figure 3.8 Methanes triple flames stability limits - 9% and 25% of Fan Power (ReR=72) ................. 36

Figure 3.9 Pollutants emissions at constant lean equivalence ratio - Selected conditions ................ 38

Figure 3.10 CO emissions for constant lean equivalence ratio (ReR=72) .......................................... 40

Figure 3.11 HC emissions for constant lean equivalence ratio (ReR=72) .......................................... 41

Figure 3.12 NOx emissions for constant lean equivalence ratio (ReR=72) ......................................... 42

Figure 3.13 Pollutants emissions at constant lean Reynolds number - Selected conditions ............. 44

Figure 3.14 CO emissions for constant lean Reynolds numbers (ReR=72) ....................................... 45

Figure 3.15 HC emissions for constant lean Reynolds numbers (ReR=72)........................................ 46

Figure 3.16 Rich premixture entrainment: flames liftoff with fan power increase .............................. 46

Figure 3.17 NOx emissions for constant lean Reynolds numbers (ReR=72) ...................................... 48

Figure 3.18 CO emissions versus overall equivalence ratio .............................................................. 50

Figure 3.19 HC emissions versus overall equivalence ratio............................................................... 50

Figure 3.20 NOx emissions versus overall equivalence ratio ............................................................. 50

Figure 3.21 CO emissions versus overall equivalence ratio: a) Fan power dispersion b) Rich
equivalence ratio dispersion .......................................................................................................... 51

Figure 3.22 HC emissions versus overall equivalence ratio: a) Fan power dispersion b) Rich
equivalence ratio dispersion .......................................................................................................... 51

Figure 3.23 NOx emissions versus overall equivalence ratio: a) Fan power dispersion b) Rich
equivalence ratio dispersion .......................................................................................................... 51

Figure 3.24 Results of sealing fans inlet on pollutant emissions: a) CO and NOx concentration at 3%
of O2 b) HC concentration at 3% of O2 and exhaust temperature ................................................. 54

Figure 6.1 Exhaust temperature profiles for constant lean Reynolds numbers (ReR=72): a) 0% of fan
power b) 9% of fan power c) 25% of fan power ............................................................................ 62

Figure 6.2 Exhaust temperature profiles for constant lean equivalence ratio (ReR=72): a) 0% of fan
power b) 9% of fan power c) 25% of fan power ............................................................................ 63

Figure 6.3 Exhaust temperature profiles versus global equivalence ratio (ReR=72): a) All measured
points b) Ventilation dispersion c) rich equivalence ratio dispersion ............................................. 64

X
Nomenclature

Abbreviations

(A/F)st. Stoichiometric Air Fuel ratio

FP Fan Power

HC Unburned Hydrocarbons

LFL Lower Flammability Limit

LHV Lower Heating Value

LPM Litters Per Minute

PPFs Partially Premixed Flames

NTP Normal Temperature and Pressure

RPM Rotations Per Minute

SCR Selective catalytic reduction

SLPM Standard Litters Per Minute

SNCR Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction

PIV Particle Image Velocimetry

Greek Symbols

Equivalence Ratio

Density

Dynamic viscosity

Roman Symbols

! Micromanometer error

dquenching Quenching distance

-1
M - Molecular weight [kg.kmol ]

p pressure

p0 Static Pressure

pdyn Dynamic Pressure

XI
Q Flow rate

Re Reynolds number

t Slits thickness

velocity

w Slits width

Subscripts

L Lean

R Rich

XII
1 Introduction

1.1 Background and Objectives

Over the last decades, humanity has experienced a general concern over pollutant
emissions due to the extensive use of fossil fuels. Photochemical smog, destruction of the ozone in
the stratosphere, formation of acid rain precursors, global warming or health problems are some of the
effects caused by emitted pollutants such as CO and NOx. International protocols, social awareness
and strict air quality policies have been developed, in order to mitigate the harmful effect of these
anthropogenic activities. As a consequence, the related industries (e.g. domestic gas industries,
automobile industries) have been forced to develop new solutions and overcome the existent
technology thresholds. Among these, the domestic gas burners industry is not an exception. With
countries like European Union members and United States of America establishing new emission
standard limits, this industry is now facing a new challenge, improving and redesigning the currently
employed technology.

Three general types of NOx control approaches have been currently used: pre-combustion
fuel treatment, post-combustion flue gas treatment and combustion modification [1]. Fuel treatment
relies on the reduction of the amount of fuel-bond nitrogen. Post-combustion flue gas treatment
removes NOx from the exhaust gas. This can be achieved using Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
and Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) [2]. Finally, combustion modification techniques
mitigate NOx formation through changes in burner design and operation. This includes for example,
flue gas recirculation, water injection or lean combustion [2], [3]. From these three approaches,
combustion modification techniques have been the most widely used in domestic gas burner industry.

Out of the new breakthroughs, a new rich-lean burner has been demonstrating remarkable
results [4]. It relies on burning two different premixed mixtures of the same gas, namely one rich and
other lean, in a slit burner. The ignition of these premixed mixtures at the burners exit results in a
triple flame. This flame may have a lean premixed flame core limited by two outer rich premixed
flames or vice-versa, depending on the inlet mixture characteristics. In this burner case, the flute core
is fueled with a lean premixture, which results in a triple flame with the configuration described in the
first example.

The triple flames were first discovered by Phillips, while investigating flame propagation in a
methane-mixing layer [5]. Since then, it has sparked the interest of scientific community and engineers
for its wide range of applicability and characteristics. Domestic gas burners, lean-burn gas turbines,
internal combustion engines and gas-fired furnaces are some of the current practical applications of
these flames [6][9]. Also, fundamental applications such as flame stabilization, flame spread and re-
ignition following local extinction of turbulent flames are among researchers areas of interest [8].
Devices' efficiency improvement and reduction of pollutant emissions are the most prominent
advantages of these flames, giving them a key role and making them hard to avoid [9], [10].

1
 It is known that the combination of several factors, such as geometry [11], velocity and
equivalence ratio gradients [12], [13] or flame structure [12], [13], lead to the successful mitigation of
NOx and CO emissions.

Many have been the studies on partially premixed flames pollutants emissions, using either
counterflow configurations [12][14] or co-flow configurations [11], [15][17].

In particular, for triple flames co-flow configurations, Shudo et al. [15] have experimentally
measured NO and NO2 emissions from a coaxial rich-lean burner fueled with hydrogen. The results
were compared with diffusion combustion and methane rich-lean combustion. The results showed
significant reductions in NO and NO2 emissions using rich-lean combustion. The differences between
diffusion and rich-lean combustion were more noticeable in hydrogen than in methane, once in
hydrogens triple flame case the prompt mechanism doesnt occur and the emission of NO2 is lower.

Kamal [11], using a swirl burner experimentally tested the effect of different exit port shapes
in the stability and pollutants emissions of co-flow triple flames. Two triple flames configurations were
tested. The first fueling the core with a lean premixed flame (and outer rich premixed flames), and the
second by fueling the core with a rich premixed flame (and outer lean premixed flames). The first
configuration yielded lower pollutants emission (NOx, CO and HC) in all the tested conditions. For this
configuration, the equivalence ratio of the core lean mixture was set to 0.85 and the outer rich
mixtures equivalence ratio to 1.70, maintaining constant the overall equivalence ratio between
configurations. The stability was assessed varying the mixtures velocity. From all the exit port shapes
tested, the one that possessed the higher stability limit was also the one with lower pollutants
emissions.

Briones et al. [13] have simulated both counterflow and co-flow methane-air partially
premixed flames to characterize the effects of dominant combustion modes on NOx emissions, with a
fixed global equivalence ratio. As concluded, the triple flames revealed to emit less than the
correspondent premixed and double flames, and also have shown that there is an optimum level of
partial premixing (in terms of ! and ! ) for the lowest NOx emission.

The present thesis was motivated by the new patents exceptional results, and has as its
main objective the understanding of its mechanisms and determination of the influence of triple flame
combustions main parameters, on the flames overall stability and emissions. Thus, based on the rich-
lean burner, a slit burner was design to enable multiple configurations. This flexibility allows the
researcher to have a full control over the geometry, and easily evaluate the influence of every single
parameter. The used triple flame structure follows the patents characteristics, with a core lean
premixed flame and two outer rich premixed flames. Figure 1.1 illustrates one of the flames obtained
with such configuration.

2
 Figure 1.1 Illustration of the used triple flame configuration

1.2 Literature Review

1.2.1 Triple Flames

A triple or tribrachial flame is a type of partially premixed flames (PPFs) also known as hybrid
flames. Along with double and edge flames, this flame takes part of a flames family that possesses
characteristics from both non-premixed and premixed flames [6]. Unlike these latter, PPFs are
composed of multiple reaction zones. In particular, three reaction zones compose a triple flame [6],
[18]. Two premixed zones (one fuel-rich and other fuel-lean) and one non-premixed zone that anchors
the others. Figure 1.2 represents a triple flame structure schematics.

Despite being spatially separated, these reaction zones are linked through thermochemical
and fluid dynamic interactions [6]. The locus where these three branches intersect is usually known as
triple point. The non-premixed flame is anchored to the premixed branches at this point by both
preheating and radicals diffusion including H, OH, O [19], [20]. Furthermore, intermediate fuel species
from the rich-premixed flame (such as CO and H2) are transported to the non-premixed flame, where
they eventually react in stoichiometric proportions with the excess oxidizer from the lean-premixed
flame [21]. Figure 1.3 depicts the interactions between the various reactions zones. These
thermochemical and scalar transport phenomena have been extensively investigated [6].

Thus, not only each reaction zone depends upon the interaction with the others, but also the
global flame structure sharply depends on it.

When compared with premixed and non-premixed flames, PPFs reveal huge differences
regarding the combustion characteristics [6], [9]. Some of these characteristics arent yet well
understood [18]. The design of low NOx burners demands a complete understanding of not only the
flames lean flammability limit, but also of its stability and extinction characteristics [6], [22].

