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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
1.1. The concept of differentiation
1.2. Different perspectives on gender sex differences
2. Literature Review
2.1. Differentiation and gender: boys and language learning
2.1.1. Variables influencing pupils to modern languages
2.1.2. Boys and girls attitudes towards the language skill
2.1.2.1. Speaking
2.1.2.2. Listening
2.1.2.3. Reading
2.1.2.4. Writing
2.1.3. Secondary relevant variables related to teaching and learning styles
2.1.3.1. Pair and group work
2.1.3.2. Tests
2.1.3.3. The sex of the teacher
2.1.3.4. Single-sex settings
2.1.4. Conclusions and implications
2.2. Further literature review
2.2.1. Gender differences: an overall view
2.2.1.1. Factors which influence girls and boys learning performance and
behaviour
2.2.1.2. Equal policies to reduce the gender gap in classrooms
2.2.2. Variables influencing students attitudes towards modern languages
2.2.2.1. The relationship teacher-student and student-students
2.2.2.2. Motivation and gender in the foreign language classroom
2.2.2.3. Students learning preferences: gendered choices?
2.2.2.4. Language teaching materials
2.2.2.5. Assessment and testing
2.2.2.6. Classroom settings: different ways of organisation
2.2.3. A feminised education
3. Research design
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Research objectives and questions
3.2.1. Objectives
3.2.2. Hypothesis
3.3. Population being studied
3.4. Research methodology
3.4.1. Variables
3.4.2. Research instrument
3.4.3. Procedure
4. Results
4.1. General information
4.1.1. Their favourite subject
4.1.2. About the English subject
4.1.3. Do students enjoy school?
4.1.4. Students professions in the future
4.1.5. Students hobbies
4.1.6. Who is better at languages?
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4.1.7. Have students ever been abroad?

4.2. Attitudes towards modern languages
4.2.1. Students marks
4.2.2. Tests/exams
4.2.3. Students visions on teachers gender
4.2.4. Preferences when studying
4.2.5. How often do students study?
4.2.6. Activities that students enjoy the most in class
5. Discussion
5.1. Problems found and possible solutions
5.2. Conclusions
5.3. Pedagogical implications
6. References
7. Appendix
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Abstract

This study is partly based on a previous research carried out by Barton and Downes
(2003) who aim at investigating the possible existence of gender differences in the
students second language learning. Interesting and diverse perspectives and theories
can be found regarding the gender gap in education, from those which support and
highlight the gender differences, to those which deny the existence of such differences
and emphasize the similarities instead. The core of Barton and Downes project is to
offer an in-depth look at learner differences from a gender perspective by analysing the
disparity between boys and girls attitudes towards modern languages with the purpose
of obtaining conclusions and pedagogical implications which can provide teachers and
schools with more specific guidance on that topic.

In order to collect the necessary data, I shaped a questionnaire based on the survey
created by Barton and Downes (2003) in which more than seventy students from two
different high schools participated. After a deep analysis of the results, the conclusions
reached differ in some aspects from Barton and Downes research but more similarities
than differences have been found, for instance some patterns related to gender
stereotypes have appeared especially when choosing subjects, other academic pathways,
and professional careers, whereas some inconclusive results have also been found in
relation to gender differences, such as in the case of students learning preferences.
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The elimination of existing gender roles and stereotypes is not an easy task;
however significant measures can be taken into account, for instance eliminating sex-
stereotyping through revision of school texts and materials; increasing students
motivation by discovering their interests; trying to create a good atmosphere in the
classroom and encouraging teachers to reflect on their work with the aim of involving
students in their English language learning.

1. INTRODUCTION

Any research project aims at providing a better understanding of a

topic in order to improve a situation or obtain a solution to a conflict.
In this case, the gender issue has been chosen since, although it has
been constantly changing throughout history, it is present in our daily
lives and represents a controversial topic as well as the struggle
against inequality and the gender imbalance. The field of education is
required to answer the questions derived from the intent of
minimising the gender gap while maintaining a philosophy of
differentiation, a dichotomy which should be seen undoubtedly as a
challenging issue.

1.1 THE CONCEPT OF DIFFERENTIATION

In the last decades, most of education systems are prompting the introduction of a
pedagogy for autonomy in the classrooms, namely Western countries. The concept of
autonomy was already used by philosophers such as St. Augustine or later Kant whose
thoughts were transmitted to theorists such as Dearden who found an application of this
notion for education settings. In the work of Jimnez Raya (2013:120) the autonomous
individual is defined as someone who determines the course of this/her life, establishes
his/her own goals by evaluating their options to select the most worthy ones, and acts in
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a rational way to realize them.

In a professional context, this issue has a great implication since society requires
people with certain abilities in relation to autonomy as critical thinking, problem-
solving and analyse skills, and show willingness to update their knowledge and skills to
overcome the ongoing challenges.

