2008 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 103, pp. 939956

Root Zones of Porphyry Systems: Extending the Porphyry Model to Depth

ERIC SEEDORFF, MARK D. BARTON, WILLIAM J. A. STAVAST,* AND DAVID J. MAHER
Center for Mineral Resources, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, 1040 East Fourth Street, Tucson, Arizona 85721-0077

Abstract
The root zone of a porphyry system is a specific region beneath a porphyry orebody that was a site of focused
fluid flow, as evidenced by abundant quartz veins, widespread wall-rock alteration, or porphyry dikes merging
downward into a porphyritic granite cupola. These zones constitute an important source region of ore fluids
and other components, and in certain geologic terrains the characteristics of root zones may point to previously
undiscovered deposits.
The root zones of four Laramide porphyry copper systems in Arizona recently have been characterized at a
reconnaissance level: the Miami Inspiration system associated with the Schultze Granite, the Sierrita-Esper-
anza system associated with the Ruby Star Granodiorite, the Ray system associated with the Granite Mountain
pluton, and the Kelvin-Riverside system associated with the Tea Cup pluton. The two well-studied root zones
related to the Jurassic Yerington batholith in Nevada, and associated with the Yerington mine and the Ann-
Mason deposit, provide a basis of comparison. All six systems occur in areas with unusually large exposures in
both lateral and vertical paleodirections, locally to paleodepths of >10 km, because of postore extensional fault-
ing and associated tilting. No two systems are alike, but many share the presence of the following hydrother-
mal characteristics: quartz veins and potassic alteration, sodic-calcic and sodic alteration, calcic alteration, and
relatively coarse grained muscovite-quartz (greisen). Quartz veins and potassic alteration are focused centrally,
directly above related cupolas; sodic-calcic and sodic alteration, calcic alteration, and evidence for leaching of
silica are observed on the deep flanks of certain systems; and greisen occurs directly beneath ore within and
beneath coeval cupolas in many systems. Certain systems exhibit evidence of multiple cycles of release of mag-
matic fluid followed by incursion of saline ground waters, which are analogous to the biological cycle of exhale-
inhale, respectively.
The characteristics of the root zones provide important constraints on the exsolution and transport of the
magmatic aqueous phase that leads to ore formation, the variable incursion of external fluids into the hy-
drothermal system, and the degassing of magmatic volatiles that may not be related directly to porphyry ore
formation. The most robust conclusions are drawn from the localities that offer the greatest quality of exposure
and degree of continuity (including compelling structural reconstructions) between the roots and the ore de-
posit, from the studies that identify timelines linking processes in the roots with those in the mineral deposit,
and from systems in which the deposit itself is well characterized.

Introduction known. Likewise, the distribution of metals within and near

EXPLORATION programs designed to discover porphyry de-
posits typically employ models that contain both empirical
and genetic components (Sillitoe and Thompson, 2006). De-
spite the diversity of porphyry systems, porphyries are widely
considered to be among the best modeled deposit types.
Since publication of the influential paper on tops and bottoms
of porphyry copper deposits (Sillitoe, 1973), the tops of por-
phyry systems (i.e., the region above the ore deposits) have
been investigated extensively. The tops of active and late
Cenozoic systems can be observed in modern arcs, with vary-
ing degrees of confidence in the genetic linkage between the
shallow environment and an underlying porphyry deposit
(Einaudi et al., 2003). The upper levels of systems can contain
clues about the nature of the underlying porphyry system
(Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994; Keith et al., 1997; See-
dorff et al., 2005a). In many geologic terrains, porphyry sys-
tems are explored almost exclusively from the top down.
Many aspects of the porphyry orebodies themselves are
poorly understood, as a recent review demonstrates (Seedorff
et al., 2005a). For instance, the space-time links between dif-
ferent vein types in single deposits typically are not well
Corresponding
author: e-mail: seedorff@email.arizona.edu
*Current address: Freeport Exploration, P.O. Box 1019, Safford, Arizona
85546.
orebodies is generally poorly documented, such that the
causes for different shapes of orebodies are not well known,
and our understanding of the controls on metal zoning in por-
phyry deposits is rudimentary. In addition, we have a poor un-
derstanding of the controls for the evolutionary paths of flu-
ids (e.g., why much of the copper is deposited in potassic
alteration assemblages with bornite magnetite in certain
porphyry copper deposits, whereas in other deposits the
potassic assemblages are barren and most of the copper is de-
posited at lower temperature in sericitic assemblages as chal-
copyrite + pyrite: Seedorff and Einaudi, 2004b). None of
these aspects of porphyry systems is incorporated explicitly in
models of porphyry deposits.
The bottoms of systems (i.e., the region below the ore de-
posits) are rarely described, yet multiple lines of evidence in-
dicate that the metal-bearing fluids that precipitated metals
in porphyry deposits rose from below (e.g., Gustafson and
Hunt, 1975; Burnham, 1979; Dilles, 1987; Carten et al., 1988;
Redmond et al., 2004). The magmatic systems likely continue
for many kilometers beneath the orebody, into and perhaps
beneath a cogenetic batholith. A critical region is the root
zone of the hydrothermal system, where porphyry bodies
broke through the crystalline carapace of cupolas on the un-
derlying magma chamber during their rise to shallower levels
(Carten, 1986; Dilles and Einaudi, 1992).

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940 SEEDORFF ET AL.

This contribution describes the distinctive features of root
zones of porphyry systems based on simplified descriptions of
six examples, with an emphasis on new work by the authors
and their collaborators on four examples in Arizona (Fig. 1).
We discuss the relationship of root zones to higher levels in
the system and the diversity and complexities that result from
the dynamic and three-dimensional nature of porphyry sys-
tems. Certain distinctive features in the roots may be the
deep manifestation of the ore-forming process at higher lev-
els, whereas others largely may be unrelated to ore formation.
If the characteristics of root zones and their adjacent flanks
are incorporated into porphyry exploration models, then it
becomes possible to explore for ore virtually from the bot-
tom up or from the sides inward, as may be required in ter-
rains that are complicated by postore structure or deeply in-
cised topographically (Maher et al., 2005).
Depth Constraints and Value of Tilted Sections
In order to constrain the depth in magmatic-hydrothermal
systems, stratigraphic and structural markers are needed to
guide geologic reconstructions, or geochemical constraints
are required from mineral or fluid inclusion barometry. Most
porphyry deposits formed within 1 to 6 km of the surface, but
a few may have formed as deep as 10 km (Seedorff et al.,
2005a). Without depth constraints, it may not be possible to
distinguish between the deep portion of a system that was
emplaced at normal to shallow levels (e.g., top of orebody at
2 km) versus a system that was emplaced entirely at deep lev-
els (e.g., top of orebody at 6 km).
Few porphyry systems have a vertical exposure of more
than 2 km (fig. 9 of Seedorff et al., 2005a). In compact de-
posits such as the Henderson porphyry molybdenum de-
posit, this may encompass the entire orebody and barren re-
gions above and below. In the largest porphyry copper
deposits, however, the orebody may extend for several kilo-
meters vertically, beyond the levels of exposure, including
the deepest drill holes (e.g., Gustafson and Quiroga, 1995).
The complete porphyry system, ranging from the paleosur-
face to underlying magma body or bodies, has much greater
dimensions than the orebody in all porphyry deposits, re-
gardless of class of deposit or size ranking within the class.
The porphyry systems that have known vertical exposures
significantly greater than 2 km (e.g., Yerington and Ann-
Mason in the Yerington district, Nevada: Dilles et al., 2000;
Sierrita-Esperanza: Stavast et al., 2008) occur within tilted
sections created by normal faulting and associated tilting
(Seedorff et al., 2005a). In these systems, the present map
view generally represents one or more cross-sectional or
oblique sectional views through the crustal column at the
time of ore formation (Seedorff et al., 2005a). Nonetheless,
porphyry systems such as Cadia, New South Wales (Holliday
et al., 2002), Kerr, British Columbia (Bridge et al., 1996), and

Highly extended domains

Metamorphic core complexes
(showing extension direction)
Porphyry copper districts
(Tertiary, Laramide, mid-Mesozoic)

Limit of Basin and

Range Province
copper deposits
post-Laramide cover
Laramide igneous rocks
pre-Laramide rocks

FIG. 1. Location maps. A. Map of southwestern North America, showing the limit of the Basin and Range province, the
schematic representation of domains that were highly extended by Tertiary normal faulting, the positions of Cordilleran
metamorphic core complexes, and the locations of porphyry copper deposits, with the Yerington district labeled (modified
from Seedorff, 1991; Dickinson, 2002). B. Simplified geologic map of southern Arizona (see A for location), with locations
of four roots zones in Arizona and the cities of Phoenix, Tucson, and Nogales labeled (modified from Barton et al., 2005a).

