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Analog Engineers
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Analog Engineers Pocket Reference
Fourth Edition
Edited by:
Art Kay and Tim Green
Special thanks for technical contribution and review:

Kevin Duke
Rafael Ordonez
John Caldwell
Collin Wells
Ian Williams
Thomas Kuehl
Copyright 2014, 2015 Texas Instruments Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 3

Message from the editors:
This pocket reference is intended as a valuable quick guide for often used board- and system-
level design formulae. This collection of formulae is based on a combined 50 years of analog
board- and system-level expertise. Much of the material herein was referred to over the years
via a folder stuffed full of printouts. Those worn pages have been organized and the informa-
tion is now available via this guide in a bound and hard-to-lose format!
Here is a brief overview of the key areas included:
Key constants and conversions
Discrete components
AC and DC analog equations
Op amp basic configurations
OP amp bandwidth and stability
Overview of sensors
PCB trace R, L, C
Wire L, R, C
Binary, hex and decimal formats
A/D and D/A conversions
We hope you find this collection of formulae as useful as we have. Please send any comments
and/or ideas you have for the next edition of the Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference to
artkay_timgreen@list.ti.com
Additional resources:
Browse TI Precision Labs (www.ti.com/precisionlabs), a comprehensive online training
curriculum for analog engineers, which applies theory to real-world, hands-on examples.
Search for complete board-and-system level circuits in the TI Designs Precision
reference design library (www.ti.com/precisiondesigns).
Read how-to blogs from TI precision analog experts at the Precision Hub
(www.ti.com/thehub).
Find solutions, get help, share knowledge and solve problems with fellow engineers and
TI experts in the TI E2E Community (www.ti.com/e2e).
4 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Contents
Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Physical constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Standard decimal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Metric conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Temperature conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Error conversions (ppm and percentage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Discrete components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Resistor color code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Standard resistor values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Practical capacitor model and specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Practical capacitors vs frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Capacitor type overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Standard capacitance values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Capacitance marking and tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Diodes and LEDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Analog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Capacitor equations (series, parallel, charge, energy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Inductor equations (series, parallel, energy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Capacitor charge and discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
RMS and mean voltage definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
RMS and mean voltage examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Logarithmic mathematical definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
dB definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Log scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Pole and zero definitions and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Time to phase shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Basic op amp configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Op amp bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Full power bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Small signal step response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Noise equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Phase margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Stability open loop SPICE analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Instrumentation Amp filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
PCB and wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
PCB conductor spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Self-heating of PCB traces on inside layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
PCB trace resistance for 1oz and 2oz Cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Package types and dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
PCB parallel plate capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
PCB microstrip capacitance and inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
PCB adjacent copper trace capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
PCB via capacitance and inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Common coaxial cable specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Coaxial cable equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Resistance per length for different wire types (AWG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Maximum current for wire types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Temperature sensor overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Resistive temperature detector (RTD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Diode temperature characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Thermocouple (J and K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
A/D conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Binary/hex conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
A/D and D/A transfer function (LSB, Data formats, FSR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Quantization error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Total harmonic distortion (THD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Signal-to-noise and distortion (SINAD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Effective number of bits (ENOB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Noise free resolution and effective resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Setting time and conversion accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
ti.com/precisionlabs Conversions
Conversions
Conversions
Standard decimal prefixes
Metric conversions
Temperature scale conversions
Error conversions (ppm and percentage)

Conversions ti.com/precisionlabs
Conversions
Table 1: Physical constants

Constant Symbol Value Units
Speed of light in a vacuum c 2.997 924 58 x 108 m/s
-12
Permittivity of vacuum o 8.854 187 817 620 x 10 F/m
Permeability of free space o 1.256 637 0614 x 10-6 H/m
Planks constant h 6.626 069 57 x 10-34 Js
-23
Boltzmanns constant k 1.380 648 8 x 10 J/K
Faradays constant F 9.648 533 99 x 104 C/mol
Avogadros constant NA 6.022 141 29 x 1023 1/mol
Unified atomic mass unit mu 1.660 538 921 x 10-27 kg
-19
Electronic charge q 1.602 176 565 x 10 C
-31
Rest mass of electron me 9.109 382 15 x 10 kg
Mass of proton mp 1.672 621 777 x 10-27 kg
-11
Gravitational constant G 6.673 84 x 10 Nm2/kg2
Standard gravity gn 9.806 65 m/s2
Ice point Tice 273.15 K
3
Maximum density of water 1.00 x 10 kg/m3
Density of mercury (0C) Hg 1.362 8 x 104 kg/m3
Gas constant R 8.314 462 1 J/(Kmol)
2
Speed of sound in air (at 273K) cair 3.312 x 10 m/s
Table 2: Standard decimal prefixes

Multiplier Prefix Abbreviation
12
10 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
103 milli m
106 micro
109 nano n
1012 pico p
1015 femto f
18
10 atto a
8 Texas Instruments Analog Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Engineer's Pocket Reference
ti.com/precisionlabs Conversions
Table 3: Imperial to metric conversions

Unit Symbol Equivalent Unit Symbol
inches in 25.4 mm/in millimeter mm
mil mil 0.0254 mm/mil millimeter mm
feet ft 0.3048 m/ft meters m
yards yd 0.9144 m/yd meters m
miles mi 1.6093 km/mi kilometers km
circular mil cir mil 5.067x10-4 mm2/cir mil square millimeters mm2
2 2
square yards yd 0.8361 m square meters m2
pints pt 0.5682 L/pt liters L
ounces oz 28.35 g/oz grams g
pounds lb 0.4536 kg/lb kilograms kg
calories cal 4.184 J/cal joules J
horsepower hp 745.7 W/hp watts W
Table 4: Metric to imperial conversions

Unit Symbol Conversion Unit Symbol
millimeter mm 0.0394 in/mm inch in
millimeter mm 39.4 mil/mm mil mil
meters m 3.2808 ft/m feet ft
meters m 1.0936 yd/m yard yd
kilometers km 0.6214 mi/km miles mi
square millimeters mm2 1974 cir mil/mm2 circular mil cir mil
square meters m2 1.1960 yd2/ m2 square yards yd2
liters L 1.7600 pt/L pints pt
grams g 0.0353 oz/g ounces oz
kilograms kg 2.2046 lb/kg pounds lb
joules J 0.239 cal/J calories cal
watts W 1.341x10-3 hp/W horsepower hp
Example
Convert 10 mm to mil.
Answer mil
10 mm x 39.4 = 394 mil
mm

Conversions ti.com/precisionlabs
Table 5: Temperature conversions

Table 5: Temperature conversions
Table 5:5 Temperature conversions
F 2 Fahrenheit
FahrenheittotoCelsius
Celsius
9 5
9 F 2 Fahrenheit to Celsius
9 Celsius
CelsiustotoFahrenheit
Fahrenheit
F 2
5 9
F 2 Celsius to Fahrenheit
52.15 Celsius
CelsiustotoKelvin
Kelvin
2.15 Celsius to Kelvin
2.15 Kelvin
KelvintotoCelsius
Celsius
2.15 Kelvin to Celsius
Table 6: Error conversions
easured Ideal
Error% 100 Error in measured value
Ideal Ideal
easured
Error% easured Ideal 100 Errorin
Error inmeasured
measuredvalue value
Error% FSR Ideal 100 Error in percent of full-scale range
Fullscale range
easured Ideal
Error% FSR ppm 100 Errorin
Error inpercent
percent ofof full-scale
full-scale range
range
Fullscale range
% 100 Part per million to percent
10 ppm
% 100
ppm Part per
Part per million
million to
to percent
10
m% 100 1000 Part per million to milli-percent
10ppm
m% 100 1000 Part per
Part per million
million to
to milli-percent
10
ppm % 10 Percent to part per million
ppm % 10 Percent to
Percent to part
part per
per million
ppm m% 10 Milli-percent to part per million
ppm m% 10 Milli-percent to part per million
Milli-percent million
Example
Example
Compute the error for a measured value of 0.12V when the ideal value is 0.1V and
Example
theCompute
range is 5V.
the error for a measured value of 0.12V when the ideal value is 0.1V and
Compute
the range isthe
5V.error for a measured value of 0.12V when the ideal value is 0.1V
and the range is 5V.
Answer
Answer 0.12V 0.1V
Answer
Error% 100 20% Error in measured value
0.1V 0.1V
0.12V
Error% 0.12V
0.12
V
0.1V 100 20%
Error in measured value
Error in measured value
Error % 0.1V
Error% FSR 0.1V 100 0.% Percent FSR
5V 0.1V
0.12
Error% FSR V 100 0.% Percent FSR
Error % FSR 5V Percent FSR
Example 5V
Example
Example
Convert 10 ppm to percent and milli-percent.
Convert
Convert10 10ppm
ppmtotopercent
percentand
andmilli-percent.
milli-percent.
Answer
Answer
Answer
10 ppm

100 0.001% Part per million to percent
10
10 ppm
10 ppm
100 0.001% Part
Partper
permillion
milliontotopercent
percent
10 ppm 10 100 1000 1 m%
10

Part per million to milli-percent
10
10 ppm
10 ppm
100 1000 1 m% Part
Partper
permillion
milliontotomilli-percent
milli-percent
10
10
10 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

10
Discrete Components Discrete Components
ti.com/precisionlabs
Resistor color code

Standard resistor values
Capacitance specifications
Capacitance type overview
Standard capacitance values
Capacitance marking and tolerance
Discrete

Discrete Components ti.com/precisionlabs
Table 7: Resistor color code

Additional Temperature Failure
Color Digit Zeros Tolerance Coefficient Rate
Black 0 0 250
Brown 1 1 1% 100 1
Discrete
Red 2 2 2% 50 0.1
Orange 3 3 15 0.01
Yellow 4 4 25 0.001
Green 5 5 0.5% 20
Blue 6 6 0.25% 10
Violet 7 7 0.1% 5
Grey 8 8 0.05% 1
White 9 9
Gold -na- -1 5%
Silver -na- -2 10%
No Band -na- -na- 20%
4 Band example: yellow violet orange silver indicate 4, 7, and 3 zeros.

i.e. a 47k, 10% resistor.
Figure 1: Resistor color code

Standard resistance values for the 10 to 100 decade
0.1% 2% 0.1% 2% 0.1% 2% 0.1% 2% 0.1% 2% 0.1% 2%
0.25% 1% 5% 0.25% 1% 5% 0.25% 1% 5% 0.25% 1% 5% 0.25% 1% 5% 0.25% 1% 5%
0.5% 10% 0.5% 10% 0.5% 10% 0.5% 10% 0.5% 10% 0.5% 10%
10.0 10.0 10 14.7 14.7 21.5 21.5 31.6 31.6 46.4 46.4 68.1 68.1 68
10.1 14.9 21.8 32.0 47.0 47 69.0
10.2 10.2 15.0 15.0 15 22.1 22.1 22 32.4 32.4 47.5 47.5 69.8 69.8
10.4 15.2 22.3 32.8 48.1 70.6
10.5 10.5 15.4 15.4 22.6 22.6 33.2 33.2 33 48.7 48.7 71.5 71.5
10.6 15.6 22.9 33.6 49.3 72.3
10.7 10.7 15.8 15.8 23.2 23.2 34.0 34.0 49.9 49.9 73.2 73.2
10.9 16.0 16 23.4 34.4 50.5 74.1
11.0 11.0 11 16.2 16.2 23.7 23.7 34.8 34.8 51.1 51.1 51 75.0 75.0 75
11.1 16.4 24.0 24 35.2 51.7 75.9
Table 8: Standard resistor values
11.3 11.3 16.5 16.5 24.3 24.3 35.7 35.7 52.3 52.3 76.8 76.8
11.4 16.7 24.6 36.1 36 53.0 77.7
11.5 11.5 16.9 16.9 24.9 24.9 36.5 36.5 53.6 53.6 78.7 78.7
11.7 17.2 25.2 37.0 54.2 79.6
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

11.8 11.8 17.4 17.4 25.5 25.5 37.4 37.4 54.9 54.9 80.6 80.6
12.0 12 17.6 25.8 37.9 55.6 81.6
12.1 12.1 17.8 17.8 26.1 26.1 38.3 38.3 56.2 56.2 56 82.5 82.5 82
12.3 18.0 18 26.4 38.8 56.9 83.5
12.4 12.4 18.2 18.2 26.7 26.7 39.2 39.2 39 57.6 57.6 84.5 84.5
12.6 18.4 27.1 27 39.7 58.3 85.6
12.7 12.7 18.7 18.7 27.4 27.4 40.2 40.2 59.0 59.0 86.6 86.6
12.9 18.9 27.7 40.7 59.7 87.6
13.0 13.0 13 19.1 19.1 28.0 28.0 41.2 41.2 60.4 60.4 88.7 88.7
13.2 19.3 28.4 41.7 61.2 89.8
13.3 13.3 19.6 19.6 28.7 28.7 42.2 42.2 61.9 61.9 62 90.9 90.9 91
13.5 19.8 29.1 42.7 62.6 92.0
13.7 13.7 20.0 20.0 20 29.4 29.4 43.2 43.2 43 63.4 63.4 93.1 93.1
13.8 20.3 29.8 43.7 64.2 94.2
14.0 14.0 20.5 20.5 30.1 30.1 30 44.2 44.2 64.9 64.9 95.3 95.3
14.2 20.8 30.5 44.8 65.7 96.5
14.3 14.3 21.0 21.0 30.9 30.9 45.3 45.3 66.5 66.5 97.6 97.6
14.5 21.3 31.2 45.9 67.3 98.8
13
Discrete Components
Practical capacitor model and specifications
Rp
ESR C ESL
Figure 2: Model of a practical capacitor
Table 9: Capacitor specifications

Parameter Description
The nominal value of the capacitance
C
Table 11 lists standard capacitance values
Equivalent series resistance
Ideally this is zero
ESR Ceramic capacitors have the best ESR (typically in milliohms). Tantalum Electro-
lytic have ESR in the hundreds of milliohms and Aluminum Electrolytic have ESR
in the ohms
Equivalent series inductance
ESL Ideally this is zero
ESL ranges from 100 pH to 10 nH
Rp is a parallel leakage resistance (or insulation resistance)
Ideally this is infinite
Rp
This can range from tens of megaohms for some electrolytic capacitors to tens of
gigohms for ceramic
The maximum voltage that can be applied to the capacitor
Voltage rating
Exceeding this rating damages the capacitor
The change in capacitance with applied voltage in ppm/V
A high-voltage coefficient can introduce distortion
Voltage
C0G capacitors have the lowest coefficient
coefficient
The voltage coefficient is most important in applications that use capacitors in
signal processing such as filtering
The change in capacitance with across temperature in ppm/C
Temperature Ideally, the temperature coefficient is zero
coefficient The maximum specified drift generally ranges from 10 to 100ppm/C or greater
depending on the capacitor type (See Table 10 for details)

ti.com/precisionlabs Discrete Components
Practical capacitors vs. frequency
Practical capacitors vs. frequency

Impedance (ohms)
Figure 3:Figure
Effect 3:
of Effect
ESR andof ESR
ESL and ESL on capacitor
on capacitor frequency
frequency responseresponse

