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APPENDIX 1: Symbols, Units,

and Mathematical Techniques
1A SYMBOLS as set out in Table 2. Fundamental constants are not
included in the lists but can be found inside the back cover
Each physical quantity is represented by an italic or oblique
of the book. The symbols for mathematical constants are
Greek symbol (thus, m for mass, not m; for osmotic pres-
upright (thus, , not , e, not e). All labels are upright
sure, not ). Table 1 lists most of the symbols used in this
(thus, s-orbital, not s-orbital; -orbital, not -orbital).
textbook together with their units (see also Appendix 1B).
The symbols may be modified by attaching subscripts,

TABLE 1 Common Symbols and Units

Symbol Physical quantity SI unit

(alpha) polarizability C2m2J1

(gamma) surface tension Nm1
(delta) chemical shift
(theta) colatitude degree, rad
(lambda) wavelength m
(mu) dipole moment Cm
(nu) frequency Hz
(pi) osmotic pressure Pa
(sigma) cross section m2
(phi) azimuth degree (), rad
(chi) electronegativity
(psi) wavefunction mn/2 (in n dimensions)
a activity
van der Waals parameter L2atmmol2
unit-cell parameter m
A area m2
mass number
Madelung constant
b van der Waals parameter Lmol1
molality molkg1
B second virial coefficient Lmol1
C heat capacity JK1
third virial coefficient L2mol2
c molar concentration, molarity molL1, m
c2 second radiation constant Km
d density kgm3 (gcm3)
length of unit-cell diagonal m
E energy J
electrode potential V
Ea activation energy Jmol1 (kJmol1)
Ebind nuclear binding energy J
Ecell cell potential V
Eea electron affinity Jmol1 (kJmol1)
Ek kinetic energy J
Ep potential energy J
e elementary charge C
F force N
G Gibbs free energy J
(continued)

A1
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A2 APPENDIX 1

TABLE 1 Common Symbols and Units (continued)

Symbol Physical quantity SI unit

H enthalpy J
h height m
I ionization energy Jmol1 (kJmol1)
electric current A (Cs1)
i i factor
[J] molarity, molar concentration molL1, m
k rate constant (depends on order)
decay constant s1
kb boiling-point constant Kkgmol1
kf freezing-point constant Kkgmol1
kH Henrys law constant molL1atm1
K equilibrium constant
Ka acidity constant
Kb basicity constant
Kc equilibrium constant
Kf formation constant
KM Michaelis constant molL1
KP equilibrium constant
Ksp solubility product
Kw water autoprotolysis constant
l, L length m
m mass kg
molality molkg1, m
M molar mass kgmol1 (gmol1)
N number of entities
n amount of substance mol
p linear momentum kgms1
P pressure Pa
PA partial pressure Pa
q heat J
Q electric charge C
Q reaction quotient
relative biological effectiveness
r radius m
R radial wavefunction m3/2
S entropy JK1
molar solubility molL1
s dimensionless molar solubility
t time s
t1/2 half-life s
T absolute temperature K
U internal energy J
v velocity ms1
V volume m3, L
w work J
xA mole fraction
Y angular wavefunction
Z compression factor
atomic number

TABLE 2 Subscripts for Symbols

Subscript Meaning Example (units)

a acid acidity constant, Ka

b base basicity constant, Kb
boiling boiling temperature, Tb (K)
B bond bond enthalpy, HB (kJmol1)
bind binding binding energy, Ebind (eV)