In the context of education, Jimnez Raya et al. (2007:1) define autonomy as

the competence to develop as a self-determined, socially responsible and critically
aware participant in (and beyond) educational environments, within a vision of
education as (inter)personal empowerment and social transformation. Taking into
consideration this definition, then we can deduce that the teachers role has changed
from a mere transmitter of information to a mediator in the students learning pathway
in which some of his/her functions are to get to know each student so the teacher can be
aware of their strengths and weaknesses when learning, to know also about their
interests and to provide them with the support needed in each case.

In order to elaborate a framework in which the introduction of a pedagogy for

autonomy is a priority, Jimnez Raya et al. (2007) suggest nine interrelated principles,
among which we can find differentiation, the core of this research.

Uniformity of instruction does little to help those learners who

find it difficult to adapt because of their different learning styles,
levels, strategies and interests. Accommodating teaching to such
learner differences is one of the most fundamental challenges of
education
(Jimnez Raya, 2013:130)

The Spanish Education system has attempted to rise to this

challenge since the terms of autonomy and differentiation acquired
relevance when they were introduced for the first time in the LOGSE
(The Education Act, 1990). Differentiation means to provide learning
opportunities that help each student to develop their full potential
during their learning and implies the adjustment of the curriculum to
learners needs, interests and abilities, and demands from schools
and teachers specific action to cater for the diversity which exists in
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classrooms (Jimnez Raya, 2003:15). Thus, learners may differ in

several ways which should all be considered by teachers and schools:
age, cultural background, gender, interests, motivation, cognitive
style, learning strategies and rhythm, prior knowledge, etc.

Howard Gardner (2011) promotes and justifies the application of

differentiation in the classrooms by setting the theory of multiple
intelligences. This theory has emerged from recent cognitive research
and documents the extent to which students have different kinds of
minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in
different ways. It challenged the traditional model of teaching in
which lessons aim at teaching to the middle, leaving behind those
with different attributes or characteristics.
Generally, todays schools just take into account the parts of the
intelligence referred to as the linguistic and mathematical-logical
intelligences. However, some students show promise in other types of
intelligence (artistic, musical, design, etc.) which should be paid the
same attention. Unfortunately, these abilities are not usually
reinforced at all.

Convery and Coyle (1999) encourage trainee teachers to start thinking about
differentiation by considering as many factors as they can which make students different
from one another. They also establish a variety of strategies to promote differentiation in
the classroom, some of them are grading tasks while using the same text, using same
tasks with different outcomes, providing different kind of individual support, grouping,
using a variety of teaching approaches and considering students interests. When talking
about gender differentiation they propose to experiment with seating arrangements, ask
questions equally to boys and girls and organise activities that oblige students to mix
naturally.

1.2 DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES on GENDER AND SEX

DIFFERENCES

During the last decades, society has had to deal with a conceptual
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conflict: sex or gender. Sometimes it is difficult to understand exactly

what they signify, so it is also difficult to use these terms properly. The
World Health Organization provides the following definitions:
"sex" refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that
define men and women, while "gender" refers to the socially
constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given
society considers appropriate for men and women. Some examples
that allow a better understanding of their meaning are added: a sex
characteristic is that women menstruate while men do not, or that
men have testicles while women do not. Meanwhile, a characteristic
of gender would be, for instance, if in the United States and other
countries women earn less money than men for similar work.

As this paper will be focused on differences amongst students

attitudes towards second language learning, the correct term to be
used should be gender, that is gender differentiation. On the other
hand, although sex is referred to as biological differences, the terms
males and females will be used as synonyms for boys and girls
throughout this paper.

Historically, there have been two main approaches to the

educational gender or sex differences in western cultures:
conservative and progressive. Conservative in the sense that the
differences between women and men are considered as biological, so
unchanging, based on the idea of womens inferiority (Forsthuber,
Horvath, Motiejunaite, 2010). Each part had its role in society: men
enjoyed the public sphere (breadwinner, work-oriented, head of the
family) while women the private, which means at home taking care of
the house and the family. With this perspective, education is seen as
an instrument of socializing and educating boys and girls into their
natural and unchanging roles. The second approach is
progressive, which is based on the idea that men and womens roles
are shaped because of influences from the society, the culture and
the history. It understands gender or sex difference as a cultural
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phenomenon. Education is a tool for creating awareness on

encouraging greater equality between sexes.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

As this research is based on a previous study of gender differences in

the process of learning and teaching a second language carried out
by Barton and Downes (2003), this section will be mainly divided into
two parts: 2.1 analysis of Barton and Downes research, and 2.2
analysis of other similar projects which can provide this research with
interesting information and relevant data.

