Alchemy

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Kimiya-yi sa'adat (The Alchemy of Happiness) a text on Islamic philosophy and sp
iritual alchemy by Al-Ghazali (1058 1111).
"Alchemist" redirects here. For other uses, see Alchemist (disambiguation) and A
lchemy (disambiguation).
Alchemy is a philosophical and protoscientific tradition practiced throughout Eu
rope, Egypt and Asia. It aimed to purify, mature, and perfect certain objects.[1
][2][n 1] Common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g.
, lead) into "noble" ones (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immo
rtality; the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease; and the development
of an alkahest, a universal solvent.[3] The perfection of the human body and sou
l was thought to permit or result from the alchemical magnum opus and, in the He
llenistic and western tradition, the achievement of gnosis.[2] In Europe, the cr
eation of a philosopher's stone was variously connected with all of these projec
ts.
In English, the term is often limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but s
imilar practices existed in the Far East, the Indian subcontinent, and the Musli
m world. In Europe, following the 12th-century Renaissance produced by the trans
lation of Arabic works on science and the Recovery of Aristotle, alchemists play
ed a significant role in early modern science[4] (particularly chemistry and med
icine). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic laborator
y techniques, theory, terminology, and experimental method, some of which are st
ill in use today. However, they continued antiquity's belief in four elements an
d guarded their work in secrecy including cyphers and cryptic symbolism. Their w
ork was guided by Hermetic principles related to magic, mythology, and religion.
[5]
Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exo
teric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite the arg
uments of scholars like Holmyard[6] and von Franz[7] that they should be underst
ood as complementary. The former is pursued by historians of the physical scienc
es who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry, medicine, and charlatani
sm, and the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred.
The latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philoso
phers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literatu
re and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since
the Western traditions' origin in a mix of Greek philosophy that was mixed with
Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology,[7] numerous sources have stressed an integ
ration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as Pseudo-Demo
critus's first-century ad On Physical and Mystical Matters (Greek: Physika kai M
ystika).[8]
See also: Chemistry (etymology)
The word alchemy was borrowed from Old French alquemie, alkimie, taken from Medi
eval Latin alchymia, and which is in turn borrowed from Arabic al-kimiya (???????
??). The Arabic word is borrowed from Late Greek chemeia (), chemia (),[9] with th
nation of the Arabic definite article al- (????).[10] This ancient Greek word wa
s derived from[11] the early Greek name for Egypt, Chemia (), based on the Egyptian n
ame for Egypt, keme (hieroglyphic ???????? khmi, lit. black earth , as opposed to r
ed desert sand).[10]
The Medieval Latin form was influenced by Greek chymeia () meaning mixture and referr
to pharmaceutical chemistry.[12]
History[edit]
Alchemy covers several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and
three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic l
anguage makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationshi
ps. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely
independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in Chi
na and its zone of cultural influence; Indian alchemy, centered on the Indian su
bcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and who
se center has shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt, to the Islamic
world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Tao
ism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths, whereas Western alchemy develope
d its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced b
y, various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three s
trands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.
Hellenistic Egypt[edit]
Ambix, cucurbit and retort of Zosimos, from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des a
nciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887 1888).
The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and Hellenistic
Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and re
tained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.[13] Here, e
lements of technology, religion, mythology, and Hellenistic philosophy, each wit
h their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records o
f alchemy in the West. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote the oldest known books on alch
emy,[citation needed] while Mary the Jewess is credited as being the first non-f
ictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in Greek and lived in Egypt under Roman
rule.
Mythology Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egy
pt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no e
vidence for his assertion.[14] Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Gr
eek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alch
emical transmutation.[15] These included the pantheon of gods related to the Cla
ssical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others.
The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (or Thrice
-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart
Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principa
l symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the "fo
rty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge.[16] The Hermetica of
Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alche
mical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early pract
itioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era
.
Technology The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of meta
llurgy, extending back to 3500 bc.[17] Many writings were lost when the emperor
Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books[18] after suppressing a revol
t in Alexandria (ad 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have surviv
ed, most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papyrus X. Dati
ng from ad 300 500, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemsto
nes, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and si
lver.[19] These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, b
ut do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (or Pseudo-Democritus), which aligned
these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical element
s.[20] Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transfo
rmed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.[21]
Philosophy Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism,
Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's charact
er.[20] An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated
by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe we
re formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Ari
stotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would ret
urn if left undisturbed.[22] The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitat
ive aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "...True al
chemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substa
nces in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the prim
ary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quan
titative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."[2
3] Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.
Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Tr
ismegistus had prophesied its birth. St Augustine later affirmed this in the 4th
& 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry.[24] Examples of
Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period.
Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonym
s, such as Moses, Isis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and Ostanes. Others authors such
as Komarios, and Chymes, we only know through fragments of text. After ad 400, G
reek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of
these predecessors.[25] By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an
entirely mystical discipline.[26] It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid spar
ked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the transla
tion and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.[27
]
India[edit]
Main article: Rasayana
See also: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent
The Vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold.[28] The use of Me
rcury for alchemy is first documented in the 3rd or 4th century Arthashastra. Buddh
ist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals
to gold. Greek alchemy may have been introduced to Ancient India through the in
vasions of Alexander the Great in 325 bc, and kingdoms that were culturally infl
uenced by the Greeks like Gandhara, although hard evidence for this is lacking.[
28]
The 11th-century Persian chemist and physician Abu Rayhan Biruni, who visited Gu
jarat as part of the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, reported that they
have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which in Sans
krit is called Rasayana and in Persian Rasavatam. It means the art of obtaining/
manipulating Rasa: nectar, mercury, and juice. This art was restricted to certai
n operations, metals, drugs, compounds, and medicines, many of which have mercur
y as their core element. Its principles restored the health of those who were il
l beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age.
The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit d
ivya-deham) and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit jivan-mukti). Sanskri
t alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulp
hur, that are homologized with the semen of the god Siva and the menstrual blood
of the goddess Devi.
Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the Kaula tantric s
chools associated to the teachings of the personality of Matsyendranath. Other e
arly writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise Kalya?akarakam of Ugradity
a, written in South India in the early 9th century.[29]
Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Nagarjuna Siddha and Nityanatha
Siddha. Nagarjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, Rasendramangalam, is an
example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanatha Siddha wrote Rasaratnakara, a
lso a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, rasa translates to "mercury", and Na
garjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into go
ld.[30]
Reliable scholarship on Indian alchemy has been advanced in a major way by the p
ublication of The Alchemical Body by David Gordon White.[31] Trustworthy scholar
ship on Indian alchemy must now take the findings of this work into account.
An important modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has also been prov
ided by David Gordon White at Oxford Bibliographies Online.[32]
The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in
G. Jan Meulenbeld's History of Indian Medical Literature.[33][n 2] The discussi
on of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their sp
ecial features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter
13 of HIML, Various works on rasasastra and ratnasastra (or Various works on al
chemy and gems) gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five
) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship
of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manu
scripts of these titles.
A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The co
ntent of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integ
rated into the wider general history of alchemy.

Muslim world[edit]
Main article: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam
Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), considered the "father of chemistry", introduced a sci
entific and experimental approach to alchemy.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to
the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was bett
er documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through
the years were preserved as Arabic translations.[34] The word alchemy itself was
derived from the Arabic word al-kimiya (????????). The early Islamic world was a
melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already b
een somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated d
uring the late 7th and early 8th centuries through Syriac translations and schol
arship.
In the late 8th century, Jabir ibn Hayyan (Latinized as "Geber" or "Geberus") in
troduced a new approach to alchemy, based on scientific methodology and controll
ed experimentation in the laboratory, in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egypt
ian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very
little concern for laboratory work.[35] Jabir is thus "considered by many to be
the father of chemistry",[36] albeit others reserve that title for Robert Boyle
or Antoine Lavoisier. The science historian, Paul Kraus, wrote:
To form an idea of the historical place of Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the pro
blem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of th
e alchemical literature in the Greek language. One knows in which miserable stat
e this literature reached us. Collected by Byzantine scientists from the tenth c
entury, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments,
going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle
Ages.
The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of litera
ture led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particul
ar Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska,
Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only few points of detail ....
The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface exami
nation of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized accord
ing to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, i
n the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses
any interpretation.