The extinction characteristics can be easily correlated with the flame structure. Several
studies over triple flames structures where performed for various fuels and setups. Koni et al. [23],
Plessing et al. [24] have performed detailed studies on methane triple flames structure. Also for other
fuels like methanol, propane and n-heptane one can find similar studies in Echekki and Chen [21],
Cha and Ronney [25], Berta et al. [26], respectively.

3
 Figure 1.2 Schematic presentation of the triple flame Figure 1.3 Triple flame structure -
structure showing the triple point, the two premixed Interaction between the various
branches and the diffusion flame. Source: [7] reaction zones. Source: [19]

Generally in coflow configurations, flame extinction is associated with flame liftoff that
eventually leads to blowout with a continuous liftoff height increase. Several studies were performed in
order to examine flames stabilization and liftoff characteristics. Aggarwal [6] have summarized some
of the developed studies. As a conclusion, parameters like burner boundary conditions, equivalence
ratio, fuel type, dilution, jet velocity or coflow velocity significantly influence flames stabilization and
liftoff. PPFs are no exception and extinction behavior can also be characterized by the liftoff
characteristics of premixed and non-premixed flames [6].

Nevertheless, modelling of partially premixed flames is challenging [9], [18]. Early techniques
combining premixed and diffusion flamelets properties have met reasonable success [9].

Despite that, an understanding of these models limitations is fundamental to continually

improve them. The knowledge of these flames dynamics is crucial for determining an effective
description and prediction that is useful in the development of practical combustion devices [27].

1.2.2 Nitrogen Oxides

NOx is a term generically used to collectively refer to nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2). Along with nitrous oxide (N2O) these are the principal nitrogen oxides present in the
atmosphere. These compounds can be produced by natural and anthropogenic sources, being the
combustion the most significant anthropogenic source [3].

4
 Although NO2 can be formed in large quantities in some burning systems, it is NO that
largely contributes for NOx formation [2], [3]. The production and removal mechanisms vary between
species and depend upon factors like fuel type, temperature, pressure or fuel/air ratio.

1.2.2.1 NO

NO formation can have two different sources:

Oxidation of the atmospheric molecular nitrogen

Oxidation of nitrogen compounds present in fuel (fuel NO mechanism)

In this study only nitrogen compounds-free fuels were used. Thus further detailed
explanation of fuel NO mechanism can be found [3].

Nowadays, it is well established that there are mainly three NO formation mechanisms for
nitrogen-free fuels [2]. These mechanisms are called Thermal Mechanism, Prompt Mechanism and
Formation of NO via the intermediate N2O.

Thermal Mechanism

This NO production mechanisms has atmospheric molecular nitrogen as a source and is

comprised by three reactions:

+ ! + 1.1

+ ! + 1.2

+ + 1.3

The first two reactions represent together the Zeldovich mechanism, while the all set of three
reactions is called extended Zeldovich mechanism.

According to Coelho and Costa [2], this mechanism is strongly dependent on temperature
once the first reaction possesses a huge activation energy that limits the whole mechanism and the
correspondent NO formation rate. Considering steady-state approximation for N-atom and considering
the first two reverse reactions almost negligible, the NO formation rate can be expressed as:

![!"]
= 2!! [! ] 1.4
!"

Being !! the direct reaction rate. The O-atom concentration can be estimated by
dissociation equilibrium with O2 since this reaction is much faster than NO formation in high
temperature combustion systems.

5
Prompt Mechanism

Firstly proposed by Fenimore, Prompt mechanism encloses a set a reactions between

hydrocarbon radicals and molecular nitrogen. Figure 1.4 represents the principal reaction pathways.

According to Bowman [3] this mechanism has most significance at low temperatures and
may have high contribution for NO production. For methane and propane unconfined turbulent
diffusion flames this mechanism is dominant [2].

Figure 1.4 Reaction path diagram illustrating the major steps in prompt NO formation. Source: [3]

Formation of NO via the intermediate N2O

Predominant in lean premixed flames ( < 0.8), this low temperature mechanism is
composed by the following reactions [28]:

+ ! + ! + 1.5

+ ! + 1.6

+ ! + 1.7

This mechanism is the most important under conditions where total NO formation rate is
relatively low [3].

1.2.2.2 NO2

With a fairly understood combustion mechanism, NO2 main generation reaction is:

+ ! ! + 1.8

This mechanism has major importance at low temperatures, with stable HO2 reacting with
NO formed in the higher temperature regions. There is also evidence that low hydrocarbons
concentrations can speed up the ! conversion at low temperatures [3].

At high temperatures, NO2 removal is fast and can be described by the reaction:

! + + 1.9

6
1.2.2.3 N 2O

Despite the important role in NO formation, NO2 can be also present in a significant amount in
flue gas, depending on the combustion characteristics. Its mechanism is also well understood and can
be described by the ensuing main reactions:

+ ! + 1.10

+ ! + 1.11

Using natural gas as fuel, an increasingly important contribution result from the reaction:

+ ! + ! + 1.12

This contribution occurs at low temperatures, fuel-lean mixtures and elevated pressures [3].

1.2.3 CO & UHC

During a hydrocarbon combustion, carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons

(UHC) are two intermediate combustion components that may be present in the products depending
on the burning conditions. They result from the cracking and oxidation of main fuel, and their emission
sources will depend whether the flame is premixed or non-premixed.

For premixed flames HC emissions are almost negligible, whilst CO is formed whenever
theres fuel-rich conditions (>1). In the majority of premixed flames applications this type of
conditions is avoided. An exception is Spark Ignition Engines. In these engines three conditions highly
contribute for these pollutants emissions:

The mixture might be fuel-rich (e.g. during start-up and full power);
The mixture is in contact with combustion chambers walls;
Flue gases suffer fast cooling

Also stoichiometric and fuel-lean mixtures can contribute to CO emissions by CO2

dissociation [2].

In non-premixed flames, two main sources promote CO and HC emissions. The first is
related to local fuel-lean mixtures, where the combustion process is slow. This results in a partial fuel
oxidation with CO as a product, among others. The other is associated with local fuel-rich mixtures. In
this case, incomplete combustion occurs if the fuel doesnt react in sufficient amount with oxygen or if
the residence time is short.

Among others mechanisms, according to Coelho and Costa [2], CO and HC emissions may
also result from quenching phenomena from combustion chambers walls (e.g. Diesel Engines), air
jets or secondary air (e.g. Gas turbines) and inadequate atomization (e.g. boilers).

7
1.3 Present Contribution
This thesis is focused on a detailed analysis of rich-lean combustion in a slit burner. The
stability limits and pollutant emissions were assessed concerning the influence of the combustions
main parameters.

The burners geometry effects on stability limit were tested for methane lean premixed
mixtures. Propane was also tested and a comparative analysis between the two gases was
established.

Methanes triple flame stability limits and pollutant emissions were assessed in terms of rich
premixture and secondary airflow effects.

1.4 Thesis Outline

This thesis is organized in four chapters. The first and present chapter is an introductory
resume of contextualization, literature review and definition of the main goals.

In the second chapter, a detailed description of the experimental facilities, the burner,
measuring techniques and respective uncertainties is outlined. Also, a detailed characterization of
carried for some of the used devices is herein exposed.

Chapter three presents the defined tests conditions and the corresponding obtained results.
A debate over the main parameters influence is also performed.

Finally, chapter four encloses the most important conclusions and recommends future work
based on this studys results.

8
2 Facilities, Techniques and Procedures

2.1 Experimental Setup

As previously mentioned, all experiments were performed with a slit burner. Figure 2.1
represents the used burner, which was specifically designed for the present project and motivated by
the patented rich-lean burner layout, as illustrated in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.1 Representation of the designed burner. Back view b) Top view and used referential c) Front
view

Figure 2.2 Comparison between the sectional views of the patented rich-lean burner and the developed
burner: a) Rich-lean burner. Adapted from [4] b) Developed burner

Figure 2.3 depicts a schematic of the experimental setup developed.

9
 Two main streams, one of gas and another of air, feed the system. The gas used may be
propane or methane, being their sources a deposit or a gas cylinder respectively. Table 2.1 shows the
used gases properties.

Table 2.1 Properties of the used gases in NTP

Property Air CH4 C 3H 8

[Kg/m3] 1.18 0.67 1.83

6
x 10 [Pa.s] 18.46 11.19 8.15

[Kg/Kmol] 28.96 16.04 44.10

1
LHV [MJ/Kg] - 50.01 46.35
1
(A/F)st. volume - 9.52 23.80
1
(A/F)st. mass - 17.12 15.57
1
(LFL) - 0.53 0.58
2
dquenching [mm] - 2.5 2.0

Figure 2.3 Schematics of the experimental setup

1
Extracted from Table 5.7 of [2]
2
Extracted from Table 7.2 of [2]

10
 Figure 2.4 illustrates the final experimental setup.

Figure 2.4 Illustration of the experimental setup

The air stream passes through an air filter, removing the water and other impurities before
continuing its course. Both main streams are split into two branches that connect to four flow meters
Alicat Mass Flow Controller. The gas flow meters control a maximum volume rate of 5 SLPM, while
the air flow meters maximum is 20 SLPM and 50 SLPM for fuel-rich and fuel-lean mixtures
respectively. The control is done by computer using the flow meters program, resorting to an excel
sheet developed to calculate each flow rate for a certain desired condition for both rich and lean
mixtures.

After passing through the flow meters, each gas stream is mixed with the respective air
stream in order to create two different premixed mixtures, one rich and other lean.

As shown in Figure 2.5, the mixtures are plugged to the burner in separate places and
injected by means of tubular wall-perforated injectors. The rich mixture is plugged to a plenum at the
bottom of the burner, while the lean mixture enters directly in the burners core channel.

Inside the core channel there is a bulk of glass cylinders (Raschig rings) used to dissipate
the inlet gas vortexes. Further downstream, four stratified steel wool layers were used to make uniform
the flow velocity profile in order to decrease velocity gradients at burners exit.