Table 10: Capacitor type overview
Capacitor type Description

C0G/NP0 Use in signal path, filtering, low distortion, audio, and precision
(Type 1 ceramic) Limited capacitance range: 0.1 pF to 0.47 F
Lowest temperature coefficient: 30 ppm/C
Low-voltage coefficient
Minimal piezoelectric effect
Good tolerance: 1% to 10%
Temperature range: 55C to 125C (150C and higher)
Voltage range may be limited for larger capacitance values
X7R Use for decoupling and other applications where accuracy and
(Type 2 ceramic) low distortion are not required
X7R is an example of a type 2 ceramic capacitor
See EIA capacitor tolerance table for details on other types
Capacitance range: 10 pF to 47 F
Temperature coefficient: 833 ppm/C (15% across temp range)
Substantial voltage coefficient
Tolerance: 5% to 20%/+80%
Temperature range: 55C to 125C
Voltage range may be limited for larger capacitance values
Y5V Use for decoupling and other applications where accuracy and
(Type 2 ceramic) low distortion are not required
Y5V is an example of a type 2 ceramic capacitor
See EIA capacitor tolerance table for details on other types
Temperature coefficient: 20%/+80% across temp range
Other characteristics are similar to X7R and other type 2 ceramic
Aluminum oxide Use for bulk decoupling and other applications where large
electrolytic capacitance is required
Note that electrolytic capacitors are polarized and will be damaged, if a
reverse polarity connection is made
Capacitance range: 1 F to 68,000 F
Temperature coefficient: 30 ppm/C
Substantial voltage coefficient Tolerance: 20%
Temperature range: 55C to 125C (150C and higher)
Higher ESR than other types
Tantalum Capacitance range: 1 F to 150 F
electrolytic Similar to aluminum oxide but smaller size
Polypropylene Capacitance range: 100 pF to 10 F
film Very low voltage coefficient (low distortion)
Higher cost than other types
Larger size per capacitance than other types
Temperature coefficient: 2% across temp range

ti.com/precisionlabs Discrete Components
Table 11: Standard capacitance table

Standard capacitance table
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.7 3
3.3 3.6 3.9 4.3 4.7 5.1 5.6 6.2 6.8 7.5 8.2 9.1
Example
CK06
223K Translate the capacitor marking
2 2 3 K "K" = 10%
Figure 4: Capacitor 22 000 pF

marking code = 22nF = 0.022F
Table 12: Ceramic capacitor tolerance markings

Code Tolerance Code Tolerance
B 0.1 pF J 5%
C 0.25 pF K 10%
D 0.5 pF M 20%
F 1% Z + 80%, 20%
G 2%
Table 13: EIA capacitor tolerance markings (Type 2 capacitors)

Second Second Max. capacitance
First letter Low temp number High temp letter change over
symbol limit symbol limit symbol temperature rating
Z +10C 2 +45C A 1.0%
Y 30C 4 +65C B 1.5%
X 55C 5 +85C C 2.2%
6 +105C D 3.3%
7 +125C E 4.7%
F 7.5%
P 10.0%
R 15.0%
S 22.0%
T 22% ~ 33%
U 22% ~ 56%
V 22% ~ 82%
Example
X7R: 55C to +125C, 15.0%

Diodes and LEDs
Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Anode (+)

Anode (+)
Long Lead
Cathode (-)
Cathode (-)
Long Lead Short Lead, Flat
Figure 5: Diode and LED pin names
Color Wavelength (nm) Voltage (approximate range)

Infrared 940-850 1.4 to 1.7
Red 660-620 1.7 to 1.9
Orange / Yellow 620-605 2 to 2.2
Green 570-525 2.1 to 3.0
Blue/White 470-430 3.4 to 3.8
Table 14: LED forward voltage drop by color
Note: The voltages given are approximate, and are intended to show the general trend for
forward voltage drop of LED diodes. Consult the manufacturers data sheet for more precise
values.

ti.com/precisionlabs Analog
Analog
Capacitor equations (series, parallel, charge, energy)
Inductor equations (series, parallel, energy)
Capacitor charge and discharge
RMS and mean voltage definition
RMS for common signals
Logarithm laws
dB definitions
Pole and zero definition with examples
Analog

Analog ti.com/precisionlabs
Capacitor equations
Capacitor equations
1
C
1 1 1 (1) Series capacitors
C C C
C C
C (2) Two series capacitors
C
C (3) Parallel capacitors

Where
Ct = equivalent total capacitance
C1, C2, C3CN = component capacitors
Analog
V (4) Charge storage
(5) Charge defined
Where
Q = charge in coulombs (C)
C = capacitance in farads (F)
V = voltage in volts (V)
I = current in amps (A)
t = time in seconds (s)
dv
(6) Instantaneous current through a capacitor
dt
Where
i = instantaneous current through the capacitor
dv = the instantaneous rate of voltage change
dt
1
CV (7) Energy stored in a capacitor
2
Where
E = energy stored in an capacitor in Joules (J)
V = voltage in volts

20
Inductor equations
Inductor equations
L L L L Series
(8)Series
(8) inductors
inductors
1
L Parallel inductors
1 1 1 (9)Parallel
(9) inductors

L L L
L L
L (10) Two
(10)Two parallel
parallel inductors
inductors
L L
Where
Where
LLtt = equivalent totaltotal inductance
inductance
LL11,, L
L22,, L
L33L
LNN == component
componentinductance
inductance

di
vL Instantaneousvoltage
(11)Instantaneous
(11) voltageacross
acrossananinductor
inductor
dt
Where
Where
v = instantaneous voltage across the inductor
v = instantaneous voltage across the inductor
L = inductance in Henries (H)
di
= instantaneous rate of current change
dt = the instantaneous rate of voltage change
1
LI Energystored
(12)Energy
(12) storedininananinductor
Inductor
2
Where
Where
EE = energy stored
= energy stored in
in an
an inductor
inductorininJoules
Joules(J)
(J)
II ==current
currentininamps
amps

21
Equation for
Equation for charging
chargingaan
capacitor
RC circuit

V V (13)
(13) General
General relationship
relationship
Equation for charging a capacitor
Where
VC =voltage
Where
V V the
across capacitor(13)
at anyGeneral
instant inrelationship
time (t)
VCV ==voltage across
the source the capacitor
voltage charging at
theany
RCinstant
circuit in time (t)
S
VSt = =time
the source voltage charging the RC circuit
in seconds
Where
t = =
time
RC,inthe
seconds
time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
VC = voltage across the capacitor at any instant in time (t)
= RC, the time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
VS = the source voltage charging the RC circuit
Graphing equation 13 produces the capacitor charging curve below. Note that the
t = time in seconds
capacitor is 99.3% charged at five time constants. It is common practice to consider
Graphing equation 13 produces the capacitor charging curve below. Note
this fully charged.
that the capacitor is 99.3% charged at five time constants. It is common
Graphing equation 13 produces the capacitor charging curve below. Note that the
practice to consider this fully charged.
this fully charged.
Figure 7: RC charge curve

22 Texas Texas
22 Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference
Equation for discharging a capacitor
Equation for discharging an RC circuit

V V (14) General
(14) General Relationship relationship
Equation for discharging a capacitor
Where
WhereV V

(14) General relationship
VV CC == voltage
voltage across
across the capacitor
the capacitor at anyininstant
at any instant time (t) in time (t)
VV ==thethe
i Where initial voltage of the capacitor at t=0s
initial voltage of the capacitor at t=0s
I
t =VCtime in seconds
= voltage across the capacitor at any instant in time (t)
t=V=IRC,
time intime
= thethe
seconds
constant
initial voltage of thefor charging
capacitor and discharging capacitors
at t=0s
t == time
RC,in the time constant for charging and discharging capacitors
seconds
Graphing equation 14 produces the capacitor discharge curve below. Note
Graphing
that equation
the capacitor 14 produces
is discharged to 0.7%the capacitor
at five discharge
time constants. curve belo
It is com-
Graphing equation 14 produces the capacitor discharge curve below. Note that the
mon practice to consider this fully discharged.
capacitor is 0.7% charged at five time constants. It is common prac
this fullydischarged.
this fully discharged.
PercentageDischargedvs.NumberofTimeConstants
100
PercentageDischargedvs.NumberofTimeConsta
100
90
80
90
70
Charged Charged
80
60
70
PercentagePercentage
50
40
60
30
50
20
40
10
0
30 0 1 2 3 4 5
20 NumberoftimeConstants( =RC)
Figure
10 8: RC discharge curve
Figure 7: RC discharge curve
0
0 1 2 3 4
NumberoftimeConstants( =RC)
Figure 8: RC discharge curve

RMS voltage
RMS voltage
RMS voltage
RMS voltage1
V Vt dt (15) General
(15) relationship

1
V 1 Vt dt (15) General relationship
V Vt dt (15) General relationship
Where
Where
V(t) = continuous function of time
t=Where
time in seconds
Where
t =V(t)
time continuous
in seconds function of time
T 1 t=continuous
T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
V(t)
T1t = function of time
= time 2in=seconds
t T the time interval that the function is defined over
t = time in seconds
T1 tvoltage
Mean T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
T1 t T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
Mean voltage
Mean voltage
1
Mean
V voltage
Vtdt (16) General relationship

1
V 1 Vtdt (16)(16)
V
Where Vtdt (16) General relationship

t= Where
Where time in seconds
Where
V(t) = continuous function ofthat
time
T
V(t) = continuous
V(t)1 =t continuous
T2 = the time interval
function
function of time the function is defined over
of time
t =time
tt == time inseconds
seconds
time in
in seconds
T1 t T2 = the time interval that the function is defined over
TT11 t T22 == the
the time
time interval
interval that
that the
the function
functionisisdefined
definedover
over
V RMS for full wave rectified
V (17)
2 sine wave
V RMS for full wave rectified
V V (17) RMS for full (17)
waveRMS for fullsine
rectified wave rectified
wave
V 2 2 V (17) sine
Mean wave
for full wave rectified
V 2 (18) sine wave
sine wave
2 V Mean for full wave rectified
V 2 V (18) Mean for full(18) Mean for full wave rectified
V (18)wave rectified
sine wave sine wave
sine wave
Figure 9: Full wave rectified sine wave
Figure
Figure 9: Full wave 8: Fullsine
rectified wave rectified sine wave
wave
Figure 9: Full wave rectified sine wave

24
24
RMS voltage
RMS voltage andand mean
mean voltage
voltage
RMS for a half-wave

V V 2T (19)
(19) RMS for a half-wave
rectified rectified
sine wave sine wave
V Mean for a half-wave

V (20)
(20) Mean for a half-wave rectified sine wave
T rectified sine wave
Figure 10: Half-wave Figure 9: sine

rectified Half-wave
wave rectified sine wave

V V (21)
(21) RMSRMS
for afor a square
square wavewave
T

V V (22) Mean for a square wave
T
Figure 11: Square wave Figure 10: Square wave

25
RMS voltage and mean voltage

RMS voltage and mean voltage
V (V V V
3
V
(( T (
(23) RMS
(23) for afortrapezoid
RMS a trapezoid

V V V (24)
(24) Mean
Mean for afortrapezoid
a trapezoid
2T
Figure 12: Trapezoidal wave

Figure 11: Trapezoidal wave
(25) RMS
V V (25) for
RMSa triangle wave wave
for a triangle
3T

V V (26) Mean
(26) Mean for a triangle
for a triangle wave wave
2T
Figure 13: Triangle wave Figure 12: Triangle wave

26
Logarithmic mathematical
Logarithmic mathematical definitions
definitions
A
A B (27)ofLog
(27) Log of dividend
dividend
B
log AB A B (28) Log

(28)ofLog
product
of product
log A A (29)ofLog
(29) Log of exponent
exponent
log
log (30) Changing
(30) Changing the of
the base base
logof log function
function
log
log
log (31) Example changing
(31) Example to logtobase
changing 2
log base 2
log
ln X (32) Natural log is log

(32) Natural log is
base e
log base e
(33) Exponential
(33) Exponential function
function to 6 digits.
to 6 digits
Alternative
Alternative notations
notations
Different
(34) Different notation
notation for exponential
for exponential function
exp x (34)
function
Different notation for scientific

(35) Different notation for scientific notation,
(35) notation, sometimes confused with
sometimes confused with
exponential function
exponential function

27
dB definitions
Bode plot basics
dB definitions
The frequency response for the magnitude or gain plot is the change in
voltage
Bode plot gain as frequency changes. This change is specified on a Bode plot,
basics
a plot of frequency versus voltage gain in dB (decibels). Bode plots are
The frequency
usually plottedresponse for theplots
as semi-log magnitude or gain ploton
with frequency is the
the change
x-axis, inlog
voltage
scale,gain
as frequency
and gain on the changes. This
y-axis, change
linear is specified
scale. The other on half
a Bode plot,frequency
of the a plot of frequency
versus voltage gain in dB (decibels). Bode plots are usually plotted as semi-log plots
response is the phase shift versus frequency and is plotted as frequency
with frequency on the x-axis, log scale, and gain on the y-axis, linear scale. The other
versus degrees
half of the phase
frequency shift. Phase
response plotsshift
is the phase are versus
usuallyfrequency
plotted as andsemi-log
is plotted as
plots with frequency on the x-axis, log scale, and phase
frequency versus degrees phase shift. Phase plots are usually plotted shift onasthesemi-log
y-axis, linear
plots with scale.on the x-axis, log scale, and phase shift on the y-axis, linear
frequency
scale.
Definitions
V
((36)
36) Voltage
Voltagegain
gaininindecibels
decibels
V
P
((37)
37) Power
Power gain
gain in
in decibels
decibels
P
Power Measured (W) (38) Used

Powerfor input
gain or
in decibel
Measured (38) output power
1 mW milliwatt
A (V/V) A (dB) Table 15: Examples of common gain

Table 14: Examples of common gain
values and dBvalues and dB equivalent
equivalent
0.001 60
A (V/V) A (dB)
0.01
0.001 4060
Roll-off rate is the decrease in gain with frequency
0.010.1 2040
0.1 20 Decade is a tenfold increase or decrease in
1 1 0 0 frequency (from 10 Hz to 100 Hz is one decade)
10 10 20 20
Octave is the doubling or halving of frequency
100100 40 40
1,000 60
(from 10 Hz to 20 Hz is one octave)
1,000
10,000 60 80
100,000
10,000 80 100
1,000,000 120
100,000 100
10,000,000 140
1,000,000 120
Roll-off rate is the decrease in gain with frequency
10,000,000 140
Decade is a tenfold increase or decrease in frequency.(from 10 Hz to 100 Hz is one
decade)
Octave is the doubling or halving of frequency (from 10 Hz to 20 Hz is one octave)

Figure 13 illustrates a method to graphically determine values on a

logarithmic axis that are not directly on an axis grid line.
Figure 14 illustrates a method to graphically determine values on a logarithmic axis
that areLnot
1. Given directly
= 1cm; D on an axis
= 2cm, grid line. with a ruler.
measured
2. L/D = log10(fp)
1. (L/D)
Given L =(1cm/2cm)
1 cm; D = 2cm, measured with a ruler.
3. fP = 10 = 10
2. L/D = log10(fP)
= 3.16
4. Adjust
3. for
fP =the
10 decade
(L/D)
= 10 range
(1CM/2CM) (for this example, f = 31.6 Hz)
= 3.16 p
4. Adjust for the decade range (for example, 31.6 Hz)
A (dB)
Figure14:
Figure 13:Finding
Findingvalues
valueson
onlogarithmic
logarithmic axis
axis not
not directly
directly on
on aa grid
grid line
line