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 ROOT ZONES OF PORPHYRY SYSTEMS
Potrerillos, Chile (Olson, 1989), were dismembered in con-
tractional tectonic settings, juxtaposing different levels of a
system across reverse faults (Seedorff et al., 2005a).
The root zone, here, refers not just to the pluton that is co-
genetic with a porphyry deposit, but rather to specific regions
beneath porphyry orebodies that were sites of focused fluid
flow, as evidenced by abundant quartz veins, widespread wall-
rock alteration, or porphyry dikes merging downward into a
porphyritic granite cupola. Previous workers in certain cir-
cumstances seem to use root zone to refer to the vicinity of
the bottom of the orebody (Durning and Davis, 1978), but
the cupola and associated root zone of the hydrothermal sys-
tem generally are located at still deeper levels by a kilometer
or more. In certain districts, such as the Robinson (Ely, Ruth)
district in eastern Nevada, a large body of granite or por-
phyritic granite that was cogenetic with the ore-related por-
phyries has been identified (the Weary Flat pluton of Bauer
et al., 1966; Westra, 1979; Seedorff et al., 1996), yet the root
zone of that system may be eroded, not yet exposed, or oth-
erwise unrecognized.
The classic examples of root zones are in the Yerington dis-
trict, Nevada (Figs. 1, 2A, B, 3A,B), where several Jurassic
porphyry copper deposits related to the Yerington batholith
are tilted ~90 to the west, primarily as a result of Miocene
and younger normal faulting (Proffett, 1977; Geissman et al.,
1982; Proffett and Dilles, 1984; Dilles et al., 2000). Both the
Yerington mine and Ann-Mason deposits are exposed contin-
uously in cross-sectional view downward, in the Jurassic
frame of reference, from above the top of the orebody into
the root zone. Tilted sections of Laramide (latest Cretaceous
to early Tertiary) porphyry copper systems, dismembered and
variably rotated by mid-Tertiary and younger normal faulting,
are exposed in southern and central Arizona (Maher et al.,
2002, 2005; Stavast et al., 2008), where the root zones of the
Miami Inspiration, Sierrita-Esperanza, Ray, and Kelvin-
Riverside deposits have been identified (Figs. 2C-F, 3C-F).
The Arizona systems are the subject of ongoing studies of
their structure, petrology, geochronology, space-time evolu-
tion of hydrothermal alteration, and geochemical evolution.
Descriptions of Root Zones
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the two Jurassic
systems from the Yerington district in Nevada and the four
Laramide systems in southern and central Arizona, which are
further described below.
Igneous characteristics
In those porphyry systems that have the appropriate expo-
sures, the associated igneous rocks exhibit characteristic
changes in texture as a function of depth (Ambrus, 1977;
Carten, 1986; Carten et al., 1988). The groundmass grain size
in mineralized porphyry intrusions tends to coarsen with
depth, with the texture eventually becoming seriate, then
porphyritic with a hypidiomorphic-granular matrix, and fi-
nally hypidiomorphic-granular or granitic. Individual por-
phyry intrusions are distinct bodies at the level of the ore de-
posit, the intrusion of each generally coincident with a
discrete fluid release event, but these stocks or dike swarms
merge downward into the same underlying pluton (Dilles,
1987). This domal region, known as the cupola (Emmons,
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941
1927; Dilles, 2000), is exposed in relatively few districts. Rock
fabrics indicate that rocks in the cupola were subjected to
transient periods of ductile deformation (Maher et al., 2005).
There also is local evidence in granitic rocks for miarolitic
cavities that might have contributed to synmagmatic porosity
(cf. Candela and Blevin, 1995; Candela and Piccoli, 2005).
The Luhr Hill Granite phase of the Yerington batholith, in-
ferred to be the source of both the Yerington mine system
(Fig. 2A) and the Ann-Mason system (Fig. 2B), is a large, rel-
atively homogeneous unit (Dilles, 1987). Sierrita-Esperanza
is related to a megacrystic phase of the Ruby Star Granodior-
ite (Fig. 2D), a large, homogeneous mass of hornblende-
biotite granodiorite (Lovering et al., 1970; Stavast et al.,
2008). The Schultze Granite at Miami Inspiration (Fig. 2C)
and the Granite Mountain pluton near Ray (Fig. 2E) are both
nearly hornblende-free biotite granites. Although the
Schultze Granite has a number of small intrusive units, both
the Schultze and Granite Mountain plutons contain large,
compositionally homogeneous masses (Barton et al., 2005a).
The cogenetic intrusion for the Kelvin-Riverside system, the
Tea Cup pluton (Fig. 2F), has a hornblende-biotite granodi-
oritic upper phase and a more silicic, biotite granodiorite be-
neath it (Barton et al., 2005a).
Hydrothermal characteristics
The six porphyry systems considered in this study (Fig. 1)
illustrate the diversity of hydrothermal characteristics that
should be incorporated in models of the bottoms of porphyry
copper systems (Table 1).
The terminology for alteration types, largely summarized
from Seedorff et al. (2005a), is presented in Table 2. Note
that calcic alteration is characterized by garnet, pyroxene, pla-
gioclase, and epidote in igneous protoliths. Calcic alteration
described here is similar to endoskarn (cf. Einaudi and Burt,
1982; Barton et al., 1991), but the term endoskarn is used
only where hydrothermal exchange across contacts between
igneous and carbonate rocks has occurred, with formation of
endoskarn-skarn couplets. In other cases of calcic alteration,
there is no evidence for carbonate protoliths in the vicinity.
Note also that the term greisen is used here, following Shaver
(1991), Reed (1997), Seedorff and Einaudi (2004a), and See-
dorff et al. (2005a), only as a textural modifier for coarse-
grained aggregates, generally of muscovite, quartz, and other
minerals. Thus, fluorine-bearing species (other than mus-
covite), such as topaz, need not be present for altered rock to
constitute greisen. Conversely, not all altered rocks with fluo-
rine-bearing minerals constitute greisen.
Yerington mine: As documented by Carten (1986), there
are two stacked cupolas at the Yerington mine (Figs. 2A, 3A,
4A). Several early, well-mineralized series of porphyry dikes
emanate from the older, shallower cupola. Potassic alteration
and associated quartz, biotite, and magnetite veins are devel-
oped intensely along the axis of the early dikes. Sodic-calcic
alteration and associated quartz, plagioclase, tourmaline, and
actinolite veins are localized along the crest and flanks of the
shallower cupola (Figs. 2A, 3A). Potassic and sodic-calcic al-
teration were broadly contemporaneous, but crosscutting re-
lationships in the vicinity of the crest of the older, shallower
cupola indicate that sodic-calcic alteration was superimposed
on potassic alteration at any given site (Carten, 1986).
942 SEEDORFF ET AL.

A Yerington mine B Ann-Mason Tertiary erosion surface

1-2 km
Limit of exposure in open pit
Tertiary erosion surface
Yerington Batholith,
limit of 1-2 km Qz monzodiorites

Approximae paleodepths
0.4% Cu Mesozoic
volcanic &
sedimentary Yerington

Approximae paleodepths
rocks Batholith,
Yerington Batholith, Yerington Batholith, granite
Qz monzodiorites granite porphyries porphyries

limit of
0.4% Cu

structural cover
(Tertiary volcanic
rocks)

Yerington Batholith, Yerington

Luhr Hill Granite 4-5 km Batholith,
Luhr Hill
4-5 km Granite

2,500 meters 2,500 meters

C Miami Inspiration 3-4 km
D Sierrita-Esperanza older
Mesozoic
rocks
2-3 km
limit of mining Esperanza & Sierrita
Schultze Granite granite porphyries

Approximae paleodepths
Approximae paleodepths

megacrystic
older phases of the Ruby Star
Schultze Granite granodiorite
Proterozoic equigranular total extent of
schist & diorite Ruby Star mineralized area
granodiorite

5-7 km
Schultze Granite
7-10 km

2,500 meters 2,500 meters

E Ray 2-3 km F Kelvin-Riverside
15

3-5 km
20

Granite
Mountain
porphyry
Cu(-Mo)
prospects Approximae paleodepths
Approximae paleodepths

mainly limit of mining Proterozoic

Proterozoic granitoids
schist

Granite Mountain granite

(fine-grained, porphyritic)

diorite Tea Cup

granodiorite Tea Cup
monzodiorite
Granite Mountain pluton 6-8 km
(grandiorite-granite) 6-7 km

2,500 meters 2,500 meters

45

FIG. 2. Present-day simplified geologic maps, all at the same scale, showing lithology and structure of the six porphyry cop-
per systems discussed in the text, simplified from references cited in the text. Although the systems are not reconstructed
(unfaulted, untilted), each map is oriented such that the top of the system at the time of formation is up on the page (the ori-
entation of north arrows varies between panels), so that the maps represent approximate cross sections or oblique sections
through each system. Although certain views span more than one fault block, approximate paleodepths near the top and bot-
tom of the exposed portions of systems are shown. A. Yerington mine, Yerington district, Nevada. B. Ann-Mason deposit,
Yerington district, Nevada. C. Miami Inspiration system, Globe-Miami district, Arizona. The view emphasizes the root zone,
and the western edge of the mine is at the top of the figure. D. Sierrita-Esperanza system, Arizona. E. Ray system, Ray (Min-
eral Creek) district, Arizona; note that the western edge of the mine is at top of the figure. F. Kelvin-Riverside district, Ari-
zona. The Kelvin prospect lies east of present exposure of cupola on Tea Cup pluton; the Riverside portion of the system lies
at structurally higher levels of the map, farther to the east.