It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the pr
ocesses and the alchemical apparati, the methodical classification of the substa
nces, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and
odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir supports his oper
ations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other
Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and prac
tical teaching, between the `ilm and the `amal. In vain one would seek in the Gr
eek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented, for example, in the B
ook of Seventy.[35]
Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentatio
n:
The first essential in chemistry is that thou shouldest perform practical work a
nd conduct experiments,
for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain t
o the least degree of mastery.[37]
Early Islamic chemists such as Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Al-Kindi ("Alkindus") and Muham
mad ibn Zakariya Razi ("Rasis" or "Rhazes") contributed a number of key chemical
discoveries, such as the muriatic (hydrochloric acid), sulfuric and nitric acid
s, and more. The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric
acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel the imagination of a
lchemists for the next millennium.
Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. Th
e most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate go
al was Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up
to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of
four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness.[38] Accordin
g to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exte
rior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and mois
t. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different
metal would result.[38] By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's sto
ne was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology wh
ereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with variou
s transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.
The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His or
iginal system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical ele
ments (aether, air, earth, fire, and water) in addition to two chemical elements
representing the metals: sulphur, "the stone which burns", which characterized
the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized prin
ciple of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elemen
ts, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving fla
mmability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt givin
g solidity.[39] The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodie
s possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has i
ts origins in the work of Jabir.[40]
From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a varie
ty of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus,[41] Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni
,[42] Avicenna[43] and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations agains
t the idea of the transmutation of metals.
East Asia[edit]
Main article: Chinese alchemy
Taoist Alchemists often use this alternate version of the Taijitu.
Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals
into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. T
he philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixi
r of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, th
ese two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equate
d with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in
common than initially appears.
Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As prev
iously stated above, Chinese alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said th
at the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a potion for eternal life
. Described in 9th-century texts[citation needed] and used in fireworks in China
by the 10th century[citation needed], it was used in cannons by 1290[citation n
eeded]. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Musli
m world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in
1241, and in Europe by the 14th century.
Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese med
icine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and to martial arts such as Tai Chi
Chuan[citation needed] and Kung Fu (although some Tai Chi schools believe that t
heir art derives from the philosophical or hygienic branches of Taoism, not Alch
emical). In fact, in the early Song dynasty, followers of this Taoist idea (chie
fly the elite and upper class) would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tole
rable in low levels, led many to suicide[citation needed]. Thinking that this co
nsequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the en
suing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of exte
rnal sources[citation needed] (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan[citation needed]
, mastering of the qi[citation needed], etc.).
Medieval Europe[edit]
The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone, by Joseph Wright, 1771
The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, wi
th the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the Arabic Book of the C
omposition of Alchemy. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, R
obert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time
of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines
including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo, Spain, through contributors
like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath.[44] Translations of the time includ
ed the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and al-Razi. These brought
with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no prev
ious Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.[45]
Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the
reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe fo
r the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century St Anselm put forth the opi
nion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a
Christian context. In the early 12th century, Peter Abelard followed Anselm's wo
rk, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the
first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, Rober
t Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observatio
n, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. G
rosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.[4
6]
Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe rema
ined centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The ef
forts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 1
3th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon were the most notable of these, the
ir work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Ar
istotelian terms.[47] Albertus Magnus, a Dominican monk, is known to have writte
n works such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and commented on the oper
ations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unn
amed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings
of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. Fro
m the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alc
hemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his r
eputation as an accomplished alchemist.[48] Likewise, alchemical texts have been
attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas.
Roger Bacon, a Franciscan monk who wrote on a wide variety of topics including o
ptics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his Great Work (Latin: Op
us Majus) for Pope Clement IV as part of a project towards rebuilding the mediev
al university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy
was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegor
ical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts
of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's
connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated
morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence w
ith Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.[49
] Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into pr
actical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the s
cope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time.
The practical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon
advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.[50] In later European legend
, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus,
he was credited with the forging of a brazen head capable of answering its owner
's questions.
Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber (sometimes identified as
Paul of Taranto) appeared. His Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of a
lchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It w
as notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-
mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described.[51] By t
he end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured syste
m of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that
is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substanc
es could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the s
ecret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul).
They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, an
d they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of
coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists
practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observat
ions and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revol
ved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fal
l of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with
God.[52]
In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the con
fines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted fro
m scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemis
ts themselves.[53] Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pi
ctures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, Spondent
 quas non exhibent forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-al
chemists.[54] In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying me
tals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemic
ally, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV[55]). These critiques
and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the act
ual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 1
4th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the
alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in th
e name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.[56]
Nicolas Flamel is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of pseudepigraphy,
the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous.