2.1 DIFFERENTIATION AND GENDER: BOYS AND LANGUAGE

LEARNING

Under this title, Amanda Barton and Peter Downes (2003) present
their research about gender differentiation highlighting the
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differences between boys and girls achievements in modern foreign

languages in secondary schools in UK. They state that girls
outperform during this process due to several factors which will be
analysed further on.

This study is based on two empirical, school-based research

projects carried out during the period 1996-2000. The instruments
used to collect data were interviews, questionnaires and classroom
observation. The subjects for the first project were students from the
11-16 age groups, from five secondary schools in England within the
category of co-educational schools and all male teaching groups,
whereas the second involves students from seven secondary schools
working with mixed groups. In total, more than 700 pupils participated
in this study.

The first observation is based on GCSE examination results

throughout different years. These outcomes show that more girls than
boys obtained an A-C grade and that this difference has increased in
the ultimate decades. The main reasons which explain the imbalance
of girls outperformance of boys when learning a second language in a
modern classroom seem to be a complex issue. Some of these
reasons that Barton and Downes (2003) exposed in their work are
related to external factors such as the boys experiences in childhood,
the parents expectations and behaviour towards girls and boys
(which are rather different) or even the kind of toys which they play
with seem to have certain influence on their language learning, as
their learning style varies as does their development of some
cognitive processes: independence, exploration and problem-solving
in boys; imitation rule-learning and the desire for approval in girls.
Moreover, the lack of male teachers; the association of the subject
with a feminine image; and the impossibility to obtain an immediate
result in a subject are factors which can also be ascertained to this
controversial issue.

In order to collect the necessary data, Barton and Downes (2003)

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used the following

instruments:
A questionnaire which contains two main sections: in the first,
thirteen general questions about the students and their
families; while in the second one, there are 35 brief questions
about their attitudes towards modern languages
An individual interview for each student .

Some of the conclusions reached stated that, for instance, girls

show more enthusiasm for languages and that more boys than girls
claimed that their SL was their least favourite subject (17% and 14%
respectively being remarkable the high percent of girls). In general,
attitudes seem to deteriorate as they grow older although in boys
this was more noticeable.

2.1.1 VARIABLES INFLUENCING PUPILS ATTITUDES TO

MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Considering the literature on gender differences in the classroom
when learning a second language, the authors of this study, Barton
and Downes (2003), identified a set of variables which may influence
pupils and which will be the core of the research and the starting
point. These are the variables taken into account:

1. Parental approval may determine pupils attitudes to school

subjects, i.e. parents of daughters appear more approving than
parents of sons in the case of modern languages. If schools wish to
reduce the gender gap, they should undertake awareness-raising
activities among parents concerning this issue.
2. The lack of opportunities to use the language in real
communication seems an influential factor, since the fact of having
been abroad and in contact with native speakers shows that the
students interest is higher. However, it is also noteworthy to
mention that it is given greater importance by boys than by girls.
3. Boys realisation that girls are more successful seems inclined to
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generate demotivation among boys, for that reason some boys

confessed to being more comfortable in single-sex groups.
4. Pupils perceptions of the relevance of language learning. The
suitability of a subject is crucial in the creation of extrinsic
motivation among boys. In fact, more boys than girls think that
studying a language is a waste of time and effort.

2.1.2 BOYS AND GIRLS LEARNING STYLES

Regarding learning styles, there are more similarities than differences,
although common trends amongst adolescent males may be made
more evident by peer pressure which forces boys to conform to
accepted norms of behaviours (Barton and Downes, 2003, p. 25).

2.1.2.1 Speaking
According to this study, this is one of the most gratifying skills for
boys, or the only one. Although speaking was identified as a popular
skill, more girls than boys dislike it. Regarding boys, this is explained
by the problems they suffer with writing and spelling. More boys than
girls enjoy drama, for example, acting out a short dialogue as is the
case in a foreign language classroom. Teachers explain this by stating
that boys feel more confident in an imaginary role.

2.1.2.2 Listening
Both sexes admit that listening, especially when concerning audio, is
the most difficult part mainly because of the speed. There is a huge
difference between understanding audio and the teacher who can
modulate their speech. Although boys regard listening as something
passive, when combined with a task which implies using other skills,
e.g. creativity, it becomes more attractive and less passive since this
breaks the routine and increases students motivation.

2.1.2.3 Reading
Girls generally respond more positively than boys to reading tasks.
This fact is mainly due to the passive image of this skill compared
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with oral skills, the unappealing content and the feeling of isolation
which conflicts with the boys necessity for permanent company.

The conclusion obtained establishes that reading activities are

more popular and appealing if they involve physical activity, visuals or
ICT or if the text is displayed on walls or computer screens. Finally,
both sexes demonstrate negative attitudes to reading for cultural
background information when the task has no practical outcome.