Bode plots:
Bode plots: PolesPoles
fP
100 0.707*GV/V = 3 dB
Actual
80 Straight-line
function
approximation
20 dB/decade
60
G (dB)
40
20
0
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
Frequency (Hz)
+90
+45
(degrees)
0
10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
0
fP 45/decade
5.7 at
45 10
90
84.3 at fP x 10
45 at fP
90
Figure
Figure 15: Pole gain 14: Pole gain and phase
and phase
Pole Location
Pole=Location
fP (cutoff freq)
= fP (cutoff freq)
Magnitude (f < fP) = Gdc (for example, 100 dB)
Magnitude (f < fP) = GDC (for example, 100 dB)
Magnitude (f = fP) = 3 dB
MagnitudeMagnitude
(f > fP) = 20 (f dB/decade
= fP) = 3 dB
Phase (f =Magnitude
fP) = 45 (f > fP) = 20 dB/decade
Phase (0.1 fP < f <(f10
Phase = ffPP) == 45/decade
45
Phase (f > 10 fP) = 90
Phase (0.1 f < f < 10 fP) = 45/decade
Phase (f < 0.1 fP) = 0 P
Phase (f > 10 fP) = 90
Phase (f < 0.1 fP) = 0
30 Texas 30
Pole (equations)
Pole (equations)
V G
G (39) As (39)
a complex number number
As a complex
V j f
f
V G
G
V (40) Magnitude
f (40) Magnitude
f
f
(41)shift
(41) Phase Phase shift
f
G (42) Magnitude
(42) Magnitude in dB in dB
Where
Gv = voltage gain in V/V
Where
GdB = voltage gain in decibels
GGv= voltage gain in V/V
dc = the dc or low frequency voltage gain
GfdB= frequency
= voltageingain
Hz in decibels
GfDC
P == frequency
the dc oratlow
which the pole occurs
frequency voltage gain
= phase shift of the signal from input to output
f = frequency in Hz
fP = frequency at which the pole occurs
j = indicates imaginary number or 1
31
BodeBode
plotsplots
(zeros)
(zeros)
80
60 Straight-line
approximation
G (dB)
+20 dB/decade
40
Actual
20 function
+3 dB
0
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
+90
+90 +45 at fZ
84.3 at fZ x 10
+45 f
(degrees)
5.7 at Z +45/decade
0 10
0
10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
Frequency (Hz)
45
90
Figure
Figure 16: Zero gain 15: Zero gain and phase
and phase
Zero location
Zero =location
fZ = fZ
Magnitude (f < fZ) = 0 dB
Magnitude (f < fZ) = 0 dB
Magnitude (f = fZ) = +3 dB
Magnitude (f = fZ) = +3 dB
Magnitude (f > fZ) = +20 dB/decade
Phase (f Magnitude
= fZ) = +45(f > fZ) = +20 dB/decade
Phase
Phase (0.1 fZ < f(f<=10
fZ)fZ=) +45
= +45/decade
Phase (0.1
Phase (f > 10 fZ) = +90fZ < f < 10 fZ) = +45/decade
Phase (f Phase
< 0.1 fZ(f) =
> 0
10 fZ) = +90
Phase (f < 0.1 fZ) = 0

32
Zero (equations)
Zero (equations)
V f
G G j (43) As(43) As a complex
a complex number number
V f
V f
G G (44) Magnitude
(44) Magnitude
V f
f
(45) shift
(45) Phase Phase shift
f
G G (46) Magnitude
(46) Magnitude in dB in dB
Where
GV = voltage gain in V/V
Where
GG ==
V dB
voltage
voltage gain
gain in in decibels
V/V
GG dB
DC==voltage
the dc or lowinfrequency
gain decibels voltage gain
f = frequency in Hz
GDC = the dc or low frequency voltage gain
fZ = frequency at which the zero occurs
f = frequency in Hz
fZ = frequency at which the zero occurs
j = indicates imaginary number or 1

33
Time to phase shift
P
S
Figure 17: Time to phaseFigure

shift 16: Time to phase shift
(47) Phase
(47) shift fromshift
timefrom time
360 Phase
Where
TWhere
S = time shift from input to output signal
TTPS==period
time shift from input to output signal
of signal
TP= =
phase shiftofofsignal
period the signal from input to output
Example
Calculate the phase shift in degrees for Figure 17.

Example
Answer
Calculate the phase shift in degrees for Figure 16.
Answer
T 0.225 ms
T Ts 0.225ms
ms
( ) 360 = 81
1
= 360 =
Tp 1 ms
34
ti.com/precisionlabs Amplifier
Amplifier
Basic op amp configurations
Op amp bandwidth
Full power bandwidth
Small signal step response
Noise equations
Stability equations
Stability open loop SPICE analysis
Amplifier
ti.com/amplifiers
Amplifier ti.com/precisionlabs

G (48) Gain (48) Gain
for buffer for buffer
configuration configuration
G (48) Gain for buffer configuration
VCC
VOUT
VIN
VEE
+
+
Figure 17: Buffer configuration
Figure 18: Buffer configuration
FigureR18: Buffer configuration

G
Amplifier
(49)
(49)Gain forfor
Gain non-inverting configuration
non-inverting configuration
R
R
G R1
(49) Gain for non-inverting configuration
R Rf
VCC
VOUT
VIN
+
VEE
Figure 18: Non-inverting configuration

+
ti.com/amplifiers
Basic op amp configurations (cont.)
R
G (50) Gain for inverting configuration
R
R
G (50) Gain(50) Gain
for inverting for inverting
configuration configura
R
+
R1 Rf
VIN VCC
VOUT
+
VEE
Figure 20: Inverting configuration

Figure 19: Inverting configuration
V V V Transfer function for i

V R (51) Transfer function
(51) for inverting
R
Figure 20: R
Inverting
R summing amplifier summing amplifier
configuration

Transfer function for i

R VV V
V V Transfer
Transfer function forsumming function
V V
V
R R
(52)

(52) amplifier,
(51)inverting summing as
R R R amplifier, assuming R
R1 = Rsumming
= =R N amplifi
1 = R 2 = =R
2 N
RN
Transfer function
R
V V V V (52) summing amplifi
R
VN RN R1 = R2 = =RN
R 2
V2
VN R2
R Rf
RN1
V1 VCC
V2 R1 Rf
VN R2 VOUT
Vcc
V1
V2 R1 Rf
- + VEE Vout
+ Vcc
V1 Inverting summing configuration
Figure 20:
-+ Vout
ti.com/amplifiers Vee
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference + 37
Figure 21: Inverting summing configuration

R V V V Transfer
(53) Transfer function
function forfor non-
V inverting summing
(53)noninverting summing amplifier
amplifier
R N N N forforequal
equalinput
inputresistors
resistors
Where
R1 = R2 = = RN
Where
R1N==Rnumber of input resistors
2 = = RN
N = number of input resistors
Rin Rf
VCC
R1
VOUT
V1 R2
V2 RN
VEE
VN
Figure 22: Non-inverting summing configuration

Figure 21: Non-inverting summing configuration
ti.com/amplifiers
Simple
Simplenon-inverting amp
non-inverting amp withwith Cf filter
Cf filter
R non-inverting amp with Cf filter

Simple Gain for non-inverting configuration
G 1 (54) Gain(54)
for non-inverting configuration for f < fc
R for f < fc
R Gain
Gain forfor non-inverting
non-inverting configuration
configuration
G
G 1 1 (54)
(55) Gain(55)
for non-inverting configuration for f >> fc
R forfor f <fcfc
f >>
G 11 Gain frequency
for non-inverting configuration
f (56) Cut off(55) Cut off for for non-inverting
(56)frequency
for f >> fnon-inverting
c configuration
2 R C configuration
1 Cut off frequency for non-inverting
f (56)
2 R C Cf configuration
R1 Rf
VCC
VOUT
VIN
VEE
Figure 23: Non-inverting amplifier with Cf filter

Figure 24: Frequency response for non-inverting op amp with Cf filter
Figure 23:
24: Frequency
Frequency response
response for
for non-inverting
non-inverting op
op amp
amp with
with C
Cff filter
ti.com/amplifiers
39
Simple inverting amp with Cf filter

SimpleRinverting amp with Cf filter
G (57) Gain for inverting configuration for f < fC
R
R Gain for inverting configuration
GG 20dB/decade after f C
R
(57)
(58) Gainfor
forf inverting
< fC configuration for f > fC
until op amp bandwidth
limitation
G 20dB/decade after fC
1until op amp bandwidth (59) Cutoff frequency for inverting configuration
f
2 Rlimitation
C
1 (59) Cutoff
Cf frequency for inverting configuration
f
2 R C
Cf
R1 Rf
R1 Rf VCC
VIN
Vcc VOUT
Vin
-+ Vout
+
VEE
Vee
Figure 24: Inverting amplifier with Cf filter
Figure 25: Inverting amplifier with Cf filter
Figure
Figure 25: Frequency
26: Frequency response
response for inverting
for inverting op amp
op amp with
with C Cf filter
f filter
ti.com/amplifiers
Op amp bandwidth
Op amp bandwidth
GBW = Gain
GBW BW
GainBW (60) Gain
(60) bandwidth product
Gain bandwidth defined
product defined
Where
Where
GBWGBW = bandwidth
= gain gain bandwidth product,
product, listedlisted
in opinamp
op amp
datadata sheet specification table
sheet
Gain = closed loop
specification gain, set by op amp gain configuration
table
Gain BW = the loop
= closed bandwidth limitation
gain, set by op ampof thegain
amplifier
configuration
BW = the bandwidth limitation of the amplifier
Example
Determine bandwidth using equation 60

Example
bandwidth using equation 60(from amplifier configuration)
Gain 100
Determine
Gain = 100 (from amplifier configuration)
GBW 22MHz (from data sheet)
GBW = 22MHz (from data sheet)
GBW 22MHz
GBW 22MHz
BW BW
= Gain= 100 = 220Hz
220 kHz
Gain 100
Note that the same result can be graphically determined using the AOL curve as
Note shown same result can be graphically determined using the AOL curve
that thebelow.
as shown below.
Open-loop gain and phase vs. frequency
Open-loop gain and phase vs. frequency
Figure 27: Using AOL to find closed-loop bandwidth

Figure 26: Using AOL to find closed-loop bandwidth
ti.com/amplifiers
Full powerbandwidth
SR Maximum output without slew-rate induced
V (61) output without slew-rate induced distortion
(61) Maximum
2fSR distortion
Maximum output without slew-rate induced
V (61)
2f distortion
Where
VP = maximum peak output voltage before slew induced distortion occurs
Where
Where
VSR
P= = slew ratepeak output voltage before slew induced distortion occurs
VPmaximum
= maximum peak output voltage before slew induced distortion occurs
f = =frequency
SR of applied signal
SRslew raterate
= slew
f = ffrequency
= frequencyof applied signal
of applied signal
Maximum output voltage vs. frequency

. /
. .

. /
. .

Figure 28: Maximum output without slew-rate induced distortion

Figure 27: Maximum output without slew-rate induced distortion
Figure
Notice that28:
theMaximum
above figureoutput withoutusing
is graphed slew-rate
equationinduced
61 for distortion
the OPA188. The
example
Notice calculation
thatthat
thethe
above shows
figure the peak
is graphed voltage
using for the
equationOPA277
6161 at
forfor 40kHz.
thethe This can be
OPA277.
Notice above figure is graphed using equation OPA188. The
determined
The example graphically
calculation or with the
shows the equation.
peak voltage for the OPA277 at 40kHz.
example calculation shows the peak voltage for the OPA277 at 40kHz. This can be
Thisdetermined
can be determined
graphicallygraphically
or with theorequation.
with the equation.
Example
Example
SR 0.8V/s
Example
V 3.8Vpk or 6.37Vpp
2fSR 20k
0.8V/s
V
SR 0.8V/s 3.8Vpk or 6.37Vpp
VP = 2f= 20k = 3.18Vpk or 6.37Vpp
2f 2(40kHz)
ti.com/amplifiers
42
Small
Small signal step
signal step response
response
0.35
RiseRise
(62)
(62) timetime
for afor a small
small signal
signal stepstep
f Small signal step response
Where 0.35
(62) Rise time for a small signal step
of a small signal step response
R = the rise time
Where f
R
C = the closed-loop bandwidth of the op amp circuit
t f= the rise time of a small signal step response
Wherebandwidth of the op amp circuit
fC = the closed-loop
Small signal step response waveform
R = the rise time of a small signal step response
fC = the closed-loop bandwidth of the op amp circuit

Figure 29: Small signal step response
Figure
Figure 28: 29: Small
Maximum signal
output step response
without slew-rate induced distortion
ti.com/amplifiers
43
Op amp noise model

Op amp noise model
Figure 30: Op amp noiseFigure

model29: Op amp noise model
Op amp intrinsic noise includes:

Noise caused by op amp (current noise + voltage noise)
Op amp intrinsic noise includes:
Resistor noise
Noise caused by op amp (current noise + voltage noise)
Resistor noise
ti.com/amplifiers
Noise bandwidth calculation

Noise bandwidth
Noise bandwidth calculation
calculation
NoiseBW f calculation
bandwidth (63) Noise bandwidth
BW f Noise
(63)Noise
(63) bandwidth
bandwidth
BW Where
f (63) Noise bandwidth
Where BW = noise bandwidth of the system
N
Where
BWN = noise
Where KN = bandwidth of the
the brick wall systemfactor for different filter order
correction
BWKNN==thenoise bandwidth
brick wall of the factor
correction systemfor different filter order
BWN f=C = 3 dB
noise bandwidth
bandwidth of of
thethe system
system
KNfC == the brick
3 dB wall correction
bandwidth factor for different filter order
of the system
KN = the brick wall correction factor for different filter order
fC = 3 dB bandwidth of the system
fC = 3 dB bandwidth of the system
Figure 31: Op amp bandwidth for three different filters orders

Table 15: Brick wall correction factors for noise bandwidth
Table 15: Brick wall correction factors for noise bandwidth
KN brickfactors
wall for noise bandwidth
Table Table
15: 16:ofBrick
Brick
Number wall wall correction
correction
poles KN brick factors for noise
wall bandwidth
Number of poles correction factor
Number of correction factorKN brick wall correction factor
poles
1 KN brick wall
1.57
Number
1 of poles1 1.57
correction factor 1.57
2 1.22
2 1 2 1.221.57 1.22
3 1.13
3 2 3 1.131.22 1.13
4 1.12
4 3 4 1.121.13 1.12
4 1.12
Broadband
Broadband total noise calculation
totalcalculation
noise calculation
Broadband total noise
Broadband
E total
BW noise
calculation Totalfrom
(64) noise
(64) Total rms rmsbroadband
noise from broadband
E BW (64) Total rms noise from broadband

E Where
BW (64) Total rms noise from broadband

Where Where
EN = total rms noise from broadband noise

ENrms
EN = total = total rms
noise noise
from from broadband
broadband noise noise
Where eBB = broadband noise spectral density (nV/rtHz)
eBB = broadband
e = noise
broadband spectral
noise density
spectral (nV/rtHz)
EN = BW = noise
totalN rms
BB noisebandwidth (Hz)
from broadband noise (nV/rtHz)
density
BWN = noise bandwidth (Hz)
eBB =BW N = noisenoise
broadband bandwidth (Hz)
spectral density (nV/rtHz)
BWN = noise bandwidth (Hz)
ti.com/amplifiers
45
45
1/f total
1/f total noise
noise calculation
calculation
1/f total noise calculation
E_ f (65) Normalized1/f
(65) Normalized 1/fnoise
noiseatat1 1Hz
Hz
E_ f (65) Normalized 1/f noise at 1 Hz
Where
Where
E Where = 1/f noise normalized to 1 Hz
ENN_NORMAL
_NORMAL = 1/f noise normalized to 1 Hz
EN_NORMAL
eBF = 1/f noise
= noise spectral normalized
density to 1 in
measured Hzthe 1/f region
eBF = =noise spectral density measured in thethe1/f
1/fregion
fOe=BFthe noise spectral
frequency thatdensity
the 1/f measured
noise eBF isinmeasured region
at
fOfO= =the
the frequency that the 1/f noise eBF is measuredat
frequency that the 1/f noise e BF is measured at
f
E_ E_ f (66) 1/f total noise calculation
f 1/fnoise
total noise calculation
E_ E_ (66)
(66) 1/f total calculation
f
Where
Where = total rms noise from flicker
EN_FLICKER
EN_FLICKER= =1/ftotal
EN_NORMAL
Where noisermsnormalized
noise fromtoflicker
1 Hz
E E
fHN_FLICKER
=N_NORMAL ==total
1/f frequency
upper cutoff noise normalized
rms noise orfrom tobandwidth
1 Hz
flicker
noise
E f=H = upper
fLN_NORMAL
lower =cutoff
cutoff frequency
1/f frequency,
noise or noise
normally
normalized bandwidth
to set
1Hzto 0.1 Hz
f = lower cutoff frequency, normally
f = upper cutoff frequency or noise bandwidth
L set to 0.1 Hz
H
fL = lower cutoff frequency, normally set to 0.1Hz
Table 16: Peak-to-peak conversion
Table 16: Peak-to-peak conversion
Number of Percent chance
Table 17:Number
standard Peak-to-peak
deviations
of conversion
reading is inchance
Percent range
2standard
(same as deviations
Number 1) reading
of standard deviations is in range
68.3% Percent chance reading is in range
2 (same as 1) 68.3%
3 (same as 2
1.5)
(same as 1) 86.6% 68.3%
3 (same as 1.5) 86.6% 86.6%
4 (same as3 (same as 1.5)
2) 95.4%
4 (same as42)
(same as 2) 95.4% 95.4%
5 (same as 2.5) 98.8%
5 (same as 2.5)
5 (same as 2.5) 98.8% 98.8%
6 (same as 3) 99.7%
6.6 (same as 3)
6 (same as 99.7%
6 (same as 3) 99.7%
3.3) 99.9%
6.6 (same as(same
6.6 3.3)
as 3.3) 99.9% 99.9%
ti.com/amplifiers
46
Thermal noise calculation
En_R = (67) Total rms Thermal Noise