The rich mixture plenum has a half-cylindrical shape and two slots on top. The mixture fills
the plenum and supplies the outer fuel-rich slots by flowing through the channels above the plenums
exit. Aside of these channels, there are two draught forced passages. A fan coupled to the burners
bottom forces air entrance through these passages. An Arduino that is connected to the computer
controls it. Together with the mixtures channels, the air passages extend along 260 mm till the burners
tip.

11
 Figure 2.5 Burners admission system - detailed view

On top theres a core fuel-lean zone, two adjacent cavities and two outer fuel-rich slots.

To avoid flame flashback, two quenching meshes are placed one immediately below the
core fuel-lean slits and the other on the plenums exit.

The main goal of this burner design is to be as flexible as possible, so one can easily change
both the lean or rich mixtures passages and the existent cavities between them. For that, thin plates
of 0.5 mm thick with different forms were used, namely as a rim-plate or as a separator depending on
the purpose. This enabled slits and cavities widths and thicknesses from 0.5 mm till 2 mm as initially
intended. Nonetheless, the fuel-lean zone has a fixed width of 25 mm due to gas supply constraints.
Thus, in some of the used core configurations the slits didnt have the same rim thickness or width. In
those cases, only the middle slit width or thickness was different to guarantee that the boundary
conditions between the lean and rich zones were the same on both sides.

This burner enabled not only the slits width and thickness control, but also their depth using
plates with different lengths. Cavities volume can also be controlled by introducing or collecting thin
plates with 0.5 mm thickness.

In order to avoid ambient air entrainment and consequent flames equivalence ratio and
behavior changes, the burner was confined with a steel bell jar shape chamber, as shown in Figure
2.6. This chamber has three quartz windows that allow the user to see the flames and photograph
them within a closed environment.

12
 Figure 2.6 Representation of the combustion chamber

At the chambers top section the exhaust has a contraction zone 7 cm below the exit where
the flue gas probe is placed. Figure 2.7 illustrates the developed setup used on the pollutant
emissions measurements.

Figure 2.7 Illustration of the setup used on the pollutant emissions measurements

In an attempt to achieve stationary conditions and minimize these thermal effects, a heat
exchanger was developed to cool down the burner and avoid high temperature gradients throughout
the measurements. Figure 2.8 depicts the developed heat exchanger.

13
 Figure 2.8 Representation of the developed heat exchanger

It was made from aluminum due to this metals high thermal conductivity, and was placed
around the burner as shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.9 represents a schematic of the developed cooling water system. The supplied
water flow is separated in two streams at the inlet, surrounding the burner and removing the heat
resultant from flames thermal losses. A flow sensor OMEGA FLR1011-D, whose maximum range
was 2 LPM, controlled the water flow.

Figure 2.9 Schematics of the cooling water system

2.2 Measuring Techniques and uncertainties

2.2.1 Stroboscopic light - Rotational speed estimation

The fan controller is connected to an arduino, which is computer controlled. Since the fan
controller does not give a value for the rotational speed directly, it is necessary to estimate this
parameter, in order to establish the working conditions under which tests will be carried out. The
controller has a range of 256 bits and each value corresponds to a rotational speed. To convert the
displayed information to a velocity in RPM, a strobe light is pointed to the ventilator inlet and a single
ventilator blade is marked with reflective tape. Varying the flashing frequency of the light at a given
time, the signed blade will appear to be stopped. When that happens, one can say the rotational
speed has the same frequency of the light flashing, under the precision assured by the strobe.
However, for a given rotational speed , the marked ventilator blade appears to be stopped to multiple
light flashing frequencies. Figure 2.10 outlines some significant situations. Thus, for situation (a) the

14
blade will appear stopped, but the blade is not being illuminated at every beginning of a revolution. By
unaided eye, that is impossible to distinguish from situation (b), where !"#$%& = , the desired
situation. Situations (c) and (d) show what occurs for a light flashing frequency multiple of . In fact, if
!"#$%& = the blade is seen in positions at the same time instant. Consequently, the correct
value for is obtained by adjusting !"#$%& times less until obtain situation (b).

Figure 2.10 Auxiliary drawing to summarize the relation between N and fstrobe:
(a) fstrobe < N; (b) fstrobe = N; (c) fstrobe = 2N; (d) fstrobe = 3N

2.2.2 Micromanometer

A micromanometer was used with the purpose of measuring both the secondary air and slits
exit velocity profiles. Based on the Bernoullis principle, this device uses a pitot tube to measure the
total pressure resultant from the fluid flow and compare it with the static pressure. The difference
between these two pressures is the dynamic pressure, which can be used to determine the flow
velocity applying Bernoullis equation for incompressible fluids given by [29]:

2 2.( 0 )
!"!#$ ! = = .2 =
2.1

Figure 2.11 and Figure 2.12 depict the used micromanometer and pitot setup respectively.
Table 2.2 represents the specifications of the micromanometer.

Table 2.2 Specifications of the micromanometer: Furness Controls FCO 12 (Model 2)

15
 As one can see, the pitot tube was attached to a rack and pinion stage, so it could be moved
precisely along the burner to a predetermined position. The micromanometer must be initially
calibrated, so the pressure difference between the static port and the pitot tube is zero. Once
calibrated, there is the option of measuring directly the flows velocity or its dynamic pressure.

To perform the measurements, the pitot tube must be placed at the burners exit in a position
as parallel as possible to the incoming flow.

Figure 2.11 Micromanometer Furness Controls FCO Figure 2.12 Pitot tube experimental

12 (Model 2) used for velocity measurements setup used in velocity measurements

From Table 2.2, one can see that the measurements error can be given by accuracy, and
temperatures effect on range and zero. Therefore, assuming that the measurements were performed
with an average room temperature of 25C, the maximum committed error can be calculated by:

! = 0.5% 0.5% 2.5 0.04% 2.5 2.2

Table 2.3 represents the three available ranges as well as their corresponding maximum
error.

Table 2.3 Velocity measurements maximum errors

2.2.3 Flue Gas Analyzers

In order to obtain flue gases concentrations, a water-cooled stainless steel probe was used
to acquire flue gas samples. The probe was placed 54 mm above the burners exit, in a contraction

16
zone, more than two flame lengths as suggested by Drake et al. [30]. Figure 2.13 schematically
represents the used probe and its dimensions. The water flows inside two concentric pipes that
involve the sample collection pipe.

Figure 2.13 Scheme of the used sample probe. Adapted from [31].

The acquired sample was drawn to the analyzers by an oil-free diaphragm pump, previously
passing through a sample conditioner system.

A condenser, a filter and a dryer compose the sample's conditioner system. This system
enables the removal of water and particles, guaranteeing that a dry and clean sample constantly
enters in the analyzers. Table 2.4 lists the measured species, the correspondent analyzer, as well as
the method used during these measurements.

NOx measurements are comprised of both NO and NO2. Therefore, eventual conversion of
NO to NO2 was not considered.

Table 2.4 Flue gases analyzers characteristics

2.3 Fan Characterization

In order to establish the desired working conditions, its important to characterize the fans
rotational speed and the correspondent flow velocity pattern.

17
 As such and taking into account that the fan power is directly proportional to the used bit, six
power conditions were selected: 9%, 12.5%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. Using the stroboscopic light,
the correspondent rotational speed was measured. The velocity profile for each power conditions was
also determined using a pitot tube (except for fan power 12.5%). The obtained results are next
presented in sectors 2.3.1 and 2.3.2.

2.3.1 Fan Rotational Speed

Using the above-described procedure, the stroboscopic light was pointed at the fans inlet
blades in order to determine its rotational speed. Table 2.5 shows the measured fan rotational speed
for a given duty cycle.

Table 2.5 Fan characterization - measured rotational speed

The obtained data was compared with the suppliers data. As clearly shown in Figure 2.14,
the measured results are within the expected range, compliant with supplier's data.

Figure 2.14 Fan Characterization: Determination of the Rotational Speed

18
2.3.2 Secondary Air Exit Velocity Profile

To settle the working conditions it is not only necessary to define the fans rotational speed,
but especially its resultant velocity pattern at the burners exit. Thus, with the rotational speed already
characterized, some points at the burners exit were chosen in order to measure the longitudinal and
transversal velocity patterns for a given fan power. For that, the use of a referential was required.
Figure 2.15 illustrates the adopted referential as well as the chosen points locations.

After defining the measuring points location, the pitot tube was aligned with the burners exit
to be as parallel as possible and moved through each point.

Figure 2.15 Schematic of the locations used for secondary air velocity measurements.

As mentioned above, the velocity profiles were measured both transversally and
longitudinally for all fan power conditions, except for 12.5%. Figure 2.16 and Figure 2.17 illustrate the
obtained results.

Figure 2.16 Secondary air transversal velocity profile for each fan power.

19
 Comparing both left and right transversal velocity profiles, one can see that there are some
differences between their shapes and correspondent velocities. Table 2.6 summarizes the average
velocity per fan power per burners side, as well as the average velocitys relative difference from its
left side to its right side. In absolute terms both sides average is similar and the relative difference is
in almost all cases below 10%, with the exception of the first fan power tested. This velocity profiles
differences may be the result of the fans exit flow profile and orientation and also of the secondary air
channels boundary conditions.

Table 2.6 Transversal velocity average for each fan power condition. Velocity in m/s.

Figure 2.17 represents the longitudinal profiles taken for all previous fan powers. As shown
on Table 2.7, the longitudinal differences between the two sides are slightly smaller than the
transversal differences. The average relative differences were mainly below 8%, except once again for
the condition of fan power 9%. The velocity profiles of both sides have shown shape similarities with
the correspondent transversal profiles, but not as accentuated as the latter ones.

Figure 2.17 Secondary air longitudinal velocity profile for each fan power: a) X=-11mm b) X=45mm

20
 Seeing that the relative differences between these two profiles was smaller than in the
transversal case and considering the fact that at the center the velocities profile is less subjected to
boundary conditions, the velocity average values taken are those listed on total average in Table 2.7.