Though the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him
only appeared in 1612.[57][58] Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many o
f his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the p
ursuit of the philosopher's stone. His work spends a great deal of time describi
ng the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carryin
g out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical k
nowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's s
tone.[59] Through the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel:
they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. Bernard Trevisan and
George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism
led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.
Renaissance and early modern Europe[edit]
Further information: Renaissance magic and natural magic
Page from alchemic treatise of Ramon Llull, 16th century
The red sun rising over the city, the final illustration of 16th century alchemi
cal text, Splendor Solis. The word rubedo, meaning "redness", was adopted by alc
hemists and signalled alchemical success, and the end of the great work.
During the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to Europ
ean alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial br
anches of alchemy followed.
In the late 15th century, Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and th
e works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who
for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had de
clared absent. Renaissance Humanism and Renaissance Neoplatonism guided alchemis
ts away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.
Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticis
m, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala.[60][61] A key figure i
n this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486 1535), who received
his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occu
lta Philosophia, he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He wa
s instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of
Italy.[62][63]
Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493 1541) c
ast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving aw
ay from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in m
edicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold
and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and po
wer may lie in medicines."[64]
His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the har
mony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach differen
t from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purificati
on but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their
bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could
cure them.[65] Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and pl
ant remedies has since been named spagyric (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek
words meaning to separate and to join together, based on the Latin alchemic max
im: solve et coagula).[66] Iatrochemistry also refers to the pharmaceutical appl
ications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus.
John Dee (13 July 1527 December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Thou
gh better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, cry
ptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's alchemical[67] Monas Hier
oglyphica, written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writin
g portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic
axiom As above so below.[68] During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatur
al" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of th
e Royal Society: Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole. Proponents of the supernatural
interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to
summon and communicate with angels.[69]
Entrepreneurial opportunities were not uncommon for the alchemists of Renaissanc
e Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related
to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals
, and gemstones.[70] Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, fa
mously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, includi
ng Dee and his associate Edward Kelley. King James IV of Scotland,[71] Julius, D
uke of Brunswick-Luneburg, Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, Augustus, Electo
r of Saxony, Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, and Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kass
el all contracted alchemists.[72] John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physic
ian to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchem
ical book Fasciculus Chemicus.

Alchemist Sendivogius (1566 1636) by Jan Matejko, 1867

Though most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemica
l fraud continued through the Renaissance. Betruger would use sleight of hand, o
r claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mysti
cal and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote abo
ut fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists.[73
] False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud.
The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern peri
od, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and
metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps
between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists an
d craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho Brahe (1546 1601), an alchemist b
etter known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laborato
ry built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Michael Sendivogius (M
ichal Sedziwoj, 1566 1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pi
oneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxy
gen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Corneliu
s Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted consid
erably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult st
udies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists wh
o were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van
Helmont. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical ac
hievements in medicine and science.
Late modern period[edit]
Robert Boyle
The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science
with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "
ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the
17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact
may have reached its apogee in the 18th century. As late as 1781 James Price cla
imed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold.
Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, pra
ctices, and purposes: "Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Pa
racelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more plus virtually
every combination and compromise thereof."[74]
Robert Boyle (1627 1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigation
s. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant da
ta. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind
characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, a
ll just in case they proved to be relevant.[75] This approach eventually led to
the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolu
tionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton.
Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction was drawn between "alchemy" and "chem
istry" for the first time.[76][77] By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to
the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were ch
arlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.[74][77] In order t
o protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure o
f which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enli
ghtenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to separate and divorce the "new"
chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful,
and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and ev
en to the present day.[78]
During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attent
ion as an occult science.[79][80] The esoteric or occultist school, which arose
during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substanc
es and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a
spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical traditi
on or protoscience.[76][81][82] This interpretation further forwarded the view t
hat alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumi
nation, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and
claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical gui
se for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.[82]
In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary A
nne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works
regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchem
y, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surre
ptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy."[83][84] Atwood's work in
fluenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur
Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his Remarks Upon Alchymists (18
55) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim tha
t the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise
in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, B
aron Carl Reichenbach, published his studies on Odic force, a concept with some
similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scient
ific discussion.[85]
Women in alchemy[edit]
Several women figure in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names Mar
y the Jewess, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Medera, and Taphnutia as the four women w
ho knew how to make the philosopher's stone.[86] Zosimos' sister Theosebia (late
r known as Euthica the Arab) and Isis the Prophetess also play a role in the ear
ly alchemical texts.