(continued)
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TABLE 2 Subscripts for Symbols (continued)
Subscript Meaning
c concentration
combustion
critical
e nonexpansion (extra) work
f formation
freezing
fus fusion
H Henry
In indicator
k kinetic
L lattice
m molar
M Michaelis
mix mixing
p potential
P constant pressure
r reaction
s specific
sol solution
sp solubility product
sub sublimation
surr surroundings
tot total
V constant volume
vap vaporization
w water
0 initial
ground state
1B UNITS AND UNIT CONVERSIONS
Each physical quantity is reported as a multiple of a
defined unit:
Physical quantity  numerical value  unit
For instance, a length may be expressed as a multiple of
the unit of length: 1 meter or 1 m; so we write l  2.0 
1 m  2.0 m. All units are denoted by Roman letters, such
as m for meter and s for second.
The Systme International (SI) is the internationally
accepted form of the metric system. It defines seven base units
in terms of which all physical quantities can be expressed:
meter, m The meter, the unit of length, is the length of
the path traveled by light during a time interval of
1/299 792 458 of a second.
kilogram, kg The kilogram, the unit of mass, is the
mass of a standard cylinder maintained at a
laboratory in France.
second, s The second, the unit of time, is 9 192 631 770
periods of a certain spectroscopic transition in a
cesium-133 atom.
ampere, A The ampere, the unit of electric
current, is defined in terms of the force exerted
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Symbols, Units, and Mathematical Techniques A3
Example (units)
equilibrium constant, Kc
enthalpy of combustion, Hc (kJmol1)
critical temperature, Tc (K)
electrical work, we (J)
enthalpy of formation, Hf (kJmol1)
formation constant, Kf
freezing temperature, Tf (K)
enthalpy of fusion, Hfus (kJmol1)
Henrys law constant, kH
indicator constant, KIn
kinetic energy, Ek (J)
lattice enthalpy, HL (kJmol1)
molar volume, Vm  V/n (Lmol1)
Michaelis constant, KM
enthalpy of mixing, Hmix (kJmol1)
potential energy, Ep (J)
heat capacity at constant pressure, CP (JK1)
reaction enthalpy, Hr (kJmol1)
specific heat capacity, Cs  C/m (JK1g1)
enthalpy of solution, Hsol (kJmol1)
solubility product, Ksp
enthalpy of sublimation, Hsub (kJmol1)
entropy of surroundings, Ssurr (JK1)
total entropy, Stot (JK1)
heat capacity at constant volume, CV (JK1)
enthalpy of vaporization, Hvap (kJmol1)
water autoprotolysis constant, Kw
initial concentration, [A]0
wavefunction, 0
between two parallel wires carrying the
current.
kelvin, K The kelvin, the unit of temperature, is
1/273.16 of the absolute temperature of the triple
point of water.
mole, mol The mole, the unit of chemical amount, is
the amount of substance that contains as many
specified entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g
of carbon-12.
candela, cd The candela, the unit of luminous
intensity, is defined in terms of a carefully specified
source. We do not use the candela in this book.
In 2012 it was agreed internationally to replace the defini-
tion of the kilogram in terms of the prototype cylinder by a
more subtle definition in terms of the fundamental con-
stants; the new definition has been agreed but not yet (in
2013) implemented. New definitions of the mole and the
kelvin have also been agreed, but not yet implemented.
Any unit may be modified by one of the prefixes
given in Table 3, which denote multiplication or division
by a power of 10 of the unit. Thus, 1 mm  103 m and
1 MK  106 K. Note that all the prefixes are upright
(Roman), not italic.
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A4 APPENDIX 1

TABLE 3 Typical SI Prefixes

Prefix: deca- kilo- mega- giga- tera- peta-

Abbreviation: da k M G T P
Factor: 10 103 106 109 1012 1015

Prefix: deci- centi- milli- micro- nano- pico- femto- atto- zepto-
Abbreviation: d c m (mu) n p f a z
Factor: 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021

Derived units are combinations of the base units begin with a lowercase letter, but the initial letter of their
(Fundamentals, Section A). Table 4 lists some derived units. abbreviation is uppercase (thus, joule and its symbol J).
The names of units derived from the names of people all

TABLE 4 Derived Units with Special Names

Physical quantity Name of unit Abbreviation Definition

absorbed dose gray Gy Jkg1

dose equivalent sievert Sv Jkg1
electric charge coulomb C As
electric potential volt V JC1
energy joule J Nm, kgm2s2
force newton N kgms2
frequency hertz Hz s1
power watt W Js1
pressure pascal Pa Nm2, kgm1s2
volume liter L dm3

It is often necessary to convert units from another sys- into SI units. Table 5 lists some common conversions; the
tem (for instance, calories for energy and inches for length) values in boldface type are exact.