Table 2.7 Longitudinal velocity average for each fan power condition. Velocity in m/s.

2.4 Burners Exit Velocity Profile

Among other factors, inlet velocity profile is one of the parameters that define a flame
structure. Due to a balance between propagation flame speed and the inlet mixture velocity, the flame
establishes itself in a location where these two velocities are in equilibrium. Thus, using only air and a
lean side geometry with 0.5mm of width and thickness, both longitudinal and transversal exit velocity
profiles were determined for four flow rates: 5, 15, 25 and 35 SLPM. Figure 2.18 schematizes the
location of the measured points at the burner exit.

Figure 2.18 Schematic of the locations used for burners exit velocity measurements

Despite the system used (Figure 2.5) to make uniform the inlet mixture velocity profile, cold
flow velocity measurements have shown that all the obtained velocity profiles were still not uniform.
Azzoni et al. [19] using a Wolfhard-Parker slot burner reported similar issues.

21
 Figure 2.19 represent the measured profiles for transversal and longitudinal cases.

As one can see, the greater the inlet velocity, the less uniform the exit velocity profile gets.
This is more evident in the transversal profile case, where steep velocity variations are verified in
certain locations. In the longitudinal profiles case, differences in general were negligible.

Figure 2.19 Burners exit velocity profiles for each fan power: a) Transversal Profile (Y=20mm)
b) Longitudinal Profile (X=7mm) c) Longitudinal Profile (X=11mm) d) Longitudinal Profile (X=28.5mm)

In order to have an idea of how different the velocity is from slit to slit, another transversal
profile was measured with a higher flow rate (45 SLPM) at each slit exit. The chosen geometry is
composed by 24 slits (the maximum allowed number of slits of this burner). Figure 2.20 represents the
obtained velocity profile.

Figure 2.20 Slits exit velocity profile for an airflow rate of 45 SLPM

22
 Similarly with the previous transversal velocity profile, this measured profile is also non-
uniform.

It is known that when a fluid enters inside a duct, its velocity profile develops along the duct
due to shear stress effect. When the resultant boundary layer thickness is equal to half the plates
distance, the velocity profile is fully developed. The duct length required to this development is called
transition length, which for a Poiseuille flow in a rectangular duct is given by [29]:

!!"# !" 2.3

=
! !

2.4
=

Being the distance between plates and the flow average velocity.

Figure 2.21 schematically represents a velocity profile development inside a duct.

Figure 2.21 Velocity profile development inside a duct. Adapted from [29]

As one can see, among other factors the transition length depends on inlet velocity.
Considering this burners case, each slit will develop a Poiseuille flow. Thus, each slit will have its own
velocity profile. Taking into account that the velocity profile prior to the slits entrance is not uniform,
the slits velocity profile will develop in different ways. Thus, the burners exit velocity will be dependent
on the velocity gradient at the slits entrance, which results in a non-uniform exit velocity profile.
Nevertheless, a closer look suggests that the obtained profile is somehow symmetric.

Along with flame structure, the stability limits are also dependent on exit velocity profile.
Therefore, the transition length is a parameter that influences both the flames structure and stability
limits. According to Bonilla and Maccallums [32] experiments with methane-air flames on a
rectangular burner using a channel with a half transition lenght, no significant effects on the stability
limits were noticed. Thus, it was assumed that half the transition length produces an exit profile
distribution in which the velocity gradients coincide with those correspondents to a fully developed flow
(within experimental error).

For all the preformed tests, the slit plates length was longer than the correspondent half
transition length. Therefore, one can assume that the effect of this phenomenon in the stability limits is
negligible.

23
2.5 Determination of the Cooling Water Flow Rate
When a flame is ignited, the phenomenon of heat transfer immediately occurs from the flame
to the burner whether by convection or radiation. The heat transfer rates depend amongst others
factors upon equivalence ratio (due to maximum temperature achieved), flames structure and shape
(whether it is premixed or non-premixed, whether it is closer or farther from burners exit). The heat
loss effects influence both the stability limits [1], [33] and pollutant emissions [16].

If the burners maximum temperature remains below a certain value, one can assume that
all the conditions are also below that temperature value. Therefore, the condition of maximum heat
loss to the burner had to be determined.

Kedia and Ghoniem [33] have demonstrated in a 2-D analysis that for low velocity regimes,
the flame stabilizes immediately downstream the burner plate, in a region with an almost absent
recirculation zone. In these conditions a strong thermal and aerodynamic interaction was verified
between the flame and its environment, which results in a significant heat exchange with the burner.
This phenomenon loses significance as the mean inlet velocity increases and the flame moves
downstream, which eventually results in the burner plate cooling down.

Since the burners maximum temperature is a compromise between thermal input and flame
position, the lean mixture side was set with an equivalence ratio of one (stoichiometric, so the flames
temperature is closer to maximum) and the mixtures Reynolds number was varied from 10 to 40, with
increments of 10.

The rich mixture was fixed on ! = 1.2 and ! = 72. From the rich mixtures equivalence
ratios used, this is the closest to stoichiometry and therefore the rich condition that reaches highest
temperatures.

The heat exchanger water flow rate was set to 1 LPM. The water temperature was measured
at the wastepipe exit for each condition, using the thermometer HI 98509-1 from Hanna Instruments,
with a maximum range of 150 C.

Once the temperature reached its steady state, the value was registered. Figure 2.22 shows
the measured water temperature profile.

Figure 2.22 Cooling water temperature profile with 1 LPM of water flow rate: Determination of the
maximum temperature condition

24
 From Figure 2.22, one can see that the achieved maximum water exit temperature
corresponds to a ! = 20. So, the condition (! = 1, ! = 20) was considered the one that most
heat loses to the burner.

With the maximum heat loss condition identified, the burner was cooled down to ambient
temperature. With the same water flow rate and without flame, the waters temperature measured was
16.3 C. As shown in Figure 2.22, for ! = 20 and !!! = 1 the water temperature is about
17.5 C. In order to decrease the temperature difference between waters inlet and outlet, and
approach steady state conditions, the triple flame conditions were fixed and the water flow was
gradually increased. Five water flow conditions were tested: 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75 and 1.95 LPM.

The water outlet temperature was also measured, according to the procedure previously
used.

During all these tests the burners exit surface temperature was monitored using the laser
thermometer GM300 from Benetech. This thermometer has a preset emissivity of 0.95 and measures
a maximum range of 380 C. Since it was desired to measure the temperature at the burners surface
and as it is made from stainless steel (which has an emissivity lower than the thermometers preset),
the burners top plate was black painted with high temperature paint. With this, it was intended to
simulate a black body and guarantee that the measured surface temperature is as close as possible
from the real temperature [34]. Therefore, the laser was pointed to the black painted plate in a
distance below 5 cm, as suggested by the manufacturer for a surface with those dimensions.

Figure 2.23 represents the waters temperature profile as a function of waters flow rate.

Figure 2.23 Cooling water temperature profile: Exit temperature versus water flow rate

It is clear that the increase of water flow decreases its outlet temperature. For the highest
flow rate tested (1.95 LMP), the outlet temperature was 16.7 C. This represents a difference of 0.4 C
when compared with the waters inlet temperature. An increase of the water flow rate would
continuously decrease its outlet temperature.

Nevertheless, due to flow meter's constraints the maximum flow rate allowed is 2.0 LPM.
The decision of 1.95 LPM was merely preventive, in order to avoid the damage of possible line
instabilities.

25
 The temperature at the burners exit surface was always below the 70 C, which was
considered negligible wherein pollutants emission effects are concerned.

Thus, to perform all the following measurements the chosen water flow was 1.95 LPM.
Despite the difference between the water's inlet and outlet temperature, it was furthermore assumed
that this difference would barely influence the pollutant emissions.

Nonetheless, these last two assumptions will be further evaluated so they can be proved.

26
3 Results and Discussions

3.1 Geometry Selection

Analyzing the above-described rich-lean concept, many are the parameters whose impact on
flames stability and emissions may be relevant. Figure 3.1 schematically represents half-flutes head
of a blade burner, as well as the studied main parameters. From the 11 indicated parameters, some
were fixed so a detailed study could be carried out. Thus, it was decided to fix the dimensions of the
rich premixture paths, cavities and plates depth, being lean premixture slits width (w) and rim
thicknesses (t) the only geometrical variables. The plates depth was set to 2.5 cm, which was a
dimension considered close to a conventional burners blade depth.

With only two geometric variables, nine geometries were tested in order to define which is
the most stable using solely lean mixtures. Table 3.1 shows the essayed geometries.

Table 3.1 Tested geometries in the lean stability limit assessment -

width and thickness in millimetres.

These variables influence on the stability limits was tested for both methane and propane.
Table 3.2 presents the essayed fuel flows per fuel type.

Table 3.2 Gas flow rates defined for the stability tests for both methane and propane

Fuel-Lean Mixture Flow [SLPM]

Methane 0.35 0.7 1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6

Propane 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

During these tests, the coupled fan was turned off and the burner unconfined, following Sogo
and Hases [22] procedure.

27
 Figure 3.1 Rich-lean burner's half flute head: main parameters

The stability limits were defined for each geometry. For that, firstly the gas flow rate was set
and after the airflow was gradually changed until the flames blowout.

The geometry that possesses the broader limit was considered the most stable and was
therefore selected for the triple flames tests. This choice was based on the assumption that the most
stable geometry (i.e. for the same fuel flow rate, the geometry that reaches the lowest L) would also
be the one with the lowest NOx emissions.

Figure 3.2 and Figure 3.3 represent the measured stability limits for methane and propane,
respectively.

The influence of the geometric parameters proves to be slightly dominant for low fuel flow
rates in both cases. However, when fuel flow rate increases their influence became more noticeable,
especially when methane was used.