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 ROOT ZONES OF PORPHYRY SYSTEMS 943

A Yerington mine B Ann-Mason Tertiary erosion

Tertiary erosion surface
surface

1-2 km
Tertiary erosion
Tertiary erosion surface
surface

1-2 km H+(-Na)

Approximate paleodepths
H+(-Na)
Biot

Approximate paleodepths
Kf

intense Na
Ca(-Na)
Kf
Na Biot
structural cover
Na-Ca (Tertiary
(Tertiary volcanic
volcanic
rocks)
Na-Ca
4-5 km
4-5 km
2,500 meters 2,500 meters
C Miami Inspiration 3-4 km
D Sierrita-Esperanza
H+
2-3 km
Greisen

Approximate paleodepths
Approximate paleodepths Biot
Na-Ca dispersed to
concentrated Kf

Kf Bi
Transitional
K-Ca(-Fe-Na)
intense
Na-Ca
5-7 km
7-10 km
Na-Ca
Greisen
Greisen
2,500 meters 2,500 meters
E Ray Kf 2-3 km F Kelvin-Riverside
15

H+ H+ H+ 3-5 km
20

Bi
Approximate paleodepths
Approximate paleodepths

Kf Na-Fe-H
Greisen

Bi
Kf

Na-Fe-H

Greisen Na-Ca Kf Bi
Na-Ca 6-8 km
6-7 km
Bi
2,500 meters 2,500 meters
45

FIG. 3. Present-day simplified geologic maps, all at the same scale, showing alteration overlays for the six porphyry cop-
per systems discussed in the text, for which the lithology and structure are shown in Figure 2. Abbreviations for alteration:
Biot = biotitic; Ca(-Na) = calcic sodic types, including calcic alteration; H+ = hydrolytic alteration, including sericite- and
chlorite-bearing sericitic types; H+(-Na) = hydrolytic and sodic types, including sericitic and sodic types; Greisen = mus-
covite-rich greisen; K-Ca(-Fe-Na) = transitional potassic-calcic and lesser sodic and iron oxide-rich; Kf = K-feldspar; Na =
sodic; Na-Ca = sodic-calcic; Na-Fe-H = Transitional sodic and iron-oxide-rich alteration containing albite, chlorite, and spec-
ular hematite magnetite. A. Yerington mine, Yerington district, Nevada. B. Ann-Mason deposit, Yerington district, Nevada.
C. Miami Inspiration system, Globe-Miami district, Arizona. D. Sierrita-Esperanza system, Arizona. E. Ray system, Ray
(Mineral Creek) district, Arizona. F. Kelvin-Riverside district, Arizona; greisen muscovite veins (not shown) are weakly de-
veloped at deep levels.

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 944

TABLE 1. Summary of Root Zones of Selected Porphyry Systems

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Porphyry system, Sodic-calcic and Quartz veins and Greisen Principal
associated pluton Igneous rocks Calcic alteration sodic alteration potassic alteration muscovite Comments reference

Yerington mine, Luhr Hill Granite Not reported Intensely developed Quartz veins fairly Not reported Two stacked Carten (1986)
Yerington batholith (a hornblende-biotite and widespread widely distributed, cupolas present
granite) and related including in cupola
porphyries

Ann-Mason, Luhr Hill Granite Endoskarn present, Intensely developed Quartz veins associated Not reported Excellent exposures Dilles and
Yerington batholith (a hornblende-biotite in part predating and widespread primarily with potassic beneath and lateral Einaudi
granite) and related emplacement of alteration and late to orebody (1992)
porphyries porphyry dikes sodic assemblages

Sierrita-Esperanza, Megacrystic phase of Not reported Intensely developed Quartz veins with Muscovite Exposures to Stavast et al.
Ruby Star Granodiorite Ruby Star pluton (a but pattern is K-feldspar envelopes (pyrite) veins paleodepths of (2008)
hornblende-biotite asymmetrical; present weakly ~12 km
granodiorite) and leaching of silica developed
related porphyries observed

944
Kelvin-Riverside, Upper phase of the Locally present on Widespread sodic Quartz veins with Muscovite Prospects present Barton et al.
Tea Cup pluton Tea Cup pluton (a flanks of system alteration but sodic- K-feldspar envelopes (pyrite) veins but no known orebody; (2005a)
SEEDORFF ET AL.

hornblende-biotite calcic is only locally present but mostly weakly exposures to ~12 km
granodiorite) and developed on flanks; restricted to top of developed paleodepth; flanks
related porphyries leaching of silica cupola contain abundant iron
observed locally oxide-rich assemblages

Ray, Granite Granite Mountain Not reported Not reported Quartz + (chalcopyrite Muscovite Barton et al.
Mountain pluton pluton (a hornblende- pyrite) veins with (pyrite) veins (2005a)
poor biotite granite) K-feldspar envelopes widespread and
and related porphyries extend beneath orebody intensely
into cupola developed

Miami Inspiration, Schultze Granite Not reported Not reported Quartz (chalcopyrite Muscovite Maher et al.
Schultze Granite (a hornblende-poor pyrite) veins with (pyrite) veins (2005)
biotite granite) and K-feldspar envelopes K-feldspar
related porphyries present in granite envelopes
widespread
 ROOT ZONES OF PORPHYRY SYSTEMS 945

A B

C D

E F

FIG. 4. Photographs of outcrops and veins. A. Typical outcrop-scale view of rocks that exhibit intense sodic-calcic alter-
ation. Rocks are bleached bright white. The photo shows an exploration trench in the Albite Hills of the Yerington district,
Nevada (people for scale). B. Closely spaced, sheeted veins (hammer for scale); most of the veins are thin greisen muscovite
veins with outer K-feldspar envelopes, from the Pinto Creek exposure in the root zone of Miami Inspiration. C. Quartz-K-
feldspar vein with weak K-feldspar envelope cut and offset by a greisen quartz-muscovite vein, from the root zone of Sier-
rita-Esperanza. D. Pervasive sodic-calcic alteration with actinolite and sodic plagioclase (albite), from the root zone of Sier-
rita-Esperanza; note characteristic pasty white appearance of hydrothermal plagioclase. E. Ductile shear zone in Schultze
Granite, from the root zone of Miami Inspiration. F. Ductilely sheared quartz-K-feldspar vein with K-feldspar envelope,
from the root zone of Miami Inspiration.

A late series of weakly mineralized porphyry dikes that em-
anates from the younger, deeper cupola cuts through the Yer-
ington mine (Carten, 1986). Potassic alteration is localized
along the late dikes, although it is developed less intensely
than along the early, well-mineralized dikes. Another zone of
sodic-calcic alteration is developed along the crest and flanks
of the deeper cupola (Figs. 2A, 3A). As in the case of the shal-
lower cupola, crosscutting relationships indicate that sodic-
calcic alteration was superimposed on potassic alteration near
the crest of the deeper cupola. Between the two cupolas,
complex superposition of alteration events with reversals in
crosscutting relationships is recorded (e.g., potassic alteration

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 946
TABLE 2. Characteristics of Selected Alteration Types in Porphyry Copper Deposits

Processes or type of
chemical reaction,
Alteration type Definition Characteristics Spatial distribution Distinguishing features

Volatile addition
Propylitic Weakly metasomatized rocks Presence of relict ksp in rocks of granitic composition, Generally distal to orebody Chl and ep present, relict ksp mt,
with addition of volatiles, with ab, ca, ep, and a dusting of ser, ill, or mont after ore minerals scarce; ca, ep, spec, and

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such as CO2 and H2O plag; chl act after mafic minerals, with local relict bio; chl veins present with ill-defined
paucity of iron sulfide and oxide minerals; ore minerals propylitic envelopes
scarce to absent

Hydrolysis
Sericitic type, classic Moderate to strong hydrolytic
sericitic variety alteration in the musc (ser)
stability field on T vs. K/H
diagram, i.e., precursor ksp
(igneous or hydrothermal)
altered to ser (fine-grained
K-mica, diam <1 mm) + qtz;
other phases may substitute
for ser
Sericitic type, Moderate to strong hydrolytic
greisen variety alteration in the musc stability
field on T vs. K/H diagram;
precursor ksp altered to musc
Both precursor ksp (if present) and plag altered to ser; Variable; ranging from a
if additional cations and anions are abundant because hoodlike zone largely above
of composition of fluid or rock, then other phases, potassic alteration to an
including chl, may substitute for ser; pyritic opaque upward-expanding, funnel-
assemblages are most common, but can be mineralized shaped zone that extends
with cp or bn; less commonly, may contain mt or spec well above the orebody but
also penetrates deeply into
potassic alteration
In the lower parts of orebodies where potassic Broad zone centered on cupola,
alteration dominates, may occur as cp + py veins with below ore zone but sometimes
musc + qtz envelopes; in root zones that have sparse extending upward into base of
greisen, occurs generally as thin, sulfide-poor, the orebody
Fine-grained, commonly pyritic,
feldspar-destructive alteration
envelopes, usually containing ser
(fine-grained K-mica), but chl
substitutes for ser in mafic rocks;
strong regional structural control of
veins and associated alteration is
common
Coarse-grained, grayish to greenish
white K-mica (diam >1 mm) in sheeted
sets of veins, ranging from thin veinlets
to wider zones with local, podlike cores