The first alchemist is recognized as being Mary the Jewess (c. 200 A.D.).[87] Ma
ry is known for a number of improvements on alchemy equipment and tools as well
as novel techniques in chemistry.[87] Her most well-known advancements are heati
ng and distillation processes. The water-bath, also known as bain-marie is said
to have been invented by or at least improved by her.[88] This double-boiler was
often used in chemistry for processes that might require gentle heating. The tr
ibikos (a basic still) and the kerotakis (a more intricate distilling apparatus)
are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to
her.[89] While these were great achievements, Mary the Jewess' most critical con
tribution is considered to be the identification of hydrochloric acid, a frequen
tly used chemical today.[90] Though we have no writing from Maria herself, she i
s known from the fourth century writings of Zosimos of Panopolis.[91]
Due to the proliferation of pseudepigrapha and anonymous works, it is difficult
to know which of the alchemists were actually women. After the Greco-Roman perio
d, women's names appear less frequently the alchemical literature. Women vacate
the history of alchemy during the medieval and renaissance periods, aside from t
he fictitious account of Perenelle Flamel. Mary Anne Atwood's A Suggestive Inqui
ry into the Hermetic Mystery (1850) marks their return during the nineteenth cen
tury occult revival.
Modern historical research[edit]
The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academ
ic study.[92] As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are beco
ming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and othe
r facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philo
sophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism,
spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements.[93] Institutions invol
ved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana Un
iversity, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO)
, the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE), and the Uni
versity of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and
Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliot
heca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid 19th century k
abbalah based book features step by step instructions on turning copper into gol
d. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located.[94]
Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include 'Ambix', publis
hed by the Society for the History of alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', publish
ed by The History of Science Society.
Core concepts[edit]
Mandala illustrating common alchemical concepts, symbols, and processes. From Sp
iegel der Kunst und Natur.
Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in whic
h it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmol
ogy. As such, the Classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the se
ven Classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly
, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are di
scussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of prima materia and anima mundi
are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone.
Hermeticism[edit]
In the eyes of a variety of esoteric and Hermetic practitioners, alchemy is fund
amentally spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy
for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.[95] The writings attri
buted to Hermes Trismegistus are a primary source of alchemical theory. He is na
med "alchemy's founder and chief patron, authority, inspiration and guide".[96]
Early alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis (c. AD 300), highlight the spirit
ual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the
human soul.[97] This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspe
cts, substances, physical states, and material processes were used as metaphors
for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In th
is sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding the
ir true spiritual philosophy. Practitioners and patrons such as Melchior Cibinen
sis and Pope Innocent VIII existed within the ranks of the church, while Martin
Luther applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings.[98] Both
the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolize
d evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward
a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's
stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. App
lied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignor
ance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or pow
er that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this vie
w, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemi
cal works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and referen
ces to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover
their true meaning.
In his 1766 Alchemical Catechism, Theodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usa
ge of the metals was merely symbolic:
Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their
matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver?
A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers
are full of life.[99]
Magnum opus[edit]
Main article: Magnum opus (alchemy)
The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represen
ted by colors.
nigredo, a blackening or melanosis
albedo, a whitening or leucosis
citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis
rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis[100]
Modern alchemy[edit]
Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-centu
ry disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistr
y; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several
distinct and radically different interpretations.[101] Those focusing on the exo
teric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman,
have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substan
ces. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say
are described in medieval and early modern texts.[102] At the opposite end of t
he spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian[103] and
Anna Marie Roos,[104] who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret
these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.
Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in
concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements.[105] Groups like t
he Rosicrucians and Freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symb
olism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy
as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner
and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances.
",[74] which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought
.
Traditional medicine[edit]
Main articles: Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional medicine can use the concept of the transmutation of natural substan
ces, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual tec
hniques. In Ayurveda, the samskaras are claimed to transform heavy metals and to
xic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively use
d to the present day.[106]
Spagyrists of the 20th century, Albert Richard Riedel and Jean Dubuis, merged Pa
racelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. Th
e schools they founded, Les Philosophes de la Nature and The Paracelsus Research
Society, popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinct
ures and products.[107] The courses, books, organizations, and conferences gener
ated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as
a New Age medicinal practice.