As previously mentioned, Kedia and Ghoniem [33] have concluded that for low velocity
regimes the heat exchange between the flame and the burner is significant. The recirculation zone is
almost absent and the stagnation point is located immediately above the burner. By comparing with
these results, we can explain the lower geometry dependence at low fuel flow rates since the
recirculating zone is nearly inexistent (low geometry dependence) and the heat loss to the burner is
significant (for the same thermal input one can assume being almost the same).

During the experiments the flame moved downstream as the velocity increased and/or the
equivalence ration decreased. During this process recirculation zone increases and the stagnation
point moves downstream.

For higher velocity regimes, according to Kedia and Ghoniem [33] the flames base curvature
approaches a critical value that is limited by a minimum radius of the flames thickness order. This

28
curvature remains almost constant until flame blowoff, which makes this phenomenon essentially
convective.

Figure 3.2 Methane's geometries stability limit: lean premixture

Figure 3.3 Propane's geometries stability limit: lean premixture

The existence of recirculation zone and coherent structures definition is defined by geometry
[35]. In premixed cases, it is responsible for local stretch and secondary air entrainment (and resultant
local equivalence ratio decrease).

29
 Thus, the differences registered between geometries at higher fuel flow rates can be
explained by the effect on local stretch, recirculation zone, stagnation point and secondary air
entrainment.

For methane, it was also noticed that an increase of fuel flow rate results in a broader
stability limit for almost all the geometries tested. On the other hand, propane reveals to have the
opposite trend. In all the tested geometries, the increase of fuel flow rate resulted in a decrease of the
stability limit. As seen previously, blowoff is the result of a combined effect of several factors, in which
the Lewis number is included. By definition, the Lewis number is the ratio between the Schmidt and
Prandtl numbers, i.e. the ratio between thermal and mass diffusivity. Kedia and Ghoniem [33] have
observed that near the stagnation point there is a strong reaction-diffusion balance. The fuels
behavior at the flames leading edge is strongly dependent on flames curvature and its Lewis number.
In both cases, when blowoff occurred the flame shape was inverted. Thus its curvature at the
stagnation point was the same for both fuels. Once the methane and propane have different Lewis
numbers and burning velocities, this can explain the blowoff curves opposite trends.

Figure 3.4 and Figure 3.5 illustrate some of the obtained flames during this test for methane
and propane, respectively.

Figure 3.4 Methane lean premixed flame: =0.67, Re=44

Figure 3.5 Propane lean premixed flame: =0.67, Re=44

30
 Out of the nine tested geometries, the geometries ( = 1.0 & = 0.5 ) and ( =
0.5 ; = 0.5 ) achieved the best results with methane and propane, respectively.

Methanes best geometry revealed to be far more stable in higher regimes than other tested
geometries.

Despite being tested with the burner unconfined, this geometrys results were also tested
with the exhaust chamber and proved to be the same.

During the measurements, it was noticed that for geometries with = 2.0 the flame was
very susceptible to flashback for mixtures with low Reynolds numbers.

Sogo and Hase [22] have also studied the influence of multiple slit burner geometry on
blowoff limit. Using methane as the single tested gas, the slit burners geometry was changed by fixing
the rim thickness and varying the slit width or vice-versa.

As a conclusion, slits rim thickness was found to be important in flames stability, while slit
width didnt considerably affected it. With a fixed slit width of 4mm, the rim thickness was varied from
0.5 to 12. Using a dimensionless parameter , one can see that their conditions varied between
!
1/3 < < 8. Using the same parameter to compare with this studys experiments, the tested
!
!
conditions were between 1/4 < < 4. While in Sogo and Hase [22] experiences the optimal geometry
!
!
found has a = 2.0 ( = 2.0 & = 4 ), in this study the optimal geometry for methane
!
!
corresponds to a = 0.5 ( = 1.0 & = 0.5 ).
!

This suggests that for a given slit width, theres an optimal rim thickness. Further
investigation on relation is required.

3.2 Triple Flames

3.2.1 Stability

Once the most stable geometries were chosen, the fuel-rich mixture was introduced. For this
assessment only methane was used as a tested gas.

The burner was confined and the new stability limits were defined. Two different
assessments were performed, the first with the fan turned off and the other with secondary air
correspondent to fan powers of 9% and 25%.

With the ignition of fuel-rich mixtures one issue emerged. The traditional flames blowout
doesnt occur in the case of triple flames. Instead of flames wall-tip liftoff, these triple flames maintain
the wall-tip position and start to liftoff in the center where the outer rich mixtures influence is lowest.
This is in agreement with other studies, were liftoff characteristics of non-premixed and partially

31
premixed flames were considered of fundamental importance to characterize triple flames extinction
[6].

Therefore, a new blowout criterion was defined. The triple flame was considered unstable
when the lean flames tip starts to open or when the tips concave shape from flames propagation
disappears. Figure 3.6 depicts one unstable situations corresponding to the new defined criterion. This
criterion is rather subjective, particularly at high Reynolds numbers where the flames buoyancy and
flickering effects is preponderant. When a flame reaches this stage, a column of mixture passes
through the middle without being totally burned. Despite being surrounded by flames, this is a situation
that no one desires, especially in the domestic burners industry.

With the new criterion defined, the triple flames stability limits were measured.

Figure 3.6 Triple flames blowoff criterion - Opening of the lean flame tip

3.2.1.1 Without Assisted Ventilation

With the purpose of evaluate solely the rich premixtures effects on the triple flames stability
the ventilation was switched off.

For the fuel-rich premixed side, two Reynolds numbers were defined (36 and 72). For each
Reynolds number, three rich equivalence ratios were set, namely 1.2, 1.5 and 2.0. With this variation
one can see the influence of these parameters on the overall stability and respective limit.

Three lean-fuel gas flow rates were chosen: 0.35, 0.7 and 1.40 SLPM. With the fuel-rich
premixed flames ignited, the lean mixtures airflow was gradually changed till another blowout situation
occurs. Table 3.3 summarizes the established conditions.

Figure 3.7 illustrates the new stability limits without assisted ventilation.

For each rich premixed flame condition, a new stability limit was defined. This allows an easy
understanding of the influence of every single defined parameter. The lean mixture stability limit is also
illustrated to compare the differences with and without rich premixed flames.

32
Table 3.3 Selected conditions for rich-lean stability limits assessment with 0% of fan power

Figure 3.7 Methanes triple flames stability limits - 0% of Fan Power

33
 As one can see, the richer the outer flame is, the broader the limit became. It is known that
the increase of rich premixed flames equivalence ratio leads to an increase of radicals and decrease
in flames temperature and burning velocity. Despite these important decreases, the results show that
the flames stability expanded, which proves that the increase of radicals and consequent diffusion
(from the rich premixed to the lean premixed and non-premixed sides) plays an important role in these
flames stability. This is in accordance with Takahashi and Kattas [36] stability hypothesis that was
based on the existence of a reaction kernel of high reactivity that provides the radical flux and serves
as a stabilization point in a small premixing zone.

This stability augmentation was also noticed when the rich flames Reynolds number
increases. This effect is even bigger when the velocity gradient between rich premixed and lean
premixed flames increases (once more due to an increase of radicals diffusion).

The effect of these two parameters revealed to be crucial in flames stability, especially when
used together.

3.2.1.2 Assisted Ventilation

Subsequently, the rich-lean stability limits were once more defined, this time with the fan
turned on. The secondary air established conditions corresponded to 9% and 25% of fan power.

The initial test conditions had predicted essays with fan powers equal and greater than 50%.
Nevertheless, these conditions have caused too much instability on the flames and even in some
conditions the flame didnt even establish itself in a stable position (i.e. an instant blowoff occurred).

Two fuel-rich equivalence ratios were used to perform these tests, specifically 1.2 and 2.0.
The rich mixtures Reynolds number used was 72, which roughly corresponds to a velocity of 1.14
m/s. Table 3.4 represents the defined conditions for this stability assessment.

Table 3.4 Selected conditions for rich-lean stability limits assessment with fan power of 9% and 25%

34
 Figure 3.8 depicts the obtained results. The lean reference as well as the results obtained
with the fan turned off is also represented to enable an easier comparison.

Once more, similarly with the previous assessment and other authors conclusions [27], it is
evident that the increase of the equivalence ratio gradient between rich and lean flames strongly
influences the flames stability limits. The reasons earlier exposed for the stability augmentation are
the same for this case.

On the other hand, the secondary air increase steeply decreased the flames stability limit.
Premixture entrainment and secondary air dilution are some of the effects that might be responsible
for this stability decrease. Chung [37] described the stabilization of lifted flames in terms of a dynamic
balance between the triple flame propagation speed and the local flow velocity along the
stoichiometric contour. This is in agreement with these assessment results, as the secondary air
velocity seems to be in a dynamic balance with the flame propagation speed. This effect is by far more
important in the lean premixed flame side due to the low propagation speed resultant from the
extremely lean conditions.

Once both hypotheses from Chung and Takahashi have been verified, Briones et al. [38]
have attempted to unify them by examining the variation of triple flame speed, scalar dissipation rate
and reaction rate in the base region of diluted lifted flames. As a conclusion it revealed to be
consistent with Takahashi and Kattas [36] hypothesis, but could also be interpreted as the velocities
dynamic balance proposed by Chung.

35
 Figure 3.8 Methanes triple flames stability limits - 9% and 25% of Fan Power (ReR=72)

During the experiments the increase of rich premixed flames Reynolds number have
functioned as a shield in certain conditions, mitigating secondary air effects on the lean premixed side
[8].

Experiments with the burner unconfined have led to the same conclusions.

3.2.2 Pollutant Emissions

Being pollutants emissions what most motivated this work, a more detailed analysis
concerning this matter was carried out. To perform this analysis, methane was used as the single
tested gas. The employed geometry was the selected in the methane's lean stability limits analysis,
based on the assumption that the most stable configuration would lead to less pollutants emission (as
suggest by Kamal [11] experiments). Thus, the influence of the geometric parameters on the
pollutants emission was not herein assessed.