Thermal noise calculation
4kTRf
en_R = 4kTR (68) Thermal Noise Spectral Density
E_ 4 kTRf (67) Total rms thermal nois

Where
En_R = Total rms noise from resistance, also called thermal noise (V rms)
Where
en_R = Noise spectral density from resistance, also called thermal noise (V/Hz )
EkN_R = total rms noise from resistance, also called thermal noise
= Boltzmanns constant 1.38 x 10-23J/K -23
kT== Boltzmanns constant 1.38 x 10 J/K
Temperature in Kelvin
Tf==temperature
Noise bandwidth ininKelvin
Hz
f = noise bandwidth in Hz
1000
NoiseSpectralDensity(nV/rtHz)
100
10
55C
25C
1
125C
0.1
1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Resistance()
Figure 32:
Figure 31: Noise
Noise spectral
spectral densitydensity vs. resistance
vs. resistance
ti.com/amplifiers
Ac response
Ac responseversus frequency (Dominant 2-Pole System)
versus frequency
Ac response versus frequency
Figure 32 illustrates
Figure a bode
33 illustrates a bodeplot
plotwith four different
with four differentexamples
examples of peaking.
of ac ac peaking.
Figure 33 illustrates a bode plot with four different examples of ac peaking.
Figure
Figure 33: 32: Stability
Stability ac peaking
ac peaking relationship
relationship exampleexample
Figure 33: Stability ac peaking relationship example
Phase margin versus ac peaking
Phase
Phase marginversus
margin versus ac
acpeaking
peaking
This graph illustrates the phase margin for any given level of ac peaking.
This This
graphgraph illustrates
illustrates thephase
the phasemargin
margin for
for any
anygiven
givenlevel of of
level ac ac
peaking.
peaking.
Note that 45 of phase margin or greater is required for stable operation.
NoteNote
thatthat
4545of phase
of phasemargin
marginor
or greater isrequired
greater is requiredforfor stable
stable operation.
operation.
Figure 34: Stability phase margin vs. peaking for a two-pole system
ti.com/amplifiers
Transient overshoot (Dominant 2-Pole System)

Transient overshoot
Figure 34 35
Figure illustrates
illustratesa atransient
transient response withtwo
response with two different
different examples of
examples
percentage
of overshoot.
percentage overshoot.
Transient overshoot
Figure 35 illustrates a transient response with two different examples
of percentage overshoot.
Figure 35:Figure
Stability
34:Stability
transient overshootovershoot
transient example example
Phase margin versus percentage overshoot

Figure 35: Stability transient overshoot example
Phase margin
This graph versus
illustrates the percentage
phase margin forovershoot
any given level of
Phase margin
transient versus
overshoot. percentage
Note that 45 of overshoot
phase margin or greater is required
Thisforgraph
stableillustrates
operation. the phase margin for any given level of transient
This graph
overshoot. Noteillustrates theof
that 45 phase
phasemargin for any
margin given level
or greater of
is required for
transient overshoot. Note that 45 of phase margin or greater is required
stable operation.
for stable operation.
Figure 36: Stability phase margin vs. percentage overshoot
Note:
FigureThe
Figure 36:curves
35: assume
Stability
Stability a two-pole
phase
phase margin system.
marginvs.
vs.percentage
percentageovershoot
overshoot
Note: The curves assume a two-pole system.
ti.com/amplifiers
49
VFB
R1 RF C1 1T
VIN
L1 1T
V+
VO
VOUT
Riso
CL
V
Figure 36: Common spice test circuit used for stability
Figure 37: Common spice test circuit used for stability
V
A_ (68)
(69) Loaded Loaded
open-loop open-loop gain
gain
V
V (70) Feedback Feedback factor

(69) factor
1 1
(71) Closed-loop
(70) noise gain noise gain
Closed-loop
V
A_ V (71)
(72) Loop gain Loop gain
Where
VO = the voltage at the output of the op amp.
Where
VVOOUT = the
= the voltage
voltage at output delivered
the output of thetoopthe load, which may be important to the
amp.
application but is not considered in stability
VOUT = the voltage output delivered to the load, analysis.
which may be important to
VFB =thefeedback voltage
application but is not considered in stability analysis.
RF , R1, RISO and CL = the op amp feedback network and load. Other op amp
VFB = feedback voltage
topologies will have different feedback networks; however, the test circuit will be the
Rsame
F , R1for
, RiS0 andcases.
most CL = the op amp
Figure feedback
38 shows network and
the exception load.
to the rule (multiple feedback).
C1 andOther op components
L1 are amp topologies thatwill have different
facilitate feedbackThey
SPICE analysis. networks;
are large (1TF, 1TH)
to make
however, the test
the circuit circuit will
closed-loop forbe the
dc, butsame
openfor most
loop for cases.
ac frequencies. SPICE
requires
Figure 37 showsoperation
closed-loop the exception
at dc to
forthe rule (multiple feedback).
convergence.
C1 and L1 are components that facilitate SPICE analysis. They are large
(1TF, 1TH) to make the circuit closed-loop for dc, but open loop for ac
frequencies. SPICE requires closed-loop operation at dc
for convergence.
ti.com/amplifiers
VFB
VFB
R1 RF
R1 RF
CIN CF
Cin CF
L1 1T
V+
V-
VIN C1 1T
- Riso
- Riso VOUT
C1 1T
Vin +
VO Vout
C
+ L
+
Vo CL
V
V+
Figure 37: Alternative (multiple feedback) SPICE test circuit used for stability
Figure 38: Alternative (multiple feedback) SPICE test circuit used for stability
A_ V LoadedLoaded
(73) (72) open
open loop loop gain
gain
V
(74) (73) Feedback
Feedback factor factor
V
1 V
(75) (74) Closed-loop
Closed-loop noise gain
noise gain
V
A_ V (76) (75) Loop gain

Loop gain
Where
Where
VOUT = the voltage output delivered to the load. This may be important to the
V OUT = the voltage
application output
but is not delivered
considered to the load.
in stability This may be important to
analysis.
VFB =the application
feedback but is not considered in stability analysis.
voltage
V F, R
RFB , RISO and voltage
=1feedback CF = the op amp feedback network. Because there are two paths for
feedback, the loop is broken at the input.
RF, R1, Riso and CF = the op amp feedback network. Because there are two
C and L1 are components that facilitate SPICE analysis. They are large (1TF, 1TH)
1 paths for feedback, the loop is broken at the input.
to make the circuit closed loop for dc, but open loop for ac frequencies. SPICE
C 1 and L1
requires are components
closed-loop thatatfacilitate
operation SPICE analysis. They are large
dc for convergence.
C =(1TF, 1TH) to make
the equivalent inputthe circuit closed
capacitance loop
taken forthe
from dc,op
but open
amp loop for This
datasheet.
IN
ac frequencies. SPICE requires closed-loop operation at dc for
capacitance normally does not need to be added because the model includes it.
convergence.
However, when using this simulation method the capacitance is isolated by
Cthe = theinductor.
IN 1TH equivalent input capacitance taken from the op amp datasheet.
This capacitance normally does not need to be added because the
model includes it. However, when using this simulation method the
capacitance is isolated by the 1TH inductor.
ti.com/amplifiers
R1 RF
+Vs
- VOUT
+
Voffset
-Vs
+
VIN
Volts
VOUT
Voffset 50mVpp
Figure 38: Transient real world stability test
Test tips
Choose test frequency << fcl
Small signal (Vpp 50 mV) ac output square wave (for example, 1 kHz)
Adjust VIN amplitude to yield output 50 mVpp
Worst cases is usually when Voffset = 0 (Largest RO, for IOUT = 0A).
Use Voffset as desired to check all output operating points for stability
Set scope = ac couple and expand vertical scope scale to look for
amount of overshoot, undershoot, and ringing on VOUT
Use 1x attenuation scope probe on VOUT for best resolution
ti.com/amplifiers
+15V
CCM1 1nF
RIN1
VIN- 1k RG VOUT
CDIF Rg
10nF Out
1k Ref
RIN2 RG
U1 INA333
VIN+ 1k
CCM2 1nF -15V
Figure 40: Figure

40: Input
Input filter39:
forInput filter for instrumentation
instrumentation amplifier amplifier
Figure filter for instrumentation amplifier
Figure 40: Input filter for instrumentation amplifier
(77) Differential Differential

filter is sized filter is sized
10 is sized
times 10
the
Select C
Select C 1C
1C (76) Differential
(76)
filter 10
common-mode times
filter the
Differential
times common-mode
filter is sized 10
the common-mode filter
filter
RSelect C
R R 1C (76) Input resistors must be equal
(77)
R

(77) times
Input the common-mode
resistors must be filter
equal
(78) Input resistors must be equal
Common-mode capacitors
CR
RC (77)
(78) Input resistors
Common-mode must be equal
capacitors
C C (78) must be equal
Common-mode
must be equal capacitors
C C1 (79) Common-mode
(78) capacitors must be equal
ff 1 (79) must be equal
Differential filter cutoff
cutoff
2R 1 C (79) Differential filter
2R C
f (79) Differential
(80) Differential filter cutoff filter cutoff
2R C
1
1
ff

1 (80) Common-mode
(80) Common-mode filter filter cutoff
cutoff
22R C C1 1C C
f 22R 2
21 (81) Common-mode filter cutoff
(80) Common-mode filter cutoff
22R C C
2
Where
Where
ffWhere
DIF = differential cutoff frequency
DIF = differential cutoff frequency
Where
ff CM == common-mode
common-mode cutoff frequency
fDIFDIF==differential
CM differentialcutoff
cutoff frequency
cutoff frequency
frequency
R
fRCMIN == common-mode
input resistance
input resistance cutoff frequency
IN
fCM
C ==common-mode
common-mode cutoff frequency
filter capacitance
capacitance
C RCMIN =
CM
=input resistance filter
common-mode
C DIF =
RC = =input differential filter
resistance
common-mode
differential capacitance
filter filter capacitance
capacitance
INDIF
CM
CCCMDIF== common-mode
differential filter filter
capacitance
capacitance
Note: Selecting
Note: Selecting C CDIF 10
10 C CCM sets
sets the
the differential
differential mode
mode cutoff
cutoff frequency
frequency 10
10 times
times
DIF CM
Clower
DIF = differential
than the filter capacitance
common-mode cutoff frequency. This prevents common-mode noise
Note: than
lower Selecting CDIF 10 CCM sets
the common-mode cutoffthe differential
frequency. mode
This cutoff common-mode
prevents frequency 10 times
noise
from
from being
lowerbeing converted
than the into differential
common-mode
converted into differential noise due
due to
cutoff frequency.
noise to component
This tolerances.
prevents tolerances.
component common-mode noise
Note:
from Selecting CDIF into
being converted 10 Cdifferential
CM sets thenoise
differential
due to mode cutoff tolerances.
component frequency 10 times
lower than the common-mode cutoff frequency. This prevents common-mode noise
from being converted into differential noise due to component tolerances.
ti.com/amplifiers
53
53
53
Notes
ti.com/amplifiers
ti.com/precisionlabs PCB and
PCB andWire
Wire
PCB trace resistance for 1oz and 2oz Cu
Conductor spacing in a PCB for safe operation
Current carrying capacity of copper conductors
Package types and dimensions
PCB trace capacitance and inductance
PCB via capacitance and inductance
Common coaxial cable specifications
Coaxial cable equations
Resistance per length for wire types
Maximum current for wire types
PCB and wire

PCB and Wire ti.com/precisionlabs
Table 18: Printed circuit board conductor spacing
Minimum spacing
Voltage between Bare board Assembly
conductors
(dc or ac peaks) B1 B2 B3 B4 A5 A6 A7
0.05 mm 0.1 mm 0.1 mm 0.05 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm
0-15
[0.00197 in] [0.0039 in] [0.0039 in] [0.00197 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in]
0.05 mm 0.1 mm 0.1 mm 0.05 mm 0.13 mm 0.25 mm 0.13 mm
16-30
[0.00197 in] [0.0039 in] [0.0039 in] [0.00197 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00984 in] [0.00512 in]
0.1 mm 0.6 mm 0.6 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm 0.4 mm 0.13 mm
31-50
[0.0039 in] [0.024 in] [0.024 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in] [0.016 in] [0.00512 in]
0.1 mm 0.6 mm 1.5 mm 0.13 mm 0.13 mm 0.5 mm 0.13 mm
51-100
[0.0039 in] [0.024 in] [0.0591 in] [0.00512 in] [0.00512 in] [0.020 in] [0.00512 in]
0.2 mm 0.6 mm 3.2 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.4 mm
101-150
[0.0079 in] [0.024 in] [0.126 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.016 in]
0.2 mm 1.25 mm 3.2 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.4 mm
151-170
[0.0079 in] [0.0492 in] [0.126 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.016 in]
0.2 mm 1.25 mm 6.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.4 mm
171-250
[0.0079 in] [0.0492 in] [0.252 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.016 in]
0.2 mm 1.25 mm 12.5 mm 0.4 mm 0.4 mm 0.8 mm 0.8 mm
251-300
[0.0079 in] [0.0492 in] [0.492 in] [0.016 in] [0.016 in] [0.031 in] [0.031 in]
0.25 mm 2.5 mm 12.5 mm 0.8 mm 0.8 mm 1.5 mm 0.8 mm
301-500
[0.00984 in] [0.0984 in] [0.492 in] [0.031 in] [0.031 in] [0.0591 in] [0.031 in]
B1 Internal conductors
B2 External conductors uncoated sea level to 3050m
B3 External conductors uncoated above 3050m
PCB and wire
B4 External conductors coated with permanent polymer coating (any elevation)

A5 External conductors with conformal coating over assembly (any elevation)
A6 External component lead/termination, uncoated, sea level to 3050m
A7 External component lead termination, with conformal coating (any elevation)
Extracted with permission from IPC-2221B, Table 6-1.