946
(diam >1 mm) + qtz py-bearing veinlets, ~1 mm wide, which may have of qtz + sulfides
thin outer potassic envelopes (plag altered to ksp); in
root zones with abundant greisen, tends to occur as
SEEDORFF ET AL.

veins, generally tens of cm wide, that change character

along strike from musc + qtz aggregates with no vein
filling to pod-like vein fillings of qtz + sulfides with
alteration halos of qtz + musc sulfides

Alkali exchange
Potassic Ksp stability field on T vs.
K/H diagram, most commonly
expressed as precursor hbd and
px altered to aggregates of
fine-grained (shreddy) bio and
precursor plag altered to ksp
Sodic-calcic Moderate to strong meta-
somatism in which hydrothermal
sodic plag (commonly olig)
replaces precursor ksp; hydro-
thermal act, chl, ep, and tit
replace precursor bio and mt
Generally most intensely developed in vicinity of
highest density of qtz sulfide veinlets and/or hairline
bio and/or mt veinlets; hbd phenocrysts commonly
pseudomorphed by shreddy bio, with ca, fl, or anh,
mt, or other Fe-Ti oxides; hydrothermal ksp may occur
in qtz veinlets and as replacements of plag as envelopes
on qtz veinlets; may be barren, but in many deposits
bulk of ore is associated with potassic alteration, as cp,
bn, or dig
Commonly associated with act and ep veinlets; when
intensely developed, can result in massive qtz + act +
sodic plag + tit; vuggy texture produced if silica is
leached; in porphyry copper systems, commonly is
sulfide-poor and mt-destructive; results in depletion
of K, Fe, Cu relative to fresh rock
Proximal, in some (but not all)
systems is largely coincident
with ore-grade mineralization;
partial biotitization may extend
hundreds of meters beyond
and beneath the limit of ore
Present in root zone, generally
concentrated on upper flanks
of cupola, beneath and lateral
to orebody
Shreddy bio in amphibole and px
phenocryst sites; magmatic bio sites
may also be partially recrystallized
and have more Mg-rich compositions;
narrow ksp envelopes after plag on qtz
veins; fine-grained hydrothermal bio
may also occur in other mineral sites,
e.g., plag
Generally as strongly bleached
envelopes on narrow green, act- or
ep-rich envelopes, i.e., white stripes
through darker wall rock; where
intensely developed, may produce
massive, hard, light-colored, plag-rich
rock, though will be somewhat vuggy if
silica has been leached
 ROOT ZONES OF PORPHYRY SYSTEMS 947

related to the younger dikes cutting sodic-calcic alteration

primary granitoid texture; altered rock

Abbreviations: ab = albite, act = actinolite, anh = anhydrite, bio = biotite, bn = bornite, ca = calcite, chl = chlorite, cp = chalcopyrite, dig = digenite, diop = diopside, ep = epidote group minerals,
fl = fluorite, gt = garnet, hbd = hornblende, ill = illite, ksp = K-feldspar, mont = montmorillonite, mt = magnetite, musc = muscovite, olig = oligoclase, plag = plagioclase, px = pyroxene, py = pyrite,
may be qtz-poor, with qtz replaced by
Weakly bleached zones containing ab
formed near the shallower cupola). After all porphyry dikes

Massive, hard, gt-bearing rock with

were emplaced, sericitic alteration was developed at higher

Act, px, or gt with ksp and/or bio

levels of the system coupled with sodic alteration at deeper
and chl with py and/or spec levels (Carten, 1986). Neither calcic alteration nor greisen al-

Note: Some differences occur for other classes of porphyry deposits, as noted in text, and especially for other types of hydrothermal ore deposits; see table 3 of Seedorff et al. (2005)
teration is reported from any of the exposures at the Yering-
Distinguishing features

calc-silicate minerals
ton mine.
Ann-Mason: The Ann-Mason deposit (Figs. 2B, 3B) lies
only a few kilometers southwest of the Yerington mine. The
Ann-Mason system is related to a separate cupola on the Luhr
Hill Granite phase of the Yerington batholith, and cross sec-
tions (Proffett and Dilles, 1984) indicate that the Ann-Mason
orebody formed about 1.5 km deeper than the system at the
Yerington mine. The exposure of the root zone, especially in
Present in root zone, generally

the lateral direction, is larger at Ann-Mason than at the Yer-

Generally within or somewhat

commonly within the orebody

lateral to potassic alteration,

ington mine (Fig. 2A, B). As documented by Dilles and Ein-

alteration and laterally into
higher levels, where it may
grade upward into sericitic
Proximal, cutting through
orebody and extending to

concentrated on flanks of
more iron-rich, chloritic

audi (1992), the highest copper grades at Ann-Mason are as-

sociated spatially with granite porphyry dikes and with quartz
Spatial distribution

veins, potassic alteration, molybdenite, and high Cu/Fe ratio

sulfides. Weak biotitic alteration also occurs in the upper part
assemblages

of the cupola beneath the orebody (Fig. 3B). Sodic-calcic al-

teration extends to depths of at least 3 km below and laterally
cupola

to 3 km beyond the copper orebody, and endoskarn occurs in

an even more distal position (Fig. 3B). Lateral to the orebody,
sodic-calcic alteration extends from several kilometers above
the flanks of the cupola to a few hundred meters into the
calc-silicate minerals; similar to endoskarn except that

porphyry copper systems associated with alkalic rocks

carbonate rocks may never have been in the vicinity

Presence of both potassic and calcic minerals, such

cupola itself (Fig. 3B). As at the Yerington mine, sodic-calcic

Qtz, py, and tour veins with envelopes of ab + chl;
more distal occurrences may contain spec mt

as ksp, bio, gt, diop, act, ep, apatite, anh, and ca;

and potassic alteration developed broadly contemporaneously

TABLE 2. (Cont.)

Sulfide-poor replacement of igneous rocks by

qtz = quartz, ser = sericite, spec = specularite (specular hematite), tit = titanite (sphene), tour = tourmaline
bn and mt may be present; best known from

with emplacement of porphyry dikes, whereas propylitic al-

teration formed at higher levels in distal positions.
Late-stage alteration, postdating emplacement of porphyry
dikes at Ann-Mason, is confined largely to a shallow, funnel-
sulfides with chl ab envelopes

shaped volume in the axial portion of the hydrothermal sys-

tem, in part superimposed on main-stage alteration. The late-
stage alteration grades upward and outward from
assemblages of sodic, transitional sodic-sericitic, and sericitic
types (Dilles and Einaudi, 1992). Greisen alteration is not re-
Characteristics

ported from any of the exposures at Ann-Mason.

Miami Inspiration: All of the porphyry copper systems in
the Globe-Miami and Superior districts, which are exposed
in the Pinal Mountains and vicinity, appear to be related to
phases of the Schultze Granite. These include the vein and
manto deposits of the Magma mine, the Resolution (Magma
Ab replace ksp and plag; chl, ep,

porphyry) and Superior East porphyry deposits, the Cactus-

ser, tour, and py replace mafic

and K, characterized by calc-

characterized by gt, px, plag,
minerals; lower temperature

Metasomatic addition of Ca,

and ep in igneous protoliths

Carlota, Castle Dome-Pinto Valley, Bluebird-Oxhide-Miami

Metasomatic addition of Ca

silicate minerals and ksp or

than sodic-calcic alteration

Inspiration-Miami East, Copper Cities-Diamond H, and Old

bio in igneous protoliths

Dominion deposits (Peterson, 1962; Hammer and Peterson,

1968; Breitrick and Lenzi, 1987; Sell, 1995; Manske and
Paul, 2002). The Schultze Granite is complexly faulted and
variably tilted, but a deeply exposed zone in the Pinto Creek
Definition

area (Figs. 2C, 3C) is interpreted on the basis of structural

reconstruction to be the roots of the Miami Inspiration de-
posit, which contains potassic and sericitic alteration (Maher
et al., 2005; Stavast, 2006). As described by Maher et al.
(2005) and Stavast (2006), the root zone at Pinto Creek con-
Processes or type of
chemical reaction,

tains sheeted sets of quartz K-feldspar biotite (pyrite

Alteration type

Calcic-potassic

>> chalcopyrite) veins with local K-feldspar envelopes that

cut the Schultze Granite. Ductile shear zones are present in
the pluton at these levels, locally deforming earlier-formed
Calcic
Sodic