Therefore, the studied parameters were the secondary air velocity (also referred as fan
power), the rich and lean mixtures equivalence ratios and the lean mixture Reynolds number.

The rich mixtures Reynolds number was fixed in 72, similarly with the rich-lean stability limits
tests carried with the fan turned on.

36
 All the tested rich-lean conditions were compared with a correspondent lean flame, whose
emissions tests were performed without ventilation (0% of fan power).

As mentioned above, the measurements were performed with a flue gas analyzer that
calculates the CO, CO2, O2, NOx and HC concentrations in a dry basis. HC measurements have as
reference propane, once it was the gas used to calibrate this pollutant. The pollutants concentrations
were corrected to an O2 concentration reference of 3% using the following formula:

!"%!!%
[]@"%!! = []!"#$%&"' 3.1
!"%![!! ]!"#$%&"'

In order to investigate the effects of the several studied parameters in these pollutants
emission, six analyses were conducted:

Constant Lean Equivalence Ratio

Constant Lean Reynolds Number
Overall Equivalence Ratio
Cooling Water Effect
Fans Inlet Sealed
Geometrys New Arrangement

Each analysis description and respective results are presented below. During these
analyses, the flue gases temperatures were also measured at the burners exit. The results are
presented in appendix A, in section 6.

3.2.2.1 Constant Lean Equivalence Ratio

This assessment was performed fixing firstly two lean equivalence ratios, 0.6 and 0.9. Then
three lean Reynolds numbers (30, 45 and 60) were defined for both fixed equivalence ratios.
Nevertheless, during the experiments thermoacoustic instabilities appeared on the condition (! = 0.9,
! = 60). As this phenomenon influenced pollutants emission, another lean Reynolds number was
defined in order to have a sequence of three numbers. To avoid lower power input conditions, the new
selected condition corresponded to the same equivalence ratio (! = 0.9) and a Reynolds number of
40.

To complete this pollutants emission assessment, two rich equivalence ratios were selected
(1.2, 2.0) and the fan power was varied from three values (0%, 9%, 25%).

Figure 3.9 schematically represents the measured conditions.

37
 Figure 3.9 Pollutants emissions at constant lean equivalence ratio - Selected conditions

CO & HC measurements:

During the carried tests, CO and HC trends were very similar. Figure 3.10 and Figure 3.11
represent the obtained results for CO and HC, respectively. The differences in certain aspects were
small, which will be particularly identified further on.

Analyzing the results for L=0.6 in both CO and HC cases, the essayed triple flames
revealed that they emit less than the lean flame reference (less than half in the majority of the cases).
The exception was the condition of (! = 30, = 25%), which [HC] stood somewhat over
the lean reference. On the other hand, for L=0.9 the situation is reversed and the lean flame's
reference emissions, that were previously above the triple flames' values, are now below.

In the first situation, despite both types of flames having the same lean equivalence ratio, the
presence of the rich flame (in the triple flames case) generates a non-premixed flame that enhances
both rich and lean premixed flames combustion. As earlier described, radicals are transported to the
non-premixed region from both premixed branches. There these latter react in stoichiometric
conditions, which cause the non-premixed flame to be a region of high temperatures and
superequilibrium of radical species. Some of the produced radicals are transported to the other flame
regions where they eventually react with the reactants [20]. This together with heat transfer from the
diffusion to the premixed flame branches causes an increase of local burning velocity (radiation effects
are negligible) [6], [39], and consequent reduction of intermediate species like CO and HC.

In the second situation, the lean premixed branch is much closer to stoichiometry, and
therefore the combustion is almost complete. The introduction of a rich premixed branch (in the triple
flames case) will fulfill some radicals' needs. Since the lean premixed branch does not need as much
radicals as in the previous situation, the rich premixed combustion will eventually be more incomplete.
Hence CO and HC emissions tend to be higher than in the lean flame reference, despite the higher
chambers temperature achieved.

38
 Nevertheless, when compared with the previous triple flame case (with L=0.6), the increase
of triple flames temperature (registered in appendix A) is noticed regarding pollutants emission
reduction.

Along the measurements, it was noticed that an increase of the rich equivalence ratio
resulted in an increase of CO and HC emissions. In some cases the differences revealed to be larger
than others, being the equivalence ratio's gradient (between the rich and lean sides) the factor that
most contributed for these differences (the larger the gradient, the shorter the difference between triple
flames emissions results). These results are somehow expected. On one hand, the increase of the
rich equivalence ratio leads to a more incomplete combustion. On the other hand, as previously
mentioned, if the equivalence ratios gradient is large, both premixed branches need radicals from
each other, which actually leads to a larger radicals consumption and a consequent shorter difference
between rich equivalence ratios emissions.

Concerning the influence of the secondary air, in a first approach it reveals to be

inconclusive. The trends for both fuels have changed in some of the tested conditions, making it
difficult to establish an immediate conclusion. However, in a more detailed analysis, one can see that
mainly three factors appear to be influencing these tests: residence time, thermal input and secondary
air cooling effect.

When leans Reynolds number increases, the thermal input increases and the flue gas
residence time decreases [40]. The thermal input increase is reflected in a higher flue gas temperature
(as shown in appendix A), which is known to favor not only HC consumption but also CO2 dissociation
in CO and O2.

The secondary airflow has also positive and negative effects on pollutants emission. When
secondary air flows around a burner, it behaves as a bluff body flow creating a recirculation zone [41].
This aerodynamic wake provides sufficient flue gas residence time to enhance flames stability [42].
This eventually reduces CO and HC emissions (oxygen concentration increases as well as the time
available for oxidation). Nevertheless, the introduction of a cold air mass in the system results in a
temperature decrease, which can be more or less accentuated depending on the secondary air
velocity. If the temperature drops too much, incomplete combustion may result from quenching of
oxidation reactions, which will correspond to an increase of CO and HC emissions [3], [40]. The
increase of secondary airs velocity has also as consequence a decrease of the recirculation zone
velocity and size [9], [42]. Therefore, the gases' residence time decreases and its positive effects are
mitigated.

In L=0.6 case, it is known that the adiabatic flames temperature is low when compared with
L=0.9 case. As such, this flame will be more susceptible to the above-mentioned effects. The
obtained results prove it, particularly in HC emissions case, which is more temperature dependent as
before said.

39
 Figure 3.10 CO emissions for constant lean equivalence ratio (ReR=72)

The worst situations in these pollutants emission corresponded to the maximum fan power.
The secondary velocity increase (which is around three times more than the premixed flames exit
velocity) led to a steep decrease in the chambers temperature (as demonstrated in Figure 6.2 in
appendix A). Thus, the conditions that were mostly affect by the secondary air severity where those
corresponding to lower thermal input (low ReL) and low residence time (high ReL).

40
 Figure 3.11 HC emissions for constant lean equivalence ratio (ReR=72)

Dissociation due to temperature increase with ReL may be in the origin of CO augmentation
for both situations where the used fan power was 0% (Figure 3.10 a) and b)). This trend has
immediately changed with the use of secondary air, which ultimately changed the initial trend.

The best results were obtained for secondary air stream velocity of the order of flames
velocity, which corresponds to 9% of fan power (around 1.4 m/s). In this situation, all experiments'
results seem to be the most balanced for both pollutant species, which seems to reunite the best
compromise between the effects caused by the initially mentioned parameters: flows residence time,
thermal input and air cooling effect.

41
NOx measurements:

As shown in Figure 3.12, NOx emissions reveal to be small throughout the essayed
conditions.

Figure 3.12 NOx emissions for constant lean equivalence ratio (ReR=72)

It is believed that the low flame and chambers temperature (see exhaust temperature
profiles in appendix A) is the factor that deeply affected these emissions. According to Bowman [3], in
more than ninety percent of the combustion devices, NOx is primarily composed of NO. This pollutant,
as earlier mentioned, is strongly dependent on flame and chambers temperature due to the high
activation energy required to initiate its mechanism. The significantly low chambers temperature
(when compared with the thermal mechanism's lower threshold temperature) along with unfavorable
premixed equivalence ratios, have created conditions to mitigate NO's thermal formation favoring

42
instead other NO mechanisms (e.g. Prompt Mechanism) or even other nitrogen oxides species (i.e.
NO2 and N2O).

Comparing the triple flames emissions with the respective references lean flame, one can
notice a difference increase of this pollutant emission, as the lean equivalence ratio tend to
stoichiometry. When L=0.6 and the ventilation is reduced (i.e. the secondary air velocity is less or
equal to the order of the flames velocity) the differences are hardly noticed. However with L=0.9,
these differences between lean and triple flames emissions become not only noticeable but also
substantial. With lean Reynolds number increase it is actually intensified.

Nevertheless, along the triple flames measurements the effect of the lean Reynolds number
in NOx emissions seems to barely change this pollutant emission. However, in the situations where
considerable changes are verified, the increase of lean Reynolds number results in a decrease of NOx
emission due to a reduction of residence time [40].

Excessive amount of secondary air (i.e. when the used fan power is 25%) have increased
NOx emissions somewhat, which can be attributed an increase of the oxygen concentration that leads
to a non-equilibrium situation and consequent enhancement of NOx formation rates.

Concerning the rich equivalence ratios measurements, the registered differences between
rich conditions were somehow negligible. When that is not the case, NOx emissions of R=1.2 are
larger than R=2.0 due to the higher flame temperature.

3.2.2.2 Constant Lean Reynolds Number

To preform this assessment two lean Reynolds numbers were selected: 40 and 45. The
exception was one stability limit point, for which the correspondent Reynolds number is 43. These
Reynolds numbers were chosen due to calorific power representativeness when compared with
industry. The lean equivalence ratio was varied from the stability limit till stoichiometry.

Similarly with the previous assessment, two rich equivalence ratios were selected (1.2, 2.0)
and the fan power was varied from three values (0%, 9%, 25%). Figure 3.13 depicts the conditions
chosen to perform this assessment.