For additional information, the entire specification can be downloaded at
www.ipc.org

ti.com/precisionlabs PCB and Wire
Figure
Figure 41: Self 40: Self of
heating heating of PCB
PCB traces on traces on inside layer
inside layer
Example
Example Find the current that will2
cause a 20 temperature rise in a PCB trace that is 0.1 inch
wide and
Find the current useswill
that 2 oz/ft
cause copper. (Assume
a 20C traces on outside
temperature rise in of
a PCB.)
PCB trace
2
that is 0.1 Answer
inch wide and uses 2 oz/ft copper. (Assume traces on
outside of PCB.)
First translate 0.1 inch to 250 sq. mils. using bottom chart. Next find the current
Answer associated with 10 and 250 sq. mils. using top chart (Answer = 5A).
First translate 0.1 inch to 250 sq. mils. using bottom chart. Next find
the currentExtracted with permission from IPC-2152, Figure 5-1.
associated with 10C and 250 sq. mils. using top chart
For additional information the entire specification can be downloaded at www.ipc.org
(Answer = 5A).
Extracted with permission from IPC-2152, Figure 5-1.
For additional information the entire specification can
be downloaded at www.ipc.org 57

PCBtrace
PCB trace resistance for 1 oz-Cu
PCB traceresistance
resistancefor
for11oz
ozCu
Cu
11 5mil
5mil
10mil
10mil
25mil
25mil
100m
100m 50mil
50mil
100mil
100mil
10m
10m
1m
1m
100
100
10
10
1
1
11 10
10 100
100 1000
1000 10000
10000
Trace
Tracelength
length(mils)
(mils)
Figure
Figure 42:
42:PCB
Figure 41: trace
PCBPCB resistance
trace
trace vs.
vs.length
resistance
resistance and
vs. length
length width
andand for
for11
width
width oz-Cu,
for 25C
1 oz-Cu,
oz-Cu, 25C25C
Figure
Figure 43:
Figure PCB
43:42:
PCB trace
PCB
trace resistance
trace vs.
vs.length
resistance
resistance vs. and
length
length width
andand for
width
width 11oz-Cu,
forfor 125C
1 oz-Cu,
oz-Cu, 125C
125C
Example
Example
Example
What
Whatisisthe
theresistance
resistanceof
ofaa2020mil
millong,
long,55mil
milwide
widetrace
tracefor
foraa11oz-Cu
oz-Cuthickness
thicknessat
at
What
25C is
and the resistance
125C?
25C and 125C? of a 20 mil long, 5 mil wide trace for a
1 oz-Cu thickness at 25C and 125C?
Answer
Answer
Answer
R25C
R25C==222m,
R25C m,R125C
m, R125C
R125C ==33m.
= m. The
3 m. points
TheThe are
arecircled
points
points on
onthe
are circled
circled curves.
theon the curves.
curves.

58
58
PCB trace resistance for 2 oz Cu
PCB trace
1 resistance for 2 oz-Cu
PCB trace resistance for 2 oz Cu 5mil
10mil
1 25mil
5mil
100m
10mil
50mil
100m 25mil
100mil
10m 50mil
100mil
10m
1m
1m
100
100
10
10
1
1 1 10 100 1000 10000
1 Trace length
10 100 (mils) 1000 10000
Trace length (mils)
Figure 44: PCB trace resistance vs. length and width for 2 oz-Cu, 25C
Figure
Figure 44:43:
PCBPCB trace
trace resistance
resistance vs.vs. length
length and
and width
width forfor 2 oz-Cu,
2 oz-Cu, 25C
25C
Figure
Figure 44:
45: PCBtrace
PCB traceresistance
resistancevs.
vs.length
length and
and width
width for
for 2
2 oz-Cu,
oz-Cu, 125C
125C
Figure 45: PCB trace resistance vs. length and width for 2 oz-Cu, 125C
Example
Example
What is the resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a 2 oz-Cu thickness at
Example
What is the resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a 2 oz-Cu thickness at
25Cisand
What the125C?
resistance of a 200 mil long, 25 mil wide trace for a
25C and 125C?
2 oz-Cu thickness at 25C and 125C?
Answer
Answer
Answer
R25C
R25C= =
22m,
m,R125C == 3
R125C = m. The
Thepoints
pointsare
arecircled
circled on
theR25C =2
curves. m, R125C 33 m.
m. The points are circled ononthe
thecurves.
curves.

Common package
Common packagetypetype
and dimensions
and dimensions
120.2mil
3.05mm

60
PCB parallel
PCB parallel plate
plate capacitance
capacitance
k w r Capacitance for parallel copper

(82) Capacitance
(81) for parallel copper planes
planes
Where
PCB parallel plate capacitance
Where
kk ==Permittivity
Permittivity of free space.
of free space.
k version
Both the metric and imperial w ofr the constant are given. Capacitance for parallel copper
k = Both the
8.85410-3 metric
pF/mm, and imperial
or 2.24710-4 pF/mil version of (81)the constant are given.
planes
=PCB parallel plate capacitance
length (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
k = in mm, or-3
8.85410 -4
w = width (metric
pF/mm,
imperial in mil)
or 2.24710
h = separation between planes (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
pF/mil
r Where
== PCB relative dielectric constant (r 4.5 for FR-4)
length (metric k in
mm,
w r or imperial in mil) Capacitance for parallel copper
(81)
w = width (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
k = Permittivity of free space. planes
Both the metric and imperial version of the constant are given.
h= k = 8.85410-3 pF/mm, or 2.24710-4 pF/mil
= separation between
or imperial inplanes (metric in mm, or imperial w in mil)
Where length (metric in mm, mil)
rhk === Permittivity

w = width (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
PCB relative
separation dielectric
between planes
of free space.
(metric in mm, or imperial in(
constant r
mil) 4.5 for FR-4)
r = PCB relative dielectric constant (r 4.5 for FR-4)
k = 8.85410-3 pF/mm, or 2.24710-4 pF/mil
= length (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
l or imperial in mil)
w = width (metric in mm, A
h = separation between planes (metric in mm, or imperial in mil) w
r = PCB relative dielectric constant (r 4.5 for FR-4)
w
h l A r
A
Figure 45: PCBl parallel plate capacitance
h r
Example Calculate the total capacitance for =5.08mm,
h
Figure w=12.7mm,
45: PCB h=1.575mm,
parallel plate capacitance r = 4.5 r
Example(8.854 103 pFmm)
Calculate (5.08mm)
the total (12.7mm)
capacitance (4.5)
for =5.08mm,
C(pF) = 45: PCB parallel plate capacitance
Figure = 1.63pF
w=12.7mm, h=1.575mm, = 4.5
1.575mm
r
Example Calculate
3 the total capacitance for =5.08mm,
(8.854 10 pFmm) (5.08mm) (12.7mm) (4.5)
C(pF) = Calculate
Example w=12.7mm, h=1.575mm,
the1.575mm r = 4.5
total capacitance = 1.63pF
for =200mil,
w=500mil, h=62mil, r = 4.5
(8.854 103 pFmm) (5.08mm) (12.7mm) (4.5)
C(pF) = 4 = 1.63pF
C(pF) = (2.247
Example 10 pFmil)
Calculate (200mil)
the1.575mm
total (500mil)
capacitance for =200mil,
(4.5)
= 1.63pF
62mil = 4.5
w=500mil, h=62mil, r
Example
C(pF) = (2.247 10Calculate
4 the total
pFmil) capacitance
(200mil) for (4.5)
(500mil) =200mil,
= 1.63pF
62mil r = 4.5
w=500mil, h=62mil,
4
C(pF) = (2.247 10 pFmil) (200mil) (500mil) (4.5)
= 1.63pF
62mil

61
Microstrip capacitance and inductance

L(nH) = kL ln ( 0.85.98 w +h t ( (83) Inductance for microstrip
kC (r + 1.41)
C(pF) =
ln ( 0.8 w+t (
5.98 h (84) Capacitance for microstrip
Where
kL = PCB inductance per unit length.
kL = 2nH/cm, or 5.071nH/in
kC = PCB capacitance per unit length.
kC = 0.264pF/cm, or 0.67056pF/in
= length of microstrip (metric in cm, or imperial in inches)
w = width of microstrip (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
For imperial:
t = thickness of copper (metric in mm, or imperial in mil) Copper thickness (mils) =
1.37 (number of ounces)
h = separation between planes (metric in mm, or imperial in mil)
i.e. 1oz Cu = 1.37mils
r = relative permittivity, approximately 4.5 for FR-4 PCB i.e. oz Cu = 0.684mils

W
t
h
Figure 46: PCB Microstrip capacitance and inductance
Example
Calculate the total inductance and capacitance for =2.54cm, w=0.254mm,
t=0.0356mm, h=0.8mm, r = 4.5 for FR-4
5.98 0.8mm
L(pF) = (2 nHcm) (2.54cm) ln ( 0.8 0.254mm + 0.0356mm
) = 15.2nH
C(pF) = (0.264pF/cm) (2.54cm)(4.5 + 1.41) = 1.3pF
ln ( 5.98 0.8mm
0.8 0.254mm + 0.0356mm
)
Example Calculate the total inductance and capacitance for =1in, w=10mil,
t=1.4mil, h=31.5mil, r = 4.5 for FR-4
L = 15.2nH, C=1.3pF. Note: this is the same problem as above with imperial units.

Where
l = length of copper trace (mils)
t = thickness of copper trace (mils)
copper thickness (mils) = 1.37 * (number of ounces)
ex: 1 oz. copper thickness = 1.37 mils
ex: oz. copper thickness = 0.685 mils
Adjacentd = distance
copperbetween
tracestraces (mils)
r = tPCB
k dielectric constant ((85)
r 4.2 for FR-4)
C(pF) w = width of copper trace (mils) Same layer
d
h = separation between planes (mils)
r w
k (86) Different layers
C(pF) Example
h
l = 100 mils
Where t = 1.37 mils (1 oz. copper)
= length
d of themils
= 10 copper trace (mil, or mm)
r = 4.2
k = 8.854*10 -3
pF/mm, or k=2.247*10-4 pF/mil
w = 25
t = thickness of mils
trace (in mil, or mm)
h = 63 mils
d = distance between traces if on same layer (mil, or mm)
For imperial:
w = widthAnswer
of trace. (mil, or mm) Copper thickness (mils) =
1.37 (number of ounces)
h = separation between planes. (mil, or mm)
C (same layer) = 0.003 pF i.e. 1oz Cu = 1.37mils
r = PCBCdielectric constant (r = 4.5 for FR-4)
(different layers) = 0.037 pF
i.e. oz Cu = 0.684mils
Figure 47: Capacitance for adjacent copper traces

Figure 48: Capacitance for adjacent copper traces
Example: Calculate the total capacitance for both cases: =2.54mm,

t=0.0348mm, d=0.254mm, w=0.635mm, h=1.6mm, r = 4.5 for FR-4
(8.854 103 pF/mm) (0.0348mm) (2.54mm)

63
C(pF) = 0.0031pF Same
0.254mm layer
(8.854 103 pF/mm) (4.5mm) (0.635mm) (2.54mm)
C(pF) = 0.04pF
1.6mm Adjacent
layers
Example: Calculate the total capacitance for both cases: =100mil,
t=1.37mil, d=10mil, w=25mil, h=63mil, r = 4.5 for FR-4
C = 0.0031pF (Same layer), C=0.4pF (Adjacent layers). Note: this is the

same problem as above with imperial units.

PCB via capacitance and inductance
[
L(nH) kL h 1 + ln (4hd )] (87) Inductance for via
kC r h d1 (88) Capacitance for via

C(pF)
d2 d1
Where
kL = PCB inductance per unit length.
kL = 0.2nH/mm, or 5.07610-3nH/mil
kC = PCB capacitance per unit length.
kC = 0.0555pF/mm, or 1.4110-3pF/mil
h= separation between planes
d= diameter of via hole
d1 = diameter of the pad surrounding the via
d2 = distance to inner layer ground plane.
r = PCB dielectric constant (r = 4.5 for FR-4)
d1
d Top Layer
Trace
Middle Layer
GND
h Plane
d2
Bottom Layer
Trace
Figure 48: Inductance and capacitance of via
Example: Calculate the total inductance and capacitance for h=1.6mm,

d=0.4mm, d1=0.8mm, d2=1.5mm
L(nH) (0.2 nHmm) (1.6mm) 1 + ln [ (40.4mm

1.6mm
)] = 1.2nH
(0.0555pF/mm) (4.5) (1.6mm) (0.8mm)
C(pF) = 0.46pF
1.5mm 0.8mm
Example: Calculate the total inductance and capacitance for h=63mil,
d=15.8mil, d1=31.5mil, d2=59mil
L=1.2nH, C=0.46pF. Note: this is the same problem as above with imperial units.

Table 19: Coaxial cable information
dB attenuation /100 ft at 750 MHz

Capacitance / length (pF/feet)
Outside diameter (inches)
Dielectric type
Type ZO Application
Test equipment and RF power to a few
RG-58 53.5 28.8 0.195 13.1 PE
hundred watts, and a couple hundred MHz
RG-8 52 29.6 0.405 5.96 PE
RF power to a few kW, up to several
RG-214/U 50 30.8 0.425 6.7 PE
hundred MHz
9914 50 26.0 0.405 4.0 PE
RG-6 75 20 0.270 5.6 PF Video and CATV applications. RF to a few
hundred watts, up to a few hundred MHz,
RG-59/U 73 29 0.242 9.7 PE sometimes to higher frequencies if losses
can be tolerated
RF power to a few kW, up to several
RG-11/U 75 17 0.412 3.65 PE
hundred MHz
Used in some test equipment and 100
RG-62/U 93 13.5 0.242 7.1 ASP
video applications
RG-174 50 31 0.100 23.5 PE Miniature coax used primarily for test
equipment interconnection. Usually short
RG-178/U 50 29 0.071 42.7 ST runs due to higher loss.

Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable equations
equations
C 2
D (89) Capacitance
(84)Capacitance per length
per length
Coaxial
d cable equations
L C D2
2 d D
(90) (84) Inductance
(85)Inductance per per length
length
Capacitance per length
d
LL 1 D (91) (85) Characteristic

(86)Characteristic impedance
impedance
Inductance per length
C 2
2 d
L 1
(86) Characteristic impedance
Where
Where C 2
LL==inductance
inductance in in henries
henries (H)
(H)
Z = impedance in ohms ()
Where
Zd == impedance
diameter of in ohms
inner ()
conductor
L = inductance in henries (H)
D = inside diameter of
d = diameter of inner conductorshield, or diameter of dielectric insulator
= dielectric constant of insulator ( = r o )
D = inside diameter ofinshield,
Z = impedance ohms or ()diameter of dielectric insulator
= magnetic permeability ( = r o )
d = diameter of inner conductor
l = length
dielectric cable of insulator ( = r o )
constant
of the
D = inside diameter of shield, or diameter of dielectric insulator
= magnetic permeability
= dielectric constant (of
= insulator
r o ) ( = r o )
= length = magnetic permeability ( = r o )
of the cable
l = length of the cable
Insulation
Figure 49: Coaxial cable cutaway


65
Table 20: Resistance per length for different wire types (AWG)
Outside diameter Area dc resistance

AWG Stds
in mm circular mils mm2 / 1000 ft / km
36 Solid 0.005 0.127 25 0.013 445 1460
36 7/44 0.006 0.152 28 0.014 371 1271
34 Solid 0.0063 0.160 39.7 0.020 280 918
34 7/42 0.0075 0.192 43.8 0.022 237 777
32 Solid 0.008 0.203 67.3 0.032 174 571
32 7/40 0.008 0.203 67.3 0.034 164 538
30 Solid 0.010 0.254 100 0.051 113 365
30 7/38 0.012 0.305 112 0.057 103 339
28 Solid 0.013 0.330 159 0.080 70.8 232
28 7/36 0.015 0.381 175 0.090 64.9 213
26 Solid 0.016 0.409 256 0.128 43.6 143
26 10/36 0.021 0.533 250 0.128 41.5 137
24 Solid 0.020 0.511 404 0.205 27.3 89.4
24 7/32 0.024 0.610 448 0.229 23.3 76.4
22 Solid 0.025 0.643 640 0.324 16.8 55.3
22 7/30 0.030 0.762 700 0.357 14.7 48.4
20 Solid 0.032 0.813 1020 0.519 10.5 34.6
20 7/28 0.038 0.965 1111 0.562 10.3 33.8
18 Solid 0.040 1.020 1620 0.823 6.6 21.8
18 7/26 0.048 1.219 1770 0.902 5.9 19.2
16 Solid 0.051 1.290 2580 1.310 4.2 13.7
16 7/24 0.060 1.524 2828 1.442 3.7 12.0
14 Solid 0.064 1.630 4110 2.080 2.6 8.6
14 7/22 0.073 1.854 4480 2.285 2.3 7.6