brittle veins (Fig. 4E, F). Greisen muscovite (pyrite) veins

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948 SEEDORFF ET AL.
K-feldspar envelopes also occur in sheeted sets, although
with different orientations (Fig. 4B). The greisen muscovite
veins generally cut the quartz veins, but reversals in crosscut-
ting relationships are observed, suggesting the presence of
multiple mineralizing events. Quartz dissolution is associated
locally with the greisen muscovite occurrences. Neither
sodic-calcic alteration nor calcic alteration has been reported
in the Pinto Creek root zone of the Miami Inspiration system
or elsewhere in the Schultze Granite.
Sierrita-Esperanza: The Sierrita-Esperanza system (Figs.
2D, 3D) is one of several porphyry copper deposits of the
Pima district in the Sierrita Mountains that are related to the
Ruby Star batholith (Preece and Beane, 1982; Titley, 1982;
West and Aiken, 1982; Titley et al., 1986). The systems are
tilted ~60 to the south (Stavast et al., 2007, 2008). Potassic
alteration assemblages with secondary K-feldspar, vein bi-
otite, and quartz K-feldspar veins (Fig. 4C) occur within
and around the mine and extend to deeper, pre-tilt levels
(West and Aiken, 1982; Titley et al., 1986). The most intense
sericitic alteration occurs at the upper levels of the porphyry
complex (West and Aiken, 1982; Herrmann, 2001; Fig. 3D).
According to Stavast et al. (2008), the plagioclase-, epidote-,
and actinolite-rich sodic-calcic and sodic types occur in the
Ruby Star pluton and are distributed asymmetrically on the
pre-tilt eastern flank of the system. Sodic-calcic alteration in
the Pima district (Fig. 4C) locally is as intensely developed as
in the Yerington district and in places shows clear evidence of
leaching of wall-rock quartz. Greisen veins, containing
coarse-grained muscovite, quartz, and minor pyrite (Fig. 4C),
occur for several kilometers directly beneath the orebody,
commonly as widely spaced, narrow, sulfide-poor veins.
Crosscutting relationships between intrusive rocks and veins
demonstrate, even at deep levels, the presence of multiple
events (Stavast et al., 2007). Calcic alteration has not been re-
ported in the roots of Sierrita-Esperanza.
Ray: The complexly faulted Ray porphyry copper system
(Figs. 2E, 3E) of the Ray (Mineral Creek) district in the Drip-
ping Spring Mountains is related mainly to the Granite
Mountain pluton (Phillips et al., 1974; Cornwall, 1982), and
the system is tilted steeply to the east (Barton et al., 2005a).
The orebody is a complex series of fault blocks that exhibit
potassic and sericitic alteration (Fig. 3E). Mapping reported
in Barton et al. (2005a) shows that a fairly extensive fault
block immediately to the west of the mine exposes interme-
diate to deep levels of the system, including a cupola of the
Granite Mountain pluton. The intermediate levels are char-
acterized by sheeted quartz + chalcopyrite veins with K-
feldspar envelopes and sparse greisen muscovite veins; both
types of veins strike directly toward the Ray pit (Fig. 3E). The
deep levels contain abundant greisen veins of muscovite
quartz (pyrite >> chalcopyrite). Neither sodic-calcic alter-
ation nor calcic alteration has been reported in the roots of
the Ray system. Propylitic alteration is absent to rare.
Kelvin-Riverside: The porphyry copper prospects in the
Kelvin-Riverside district (Figs. 2F, 3F) are associated with the
hornblende-biotite granodiorite phase of the composite Tea
Cup-Grayback pluton in the Tortilla Mountains (Schmidt,
1971; Zelinski, 1973; Wilkins and Heidrick, 1995), which is
tilted ~90 to the east (Barton et al., 2005a). According to
Barton et al. (2005a), K-feldsparquartz veins and the most
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 948
intense biotitic alteration and Cu Mo mineralization are
centered on porphyries emanating from the crest of a cupola
of hornblende-biotite granodiorite, and it is enclosed in a
much larger volume of less intense biotitic alteration (Figs.
2F, 3F). Potassic alteration is succeeded upward by sericitic
alteration. The sides of the system at moderate paleodepths
are flanked by iron oxide-rich (specular hematite and mag-
netite) assemblages containing chlorite and quartz, with small
volumes of propylitic alteration at high levels (beyond top of
Fig. 3F). At deeper levels, the core is dominated by sodic as-
semblages containing quartz, albite, chlorite, and epidote
(Fig. 3F). On the flanks of the system at moderate to deep
levels, there are occurrences of garnet- and epidote-bearing
calcic alteration and locally intense sodic-calcic alteration
with evidence of leaching of wall-rock quartz. Greisen mus-
covite (pyrite) is developed weakly at deep levels, generally
beneath potassic alteration. The intensity of greisen alteration
in the Tea Cup pluton at Kelvin-Riverside is developed
weakly compared to the Granite Mountain pluton at the
nearby Ray system. Although greisen occurs in some cases as
narrow muscovite-rich veinlets, other zones have widths of
tens of centimeters. The character of the greisen occurrences
varies along strike from solely muscovite-rich alteration en-
velopes to quartz-sulfiderich cores encased in muscovite-
rich envelopes; locally, both have outer envelopes of K-
feldspar.
Implications for Genetic Models
Collectively, the six root zones described above have the
following attributes: calcic alteration, sodic-calcic and sodic
alteration, quartz veins with variably developed K-feldspar al-
teration envelopes, biotitic alteration, and greisen muscovite
(Table 1). The only system known to have all these is the
Kelvin-Riverside system. These attributes shed light on
processes of exsolution and transport of the magmatic aque-
ous phase, the incursion of nonmagmatic saline fluids into
root zones, the possible development of sodic-calcic alter-
ation at depth, multiple cycles of release of magmatic fluid
and incursion of saline ground water, and the formation of
greisen in porphyry copper systems and presence of acidic
fluids at depth.
Ore formation in these systems commonly is linked inti-
mately to the emplacement of dike- or stocklike masses of
porphyry with its distinctive aplitic textured groundmass.
Geologic, petrologic, isotopic, and fluid inclusion evidence
suggests that early, high-temperature alteration was pro-
duced by an aqueous fluid of magmatic derivation (Fig. 5A),
and in many deposits the bulk of the metals was deposited
concurrently. Constraints from measured metal contents in
fluids and the solubilities of metals and silica require that
large volumes of magmatic-hydrothermal fluid were fluxed
through the ore zone to account for the abundance of metals
and quartz veins deposited (e.g., Roedder, 1967, 1971;
Dilles, 1987; Carten et al., 1988; Cline and Bodnar, 1991; Ul-
rich et al., 2001; Proffett, 2003). A large volume of mag-
matic-hydrothermal fluid either is exsolved from the small
porphyry stocks at the site of ore formation or is separated at
depth, collected at the cupola, and transported to the site as
a separate aqueous phase (Dilles, 1987; Seedorff et al.,
2005a). The metal contents of magmas are generally quite
 ROOT ZONES OF PORPHYRY SYSTEMS 949

A Alternative fluid sources B Generalized distribution of

and paths hydrothermal alteration
surface dominantly magmatic + external
m Sericitic/
derived external advanced argillic
dominantly
magmatic Na(K/H)
K-silicate

K(Ca)
recirculated Greisen
Na

basinal Na(Ca)
Calcic

FIG. 5. Model of fluid circulation and alteration in the root zone environment. A. Schematic depiction of inferred circu-
lation paths of selected types of fluids. The upflow zone over the center of the system (on the right) contains hydrothermal
fluids of a dominantly juvenile magmatic origin, mixed magmatic and external origins, or an external origin; all are following
a cooling path. The juvenile fluids are shown having potential sources in multi-phase porphyry bodies or from much deeper
levels, such as an active cupola (cupolas and porphyries are not differentiated in this view). Saline fluids with a dominantly
external origin (on the left) are shown flowing downward from a distal position and inward toward the intrusions, i.e., fol-
lowing a heating path, and eventually flowing upward and potentially mixing with magmatic fluids. Those external fluids
could originate at the coeval surface, from older basinal sources (e.g., evaporite beds), or from recirculated magmatic
sources. B. Schematic depiction of one possible arrangement of alteration types observed in root zones, including transitional
alteration types, based on reconstructions of examples shown in Figures 2 and 3. Variations on this zoning pattern are de-
veloped in any given example and may be repeated over time. Boundaries attempt to show certain alteration types en-
croaching on others as a function of time in one system, although reversals in crosscutting relationships occur. Alteration
types shown are calcic, sodic-calcic [Na(Ca)], sodic [Na], greisen [muscovite-rich greisen], potassic [K-silicate], potassic tran-
sitional to calcic [K(Ca)], and sodic transitional to potassic and sericitic [Na(K/H)], and sericitic and advanced argillic types.
The inferred origin of the various alteration types is indicated by the arrows labeled in part A.