TABLE 5 Relations Between Units

Physical quantity Common unit Abbreviation SI equivalent*

mass pound lb 0.453 592 37 kg

tonne t 103 kg (1 Mg)
ton (short, U.S.) ton 907.184 74 kg
ton (long, U.K.) ton 1016.046 kg
length inch in. 2.54 cm
foot ft 30.48 cm
volume U.S. quart qt 0.946 352 5 L
U.S. gallon gal 3.785 41 L
Imperial quart qt 1.136 522 5 L
Imperial gallon gal 4.546 09 L
time minute min 60 s
hour h 3600 s
energy calorie (thermochemical) cal 4.184 J
electronvolt eV 1.602 177  1019 J
kilowatthour kWh 3.6  106 J
literatmosphere Latm 101.325 J
pressure torr Torr 133.322 Pa
atmosphere atm 101 325 Pa (760 Torr)
bar bar 105 Pa
pounds/square inch psi 6894.76 Pa
power horsepower hp 745.7 W
dipole moment debye D 3.335 64  1030 Cm

*Values in boldface type are exact.

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As explained in Fundamentals, Section A, to convert
between units, use a conversion factor of the form
units required
Conversion factor 
units given
When using a conversion factor, the units are treated just
like algebraic quantities: they are multiplied or canceled in
the normal way. Thus, the units in the denominator of the
conversion factor cancel the units in the original data, leav-
ing the units in the numerator of the conversion factor.
The conversion of temperatures is carried out slightly
differently. Because the Fahrenheit degree (F) is smaller
than a Celsius degree by a factor of 59 (because there are 180
Fahrenheit degrees between the freezing point and boiling
point of water but only 100 Celsius degrees between the
same two points) and because 0 C coincides with 32 F, use
Temperature 1F2  E 95  temperature 1C2 F
32
(The 32 is exact.) For example, to convert 37 C (blood
temperature) into degrees Fahrenheit, write
Temperature 1F2  E 95  37F
32  99 which 10 is raised. Thus, 105 is written as a decimal
and the temperature is reported as 99 F. A more sophisti-
cated way of expressing the same relation is to write
TemperatureF  E 95  temperatureCF
32
In this expression, the temperature units are treated like
numbers and canceled when it is appropriate. The same
conversion then becomes
TemperatureF  E 95  137 C2CF
32 4567, not 0.123 456 7).
 E 95  37F
32  99
and multiplication through by F gives
Temperature  99 F
The corresponding expression for conversion between the
Celsius and Kelvin scales is
TemperatureC  temperatureK
273.15 Trailing zeros (the last ones after a decimal point), as in
(The 273.15 is exact.) Note that the size of the degree Celsius
is the same as that of the kelvin, so a property with a value
reported as 100 J(C)1 can be interpreted as 100 JK1.
1C SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
In scientific notation, a number is written as A  10a.
Here A is a decimal number with one nonzero digit in
front of the decimal point and a is a whole number. For
example, 333 is written 3.33  102 in scientific notation,
because 102  10  10  100:
333  3.33  100  3.33  102
We use
101  10
102  10  10  100
103  10  10  10  1000
104  10  10  10  10  10 000
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Symbols, Units, and Mathematical Techniques A5
and so on. Note that the number of zeros following 1 is
equal to the power of 10.
Numbers between 0 and 1 are expressed in the same
way but with a negative power of 10; they have the form
A  10a, with 101  0.1, and so on. Thus, 0.0333 in
decimal notation is 3.33  102 because
1 1 1
10 2   
10 10 100
and therefore
1