Table 21: Maximum current vs. AWG
Thermoplastic at 125C
Polyvinylchloride Nylon
(high density) at 90C
(semi-ridged) at 80C
Polyvinylchloride
Silicon at 200C
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
Wire gauge
Neoprene
at 105C
Kapton
Teflon
Kynar
AWG Imax (A) Imax (A) Imax (A) Imax (A) Imax (A)
30 2 3 3 3 4
28 3 4 4 5 6
26 4 5 5 6 7
24 6 7 7 8 10
22 8 9 10 11 13
20 10 12 13 14 17
18 15 17 18 20 24
16 19 22 24 26 32
14 27 30 33 40 45
12 36 40 45 50 55
10 47 55 58 70 75
Note: Wire is in free air at 25C
Example
What is the maximum current that can be applied to a
30 gauge Teflon wire in a room temperature environment?
What will the self-heating be?
Answer
Imax = 4A
Wire temperature = 200C

Sensor Sensor
Thermistor
Resistive temperature detector (RTD)
Diode temperature characteristics
Thermocouple (J and K)
Sensor

Sensors
70
Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistor
Thermistor RTDRTDRTD
RTD RTD Diode
Diode Diode
Diode Diode Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple TableTable
Sensor
22: Temperature
Temp range
Temp range
Temp range
Temprange55C 55C55C < T < 150C
< 55C
T < 150C 150C
<150C 200C
200C <200C
T<T
200C 850C
<<<T850C 850C 55C
55C < 55C
T<T
55C 150C
<<<T150C
T< <150C 250C
250C <250C
T<T
250C 1800C
<<<T1800C
T< <1800C
Temp range 55C < T< <<
T T<150C 200C <T<T<850C
< 850C 55C <150C
T < 150C 250C <1800C
T < 1800C
Cost
CostCost
Cost LowLow Low
Low HighHighHigh
High LowLow Low
Low LowLow Low
Low
Accuracy Good
AccuracyGood
CostAccuracy Low
accuracy
Good
accuracy at one
accuracy
at one at one Excellent
Excellent accuracy
Excellent
accuracy
High
accuracy PoorPoor accuracy
Poor
accuracy without
accuracy
without
Low
calibration.
without calibration.
calibration. Good Good accuracy
Good
accuracy accuracy
withwith polynomial
with
polynomial
Low
polynomial
Accuracy Good accuracy at one Excellent accuracy Poor accuracy without calibration. Good accuracy with polynomial
temperature.
temperature.
temperature. correction.
correction.
correction.
correction.
Goodtemperature.
accuracy at one
accurate
Less
temperature
accurate over range. range.
Good accuracy with
Accuracy LessLess
accurate
Less overover
accurate range.
fullover
full full
fullrange. Excellent accuracy Poor accuracy without calibration
Less accurate over full range polynomial correction
sensor overview
Linearity
Linearity VeryVery
Linearity
Linearity nonlinear.
Very
Very Follows
nonlinear.
nonlinear. Follows
nonlinear. Follows
Follows Fairly
Fairly linearlinear
Fairly
Fairly linear
linear Fairly
Fairly linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly linear
linear Fairly
Fairly linear
Fairly
linear
Fairly linear
linear
reciprocal of logarithmic
reciprocal
reciprocal of logarithmic
reciprocal logarithmic
ofoflogarithmic Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity < 4.5%
Nonlinearity < 4.5% 4.5%
full full
of scale.
<of<4.5% scale.
ofoffull scale. Slope
Slope
fullscale. -2mV/C
Slope
-2mV/C
Slope
Fairly -2mV/C
-2mV/C
linear Nonlinearity
Slope -2mV/CNonlinearity Nonlinearity
< 10%
Nonlinearity < 10% 10%
full
<of<10% full
of scale scale
ofoffull scale
fullscale
function.
function.function.
function. Relatively
Relatively Fairly
simple
Relatively
simple
Relatively linear
quadratic
simple
quadratic
simple quadratic Slope
quadratic Slope varies
Slope
varies
Slope according
varies
according
varies to current
according
to current
according to current Complex
Complex
tocurrent Complex
10th10th
Complex orderFairly
order
10th
10th linear
polynomial
order
polynomial
order polynomial
polynomial
Very nonlinear. Follows reciprocal Slope varies according to current
Table 21: Temperature sensor overview
21: Temperature sensor overview

Linearity function.
function.function.
Nonlinearity
function.< 4.5% of full scaleexcitation, excitation, diode
excitation,
diode
excitation, type,type,
diode
diode and and
type,
diode
type, diode
and diode
anddiode Nonlinearity < 10% of full scale
70
70
70
|of logarithmic function excitation, diode type, and
processing.
processing.
processing.
processing.
Relatively simple quadratic function Complex 10th order polynomial
Construction LessLess
Construction
Construction rugged
Less
rugged rugged Depends
Depends Depends
on TypeType
on
(can(can
Type (can Rugged
Rugged Rugged
diode processing MostMost rugged
Most
rugged rugged
Construction Less rugged Dependson on Typebe(can
be bebe Rugged Most rugged
rugged)
rugged) rugged)
rugged)
Construction Less rugged Depends on Type (can be rugged) Rugged Most rugged
Output
Output range
Output
range
Output range
range Typically
TypicallyTypically
10s 10s
Typically to
10s 100s
10s
to 100s toof 100s
k
to100s k
of full full
ofofk 18 to18
fullto18390
kfull 18 390
tofor
to
390
390 for
PT100PT100
for PT100
forPT100 0.4 to
0.40.8V
0.4 0.8V
to0.4 0.8V
toto0.8V 10s 10s of
10s millivolts
of millivolts
10s millivolts
ofofmillivolts
Typically
scale.
scale. 10s
VeryVery
scale.
wide
scale. Very 100s
wide
toVery wide
variation
wide k
variation
variation
ofvariation
in in inin180 180 to
180
3.9
to 180 3.9
k
to k
3.9
for
to3.9 for
PT1000
k PT1000
kfor PT1000
forPT1000
Output resistance.
resistance.
resistance.
18 to 390 for PT100
resistance.
full scale 0.4 to 0.8V 10s of millivolts
range 180 to 3.9 k for PT1000
Very
Applications
Applications
Applications
Applications wide
Generalvariation
General
General
purpose
General in resistance
purpose
purpose
purpose Scientific
ScientificScientific
and and industrial
industrial
Scientific and industrial
andindustrial LowLow
costcost
Low
Low temperature
cost
temperature
cost monitor
temperature
monitor
temperature Industrial
monitor Industrial
monitor temperature
Industrial temperature
temperature
Industrial temperature
LowLow
costcost
Low
Low linear
cost
linear
cost response
linear
response
linear response
response measurement
measurement
measurement
measurement
Low cost temperature monitor Industrial temperature
Applications
General
General General
General General
Requires
Requires purpose
excitation
Requires excitation
excitation
Requires excitation Scientific
Requires
Requires and industrial
excitation
Requires excitation
excitation
Requires excitation Requires
RequiresRequires
Requires excitation
excitation
excitation Self-powered
Self-powered
Self-powered
Lowexcitation
cost linear response Self-powered
Requires
Requires Requires
measurement
coldcold junction
cold
junction comp
junction
comp comp
Requires cold junction comp
Self-powered
General Requires excitation Requires excitation Requires excitation
Requires cold junction comp

ti.com/precisionlabs Sensor
Thermistor: Resistance to temperature, Steinhart-Hart equation

Thermistor: Resistance to temperature, Steinhart-Hart equation
1 Convert resistance to
Thermistor: RResistance
R to temperature, (87)
(92) Convert Steinhart-Hart
resistance to temperature
T
equation
temperature for for a thermistor
a thermistor
1
Where Convert resistance to
Where R R (87)
T
T = temperature in Kelvin temperature for a thermistor
T = temperature in Kelvin
a, b, c = Steinhart-Hart equation constants
a,Where
b, c = Steinhart-Hart equation constants
R = resistance in ohms
RT==resistance
temperature in Kelvin
in ohms
a, b, c = Steinhart-Hart
Thermistor: Temperature equation constants Steinhart-Hart equation
to resistance,
[ [
Thermistor:x Temperature
x to resistance, Steinhart-Hart equation
Convert temperature to
y Temperature
Thermistor: y+ (88)
to resistance, Steinhart-Hart equation
2 2 resistance for a thermistor
[ [
1y x x Convert temperature to
y+ (93) Convert(88)
x T 2 2 (89)temperature
Factor to resistance
resistance
usedforinaEquation
thermistor
88
c for a thermistor
1
x T (94) Factor(89) Factor
used in used93
Equation in Equation 88
y cb x
(90) Factor used in Equation 88
3c 4
b x (95) Factor(90)
used in Equation
Factor used93
in Equation 88
y
3c 4
Where
Where
Where
R==
Rx, resistance
yresistance
= ininohms
Steinhart-Hart factors used in temperature to resistance equation
T = temperature ininKelvin
T = temperature Kelvin
x, y = Steinhart-Hart factors used in temperature to resistance equation
x, y = Steinhart-Hart factors used in temperature to resistance equation

71
Sensor ti.com/precisionlabs
RTD equation
RTD equation temperature
temperature to resistance
to resistance
RTD resistance for

R 0 0 0T 0 T (91)
(96) RTD resistance for T<0C
RTD equation temperature to resistance T<0C
RTD resistance for

R 0T T (97) RTD resistance
(92)
(91) for T>0C
0 0 0 T>0C
T<0C
Where RTD resistance for

Where
R 0 T over temperature range of (200C (92)
Rrtd = resistance
0 0 of RTD < T < 850C)
T>0C
Rrtd = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (200C < T < 850C)
Ro = 100 for PT-100, 1000 for PT-1000
RWhere
A0O=, B100 for PT-100, 1000 for PT-1000
O, CO = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
Rrtd = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (200C < T < 850C)
AT0,=Btemperature in degreesDusen
0, C0 = Callendar-Van Celsius ( )
coefficients
Ro = 100 for PT-100, 1000 for PT-1000
TA=O,temperature in degrees Celsius (C)
BO, CO = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
RTD equation resistance to temperature (T>0C)
T = temperature in degrees Celsius ( )
R
RTD equation A resistance to temperature RTD resistance
RTD equation resistance toRtemperature
0 (T>0C) (T>0C) (93)
for T>0C
2B
R
A (98) RTD resistance RTDfor resistance
T>0C
Where R0 (93)
for T>0C
RRTD = resistance2B of RTD over temperature range of (200C < T < 850C)
Ro = 100
Where
AO, BO, CO = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
Where
RRTD = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (200C < T < 850C)
RTRTD
= temperature
= resistanceinofdegrees
RTD over Celsius ( )
temperature range of (200C < T < 850C)
Ro = 100
RA0O=, B100
, C = Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients
TableO22:OCallendar-Van Dusen coefficients for different RTD standards
T = temperature in degreesDusen
A0, B0, C0 = Callendar-Van Celsius ( )
coefficients
IEC-751
T = temperature in degrees Celsius (C) US Industrial
Table 22: DIN 43760
Callendar-Van Dusen coefficients for different RTD standards
BS 1904 Standard US Industrial
IEC-751 D-100 Standard
ASTM-E1137
Table 23: Callendar-Van
DIN 43760 Dusen US Industrial
coefficients for different RTD standardsITS-90
American
EN-60751 JISC 1604 American
A0 +3.9083E-3
IEC-751 DIN 43760 +3.9739E-3 +3.9787E-3
US Industrial +3.9692E-3
US Industrial +3.9888E-3
Standard
ASTM-E1137 D-100
B0 BS 5.775E-7
1904 ASTM-E1137 5.870E-7
EN-60751 JISC 1604
Standard 5.8495E-7
5.8686E-7
American
Standard 5.915E-7
American ITS-90
EN-60751 JISC 1604 D-100 American American ITS-90
C0
A0 4.183E-12
+3.9083E-3 4.4E-12
+3.9739E-3 4.167E-12
+3.9787E-3 4.233E-12
+3.9692E-3 3.85E-12
+3.9888E-3
A0 +3.9083E-3 +3.9739E-3 +3.9787E-3 +3.9692E-3 +3.9888E-3
B0 5.775E-7 5.870E-7 5.8686E-7 5.8495E-7 5.915E-7
B0 5.775E-7 5.870E-7 5.8686E-7 5.8495E-7 5.915E-7
C0 4.183E-12 4.4E-12 4.167E-12 4.233E-12 3.85E-12
Example
C 4.183E-12 4.4E-12 4.167E-12 4.233E-12 3.85E-12
0
What is the temperature given an ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 120 ?
Example
Answer
What is the temperature given an ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 120 ?
Example
What is the temperature3.9888
given an 120
10 ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 120?
Answer 100
Answer
120
120
3.9888 10
100
100

72
RTD equation
RTD equation resistance
resistance to temperature
to temperature (T<0C) (T<0C)

RTD resistance
(99) RTD resistance for T<0C
(94)
for T<0

Where
Where
()
T = temperature in degrees Celsius (C)
RRTD = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (T<0)
RRTD = resistance of RTD over temperature range of (T<0C)
I = polynomial coefficients for converting RTD resistance to temperature for T<0
i = polynomial coefficients for converting RTD resistance to temperature for T<0C
th
Table 23: Coefficients for 5 order RTD resistance to temperature
IEC-751
Table 24:DIN
Coefficients
43760 for 5th orderUS
RTD resistance to temperature
Industrial
IEC-751 Standard
ASTM-E1137 D-100
DIN 43760
EN-60751 JISC 1604 American American ITS-90
BS 1904 US Industrial
0 2.4202E+02
ASTM-E1137 2.3820E+02 2.3818E+02
Standard 2.3864E+02
US Industrial 2.3791E+02
1 EN-60751
2.2228E+00 JISC 1604
2.1898E+00 D-100 American Standard
2.1956E+00 American
2.1973E+00 ITS-90
2.2011E+00
2
0 2.4202E+02
2.5857E-03 2.3820E+02
2.5226E-03 2.3818E+02
2.4413E-03 2.3864E+02 2.3223E-03
2.4802E-03 2.3791E+02
3
1 4.8266E-06
2.2228E+00 4.7825E-06
2.1898E+00 4.7517E-06
2.1956E+00 4.7791E-06
2.1973E+00 4.6280E-06
2.2011E+00
4
2
2.8152E-08
2.5857E-03 2.7009E-08
2.5226E-03 2.3831E-08
2.4413E-03 2.5157E-08
2.4802E-03 1.9702E-08
2.3223E-03
5
3
1.5224E-10 1.4719E-10
4.8266E-06 4.7825E-06 1.3492E-10
4.7517E-06 1.4020E-10
4.7791E-06 1.1831E-10
4.6280E-06
4 2.8152E-08 2.7009E-08 2.3831E-08 2.5157E-08 1.9702E-08
5 1.5224E-10
Example 1.4719E-10 1.3492E-10 1.4020E-10 1.1831E-10
Find the temperature given an ITS-90 PT100 resistance of 60 .
Answer
Example
0 60 0 00 60 0 60
Find the temperature given an
ITS-90
0 60PT100
resistance of 60 .
6
Answer
60 60 60
60

73
Diode equation vs. temperature

nkT I nkT I
V n n (100) Diode(95)
voltage
Diode voltage
q I q I
Where
Where
VD = diode
nkT voltageI vs. nkT
temperature
I and current
VVD=
n dioden
=diode voltage
vs.temperature and1 current
n from (95) Diode voltage
q ideality
I-23

factor (ranges
q I
to 2)
n k==diode
1.38 xideality
10 J/K, Boltzmanns
factor constant
(ranges from 1 to 2)
k Where
= 1.38 x 10-23 -19 J/K, Boltzmanns constant
q
VD= =1.60 x 10
diode voltageC, charge of an electron
vs. temperature and current
TI==temperature
forward diode in current
Kelvin in amps
n = diode ideality factor (ranges from 1 to 2)
-19
qkIS===1.60
saturation
1.38xx1010 current
-23 C, charge of an electron
J/K, Boltzmanns constant
I= T forward
= temperature in Kelvinin amps
diode current
-19 qV
q
I =1.60
T x 10