low (e.g., Hildreth, 1981; Taylor and McLennan, 1985);
hence, metals must be extracted efficiently from a large vol-
ume of felsic magma via a mechanism such as convective flow
of the magma toward the cupola. The Yerington batholith
(Dilles, 1987) and reconnaissance investigations of the plu-
tons in the Arizona examples (except for possibly the Tea Cup
pluton, which to date has resulted in well-mineralized
prospects but no porphyry copper ore deposit; Figs. 2E, 3E)
suggest that the plutonic phase associated most closely with
porphyry ore formation was large and fairly uniform in both
composition and texture (Fig. 2C-E). This observation is con-
sistent with the magma chambers being convectively well
mixed. In a few porphyry systems, such as Bingham, there is
evidence for transient, metal-rich input from mafic to ultra-
mafic rocks (Keith et al., 1997, 1998; Core et al., 2006). Al-
though there are small amounts of gabbro exposed in the Yer-
ington district (Dilles, 1987) and monzodiorite exposed above
the south side of the Tea Cup pluton (Barton et al., 2005a),
direct evidence for introduction of mafic magmas into the fel-
sic magma chambers largely is lacking at all of the systems
considered here, despite the ideal surface exposures to ob-
serve them. Moreover, the radiometrically dated dioritic
rocks exposed in the region containing the Arizona examples
are a few million years older than the porphyry systems (See-
dorff et al., 2005b).
Exsolution and transport of magmatic aqueous phase
Numerous mechanisms potentially could result in forma-
tion of ore in porphyry systems, each of which makes predic-
tions that can be tested in the field or laboratory.
The aqueous phase may not have exsolved from the magma
until the porphyry body was emplaced (e.g., Carten et al.,
1988). The onset of saturation with the aqueous phase may
have caused the magma to stop rising and to crystallize. The
deepest occurrence of geologic features that record the mag-
matic-hydrothermal transition, such as unidirectional solidifi-
cation textures (USTs) (e.g., Shannon et al., 1982; Kirwin,
2005), could mark the base of aqueous phase separation. Hy-
drothermal features such as quartz veins and metal-bearing
fluid inclusions should only be present near the apex of the
porphyry stock or dike swarm and should be lacking at deeper
levels between the stock and underlying cupola. The chal-
lenge of this type of model is to generate a large volume of
aqueous phase that apparently is required to form an ore de-
posit from a small intrusion, especially at deposits such as
Butte and El Teniente, where the known volume of porphyry
is miniscule (e.g., Meyer et al., 1968; Cannell et al., 2005).
The challenge of this model may be overcome by continued
delivery of aqueous phase from a large subjacent magma
chamber to the top of a porphyry stock via a narrow column