0.033  3.33   3.33  10 2
100
We use
10 2  10 1  10 1  0.01
10 3  10 1  10 1  10 1  0.001
10 4  10 1  10 1  10 1  10 1  0.0001
When a negative power of 10 is written out as a decimal
number, the number of zeros following the decimal point
is one less than the number (disregarding the sign) to
point followed by 5  1  4 zeros and then a 1:
105  10 1  10 1  10 1  10 1  10 1
 0.000 01
Note the space separating groups of three digits, which is
used to make numbers easier to interpret. However, if that
grouping results in a single remaining digit, then it joins
the preceding group (thus 0.1234, not 0.123 4; 0.123
The digits in a reported measurement are called the
significant figures. There are two significant figures (written
2 sf) in 1.2 cm3 and 3 sf in 1.78 g. Fundamentals, Section
A, describes how to find the number of significant figures
in a measurement.
Some zeros are legitimately measured digits, but other
zeros serve only to mark the place of the decimal point.
22.0 mL, are significant, because they were measured.
Thus, 22.0 mL has 3 sf. The captive zero in 80.1 kg is a
measured digit, and so 80.1 kg has 3 sf. However, the lead-
ing digits in 0.0025 g are not significant; they are only
placeholders used to indicate powers of 10, not measured
numbers. That they are only placeholders can be seen by
reporting the mass as 2.5  103 g, which has 2 sf.
The results of measurements, which are always uncer-
tain, are distinguished from the results of counting, which
are exact. For example, the report 12 eggs means that
there are exactly 12 eggs present, not a number somewhere
between 11.5 and 12.5.
Some ambiguity arises with whole numbers ending in
zero. Does a length reported as 400 m have 3 sf (4.00 
102), 2 sf (4.0  102), or only 1 sf (4  102)? In such cases,
the use of scientific notation removes any ambiguity. If it is
not convenient to use scientific notation, a final decimal
point can be used to indicate that every digit to the left of
the decimal is significant. Thus, 400 m is ambiguous and
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A6 APPENDIX 1
cannot be taken to have more than 1 sf unless other infor-
mation is given. However, 400. m unambiguously has 3 sf.
The final decimal point is rarely used in the everyday world
(thus, the speed limit is 50 mph is ambiguous in science
but not in law), but we adopt it throughout this text.
Different rounding-off rules are needed for addition
(and its reverse, subtraction) and multiplication (and its
reverse, division). In both procedures, the answers need to
be rounded off to the correct number of significant figures.
Rounding off In calculations, round up if the last digit
is above 5 and round down if it is below 5. For
numbers ending in 5, always round to the nearest even
number. For example, 2.35 rounds to 2.4 and 2.65
rounds to 2.6. In a calculation with multiple steps,
round off only in the final step; if possible, carry all
digits in the memory of the calculator until that stage.
Addition and subtraction When adding or
subtracting, make sure that the number of decimal
places in the result is the same as the smallest
number of decimal places in the data. For example,
0.10 g
0.024 g  0.12 g. notation, we rewrite the numbers as decimal numbers
Multiplication and division When multiplying or
dividing, make sure that the number of significant
2.00  102  1.00  103
0.200  103
figures in the result is the same as the smallest
number of significant figures in the data. For