CO and HC measurements:

Similarly with the previous assessment, in this constant Reynolds number assessment the
CO and HC trends were nearly the same. Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15 represent the obtained results
for CO and HC, respectively.

43
 Figure 3.13 Pollutants emissions at constant lean Reynolds number - Selected conditions

In both ReL conditions, to about L<0.75 the triple flames CO emissions (Figure 3.14) were
lower than the correspondent lean reference. However, for L>0.75 the trend reverses and the lean
reference emissions turns to be lower. The same trend was registered for HC (Figure 3.15), with the
turning point around L=0.70.

This trends shift was already described in the previous assessment. The lower triple flames
pollutants emission was attributed to the rich flame presence and the correspondent enhancement of
flames burning velocity due to heat and radical diffusion from the non-premixed to the premixed
flames. While the better results for the lean flame at higher lean equivalence ratios was considered to
be the result of a more complete combustion. Triple flames short equivalence ratio gradient eventually
leads to a more incomplete combustion, despite being close to stoichiometry and with higher flames
temperatures.

Between ReL conditions only a slight increase in these pollutants emission is noticed, also by
virtue of the small variation. Despite the thermal input increase, the residence time also decreases
which may cause this short increase in the emissions [40].

44
 Figure 3.14 CO emissions for constant lean Reynolds numbers (ReR=72)

R=2.0 tends to have higher emissions than the other rich condition, again due to incomplete
combustions issues. This difference, as well as the overall emissions, tends to decrease with
secondary air velocity increase. Despite its above-mentioned negative effect on chambers
temperature, ventilation has an important role due to residence time and oxygen supply. For smaller
equivalence ratios, where temperature is low, secondary air may cause an increase the resultant
pollutants emissions due to temperature reduction [3]. Nevertheless, for equivalence ratios closer to
stoichiometry (with higher temperatures), the secondary air increases oxygen levels, fulfilling the
requirements to a more complete combustion and consequent decrease of pollutants emissions. As
one can see in Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15, the triple flames emissions have tended to the lean
premixed flames low pollutants emissions as the secondary air increases.

45
 Figure 3.15 HC emissions for constant lean Reynolds numbers (ReR=72)

Nevertheless, throughout the experiments these two pollutants emissions revealed to be

higher than expected. Their concentrations overpass by far what would be allowed for a conventional
burner. A careful look on flames structure suggests that secondary air stream leads to rich premixture
entrainment, which eventually results in an emission of partially burnt mixture and consequent huge
levels of CO and HC. However, this triple flame structure has already presented huge CO levels when
compared with other triple flames as shown in Aggarwal et al. [43] experiments.

Figure 3.16 represents two evolutions, for different rich equivalence ratios, where this issue
occurs.

Figure 3.16 Rich premixture entrainment: flames liftoff with fan power increase

46
 As one can see, the increase of secondary airflow results in the liftoff of the rich flames outer
side. When that occurs, rich premixture is entrained between the rich slits rim and liftoff flames
location into the secondary air stream. As the chambers temperature is low (below 400 C), the
entrained mixture is partially burnt which eventually results in huge HC and CO emissions.

It was also shown from the latter results that lean mixtures also emit huge quantities of these
two pollutants. In conditions where the air quantity exceeds significantly the stoichiometric amount, the
surplus of oxygen should oxidize almost all CO and specially HC. In fact, in these conditions the flame
and chambers temperatures have registered the lowest values, which also reduce the fuel oxidation
due to quenching of the oxidation reactions [3]. In spite of temperature effects, other factors may also
significantly contribute to these huge emissions. When the equivalence ration is closer to the stability
limit, the flames lean side structure reveals to be so unstable and lifted off, that may also let pass
some lean premixture partially burnt. This would also result in high HC and CO emissions, as
previously stated.

Considering the flutes cross-section design from the patented rich-lean burner represented
in Figure 2.2, one can see that the outer plates have their tips above the rest of the burner. This
design specification may play an important role in this flames emissions and be used as a shield to
avoid premixture entrainment. As this part of the flute is out of this study scope, its impact in flames
stability and pollutants emissions was not herein assessed. Therefore, this issue is suggested to be
tested in further future investigations.

NOx measurements:

Similarly to the previous assessment, NOx emissions remained in general low and with an
almost flat trend. Figure 3.17 illustrates the obtained results. The above-mentioned mitigation of
thermal mechanism due to low temperatures and unfavorable equivalence ratios are also the main
reasons for such resemblance. Nonetheless, few exceptions were registered, being their values
sometimes much higher than the others. A detailed explanation for this phenomenon is ahead
presented.

Evaluating the lean flames emissions, it was noticed that for ! < 0.8 the emissions are
actually low. According to Turns [28], with such conditions the formation of NO via NO2 is the
predominant mechanism. The N2O formation mechanisms may also have relevance, once the
temperatures are low, the equivalence ration is lean and the used gas is methane (the natural gas
largest component) [3].

On the other hand, when ! > 0.8 this pollutant emission suddenly increased, reaching
maximum values around 20-23 ppm (the other conditions stayed below 1 ppm). As mentioned before,
when the flames equivalence ratio approaches the stoichiometric conditions its temperature tends to
be at its maximum. With temperature increase, the conditions for thermal mechanism get favorable
which explains the NOx concentrations much higher than the other essayed conditions.

47
 The triple flames emissions reveal to be low (of the level of lean flame's lowest emissions)
and fairly constant throughout the measurements. For ! < 0.8, the triple flames emissions are
actually slightly above the lean flame reference. This difference might be mainly due to Prompt
mechanism (once the temperatures are low and rich flames highly contribute to this mechanism) as
well as the increase of NO conversion rate into NO2 (due to high [HC] at low temperatures [33]) rather
than other species (e.g. N2O) [3].

Figure 3.17 NOx emissions for constant lean Reynolds numbers (ReR=72)

The variation of rich equivalence ratios as well as lean Reynolds numbers followed the
previous assessment trend, being the registered differences between rich-lean conditions negligible.
The exceptions were the conditions with (! = 1.0; ! = 1.2). In this case the equivalence ratio
gradient is small and the flames temperature high, resulting in higher NOx emissions again due to NO
thermal mechanism contribution. Nevertheless, even with a stoichiometric equivalence ratio in the lean
side, the triple flames have emitted much less (three to four times) than the correspondent lean flame
reference. This exceptional evidence might be the result of this triple flame structure and the synergic

48
mechanisms between non-premixed and premixed branches, which may reduce NOx emissions due to
sharing of heat and intermediate radicals.

Increasing ventilation barely influenced the NOx emissions along the measurements. Again
the exceptions were the previous conditions with (! = 1.0; ! = 1.2), which tended to lower values
(similar to the other rich-lean conditions). This reduction may be a result of temperature decrease due
to excessive secondary airflow (see exhaust temperature profiles in appendix A), which possibly
mitigated the NO thermal mechanism, leading to a significant reduction of NOx emission [3].

3.2.2.3 Overall Equivalence Ratio

From the previous analysis results, it is evident that triple flames equivalence ratio gradient
is of major importance not only on the flames stability, but also on pollutant emissions.

With the purpose of evaluating the pollutant emissions global picture, a new assessment in
terms of overall equivalence ratio was carried out. Unlike the previous detailed analysis, the focus is
not on the local phenomena but in all system dynamics concerning each pollutant analyzed.

The use of the overall equivalence ratio gives an idea of the total proportion between gas
and air from both premixtures, embodying the contribution of each premixtures equivalence ratio and
Reynolds number.

Figure 3.18, Figure 3.19 and Figure 3.20, collectively represent all obtained results for CO,
HC and NOx emissions, respectively. The used conditions are represented in appendix B, in section 6.

Evaluating these results, one can notice a decreasing global trend with the increase of the
overall equivalence ratio, especially in the case of NOx. For CO and HC, it is noticed that the
pollutants emission reaches a minimum around the stoichiometric overall equivalence ratio. These are
interesting results, once they suggest that the best compromise corresponds to a global equivalence
ratio that is generally avoided locally. This is, whereas traditional stoichiometric premixed flames are
normally avoided due to the impact on NOx emissions, in the case of triple flames these results
suggests that the use of overall stoichiometric conditions will lead to a minimum of the pollutants
emissions.

Despite being well defined in terms of its global trend, the points that compose it are
somehow scattered. As seen before, many are the parameters that influence the triple flames
pollutant emissions. Therefore, the measured pollutant concentration is nothing but the result of all the
parameters balance, which eventually leads to the represented dispersion.

49
 Figure 3.18 CO emissions versus overall equivalence ratio

Figure 3.19 HC emissions versus overall equivalence ratio

Figure 3.20 NOx emissions versus overall equivalence ratio

Thus, to better understand the main parameters effects, their location along the dispersion
was identified. Figure 3.21, Figure 3.22 and Figure 3.23 represent the secondary air and rich

50
premixture equivalence ration effect on the pollutants emission dispersion, for CO, HC and NOx,
respectively.

Figure 3.21 CO emissions versus overall equivalence ratio: a) Fan power dispersion b) Rich equivalence
ratio dispersion

Figure 3.22 HC emissions versus overall equivalence ratio: a) Fan power dispersion b) Rich equivalence
ratio dispersion

Figure 3.23 NOx emissions versus overall equivalence ratio: a) Fan power dispersion b) Rich
equivalence ratio dispersion

51
 As one can see, for most of the verified situations it is possible to identify a pattern along the
initial dispersion, making an assessment of these parameters global effect easier. Therefore,
analysing their effects one can conclude that:

The secondary air should be used but not in excess, once it generally enhances CO and HC
emissions (due to a more complete combustion) but worsens in the case of NOx (once the
oxygen increase promotes this pollutant formation). The best compromise seems to be
achieved when the secondary air velocity is of same order of greatness as the flames
velocity.
The increase of the rich equivalence ratio worsens CO and HC emissions in the majority of the
cases (due to incomplete combustion), while in NOx s case theres a slight decrease (mainly
due to temperature decrease). Therefore, the rich equivalence ratio should probably lie
somewhere between 1.2 and 2.0 with an overall equivalence ratio around stoichiometry.