C, charge
of an electron (96) Saturation current
IS = saturation current

nkT
I = forward diode current in amps
Where
qV
T
I =constant related
tothe cross sectional area of the
(101) junction
Saturation Saturation current
(96) current
nkT
VG = diode voltage vs. temperature and current
Where -23
IkS == 1.38
Where
x 10 current
saturation J/K, Boltzmanns constant
T=
= constant
related
IS = saturation-19 currentto the cross sectional area of the junction
q = =1.60
V diodex 10 C, charge
voltage of an electron
vs. temperature and current
G
= constant related to the cross sectional area of the junction
VkG == 1.38
diodex voltage
-23
10 J/K, vs.Boltzmanns
temperatureconstant
and current
n T= =diode
ideality factor (ranges from 1 to 2)
-19
q = 1.60 x 10-23 C, charge of an electron
k = 1.38 x 10 J/K, Boltzmanns constant
q = 1.60 x 10-19 C, charge of an electron

74
Diode voltage versus temperature

Figure 50 shows an example of the temperature drift for a diode.
Depending on the characteristics of the diode and the forward current
the Diode
slopevoltage versus temperature
and offset of this curve will change. However, typical diode drift
is about 2mV/C. A forward drop of about 0.6V is typical for
Figure 50 shows an example of the temperature drift for a diode. Depending on the
room temperature.
characteristics of the diode and the forward current the slope and offset of this curve
will change. However, typical diode drift is about 2mV/C. A forward drop of about
0.6V is typical for room temperature.
Figure 50: Diode voltage

Figuredrop vs. temperature
50: Diode voltage drop vs. temperature
75

Type J thermocouples translating temperature to voltage

(ITS-90 standard)
Type J thermocouples translating temperature to voltage (ITS-90 standard)

Thermoelectric
V (102) Thermoelectric voltage (97)
voltage

Where
Where
VV T = thermoelectric voltage
T = thermoelectric voltage
T = temperature in degrees Celsius
T = temperature in degrees Celsius
ci = translation coefficients
Table 24: Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage
Table 25: Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
219 to 760 760temperature
Type J thermocouple to 1,200to voltage
c0 0.0000000000E+00
219C to 760C2.9645625681E+05 760C to 1,200C
c1
c0 5.0381187815E+01 1.4976127786E+03
0.0000000000E+00 2.9645625681E+05
c2
c 3.0475836930E-02
5.0381187815E+013.1787103924E+00 1.4976127786E+03
1
c3 8.5681065720E-05 3.1847686701E-03
c2 3.0475836930E-02 3.1787103924E+00
c4 1.3228195295E-07 1.5720819004E-06
c3 8.5681065720E-05 3.1847686701E-03
c5 1.7052958337E-10 3.0691369056E-10
c4 1.3228195295E-07 1.5720819004E-06
c6 2.0948090697E-13 --
c 1.7052958337E-10 3.0691369056E-10
c75 1.2538395336E-16 --
c6
c8 2.0948090697E-13
1.5631725697E-20 --
c7 1.2538395336E-16
c8 1.5631725697E-20
76
Type J thermocouples translating voltage to temperature

(ITS-90 standard)
Type J thermocouples translating voltage to temperature (ITS-90 standard)
V (103) Temperature (98) Temperature

Table 25: Type J thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients

Table 26: Type J thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients
Type J thermocouple voltage to temperature
Type J thermocouple temperature to voltage
219C to 0C 0C to 760C 760C to 1,200C
219C to 0C 0C to 760C 760C to 1,200C
c0 0.000000000E+00 0.000000000E+00 3.113581870E+03
c0 0.000000000E+00 0.000000000E+00 3.113581870E+03
c1 1.952826800E-02 1.978425000E-02 3.005436840E-01
c1 1.952826800E-02 1.978425000E-02 3.005436840E-01
c2 1.228618500E-06 2.001204000E-07 9.947732300E-06
c2 1.228618500E-06 2.001204000E-07 9.947732300E-06
c3 1.075217800E-09 1.036969000E-11 1.702766300E-10
c3 1.075217800E-09 1.036969000E-11 1.702766300E-10
c4 5.908693300E-13 2.549687000E-16 1.430334680E-15
cc5
4 5.908693300E-13
1.725671300E-16 2.549687000E-16
3.585153000E-21 1.430334680E-15
4.738860840E-21
cc6
5 1.725671300E-16
2.813151300E-20 3.585153000E-21
5.344285000E-26 4.738860840E-21
--
cc7
6 2.813151300E-20
2.396337000E-24 5.344285000E-26
5.099890000E-31 --
cc8
7 8.382332100E-29
2.396337000E-24 --
5.099890000E-31 --
c8 8.382332100E-29

Type K thermocouples translating temperature to voltage

(ITS-90 standard) translating temperature to voltage (ITS-90 standard)
Type K thermocouples
V (99) Thermoelectric
(104) Thermoelectric voltage
voltage for T<0C
for T<0

V e
(105) Thermoelectric voltage forT>0C
(100) Thermoelectric voltage
forT>0
Where
VT = thermoelectric voltage
Where
VTT==temperature in degrees
thermoelectric voltage Celsius
Tci == temperature
translation coefficients
in degrees Celsius
0, 1 = translation coefficients
Table 26: Type K thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
0, 1 = translation coefficients
219C to 760C 760C to 1,200C
c0 27: Type
Table 0.0000000000E+00 1.7600413686E+01
K thermocouple temperature to voltage coefficients
c1 3.9450128025E+01 3.8921204975E+01
219C to 760C 760C to 1,200C
c2 2.3622373598E-02 1.8558770032E-02
c0 0.0000000000E+00 1.7600413686E+01
c 3 3.2858906784E-04 9.9457592874E-05
cc41 3.9450128025E+01 3.1840945719E-07 3.8921204975E+01
4.9904828777E-06
cc52 2.3622373598E-02 5.6072844889E-10 1.8558770032E-02
6.7509059173E-08
cc6 5.7410327428E-10
3.2858906784E-04 5.6075059059E-13 9.9457592874E-05
3
c7 3.1088872894E-12 3.2020720003E-16
c4 4.9904828777E-06 3.1840945719E-07
c8 1.0451609365E-14 9.7151147152E-20
c 6.7509059173E-08 5.6072844889E-10
c9 5 1.9889266878E-17 1.2104721275E-23
cc
106
5.7410327428E-10
1.6322697486E-20 -- 5.6075059059E-13
c07 3.1088872894E-12
-- 1.1859760000E+02 3.2020720003E-16
c1 --
1.0451609365E-141.1834320000E-04 9.7151147152E-20
8
c9 1.9889266878E-17 1.2104721275E-23
c10 1.6322697486E-20
0 1.1859760000E+02
1 1.1834320000E-04
78
Type K thermocouples translating voltage to temperature

(ITS-90 standard)
Type K thermocouples translating voltage to temperature (ITS-90 standard)
V (106) Temperature (101) Temperature

Table 27: Type K thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients

Table 28: Type K thermocouple voltage to temperature coefficients
219C to 0C 0C to 760C 760C to 1,200C
219C to 0C 0C to 760C 760C to 1,200C
c0 0.0000000E+00 0.0000000E+00 1.3180580E+02
c0 0.0000000E+00 0.0000000E+00 1.3180580E+02
c1 2.5173462E-02 2.5083550E-02 4.8302220E-02
c1 2.5173462E-02 2.5083550E-02 4.8302220E-02
c2 1.1662878E-06 7.8601060E-08 1.6460310E-06
c2c3 1.1662878E-06
1.0833638E-09
7.8601060E-08
2.5031310E-10
1.6460310E-06
5.4647310E-11
c3c4 1.0833638E-09
8.9773540E-13 2.5031310E-10
8.3152700E-14 5.4647310E-11
9.6507150E-16
c4c5 8.9773540E-13
3.7342377E-16 8.3152700E-14
1.2280340E-17 9.6507150E-16
8.8021930E-21
c5c6 8.6632643E-20
3.7342377E-16 9.8040360E-22
1.2280340E-17 3.1108100E-26
8.8021930E-21
c6c7 1.0450598E-23
8.6632643E-20 4.4130300E-26
9.8040360E-22 --
3.1108100E-26
c7c8 5.1920577E-28
1.0450598E-23 1.0577340E-30
4.4130300E-26 --
c9 -- 1.0527550E-35 --
c8 5.1920577E-28 1.0577340E-30
c9 1.0527550E-35

Table 29: Seebeck coefficients for different material
Seebeck Seebeck Seebeck

Material coefficient Material coefficient Material coefficient
Aluminum 4 Gold 6.5 Rhodium 6
Antimony 47 Iron 19 Selenium 900
Bismuth 72 Lead 4 Silicon 440
Cadmium 7.5 Mercury 0.6 Silver 6.5
Carbon 3 Nichrome 25 Sodium 2.0
Constantan 35 Nickel 15 Tantalum 4.5
Copper 6.5 Platinum 0 Tellurium 500
Germanium 300 Potassium 9.0 Tungsten 7.5
Note: Units are V/C. All data at temperature of 0C

A/D Conversion A/D conversion
Binary/hex conversions
A/D and D/A transfer function
Quantization error
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
Signal-to-noise and distortion (SINAD)
Total harmonic distortion (THD)
Effective number of bits (ENOB)
Noise-free resolution and effective resolution
A/D conversion
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A/D Conversion ti.com/precisionlabs
Numbering systems: Binary, decimal, and hexadecimal

Binary (Base-2) 0 1
Decimal (Base-10) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Hexadecimal (Base-16) 01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
2(1000) + 3(100) + 4(10) + 1(1) = 2,341

MSD = Most significant digit
2(1000) + 3(100) + 4(10) + 1(1) = 2,341

Example conversion:
Example conversion: Binary todecimal
Binary to decimal
MSD = Most significant digit

Example conversion: Binary to decimal
Binary Decimal
Binary Decimal
=
=
LSD LSD
8+4+0+1
8+4+0+1
Example conversion: Decimal to binary
Example conversion:
Example conversion:Decimal
Decimalto binary
to binary
Decimal Binary
Decimal Binary
LSD
=
=
LSD
128+64+32+8+4=236
MSD 128+64+32+8+4=236
A/D conversion
LSD = Least Significant Digit

MSD = Most Significant Digit
ti.com/adcs
ti.com/precisionlabs A/D Conversion
Example conversion: Binary

Example to hexadecimal
conversion: Binary to hexadecimal
Binary
Example conversion: Binary

MSD to hexadecimal LSD
128 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 217
Hexadecimal
Conversion
128 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 217
8 + 4 + 1 = 13 (D) 8 8++14=+91 = 13 (D) 8+1=9
161 160
161 160
Hexadecimal
D 9
D 9 MSD LSD
MSD 208 + 9 = 217
208 + 9 = 217
Example Conversion: Hexadecimal to decimal
and
Example Conversion: decimal totohexadecimal
Hexadecimal binary
Decimal (Base-10) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal (Base-16)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A BCDE F
Hexadecimal Decimal
x16 3 x16 2 x16 1 x16 0 16 9903 R = 15 (F)

LSD
16 618 R = 10 (A)
=
2 6 A F 16 38 R = 6 (6)
16 38 R = 2 (2)
MSD LSD
LSD MSD
2(4096) + 6(256) + 10(16) + 16(1) = 9903
LSD = Least Significant Digit

MSD = Most Significant Digit83
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A/D Converter with PGA

5V
VREF
FSR PGA ADC Digital
0 to 2.5V x2 12 bits I/O
ADC in
0 to 5V
Figure 51: ADC full-scale range (FSR) unipolar
Full Scale Range (FSR) Unipolar

VREF
FSR =
PGA
FSR
1LSB =
2n
Example calculation for the circuit above.
VREF 5V
FSR = = = 2.5V
PGA 2
FSR 2.5V
1LSB = = = 610.35V
2n 212
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A/D Converter with PGA

2.5V
VREF
FSR PGA ADC Digital
0 to 1.25V x2 12 bits I/O
ADC in
0 to 2.5V
Figure 52: ADC full-scale range (FSR) Bipolar
Full Scale Range (FSR) Bipolar

VREF
FSR =
PGA
FSR
1LSB =
2n
Example calculation for the circuit above.

VREF 2.5V
FSR = = = 1.25V 2.5V
PGA 2
FSR 2.5V
1LSB = = = 610.35V
2n 212
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Table 30: Different data formats
Code Straight binary Offset binary 2s complement

Binary Decimal value Decimal value Decimal value
11111111 255 127 1
11000000
Code
192
Straight binary
64
Offset binary
64
2s complement
Binary
10000000 128Decimal value Decimal
0 value Decimal 128
value
11111111 255 127 1
01111111 127 1 127
11000000
Code 192
Straight binary Offset 64
binary 64
2s complement
01000000
10000000
Binary 64Decimal
128value 640value
Decimal 128
Decimal 64
value
01111111
11111111
00000000 0 127
255 1
127
128 127 0
1
01000000
11000000 64
192 64
64 64
64
00000000
10000000 1280 128
0 1280
01111111 127 1 127
Converting twos complement to decimal:
01000000 64 64 64
Convertingtwoscomplementtodecimal:
Negative number example
00000000 0 128 0
Negativenumberexample
SIGN x4 x2 x1
Negativenumberexample
Step 1: Check sign bit
This case is negative 1 x40
SIGN 1 x11
x2
MSD LSD
Step 1: Check sign bit
This case is negative 1 0 1 1
Step 2: Invert all bits 0 1 0 0
MSD
Step 2: Invert all bits 0 1 0 0

Step 3: Add 1 0 1 0 1
Step
Final3result
: Add 1 0(4+1)=
1 0 51
Final result (4+1)= 5
Positivenumberexample
Converting twos complement to decimal:
Positive number example
PositivenumberexampleSIGN x4 x2 x1
Just add bit weights 0 x41

SIGN 0 x11
x2
MSD
Just add bit weights
Final result
0 4+1=5
1 0 1
MSD LSD
Final result 4+1=5
84 ti.com/adcs
84
Table 31: LSB voltage vs. resolution and reference voltage
FSR Reference
(Full-Scale Range)
voltage
1.024V 1.25V 2.048V 2.5V
8 4 mV 4.88 mV 8 mV 9.76 mV
10 1 mV 1.22 mV 2 mV 2.44 mV
12 250 V 305 V 500 V 610 V
14 52.5 V 76.3 V 125 V 152.5 V
Resolution
16 15.6 V 19.1 V 31.2 V 38.14 V

18 3.91 V 4.77 V 7.81 V 9.53 V
20 0.98 V 1.19 V 1.95 V 2.384 V
22 244 nV 299 nV 488 nV 596 nV
24 61 nV 74.5 nV 122 nV 149 nV
Table 32: LSB voltage vs. resolution and reference voltage
FSR Reference
(Full-Scale Range)
voltage
3V 3.3V 4.096V 5V
8 11.7 mV 12.9 mV 16 mV 19.5 mV
10 2.93 mV 3.222 mV 4 mV 4.882 mV
12 732 V 806 V 1 mV 1.221 mV
14 183 V 201 V 250 V 305 V
Resolution
16 45.77 V 50.35 V 62.5 V 76.29 V