example, (8.62 g)/(2.0 cm3)  4.3 gcm3.
Integers and exact numbers In multiplication or division
by an integer or an exact number, the uncertainty of the
result is determined by the measured value. Some unit
conversion factors are defined exactly, even though they
are not whole numbers. For example, 1 in. is defined as
exactly 2.54 cm and the 273.15 in the conversion
between Celsius and Kelvin temperatures is exact; so
100.000 C converts into 373.150 K.
Logarithms and exponentials The mantissa of a
common logarithm (the digits following the decimal
4
4  1034
point, see Appendix 1D) has the same number of
significant figures as the original number. Thus, log
2.45  0.389. A common antilogarithm of a number
has the same number of significant figures as the
mantissa of the original number. Thus, 100.389  2.45
and 1012.389  2.45  1012. There is no simple rule
2  100.18  102  1.5  102
for assessing the correct number of significant figures
when natural logarithms are used: one way is to
convert natural logarithms into common logarithms
and then to use the rules just specified.
1D EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS
To multiply numbers in scientific notation, multiply the
decimal parts of the numbers and add the powers of 10:
1A  10a 2  1B  10b 2  1A  B2  10a
b left of the decimal point (the 1.5 in the example).
An example is
11.23  102 2  14.56  103 2  1.23  4.56  102
3 significant figures to retain in a calculation that includes
 5.61  105
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This rule also applies if the powers of 10 are negative:
11.23  10 2 2  14.56  10 3 2  1.23  4.56  10 23
 5.61  10 5
The results of such calculations are then adjusted so that
one digit precedes the decimal point:
14.56  10 3 2  17.65  106 2  34.88  103
 3.488  104
When dividing two numbers in scientific notation,
divide the decimal parts of the numbers and subtract the
powers of 10:
A  10a A
  10ab
B  10b B
An example is
4.31  105 4.31
  105 1 82  0.437  1013
9.87  10 8 9.87
 4.37  1012
Before adding and subtracting numbers in scientific
multiplied by the same power of 10:
1.00  103
 1.20  103
When raising a number in scientific notation to a par-
ticular power, raise the decimal part of the number to the
power and multiply the power of 10 by the power:
1A  10a 2 b  Ab  10ab
For example, 2.88  104 raised to the third power is
12.88  104 2 3  2.883  1104 2 3  2.883  1034
 23.9  1012  2.39  1013
The rule follows from the fact that
1104 2 3  104  104  104  104
The common logarithm of a number x, denoted log x,
is the power to which 10 must be raised to equal x. Thus,
the logarithm of 100 is 2, written log 100  2, because
102  100. The logarithm of 1.5  102 is 2.18 because
102.18  100.18
The number to the left of the decimal point in the loga-
rithm (the 2 in log (1.5  102)  2.18) is called the char-
acteristic of the logarithm: it is the power of 10 in the
original number (the power 2 in 1.5  102). The decimal
fraction (the numbers to the right of the decimal point,
such as 0.18 in our example) is called the mantissa (from
the Latin word for makeweight). It is the logarithm of
the decimal number written with one nonzero digit to the
The distinction between the characteristic and the man-
tissa is important when we have to decide how many
logarithms (as in the calculation of pH). Just as the power of
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Symbols, Units, and Mathematical Techniques A7