Psychology[edit]
Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and w
as revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl G
ustav Jung. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after
being given a copy of the translation of The Secret of the Golden Flower, a Chin
ese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct cor
relation between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the internal
or psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. He called the
creation of the gold or lapis within the process of "individuation."[108][109]
Together with his alchemical mystica soror, Jungian Swiss analyst Marie-Louise v
on Franz, Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available and pored
over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding th
e art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic proce
ss of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contac
t and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the hieros gamos or div
ine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who hav
e an interest in understanding of the importance of dreams, symbols and the unco
nscious archetypal forces (archetypes)[109][110][111] that influence all of life
.
Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alch
emy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Ju
ng wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Wo
rks, Mysterium Conuinctionis.
Literature[edit]
Main article: Alchemy in art and entertainment
Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical t
exts and in mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the hi
story of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling. Here, characters
or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer
began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy wor
ks like those of Terry Pratchett.
Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used
alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or i
ntegrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in
the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the l
ast hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role
in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games.
See also[edit]
Alchemy in art and entertainment
Biological transmutation
Chemistry
Chinese alchemy
Cupellation
Hermes Trismegistus
Historicism
History of chemistry
List of alchemists
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
Magnum opus (alchemy)
Mary the Jewess
Nuclear transmutation
Outline of alchemy
Philosopher's Stone
Physics
Porta Alchemica
Scientific method
Superseded scientific theories
Synthesis of precious metals
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy, see Linden
1996, pp. 6 36
Jump up ^ To wit, the Anandakanda, Ayurvedaprakasa, Gorak?asa?hita, Kakaca??esva
rimatatantra, Kakaca??isvarakalpatantra, Kupipakvarasanirma?avijnana, Paradasa?h
ita, Rasabhai?ajyakalpanavijnana, Rasadhyaya, Rasah?dayatantra, Rasajalanidhi, R
asakamadhenu, Rasakaumudi, Rasamanjari, Rasamitra, Rasam?ta, Rasapaddhati, Rasap
radipa, Rasaprakasasudhakara, Rasarajalak?mi, Rasaratnadipika, Rasaratnakara, Ra
saratnasamuccaya, Rasar?ava, Rasar?avakalpa, Rasasa?ketakalika, Rasasara, Rasata
ra?gi?i, Rasayanasara, Rasayogasagara, Rasayogasataka, Rasendracintama?i, Rasend
racu?ama?i, Rasendrama?gala, Rasendrapura?a, Rasendrasambhava, Rasendrasarasa?gr
aha, Rasoddharatantra or Rasasa?hita, and Rasopani?ad.
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Malouin, Paul-Jacques (1751), "Alchimie [Alchemy]", Encyclopedie ou Di
ctionnaire Raisonne des Sciences, des Arts, et des Metiers, Vol. I, Paris: trans
lated by Lauren Yoder in 2003 for Michigan Publishing's The Encyclopedia of Dide
rot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project.
^ Jump up to: a b Linden (1996), pp. 7 & 11.
Jump up ^ "Alchemy", Dictionary.com.
Jump up ^ Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World, Chicago: University of C
hicago Press, 2014.
Jump up ^ Wouter J. Hanegraaff (Cambridge University Press: 2012), Alchemy betwe
en Science and Religion, Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in West
ern Culture
Jump up ^ Holmyard 1957, p. 16
^ Jump up to: a b von Franz (1997).
Jump up ^ Matteo Martelli, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus (Maney, 2013).
Jump up ^ alchemy, Oxford Dictionaries
^ Jump up to: a b "alchemy". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford Univers
ity Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership require
d.) Or see Harper, Douglas. "alchemy". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved Ap
ril 7, 2010..
Jump up ^ See, for example, the etymology for in Liddell, Henry George; Robert Scott
(1901). A Greek-English Lexicon (Eighth edition, revised throughout ed.). Oxford
: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-910205-8.
Jump up ^ See, for example, both the etymology given in the Oxford English Dicti
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940). A Greek-English Lexicon (A new edition, revised and augmented throughout e
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Jump up ^ Garfinkel, Harold (1986). Ethnomethodological Studies of Work. Routled
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Jump up ^ Yves Bonnefoy. 'Roman and European Mythologies'. University of Chicago
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Jump up ^ Clement, Stromata, vi. 4.