18 11.44 V 12.58 V 15.6 V 19.07 V
20 2.861 V 3.147 V 3.91 V 4.768 V
22 715 nV 787 nV 976 nV 1.192 V
24 179 nV 196 nV 244 nV 298 nV
ti.com/adcs
DAC definitions
DAC definitions
Resolution = n The number of bits used to quantify the output
Resolution
Codes == 2n
n
The The number
number of bits used
of input codetocombinations
quantify the output
Number of Codes = 2n The number of input code combinations
Reference voltage = V Sets the LSB voltage or current size and
Full-Scale Range output = FSRREF Sets the converter output range and the LSB voltage
LSB = FSR / 2 n converter rangestep size of each LSB
The voltage
n
LSB = V
Full-scale REF / voltage
output 2 = (2n 1) 1LSB The output voltage
Full-scale or current
output voltage of thestep
DAC size of each
Full-scale input code = 2n 1 code Largest code that can be written
n n
Transfer Function:
Full-scale code Vout==2Number
1 of Codes (FSR/2
The ) largest
Relationship
code between output
that can bevoltage
writtenand input code
Full-scale voltage = VREF 1LSB Full-scale output voltage of the DAC
n
Transfer function = VREF x (code/ 2 ) Relationship between input code and output
voltage or current
FSR = 5V
Full-scale
voltage = 4.98V
Output voltage (V)
Resolution
1LSB = 19mV Full-scale
code = 255
Resolution
= 8bits
Number of codes = 2n
Figure
Figure 51: DAC transfer 53: DAC transfer function
function
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88 86
ADC definitions
Resolution = n The number of bits used to quantify the output
ADC
Codesdefinitions
=2
n
The number of input code combinations
Reference
Resolution = nvoltage = VREF Sets theTheLSB voltage
number of bitsorused
current sizethe
to quantify and
input
Number of Codes = 2n converterTherange
number of output code combinations
n
Full-Scale
LSB = VRange input
REF / (2 = FSR
1) Sets the
The voltage converter
step size of input rangecode.
each and the LSB voltage
Note that
n
LSB = FSR / 2 The voltage step
some topologies maysize use of 2 n
eachasLSB
opposed to
Full-scale input voltage = (2n 1) 1LSB 2n 1 inFull-scale input voltage of the ADC
the denominator.
n
Full-scale output code = n 2 1 Largest code that can be read
Full-scale code = 2 1 The largest code that can be written.
Transfer Function: Number of Codes = Vin / (FSR/2n) Relationship between input voltage and output code
Full-scale voltage = VREF Full-scale output voltage of the DAC. Note that
the full-scale voltage will differ if the alternative
definition for resolution is used.
n
Transfer function = VREF x (code/ 2 ) Relationship between input code and output
voltage or current
Full-scale
code=255
Input voltage (V)

Full-scale
Range
FSR = 5V
Figure
Figure 52: ADC transfer 54: ADC transfer function
function
87
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Quantization error of ADC

Quantization error of ADC
Quantization error
Figure 53: Quantization error of an A/D converter
Figure 55: Quantization error of an A/D converter
Quantization error
The error introduced as a result of the quantization process. The amount of this error
is a function of the resolution of the converter. The quantization error of an A/D
Quantization error
converter is LSB. The quantization error signal the difference between the actual
The error introduced
voltage applied andastheaADC
result of the
output quantization
(Figure 53). The rmsprocess. The amount
of the quantization signal of
is
this error is
1LSB12 a function of the resolution of the converter. The quantization
error of an A/D converter is LSB. The quantization error signal is the
difference between the actual voltage applied and the ADC output
(Figure 55). The rms of the quantization signal is 1LSB 12
88
ti.com/adcs
Signal-to-noise ratio
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
(SNR) from quantization
from quantization noise only noise only
FSR/2 1LSB 2
MaxRMSSignal (102)
(107)
2 2
1LSB
RMSNoise from quantization only (103)
(108)
12
MaxRMSSignal 1LSB 2 /2
SNR 2 6 (109)
(104)
RMSNoise 1LSB12
6
SNRdB 2logSNR 2 log2N 2log (110)
(105)
2
SNRdB 62N 16 (106)

(111)
Where
FSR = full-scale range of the A/D converter
Where n
1LSB = the voltage of 1LSB, VREF/2
FSR = full-scale range of the A/D converter
N = the resolution of the A/D converter
MaxRMSSignal
1LSB = the voltage= the rms equivalent
of 1LSB, VREF/2n of the ADCs full-scale input
RMSNoise = the rms noise from quantization
NSNR
= the= resolution
the ratio ofofrms
thesignal
A/D converter
to rms noise
MaxRMSSignal = the rms equivalent of the ADCs full-scale input
RMSNoise = the rms noise from quantization
Example
SNR = the ratio of rms signal to rms noise
What is the SNR for an 8-bit A/D converter with 5V reference, assuming only
quantization noise?
Answer
Example
SNR is2
What the6 2
SNR for6an8-bit
314 A/D converter with 5V reference,
assuming only quantization noise?
SNRdB 2log314 4 dB
Answer
SNR = 2N-1
SNRdB 6 = 28-1
628 16
6 =314
4 dB
SNR(dB) = 20log(314) = 49.9 dB
SNR(dB) = 6.02(8) + 1.76 = 49.9 dB
ti.com/adcs
89
Total harmonic distortion (Vrms)

RMSDistortion V V V V (112)
% 100 100 (107)
MaxRMSSignal V
RMSDistortion (113)
THD dB (108)
MaxRMSSignal
Where RMSDistortion V V V V
THD = total harmonic
% distortion, the 100 100rms(107)
ratio of the rmsVdistortion to the signal
Where MaxRMSSignal
RMSDistortion = the rms sum of all harmonic components
MaxRMSSignal = thedistortion,
rms value the ratio
of the
RMSDistortion of the
input rms distortion to the rms signal
signal
THD dB (108)
V1 = the fundamental,
RMSDistortion = the rmsgenerally
sum of the
MaxRMSSignalinput signal
all harmonic components
V2, V3, V4, Vn = harmonics of the fundamental
MaxRMSSignal = the rms value of the input signal
Where
THD = total harmonic distortion, the ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal
V1 = the fundamental, generally
RMSDistortion = the rmsthe
suminput signal components
of all harmonic
MaxRMSSignal = the rms value of the input signal
V2, V3, V4, V = harmonics of the fundamental
V n= the fundamental, generally the input signal
1
V2, V3, V4, Vn = harmonics of the fundamental
Figure 56:and
Figure 54: Fundamental Fundamental
harmonicsand harmonics in Vrms
in Vrms
Figure 54: Fundamental and harmonics in Vrms
ti.com/adcs
90
90
Total harmonic distortion (dBc)


THD(dBc) (114) (109)

(109)
Where
WhereTHDWhere
= total harmonic distortion. The ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal
THD D = total harmonic distortion. The ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal
1 = the fundamental, generally the input signal. This is normalized to 0 dBc
THD = total harmonic distortion. The ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal
D ,
D1 = the DD , D 4, Dn = harmonics
fundamental, of the
generally the fundamental
input signal. Thismeasured relative
is normalized to 0to the
dBc
1 = the fundamental, generally the input signal. This is normalized to 0 dBc
2 3
fundamental
D 2, D3, D4, Dn = harmonics of the fundamental measured relative to the
D2, D3, D4, Dn = harmonics of the fundamental measured relative to
fundamental
the fundamental
Figure Figure 57: Fundamental

55: 55:
Fundamental andand andin
harmonics harmonics
dBc in dBc
Figure Fundamental harmonics in dBc
Example
Example
Determine THDTHD
Determine for the example
for the above.
example above.
Example
Answer
Answer
Determine THD for the example above.

Answer
) -75
) -95
) -110
)
-92
) ) ) )
10 10

=
THD(dBc) 10

10 log 10 +10
10
+10 + ... +10
THD(dBc) = -74.76 dB
ti.com/adcs
Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 91 93
91
Ac signals
Ac signals
Signal-to-noise and distortion (SINAD) and effective number of bits (ENOB)
MaxRMSSignal
SINADdB 20 log (110)
(115)
RMSNoise RMSDisorion

SINADdB 20log 10 (116)

10 (111)
SINADdB 1.76dB (117)

NB (112)
6.02
Where
MaxRMSSignal = the rms equivalent of the ADCs full-scale input
Where
RMSNoise = the=rms
MaxRMSSignal the noise integratedofacross
rms equivalent the A/D
the ADCs converters
full-scale input
RMSDistortion = the rms sum of all harmonic components
RMSNoise = the
SINAD = the ratiorms noise
of the integrated
full-scale across the A/D
signal-to-noise ratioconverters
and distortion
RMSDistortion = the rms distortion.
sum of The ratio of the
all harmonic rms distortion to the rms signal.
components
SINAD = the ratio of the full-scale signal-to-noise ratio and distortion
THD = total harmonic distortion. The ratio of the rms distortion to the rms signal.
Example
Calculate the SNR, THD, SINAD and ENOB given the following information:
MaxRMSSignal = 1.76 Vrms
Example
RMSDistortion
Calculate the = 50 Vrms
SNR, THD, SINAD and ENOB given the following
RMSNoise = 100 Vrms
information:
MaxRMSSignal = 1.76 Vrms
Answer
RMSDistortion = 50 Vrms
RMSNoise = 100 1.76 Vrms
Vrms
SNRdB 20 log . dB
100 Vrms
Answer
50 Vrms
1.76 Vrms
THDdB
SNR dB 20 log 0. dB
1.76 Vrms
1.76V rms
SINADdB
THD dB 20 log . dB
100 Vrms 50 Vrms
1.76 Vrms
.1.76V
rms
.
SINAD dB 20 log 10
SINADdB 10 . dB
.dB 1.76dB
NB
SINADdB 1.65
10
6.02
6.02
ti.com/adcs
92
Dcsignals
Dc signals
Noise free resolution and effective resolution
2
Noisereeesotion o (118)(113)
PeaktoPeakNoiseinLSB
2
etieesotion o
rmsNoiseinLSB
(119)(114)
PeaktoPeakNoiseinLSB 6.6 rmsNoiseinLSB (120)(115)
etieesotion Noisereeesotion 2.7 (121)(116)
Note: The maximum effective resolution is never greater than the ADC resolution.
For example,
Note: a 24-biteffective
The maximum converter cannot have
resolution an effective
is never resolution
greater than greater
the ADC than
resolution.
Forbits.
24 example, a 24-bit converter cannot have an effective resolution greater
than 24 bits.
Example
Example
What is the noise-free resolution and effective resolution for a 24-bit converter
What is the
assuming the noise-free
peak-to-peakresolution
noise is 7and effective resolution for a
LSBs?
24-bit converter assuming the peak-to-peak noise is 7 LSBs?
Answer

Answer 2
Noisereeesotion o 2.2
72
7
2
etieesotion o 2.
7
2
6.6
7
6.6
etieesotion 2.2 2.7 2.
ti.com/adcs
93 95
Time Constant
R VIN A/D
VIN C
Figure 58: Settling time for RC circuit-related to A/D converters
Figure 56: Settling time for RC circuit-related to A/D converters

Table 33: Conversion accuracy achieved after a specified time
Table 32: Conversion accuracy achieved after a specified time
Settling time in time Settling time in time
Settling time
constants (NTC)in Accuracy in bits (N)Settling constants
time in (NTC) Accuracy in bits
time constants Accuracy in time constants Accuracy in
(N1 ) 1.44
bits (NTC) 10 bits 14.43
TC
21 1.442.89 10 11 14.43 15.87
32 2.894.33 11 12 15.87 17.31
3 4.33 12 17.31
4 5.77 13 18.76
4 5.77 13 18.76
55 7.21 14 14 20.20
7.21 20.20
66 8.668.66 15 15 21.64 21.64
77 10.10
10.10 16 16 23.08 23.08
88 11.54
11.54 17 17 24.53 24.53
9 12.98 18 25.97
9 12.98 18 25.97
(122) (117)
Where
Where
N = the number of bits of accuracy the RC circuit has settled to after NTC number of
N = the number of bits of accuracy the RC circuit has settled to after NTC number of
time constants.
time constants.
NTC = the number of RC time constants
NTC = the number of RC time constants
Note: For a FSR step. For single-ended input ADC with no PGA front end
FSR (Full Scale Range) = VREF
ti.com/adcs
94
Table 34: Time required to settle to a specified conversion accuracy

Table in
Accuracy 33: Time required
bits to settle
Settling time in timeto a specified
Accuracyconversion
in bits accuracy
Settling time in time
(N) constants (N
Settling time inTC ) (N) Settling timeconstants
in (NTC)
Accuracy
8 time constants
5.5 Accuracy 17 time constants 11.78
in bits (N) (NTC) in bits (N) (NTC)
9 6.24 18 12.48
8 5.55 17 11.78
10 9 6.93
6.24 18 19 12.48 13.17
11 10 6.93
7.62 19 20 13.17 13.86
11 7.62 20 13.86
12 8.32 21 14.56
12 8.32 21 14.56
13 13 9.01
9.01 22 22 15.25 15.25
14 14 9.70
9.70 23 23 15.94 15.94
15 15 10.40
10.40 24 24 16.64 16.64
16 11.09 25 17.33
16 11.04 25 17.33
N (123) (118)
Where
NTC = the number of time constants required to achieve N bits of settling
Where
N the
NTC = = the number
number ofof bitsconstants
time of accuracy
required to achieve N bits of settling
N = the number of bits of accuracy
Note: For a FSR step. For single-ended input ADC with no PGA front end
FSR (Full Scale Range) = VREF
ti.com/adcs
95
Notes
6
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TI warrants performance of its components to the specifications applicable at the time of sale, in accordance with the
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changes to its semiconductor products and services per JESD46, latest issue, and to discontinue any product or service per JESD48, latest
issue. Buyers should obtain the latest relevant information before placing orders and should verify that such information is current and
complete. All semiconductor products (also referred to herein as components) are sold subject to TIs terms and conditions of sale
supplied at the time of order acknowledgment.
TI warrants performance of its components to the specifications applicable at the time of sale, in accordance with the warranty in TIs terms
and conditions of sale of semiconductor products. Testing and other quality control techniques are used to the extent TI deems necessary
to support this warranty. Except where mandated by applicable law, testing of all parameters of each component is not necessarily
performed.
TI assumes no liability for applications assistance or the design of Buyers products. Buyers are responsible for their products and
applications using TI components. To minimize the risks associated with Buyers products and applications, Buyers should provide
adequate design and operating safeguards.
TI does not warrant or represent that any license, either express or implied, is granted under any patent right, copyright, mask work right, or
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Analog Engineers

34013KPCover_CS6_final.indd 1 6/5/15 5:32 PM

34013KPCover_CS6_final.indd 2 6/5/15 5:32 PM

Art Kay and Tim Green

Special thanks for technical contribution and review:

Copyright 2014, 2015 Texas Instruments Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 3

4 Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 7

Table 1: Physical constants

Table 2: Standard decimal prefixes

8 Texas Instruments Analog Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Table 3: Imperial to metric conversions

Table 4: Metric to imperial conversions

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 9

Table 5: Temperature conversions

10 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Resistor color code

11 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Table 7: Resistor color code

4 Band example: yellow violet orange silver indicate 4, 7, and 3 zeros.

Figure 1: Resistor color code

12 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Practical capacitor model and specifications

Figure 2: Model of a practical capacitor

Table 9: Capacitor specifications

14 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Practical capacitors vs. frequency

Practical capacitors vs. frequency

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 15

Table 10: Capacitor type overview

Capacitor type Description

16 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Table 11: Standard capacitance table

Figure 4: Capacitor 22 000 pF

Table 12: Ceramic capacitor tolerance markings

Table 13: EIA capacitor tolerance markings (Type 2 capacitors)

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 17

Diodes and LEDs

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Figure 5: Diode and LED pin names

Color Wavelength (nm) Voltage (approximate range)

18 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 19

C (3) Parallel capacitors

V (4) Charge storage

(5) Charge defined

20 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 21

Figure 7: RC charge curve

Figure 6: RC charge curve

Figure 8: RC discharge curve

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 23

Figure 9: Full wave rectified sine wave

24 Texas Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference

RMS for a half-wave

V Mean for a half-wave

Figure 10: Half-wave Figure 9: sine

Figure 11: Square wave Figure 10: Square wave

Texas Instruments Analog Engineer's Pocket Reference 25

RMS voltage and mean voltage