10 in a decimal number indicates only the location of the and, from a relation given in the preceding table, we write
decimal point and plays no role in the determination of sig- the expression as
nificant figures, so the characteristic of a logarithm is not x log a  log b
included in the count of significant figures in a logarithm
(see Appendix 1C). The number of significant figures in the Therefore,
mantissa is equal to the number of significant figures in the log b
x
decimal number. log a
The common antilogarithm of a number x is the number
that has x as its common logarithm. In practice, the common 1E EQUATIONS AND GRAPHS
antilogarithm of x is simply another name for 10x, and so the
A quadratic equation is an equation of the form
common antilogarithm of 2 is 102  100 and that of 2.18 is
ax2
bx
c  0
102.18  100.18
2  100.18  102  1.5  102 y
The two roots of the equation
The logarithm of a number greater than 1 is positive,
(the solutions) are given by the
and the logarithm of a number less than 1 (but greater
expression
than 0) is negative. For any number x,
b 2b2  4ac
If x  1, log x  0 x y=0
2a
If x  1, log x  0
If x  1, log x  0 The roots can also be deter- 0 x
mined graphically (by using a
Logarithms are not defined either for 0 or for negative graphing calculator, for instance)
numbers. by noting where the graph of
The natural logarithm of a number x, denoted ln x, is y(x)  ax2
bx
c against x FIGURE 1 A graph of a
the power to which the number e  2.718 . . . must be passes through y  0 (Fig. 1). function of the form y(x) 
raised to equal x. Thus, ln 10.0  2.303, signifying that When a quadratic equation ax2
bx
c passes through
e2.303  10.0. The value of e may seem a peculiar choice, arises in connection with a y  0 at two points, which are
but it occurs naturally in a number of mathematical chemical calculation, we accept the two roots of the quadratic
expressions, and its use simplifies many formulas. Com- only the root that leads to a equation ax2
bx
c  0.
mon and natural logarithms are related by the expression physically plausible result. For
ln x  ln 10  log x example, if x is a concentration, then it must be a positive
number, and a negative root can be ignored.
In practice, a convenient approximation is A calculation may result in a cubic equation:
ln x 2.303  log x ax3
bx2
cx
d  0
The natural antilogarithm of x is normally called the Cubic equations are often very tedious to solve exactly,
exponential of e; it is the value of e raised to the power x. and so it is better to use mathematical software, a graph-
Thus, the natural antilogarithm of 2.303 is e2.303  10.0. ing calculator, or a plotter, such as the one on the Web site
The following relations between logarithms are use- for this book, and to identify the locations where the graph
ful. Written here mainly for common logarithms, they also of y(x) against x passes
apply to natural logarithms. through y  0 (Fig. 2). y
Experimental data can
Relation Example often be analyzed most effec-
log10x  x log107  7 tively from a graph. In many
ln ex  x ln ekt  kt cases, the best procedure is to
log x
log y  log xy log [Ag
]
log [Cl]  find a way of plotting the data y=0
log [Ag
][Cl] as a straight line. It is easier to
log x  log y  log(x/y) log A0  log A  log(A0/A) identify deviations of data
x log y  log yx 2 log [H
]  log([H
]2) 0 x
points from a straight line
log(1/x)  log x log(1/[H
])  log [H
]
than deviations from a curve.
Moreover, it is also easy to cal-
Logarithms are useful for solving expressions of the form culate the slope of a straight FIGURE 2 A graph of a
ax  b line, to extrapolate (extend) a function of the form y(x) 
straight line beyond the range ax3
bx2
cx
d passes
for the unknown x. (This type of calculation can arise in
of the data, and to interpolate through y  0 at three points,
the study of chemical kinetics to determine the order of a
between the data points (that which are the three roots of
reaction.) We take logarithms of both sides,
is, find a value between two the cubic equation ax3