Jump up ^ Linden 1996, p. 12
Jump up ^ Partington, James Riddick (1989). A Short History of Chemistry. New Yo
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Jump up ^ Linden 2003, p. 46
^ Jump up to: a b A History of Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent, Isabelle Stengers, H
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Jump up ^ Linden 1996, p. 14
Jump up ^ Lindsay, Jack (1970). The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt. Lo
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Jump up ^ Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of t
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An Alternative View of the Scientific Revolution. 2009. p.6
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^ Jump up to: a b Multhauf, Robert P. & Gilbert, Robert Andrew (2008). Alchemy.
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Jump up ^ Meulenbeld, G. Jan (1999 2002). History of Indian Medical Literature. Gr
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/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body
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^ Jump up to: a b Kraus, Paul, Jabir ibn Hayyan, Contribution a l'histoire des i
dees scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des ecrits jabiriens. II. Jabir et
la science grecque,. Cairo (1942 1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences i
n Islam. 67 68), Frankfurt. 2002: (cf. Ahmad Y Hassan. "A Critical Reassessment of
the Geber Problem: Part Three". Retrieved 16 September 2014.)
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^ Jump up to: a b Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Scie
nce of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 29. ISBN 0-9065
40-96-8.
Jump up ^ Strathern, Paul. (2000), Mendeleyev's Dream the Quest for the Elements
, New York: Berkley Books
Jump up ^ Moran, Bruce T. (2005). Distilling knowledge: alchemy, chemistry, and
the scientific revolution. Harvard University Press. p. 146. ISBN 0-674-01495-2.
a corpuscularian tradition in alchemy stemming from the speculations of the med
ieval author Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan)
Jump up ^ Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr,
History of Islamic Philosophy, p. 174. London: Routledge.
Jump up ^ Marmura ME (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines:
Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an,
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307/2851429.
Jump up ^ Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 196 197.
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Jump up ^ Holmyard 1957, p. 110
Jump up ^ Hollister, C. Warren (1990). Medieval Europe: A Short History (6th ed.
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says. PIMS. 1980. p.187-202
Jump up ^ Edmund Brehm. "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy." Ambix.
Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976.
Jump up ^ Holmyard 1957, pp. 120 121
Jump up ^ Holmyard 1957, pp. 134 141.
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he Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 149. ISBN 0-906540-96-8
.
Jump up ^ Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire. Univ
ersity of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49
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ranslation, and Tradition. Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170
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Jump up ^ Leah DeVun. From Prophecy, Alchemy, and the End of Time: John of Rupes
cissa in the late Middle Ages. Columbia University Press, 2009. p. 104
Jump up ^ Linden 2003, p. 123
Jump up ^ "Nicolas Flamel. Des Livres et de l'or" by Nigel Wilkins
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he Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. pp. 170 181. ISBN 0-906540-9
6-8.
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Jump up ^ Glenn Alexander Magee. Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition. Cornell Unive
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Jump up ^ Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historica
l Introduction. Oxford University Press. 2008 p.60
Jump up ^ Edwardes, Michael (1977). The Dark Side of History. New York: Stein an
d Day. p. 47. ISBN 0-552-11463-4.
Jump up ^ Debus, Allen G.; Multhauf, Robert P. (1966). Alchemy and Chemistry in
the Seventeenth Century. Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, Un
iversity of California. pp. 6 12.
Jump up ^ Joseph Needham. Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry
and Chemical Technology, Part 5, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Physiologi
cal Alchemy. Cambridge University Press. P.9
Jump up ^ Monas hieroglyphica is not a traditional alchemical work, but has impor
tant theoretical insights about a cosmic vision, in which alchemy played an impo
rtant part. Szonyi, Gyorgy E. (2015). "'Layers of Meaning in Alchemy in John Dee's
Monas hieroglyphica and its Relevance in a Central European Context'" (PDF). Ce
ntre for Renaissance Texts, 2015, 118.
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nd Alchemy in Early Modern Europe. MIT Press, 2001. P.173.
Jump up ^ * Journal of the History of Ideas, 41, 1980, p. 293-318
Principe & Newman 2001, pp. 399
The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest, by Lawrence M. Princi
pe, 'Princeton University Press', 1998, pp. 188 90
Jump up ^ Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire. p.4
Jump up ^ Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, vol. iii, (1901), 99,
202, 206, 209, 330, 340, 341, 353, 355, 365, 379, 382, 389, 409.
Jump up ^ Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire. p.85
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