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950 SEEDORFF ET AL.
of vertically convecting magma (Shinohara et al., 1995). In
this case, hydrothermal features should be present at least lo-
cally along the deep flanks of the stock, between the base of
the orebody and the underlying cupola.
A third scenario in which a porphyry deposit might form is
by passive degassing of a magma chamber. The flux of metal-
bearing fluids being emitted from volcanoes such as White Is-
land (Hedenquist et al., 1993; Rapien et al., 2003) is adequate
to transport sufficient metals to form a deposit over a geolog-
ically realistic time interval of tens of thousands of years. The
challenge, however, in applying such a model to porphyry de-
posits is to explain the typically close association of the ore
zone to the apices of individual porphyry intrusions.
A large volume of aqueous phase first may have collected
in the cupola, then may have been turbulently entrained as a
water-rich three-phase mixture (crystals, melt, and aqueous
phase) as the magma and aqueous phase rose together to the
site of ore deposition. A variation on this theme is for a mass
of less dense aqueous phase to advance ahead of a rising
body of magma, hydraulically wedging open the overlying
rock. In these cases, in which aqueous phase is delivered to
the site of ore deposition cataclysmically, one might expect
vein formation and ore deposition to be developed along the
entire path of porphyry emplacement, between the cupola
and the orebody.
Another challenge is to explain why rise of porphyry magma
was halted, preventing eruption at the surface and focusing
ore over the apex of a porphyry intrusion. Features such as
USTs and other internal contacts, discordance in foliations or
other ductile features, and truncation of veinlets, which may
provide evidence to distinguish between the various scenar-
ios, commonly are quite subtle and require careful, detailed
mapping to identify and document. Laboratory tests have
comparable challenges. For example, fluid inclusions com-
monly exhibit complex superposition and lack of definitive ev-
idence for primary origin (e.g., Seedorff and Einaudi, 2004b),
although careful cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging of
quartz might allow separation of events (e.g., Rusk and Reed,
2002). Some of the systems with the best geologic constraints,
such as Yerington, are notorious for having fluid inclusions
that provide little information about the high-temperature
history of the system (e.g., Price, 1977; Dilles and Einaudi,
1992). Attempts to do fluid inclusion work at Sierrita to date
also have failed to yield usable inclusions (e.g., Klemm, 2005).
Incursion of nonmagmatic saline fluids into root zones
Depending on the compositions of the magmas associated
with the magmatic hydrothermal systems, sodic-calcic alter-
ation can have variable fluid sources. In fenites and certain
greisen environments, sodic alteration is clearly the product
of magmatic fluids (e.g., Barton et al., 1991). In porphyry cop-
per systems, some workers also have inferred a magmatic ori-
gin for sodic-calcic alteration (e.g., Lang et al., 1995a, b). Es-
pecially for the calc-alkaline porphyry copper systems, such as
the six considered here, the evidence favors an external
source of fluids for sodic-calcic alteration, as discussed fur-
ther below.
During the release of magmatic fluids, fluid pressures at
or exceeding lithostatic values may be maintained near the
apex of a mineralizing intrusion (Fournier, 1999; Cox, 2005),
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commonly producing early, high-temperature veins with both
steep radial and gently outward-dipping orientations (e.g.,
Carten et al., 1988). Associated hydrofracturing in many cases
probably allows a quick drop in pressure toward hydrostatic
levels. The orientations of later veins (including greisen mus-
covite and sodic-calcic assemblages) tend to reflect the re-
gional stress field (e.g., Rehrig and Heidrick, 1972; Maher et
al., 2005) and to follow dikes (e.g., Dilles et al., 2000). The
fractures that control the orientation of late veins probably
are generated by forces associated with differential cooling, as
well as by a deviatoric component generated by the magma
chamber on the surroundings. Field evidence and theoretical
considerations suggest that dense brines, such as a saline basi-
nal or surface-derived external fluid or a recirculated mag-
matic brine (Fig. 5A), may gain access via hydrostatic circula-
tion to the central, high-temperature portion of a
hydrothermal system (Hanson, 1996; Fournier, 1999). In-
deed, evidence from hydrothermal systems such as the Skaer-
gaard complex indicate that incursion of external fluids can
occur at temperatures exceeding 500C (e.g., Norton and
Taylor, 1979; Manning and Bird, 1986; Bird et al., 1988).
The hallmark of ingress of external saline fluids in porphyry
systems is the development of sodic-calcic alteration (Dilles
et al., 1995; Fig. 5A, B). Although sodic-calcic and sodic al-
teration are quite common on a global basis, especially asso-
ciated with iron oxide copper-gold (IOCG) deposits (e.g.,
Barton et al., 1991; Battles and Barton, 1995; Barton and
Johnson, 2000), the number of recognized occurrences that
are clearly porphyry related are relatively few (see compila-
tions in Carten, 1986; Dilles et al., 1995). The fluids that pro-
duced sodic-calcic and sodic alteration at Yerington (Dilles et
al., 1992, 1995) and at occurrences not known to be related to
porphyry systems (e.g., Battles and Barton, 1995) had 18O
values higher than those of typical magmatic waters and were
moderately to highly saline, consistent with the geologic evi-
dence at many locales for incursion of saline nonmagmatic
fluids (Fig. 5). Nonmagmatic saline brines could originate ei-
ther from (1) contemporaneous near-surface brines formed in
playas or salars in areas with arid climates, (2) formation wa-
ters derived from older evaporites in wall rocks, or (3) con-
temporaneous seawater.
The two Yerington examples and two of the four Arizona
examples are associated with sodic-calcic and sodic alteration
on the deep flanks of the system (Figs. 3, 5). At the southern
end of the Yerington district (Fig. 3B) and locally within the
broad areas of sodic-calcic alteration at Kelvin-Riverside (Fig.
3F), igneous rocks are converted to calc-silicate assemblages,
which is evidence of calcic metasomatism and involvement of
external fluids. Vuggy textured granitoid rocks, in which the
quartz sites have been leached preferentially, have been ob-
served at least locally within areas of most intense sodic-cal-
cic alteration. Such leaching of quartz is consistent with the
quartz-poor nature of veins related to sodic-calcic alteration
and unequivocal evidence that the associated fluids were fol-
lowing a thermally prograding path (i.e., were being heated as
they flowed downward and inward toward the cupola: Hem-
ley et al., 1980; Fig. 4).
The new Arizona examples suggest that sodic-calcic alter-
ation may be fairly common in porphyry copper systems if
deep levels were exposed (Fig. 5B). Given the genetic links
 ROOT ZONES OF PORPHYRY SYSTEMS
between saline fluids and sodic-calcic alteration (Fig. 5A, B),
many porphyry systems globally may have sodic-calcic alter-
ation at depth, considering that many of the worlds porphyry
deposits either formed beneath a paleosurface in an arid cli-
mate or were emplaced into wall rocks that contain evaporite
beds formed during older periods of aridity. For example, the
Atacama region of the Andes has been generally arid since at
least the Jurassic (Arcuri and Brimhall, 2002), and Tertiary
evaporites of gypsum and halite formed in settings analogous
to the modern Salar de Atacama (Mortimer, 1973; Alpers and
Brimhall, 1988). Evaporites are common in Permian, Triassic,
and Jurassic strata in western North America from the pre-
sent-day Sierra Nevada to the Rocky Mountains (Butler,
1971; Dickinson, 1989; Battles and Barton, 1995) and occur
in the wall rocks of deposits such as Sierrita-Esperanza (be-
yond the eastern edge of Figs. 2D, 3D) and Yerington (Fig.
2B). Even though sodic-calcic alteration may be more com-
mon in porphyry copper systems than recognized previously,
the volume of sodic-calcic alteration in porphyry systems is
dwarfed by its volume in many IOCG systems (Barton and
Johnson, 1996; Johnson, 2000). Although the processes by
which sodic-calcic alteration is generated in porphyry and
IOCG systems are similar (Fig. 5A), sodic-calcic alteration
plays a nonessential, accessory role in porphyry systems (e.g.,
Dilles et al., 1995). By contrast, sodic-calcic alteration plays
an essential role in ore formation in IOCG systems, where
classic porphyry-style features are absent (e.g., Barton and
Johnson, 1996; Johnson and Barton, 2000). Nonetheless, a
general overlap of IOCG and porphyry systems in time and
space occurs in some regions (Barton et al., 2005b).
Evidence for possible sodic-calcic alteration at depth
In the systems where sodic-calcic alteration is exceptionally
well developed in root zones, fingerlike projections of sodic-
calcic alteration locally may extend upward into the base of
the orebody, as at the Yerington mine and Ann-Mason (Fig.
3A, B). Even if sodic-calcic alteration sensu stricto does not
extend all the way into the orebody, there might be clues near
the base of orebodies that sodic-calcic alteration could be
present at depth.
Assemblages that can be termed transitional between
sodic-calcic, sodic, calcic, and potassic alteration types (see
Seedorff et al., 2005a, for discussion of transitional alteration
types) are common within and near the base of the same ore-
bodies that exhibit sodic-calcic alteration, even though pub-
lished descriptions and simplified alteration maps (e.g., Fig.
3) tend to group these with potassic assemblages. For exam-
ple, epidote is a common constituent of many K-feldspar
and biotite-bearing mineral assemblages at both Ann-Mason
(e.g., epidote in biotitic assemblages: Dilles and Einaudi,
1992) and Sierrita-Esperanza (e.g., epidote or chlorite in
veins with orthoclase and quartz, and albite in veins with or-
thoclase and quartz: West and Aiken, 1982). These transi-
tional assemblages may have formed where external fluids
coming in from the flanks of the system were mixing with up-
welling magmatic fluids (Fig. 5).
In many systems where the root zones are not exposed,
transitional assemblages occur that may be analogous to the
occurrences at Ann-Mason and Sierrita-Esperanza. In the
deep portions of El Salvador, Chile, sodic minerals such as
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 951
951
sodic plagioclase and calcic minerals such as actinolite, epi-
dote, apatite, anhydrite, calcite, and titanite become part of
mineral assemblages with K-feldspar and/or biotite (Gustaf-
son and Quiroga, 1995). Albite is a prominent mineral in sev-
eral transitional potassic-sodic assemblages that contain K-
feldspar, biotite, and/or topaz, which occur near the base and
sides of the Seriate ore zone in the porphyry molybdenum de-
posit at Henderson, Colorado (Seedorff and Einaudi, 2004a,
b). Albite, anhydrite, and apatite occur with K-feldspar and/or
biotite at Toquepala, Peru (Zweng and Clark, 1995). Albite
occurs in various assemblages at Rosario in the Collahuasi dis-
trict, Chile, in some cases with K-feldspar and/or biotite but
in other cases with magnetite and/or copper-iron sulfides
(Clark et al., 1998). A barren biotite-albite-magnetite assem-
blage was formed early at Cerro Colorado, Chile (Bouzari and
Clark, 2006). There could be wall-rock compositional con-
trols on some of these occurrences (i.e., mafic rocks would
favor development of calcic or sodic minerals over potassic
minerals). However, this cannot be the explanation in cases
such as Henderson, where the host rocks are everywhere
high-silica rhyolite (Seedorff and Einaudi, 2004a, b), and it is
highly unlikely in cases such as El Salvador, where appear-
ance of transitional mineral assemblages with depth is not re-
lated to a change in host-rock composition (Gustafson and
Quiroga, 1995). The possibility that external fluids or recircu-
lated magmatic brines introduced by earlier mineralizing in-
trusions (e.g., Seedorff and Einaudi, 2004a; Fig. 5A) mixed
with magmatic fluids should be tested for these deposits and
be examined in detail at all systems where root zones are ex-
posed. The importance of careful documentation of mineral
assemblages (including analyses of feldspars) cannot be
overemphasized if these genetic questions are to be ad-
dressed adequately.
Evidence for multiple cycles of release of magmatic fluid
and incursion of saline ground water
The extent to which multiple events observed in an ore-
body are also recorded in the root zone may be highly vari-
able. For example, numerous cycles of hydrothermal activity
with associated vein and alteration patterns may be recorded
by crosscutting relationships in the proximal, high-tempera-
ture environment of a magmatic-hydrothermal system, such
as the Henderson porphyry molybdenum deposit (Seedorff
and Einaudi, 2004a) or the Birch Creek lithophile element
system (Barton, 2000), whereas the distal, low-temperature
expression of the same system, only a few hundred meters
away, may be recorded as one event with a single zone of con-
centration.
Of the six systems in Arizona and Nevada summarized
here, numerous cycles of alteration-mineralization have been
documented at the level of the orebody at the Yerington mine
and Ann-Mason, each related to emplacement of a generation
of porphyry dikes (Dilles et al., 2000), and analogous behav-
ior has been suggested at Sierrita-Esperanza (West and
Aiken, 1982; Herrmann, 2001; Stavast, 2006; Stavast et al.,
2007) and at Ray (D.A. Johnson and M.D. Barton, unpub.
mapping, 2003). At the level of the root zone, the Yerington
mine is the only one of these systems that clearly exhibits
multiple centers, where there are two vertically stacked cupo-