log ax  log b measured values). bx2

cx
d  0.
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A8 APPENDIX 1

y y = mx + b The formula of a straight- obtained by moving the points an equal distance closer to
line graph of y (the vertical the point of interest and drawing a new line. The exact
y2
axis) plotted against x (the tangent is obtained when the two points virtually coincide
y2 y1
horizontal axis) is with the point of interest. Its slope is then equal to the slope
y2 y1 of the curve at the point of interest. This technique can be
y  mx
b
m= x x used to measure the rate of a chemical reaction at a speci-
y1 2 1
Here b is the intercept of the fied time.
line with the y-axis (Fig. 3),
b x2 x1 the value of y when x  0. The 1F CALCULUS
slope of the graph, its gradient,
0 Differential calculus is the part of mathematics that deals
x1 x2 x is m. The slope can be calcu-
with the slopes of curves and with infinitesimal quanti-
lated by choosing two points,
FIGURE 3 The straight line ties. Suppose we are studying a function y(x). As explained
x1 and x2, and their corre-
y(x)  mx
b; its intercept in Appendix 1E, the slope of its graph at a point can be
sponding values on the y-axis,
with the vertical axis at x  0 calculated by considering the straight line joining two
y1 and y2, and substituting the
is b and its slope is m. points x and x
x, where x is small. The slope of this
values into the formula
line is
y2  y1
m y1x
x2  y1x2
x2  x1 Slope 
x
Because b is the intercept and m is the slope, the equation
of the straight line is equivalent to In differential calculus, the slope of the curve is found by
letting the separation of the points become infinitesimally
y  1slope  x2
intercept small. The first derivative of the function y with respect to
Many of the equations that we meet in the text can be x is then defined as
rearranged to give a straight-line graph when plotted as dy y1x
x2  y1x2
shown in the following table.  lim
dx xS0 x
Application y  slope  x
intercept where lim means the limit of whatever followsin this
temperature-scale temp./C  1  T/K 273.15 case, the value of the expression as x is allowed to
conversions temp./F  95  temp./C
32 become zero. For example, if y(x)  x2,
ideal gas law P  nRT  (1/V) dy 1x
x2 2  x2
first-order ln [A]  k  t
ln [A]0  lim
integrated dx xS0 x
rate law x2
2xx
1x2 2  x2
second-order 1/[A] kt
1/[A]0  lim
integrated
xS0 x
rate law 2xx
1x2 2
Arrhenius ln k  (Ea/R)  (1/T)
ln A  lim  lim 12x
x2  2x
xS0 x xS0
equation
Therefore, the slope of the graph of the function y  x2 at
y Approximation 1 The slope of a straight any point x is 2x. The same procedure can be applied to
line is the same at all points. other functions. However, in practice, it is usually more
On a curve, however, the convenient to consult tables of first derivatives that have
Approximation 2 slope changes from point to already been worked out. A selection of common func-
point. The slope at a specified tions and their first derivatives is given here.
point is given by the slope of
True Function, y(x) Derivative, dy/dx
tangent the line tangent to the curve at
that point. The tangent can be xn
nxn  1
found by a series of approxi- ln x 1/x
mations, as shown in Fig. 4. eax aeax
We might start (approxima- sin ax a cos ax
0 x tion 1) by drawing a point on cos ax a sin ax
FIGURE 4 Successive the curve on each side of the
approximations to the true point of interest (correspond- The second derivative of a function, denoted d2y/dx2,
tangent are obtained as ing to equal distances along the is defined like the first derivative but is applied to the
the two points defining the x-axis) and joining them by a function that has been obtained by taking the first deriva-
straight line come closer straight line. A better approxi- tive. For example, the second derivative of the function x2
together and finally coincide. mation (approximation 2) is is the derivative of the function 2x, which is the constant 2.
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Symbols, Units, and Mathematical Techniques A9

Likewise, the second derivative of sin ax is a2 sin ax. The account of the presence of the y
second derivative is an indication of the curvature of the unknown constant), in con- y(x)
function. Where d2y/dx2 is positive, the graph has a trast with the definite inte-
shape; where it is negative, the graph has a shape. The grals described next. Tables
greater the magnitude of d2y/dx2, the sharper is the curva- of indefinite integrals may be
ture of the graph. consulted for more complex
Integral calculus provides a way to determine the orig- examples, and mathematical b
inal function, given its first derivative. Thus, if we know software or a graphing calcu- Area = y(x)dx
a
that the first derivative is 2x, then the integral calculus lator can be used to evaluate
allows us to deduce that the function itself is y  x2
them.
constant. The constant is included because when we dif- An integral has a further
0 a b x
ferentiate x2
constant, we get 2x regardless of the value important interpretation: the
of the constant. Formally, we write integral of a function evalu- FIGURE 5 The definite integral
ated between two points is of the function y(x) between
12x2 dx  x
constant
2
the area beneath the graph of x  a and x  b is equal to the
3 the function between the two area bounded by the curve, the
It follows that the functions in the left-hand column of the points (Fig. 5). For example, x-axis, and the two vertical lines
preceding table are the integrals (to within a constant) of the the area beneath the curve through a and b.
functions in the right-hand column. More formally, they are y(x)  sin x between x  0
the indefinite integrals of the function (indefinite on and x  p is
 
Area  sin x dx  1cos x
constant2 `
30 0

1 1
678 678
 acos 
constantb  acos 0
constantb

1
12
An integral with limits attached, as in this example, is
called a definite integral (because the unknown constant
has canceled).