3.2.2.4 Cooling Water Effect

With the purpose of evaluate the impact of the cooling water in the pollutants emission, the
cooling water flow rate was reduced from 1.95 LMP to 0.95 LPM. Table 3.5 represents the selected
conditions.

Table 3.5 Selected conditions for assessment of cooling water effect on pollutants emissions

The results were compared with the homologous conditions that were conducted in the
standard cooling water flow rate essays (1.95 LMP). A relative difference was used to better illustrate
this effect:

[!"##$%&'%]!!!! !!.!" !"# [!"##$%&'%]!!!! !!.!" !"#

[%] = 100 3.2
[!"##$%&'%]!!!! !!.!" !"#

Table 3.6 shows the differences for each condition per pollutant. The average per pollutant
and total average are represented as well.

Analyzing the results, there is a small difference between the two water flows essays.

The secondary air was the parameter that most affected the results. The largest difference
recorded was 17%, which corresponds to a condition that used the maximum fan power (i.e. for HC

52
with L=0.6 and 25% of fan power). In fact, for this fan power the differences between the measured
conditions significantly increased (in both equivalence ratios).

The strong chambers temperature decrease caused by the excessive amount of secondary
air seems to be the most likely effect that contributed to these differences.

For the other fan power conditions, the differences were most significant for HC and CO with
L=0.9. As already referred, these pollutants emissions are strongly dependent on flame and
chambers temperatures. In these conditions, the contribution of heat loss from the flame to the burner
might still be considerable. Thereby, this suggests that such differences are the result of premixed
temperature increase and consequent higher flames temperature. In any case, the maximum
difference registered in these conditions was 10%, which is an acceptable difference.

Therefore, with a difference total average of 6%, the influence of the cooling water on
pollutants emission was considered negligible. S. Parmentier et al. [1] have concluded the same in
their study on the effect of the temperature along the lamellae on the exhaust temperature as well as
on the CO and NO emissions.

Table 3.6 Results of cooling water effect on pollutants emissions

3.2.2.5 Fans Inlet Sealed

During the experiments, when the fan was turned off it was noticed that an induced airflow
passed along the outer secondary air passages due to flames presence. The air entered through the
fans inlet port and followed the secondary air course. To evaluate the pollutants emission without
secondary air, the fans inlet port was sealed. Moreover, the last presented pollutants emissions
results reveal an unexpected high concentration of HC and CO, which may indicate excess of
secondary air.

Once the burner is not supposed to be used without fan, only four conditions were selected
for this assessment. Table 3.7 represents those conditions. Figure 3.24 represents the obtained
results.

53
 Table 3.7 Selected conditions for pollutants emission assessment with fan's inlet sealed

Figure 3.24 Results of sealing fans inlet on pollutant emissions: a) CO and NOx concentration at 3% of
O2 b) HC concentration at 3% of O2 and exhaust temperature

From the charts analysis one can see that many are the important results. First the NOx
emissions that on the previous unsealed tests reveal to be lower, in these tests started with a similar
value (with L=0.6) increasing suddenly to a value almost ten times bigger than the highest triple
flames value previously achieved. CO and HC decreased abruptly (till almost zero in HC case) with
the equivalence ratio increase. Even though these pollutants values are high for L=0.6, these values
about three to five times less than previous unsealed experiments.

These huge differences between sealed and unsealed experiments suggest that the
secondary air stream in the unsealed conditions is excessive, resulting in a considerable decrease of
chambers temperature and increase of HC and CO emissions (due to entrainment).

54
 The cooling water effect on the exhaust temperature is clear. The lower the water flow rate
is, the higher the exhaust temperature gets. However, as concluded earlier, despite the effect on the
exhaust temperature the cooling water barely affects the pollutants emissions.

3.2.2.6 Geometrys New Arrangement

Last, the eventual influence of changing slit plates arrangement was also tested. The level
of geometrys detail of this kind of burners may play an important role in the pollutant emissions.

Therefore, after changing randomly the plates arrangement, a few conditions were settled
to perform this assessment. Table 3.8 represents the chosen conditions.

Table 3.8 Selected conditions for assessment of new geometry arrangement on pollutants emissions

Table 3.9 shows the differences between the new and the earlier arrangement per pollutant
specie for each condition.

Table 3.9 Results of geometrys new arrangement effect on pollutants emissions

55
 Similarly with the cooling water effect analysis, the results are present in a relative difference
bases, enabling quick comparisons between conditions. Equation 3.2 was also used with these
results.

As one can see, the difference between the new and the earlier arrangements is even lower
than that obtained in the cooling water effect analysis. The highest difference registered was 15%
(also for HC with L=0.6), and the overall difference average was around 5%. Thus, the effect of a new
arrangement on the pollutants emission was also considered to be negligible.

Nevertheless, despite the little difference on pollutants emissions between the two
arrangements, a new issue occurred during the experiments. Thermoacoustic instabilities appeared in
some conditions that initially didnt present any. It is known that these instabilities modify flames
structure, heat transfer and also pollutants emissions. Therefore, for this reasons those conditions
were skipped.

Thus, the level of detail and slit plates arrangement reveal to be of extreme importance in
thermal acoustic phenomena and negligible concerning the effect in pollutants emission.

56
4 Closure

4.1 Conclusions
The following thesis centers itself on a detailed study of a rich-lean slit burner. An
assessment of the influence of burners geometry, secondary air, fuel-rich and fuel-lean premixtures
on the stability limits and pollutants emission was carried out.

The main conclusions can be summarized as follows:

Where lean premixed flames stability is concerned, the influence of the slit burners
geometry revealed to be determinant in higher flow rates regimes (especially in methanes case). The
use of different gases led to opposite stability trends, i.e. as fuel flow rate increases methanes stability
limit generally increases and propanes stability limit decreases. This was attributed to these fuels
different properties, in particular the Lewis number.

For the used triple flame configuration, the equivalence ratio gradient and the rich
premixtures Reynolds number were found to be the major importance factors in flame stability. The
best results were obtained with the cumulative effect of these two factors. The secondary air has
proved to reduce the flames stability. Furthermore, it was also concluded that a triple flame is more
stable than a corresponding lean premixed flame.

Regarding pollutant emissions the best compromise relies on using overall equivalence
ratios closer to stoichiometry. This parameter has shown to be a useful indicator in pollutant emission
predictions and on the understanding of these flames global dynamics.

The use of secondary air has generally shown advantages in reducing pollutant emissions.
Nevertheless, its excessive use leads to negative effects. Thus, the best compromised was
considered for a secondary air velocity of the order of the flames velocity.

The rich equivalence ratio has shown both advantages and disadvantages on pollutant
emissions, depending on the emitted species. The differences were also closely correlated with the
amount of secondary air. Therefore, it is concluded that the most suitable rich equivalence ratio will
probably be around 1.2 and 2.0, with an overall stoichiometric equivalence ratio.

The cooling water flow rate barely influences pollutants emissions (even when the fans inlet
is sealed and the temperatures inside the burner are higher).

The geometrys new arrangement effect on pollutant emissions has proven to be negligible.

57
4.2 Recommendations for future work
Concerning the burners core geometry, taking into account the comparison made between
the results obtained in the geometry selection assessment and Sogo and Hase results [22], it is
suggested that a further detailed investigation on the relation between slits width and thickness and
consequent effect on flames stability limit is pursued.

For triple flames, a detailed analysis on the burners rich premixture side is recommended to
better understand the role of the outer plate tip and also the cavity.

Extending the rich premixture outer plate tip would allow an assessment on the premixture
entrainment originated by the secondary air. Reducing this effect will probably influence the pollutants
emission, in particular CO and HC.

The cavitys volume and length between the rich and the lean sides should also be analysed,
once it can be determinant on triple flame overall dynamic, possibly yielding better results in pollutants
emissions. The use of the PIV technique would enable a detailed analysis, which would describe not
only the cavity role and the dynamic between rich and lean flames, but also the secondary air
interaction with the several flame zones.

Regarding the major importance of the equivalence ratio gradient and especially the overall
equivalence ratio, a chemiluminescence analysis would also be useful. The analysis of the
equivalence ratio dispersion versus flames equivalence ratio gradient and secondary air can also be
an interesting factor in the understanding of triple flames dynamics and pollutants emissions.

It would be also interesting to perform the same pollutant emissions analysis using propane
and validate these conclusions for a different gas, seeing this issue wasnt possible to tackle in this
study due to facility limitations.

Finally, since during the experiments thermo acoustic phenomena was noticed, a study over
the influence of this burner's geometries on these phenomenas occurrences would also be of great
relevance, given that the domestic gas industry makes some effort to avoid them.

58
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61
6 Appendices
6.1 Appendix A
In order to understand some of the obtained trends, the burners exhaust temperature was
measured using the same conditions of the pollutant emissions assessments. The used thermocouple
was positioned at the same location of the analyzers sample probe. The obtained profiles are
presented ahead.

Temperature Profiles for constant lean Reynolds numbers:

Figure 6.1 Exhaust temperature profiles for constant lean Reynolds numbers (ReR=72): a) 0% of fan
power b) 9% of fan power c) 25% of fan power

62
 Temperature Profiles for constant lean equivalence ratios:

Figure 6.2 Exhaust temperature profiles for constant lean equivalence ratio (ReR=72): a) 0% of fan power
b) 9% of fan power c) 25% of fan power

63
 Temperature Profiles for global equivalence ratio:

Figure 6.3 Exhaust temperature profiles versus global equivalence ratio (ReR=72): a) All measured
points b) Ventilation dispersion c) rich equivalence ratio dispersion

64
6.2 Appendix B

65
 Representation of the conditions used on the pollutant emissions global analysis. The
velocities (URich, ULean) are in m/s and the gases flow rates (QAir Rich, QAir Lean, QFuel Rich, QFuel Lean) are in
SLPM.

66