las (Figs. 2A, 3A). The possibility of multiple centers in other
952 SEEDORFF ET AL.
root zones is suggested, however, by alteration patterns at Ray
(Fig. 3E) and reversals in crosscutting relationships at Miami
Inspiration (Maher et al., 2005). Crosscutting relationships
between veins associated with potassic and sodic-calcic alter-
ation at the Yerington mine indicate that the root zone was
dominated alternately by magmatic and external fluids, re-
spectively (Carten, 1986), and similar relationships are evi-
dent in the root zone of Sierrita-Esperanza (Stavast, 2006;
Stavast et al., 2007).
Magmatic centers can be regarded as sources of perturba-
tions to the regional ground-water flow regime in aquifers
that constitute the source of external fluids in magmatic-hy-
drothermal systems. The shallow crust, be it along an active
arc (Rech et al., 2002) or in miogeoclinal rocks of the Great
Basin (Burbey and Prudic, 1991), constitutes a regional
ground-water system that is recharged under the influence of
topography over thousands of years. The compositions of
ground waters depend on the compositions of both the sur-
face waters and the rocks of the aquifers through which the
ground waters flow. The compositions of surface waters are a
strong function of the local climate, which is influenced by
factors such as latitude, orographic effects, and global tem-
perature cycles that vary on geologically short time scales. For
example, the Great Basin has shifted in the last 10,000 years
from a cold, moist climate with large fresh-water lakes at the
end of the last ice age to a warm, dry climate with saline
playas today (Oviatt, 1997; Adams and Wesnousky, 1998;
Rhode et al., 2005). By comparison, major magmatic centers
and volcanic fields have life spans ranging from hundreds of
thousands to a few millions of years (Hildreth, 1981; Hildreth
and Lanphere, 1994).
Therefore, a large flux of magmatic fluid should prevent
temporarily the passage of external fluids through the intru-
sive center. Eventually, the regional flow of ground water near
the intrusive center will be reestablished, and external fluids
will penetrate the heart of the magmatic system if they are
sufficiently dense, albeit heated by proximity to magma (Fig.
5A). In the presence of saline ground-water systems, one
might predict, therefore, that magmatic centers with multiple
intrusions might exhibit a cycle with alternating release of
magmatic fluids followed by incursion of external brines dur-
ing their evolution, analogous to the biological cycle of ex-
hale-inhale, respectively. Additional documentation of cross-
cutting relationships between various types of veins and
between veins and intrusive contacts in the root zones of hy-
drothermal systems is required to assess the importance of
this process.
Greisen in porphyry copper systems and
presence of acidic fluids at depth
Muscovite-rich greisen veins are common in the ore zones
of porphyry molybdenum deposits of the quartz monzonitic-
granitic porphyry Mo-Cu subclass (Shaver, 1991; Seedorff et
al., 2005a) but are relatively rare in porphyry copper systems
(Williams and Forrester, 1995; Seedorff et al., 2005a).
Greisen has been documented in porphyry copper systems
within the ore zones at Pinto Valley, Arizona (Breitrick and
Lenzi, 1987), and Valley Copper, British Columbia (Cassel-
man et al., 1995). In the root zones, all four Arizona examples
contain varying abundances of greisen muscovite beneath the
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 952
orebodies, but there are no reports of greisen in the two ex-
amples from the Yerington district (Fig. 3). Greisen is pyritic
and weakly mineralized with copper and other base metals in
the root zones but is well mineralized with chalcopyrite and
bornite in the ore zones at Pinto Valley and Valley Copper.
There is no indication to date that there is a downward tran-
sition from greisen into feldspar-stable alteration (Figs. 3,
5B). It is possible, but not yet established, that greisen in the
root zone extends upward directly into the base of the ore
zone, where it becomes better mineralized. The origin of
greisen and controls on its presence or absence in the ore
zones and root zones of porphyry copper systems have not
been investigated.
The stability of muscovite relative to biotite and K-feldspar
(e.g., fig. 5 of Seedorff et al., 2005a) is a function of a number
of variables, among which composition, acidity, and tempera-
ture probably are most important (Hemley and Jones, 1964;
Burt, 1981; Barton, 1987). Low temperatures could favor the
development of muscovite, and the observation that greisen
muscovite veins generally crosscut earlier quartz veins with
K-feldspar envelopes and biotite veins in the Arizona exam-
ples could reflect such a temperature control. The coarse
grain size of white mica in the root zone may be a function of
muscovite (as opposed to sericite) forming near the upper
thermal stability of white mica, compared to lower tempera-
tures of formation of sericite at higher levels in the system.
Fluids of more acidic compositions (or lower aK+/aH+) favor
the development of muscovite over K-feldspar and biotite.
Acidity is likely a factor in forming greisen muscovite in the
root zones, but the common presence of outer K-feldspar en-
velopes (Fig. 4B) and the absence of pervasive K-feldspar de-
struction (greisen abundances rarely exceed 10 vol % of the
rock and commonly are ~1%) suggest that the fluids respon-
sible for forming muscovite were only mildly acidic. The
source of acidity, however, remains to be determined.
For fluids of similar temperatures and compositions, mag-
mas and wall rocks of more aluminous compositions (i.e., per-
aluminous, as opposed to metaluminous) favor the develop-
ment of muscovite. The whole-rock compositions of igneous
rocks from the Arizona examples appear to be somewhat
more aluminous than those from the Yerington district, and
the compositions of igneous biotites from the Arizona exam-
ples also are, on average, slightly more aluminous than those
in the Yerington district (Dilles, 1987; Stavast, 2006). Al-
though the lack of reported greisen muscovite in the Yering-
ton district might be consistent with this explanation, the ab-
sence of a zone of K-feldspar or biotite veins in the Yerington
district in an analogous position where greisen muscovite is
developed in the Arizona examples (Fig. 2) suggests that a
separate process may be responsible for the presence of
greisen muscovite.
A possible explanation for the lack of a zone of K-feldspar
bearing alteration beneath the zone of greisen muscovite
(Fig. 5B) is that acidic fluids formed at high levels in the sys-
tem were somehow convected downward into the roots of the
system. The system-scale alteration patterns (Fig. 3), how-
ever, do not provide any evidence for this.
A second possibility is that the greisen-forming fluids
largely are unrelated to ore formation and perhaps are related
to a late period of passive degassing of the magma chamber
 ROOT ZONES OF PORPHYRY SYSTEMS
(Fig. 5B). Thus, some difference in bulk composition, open-
system behavior, or evolutionary path might be responsible
for the presence of greisen in the Arizona examples and the
apparent absence of greisen in the Yerington district. Al-
though passive degassing reported by volcanologists and geo-
chemists at active volcanoes, such as Galeras, Columbia (Stix
et al., 1993; Goff et al., 1994), Vesuvius, Italy (Aiuppa et al.,
2004), and White Island, New Zealand (Wardell et al., 2001),
has been considered as an important analog to the ore-form-
ing process (e.g., Giggenbach et al., 2003), perhaps late-stage
degassing, after porphyry ore formation has ceased, produces
poorly mineralized greisen muscovite. The uncertain role of
greisen underscores the point that the history of vapor satu-
ration in magma chambers is still poorly understood. We also
have a poor understanding of whether or not porphyry-re-
lated magma chambers fluctuate back and forth between
vapor saturation and undersaturation and how vapor is re-
leased during periods of saturation. The relationship of
greisen veins and pegmatite and aplite dikes to porphyry ore
formation awaits detailed mapping of the distribution and
abundance of these features in the ore zones and root zones,
coupled with careful documentation of crosscutting relation-
ships among these features and between them and the major
intrusive contacts.
Implications for Exploration
Root zones contain the deep manifestation of the ore-form-
ing process at higher levels (Fig. 5). If the root zone of an up-
right and structurally intact magmatic-hydrothermal system is
exposed, then the ore zone has been eroded, and the root
zone is of little direct value to an explorationist. If the system
is tilted and dismembered, however, then the orebody may be
preserved and/or covered, representing an exploration target
that could be explored from the bottom up (Maher et al.,
2005), beginning in the root zone. A critical requirement,
then, is a structural reconstruction of the system.
Porphyry dikes should be followed upward from the cupola
in search of an ore zone. In mineralized systems, the region
in and above the cupola (Fig. 5B) contains variably mineral-
ized quartz veins with K-feldspar envelopes, hairline K-
feldspar veinlets, and biotitic alteration of hornblende sites.
Sodic-calcic alteration, calcic alteration, and evidence of
leaching of silica are developed best on the deep flanks of
cupolas (Fig. 5B), so the direction toward a possible orebody
is upward and sideways, toward the region where porphyry
dikes may have pierced the apex of a cupola. Localized
sources of salinity at the surface or as evaporite beds in wall
rocks, or preferential zones of permeability, could cause
asymmetric development of sodic-calcic alteration and calcic
alteration.
During past exploration of certain Arizona occurrences, we
suspect that greisen may have been confused with sericitic al-
teration and, if so, has been misinterpreted as characteristic
of the high levels of a system (e.g., Seedorff et al., 2005a). The
exploration significance of greisen depends on its mode or
modes of origin. If there is an intimate genetic relationship
between formation of greisen and ore occurring at higher lev-
els, as suggested by the local occurrence of mineralized
greisen at Pinto Valley, then the most prospective systems
might be those whose root zones contain well-mineralized
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 953
953
greisen. If formation of greisen is not related directly to ore
formation and merely reflects degassing during late stages of
magmatic evolution, a conclusion that would be consistent
with the absence of reports of greisen in the Yerington dis-
trict, then the exploration implications of greisen are less sig-
nificant (Fig. 5B).
Summary
Root zones of porphyry systems are sites of focused fluid
flow where porphyry dikes cut upward through a porphyritic
granite cupola toward overlying porphyry orebodies. Postore
extensional faulting and associated tilting in the Tertiary have
exposed root zones of six porphyry copper systems in Nevada
and Arizona, locally to depths of >10 km: two Jurassic systems
in the Yerington district and four Laramide systems in Ari-
zona. Although no two systems are alike, quartz veins and
potassic alteration occur directly above related cupolas; many
contain greisen muscovite-quartz within and beneath coeval
cupolas, and certain systems contain sodic-calcic alteration,
calcic alteration, and evidence for leaching of silica on the
deep flanks of the systems.
The regions beneath orebodies are likely to offer many
clues about what we dont know (Skinner, 1997) about the
deposits, including the bounds and magnitudes of the ore-
forming systems, the depth of the ore-forming systems, and
their geologic age and duration. Indeed, many genetic ques-
tions are better addressed in the roots than in the orebodies
themselves or the tops of systems. The most robust conclu-
sions, however, will be drawn from the localities that offer the
greatest degree of continuity (including compelling structural
reconstructions) and quality of the exposure (natural and man
made) between the roots and the deposit, from the studies
that identify (and demonstrate) time lines that link processes
in roots with those in the mineral deposit, and from systems
in which the deposit itself is well characterized.
Further work on the root zones of porphyry systems un-
doubtedly will provide interesting insights, as will similar re-
search on tilted examples of other ore deposit types.
Acknowledgments
This contribution was made possible by a grant from the
U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Resources External Research
Program 06HQGR0176 (to Seedorff). This study builds on
earlier work funded by National Science Foundation Grant
EAR-0230091 (to Barton, Seedorff, and G. E. Gehrels), by
the U.S. Geological Survey through an EDMAP Agreement
No. 02HQAG0088 (to Barton and Seedorff) and the U.S. Ge-
ological Survey Porphyry Copper Life Cycles Project, by
Phelps Dodge for graduate research support for Maher and
Stavast, and by ASARCO for graduate research support for
Maher.
We appreciate the contributions of many geologists, espe-
cially David Johnson and Eric Jensen, to the recent work on
the four examples in Arizona. Our understanding of the Yer-
ington district benefits from knowledge shared by Rick
Carten, John Dilles, Marco Einaudi, and John Proffett. We
benefited from discussions with many investigators, includ-
ing John Dilles, David Johnson, Eric Jensen, Ralph Stegen,
Fred Graybeal, Dan Aiken, Jim Clark, Dick Tosdal, Stuart
Simmons, and Spence Titley, and Anthony Harris showed us
954 SEEDORFF ET AL.
textural evidence for miarolitic cavities in the Schultze Gran-
ite. We appreciate detailed comments on an earlier version of
the manuscript by Gary Lenzi, reviews for the journal by
Kevin Shelton and Dick Sillitoe, and editorial comments by
Mark Hannington.
July 3, 2007; July 25, 2008
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