2.1.2.4 Writing
A great difference in percentages revealed that boys dislike writing
more than girls (23% and 4% respectively). The main reason cited by
boys is the difficulty experienced with spelling. Moreover, boys and
some girls think that writing is less useful than speaking, so if the task
has a practical purpose for example writing a letter, which will be
replied, augments students interest in writing considerably.

2.1.3 SECONDARY RELEVANT VARIABLES RELATING TO

TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES
2.1.3.1 Pair and group work
Both boys and girls prefer to work in groups or in pairs. However, girls
feel more confident than boys who recognise their problems when
working in groups. On the other hand, although boys seem to be more
dependent on their teacher, they also prefer subjects in which they
are given more freedom of movement when learning, so they can
work independently, as is the case in subjects such as P.E., Art or
Music.

2.1.3.2 Tests
In this regard, boys consider that tests are helpful for revising their
learning of a subject. This is probably due to the fact that boys are
more likely to ignore how to revise, in contrast to girls.

2.1.3.3 The sex of the teacher

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In the Barton and Downes study (2003), most of the students had not
been taught by a male teacher and only a small percentage (4%) has
been taught by male teachers. Pupils do not highlight the sex of a
teacher as an important factor related to the quality of teaching, the
most important factor is the figure of a teacher as a professional.
Nevertheless, when answering the interview questions, some
differences were exposed by the students who possibly intended to be
diplomatic and please the interviewer.

2.1.3.4 Single-sex settings

Both boys and girls expressed that they felt more confident in single-
sex groups, rather than in mix-sex groups, as they were relieved of
the pressure to impress which characterises the mixed groups;
however, this fact is more noticeable in boys who tend to enjoy
learning languages in single-sex groups more than girls. However, the
older the boys are, the less they enjoy being taught in a single-sex
group. Interestingly, pupils did not give great importance to this factor
and they recognised that teachers have even more influence on them
and on their attitudes than the single sex setting issue.

2.1.4 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR BARTON AND

DOWNES RESEARCH
The findings obtained from Barton and Downes research suggest
mainly that the role played by the teacher influences remarkably the
students achievements. Some of the pedagogical implications are
referred in the following points:

- Outline the subject objectives at the beginning.

- Present tasks as challenges.
- Allow pupils to control some listening exercises.
- Show practical benefits of language learning.
- Avoid correcting pupils pronunciation publicly.
- Use more pair and group work.
- Promote the use of ICT as a teaching tool.
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- Give pupils opportunities to write creatively.

- Present tasks with clear purpose or practical outcomes
- Consult pupils on their learning preferences.

In short, students should not be treated as a homogeneous group and

gender differences should not be neglected or minimized. It is obvious
that there are gender differences in learning style and preferences
which are common to each, for this reason one of the teachers main
functions is to assure the achievement of each students full potential
irrespective of social, gender, cultural or any type of disparity there
could be in the classroom, through effective differentiation.

2.2. FURTHER LITERATURE REVIEW

After reviewing the Barton and Downes article on which this project is
focused, it is necessary and advantageous to acquire further
information of this topic related to gender and education such as
findings, conclusions and implications which will help in thoroughly
understanding the process and the outcomes of this project.

2.2.1 GENDER DIFFERENCES: AN OVERALL VIEW

Women and men are not two separate groups, from Venus and
Mars (or wherever) respectively. There are (obviously)
differences among women and among men; we can argue that
these intra-group differences are greater than inter-group
differences (between women and men)
(Sunderland, 2010:23)

Gender differences have been studied since the early 1900s from
various perspectives: personal characteristics, social behaviour and
cognitive development. Apparently, the younger the children are, the
greater the differences between girls and boys. Some differences
appear during infancy while others do not emerge until adolescence.
However, some of these differences have been minimised over the
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last two to three decades, which indicates that socialization and

differential experiences play important roles in gender differences
(Cook, 2010).

There are gender-specific personality traits which affect how

children learn. In the 1960's and 1970's and even in the 1980's, it was
assumed that gender differences in personality were socially
constructed. During these periods, many psychologists thought that
if children were raised differently, e.g. if we raised Peter to play with
dolls and Sarah to play with trucks, then many of these gender
differences would be reduced (Costa, Terracciano and McCrae, 2001).
Nevertheless, cross-cultural studies over the past 30 years have
provided little support for this hypothesis. On the contrary, a report
from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) found that gender
differences in personality were remarkably robust across all cultures
studied.

Regarding social behaviour, boys show more physical

aggression such as hitting or kicking than girls; this difference
continues throughout childhood and into adulthood (Coie & Dodge,
1998). Boys also show higher levels of assertiveness than girls,
though the difference is not as great as that of physical aggression
(Feingold, 1994). It's remarkable to remember that aggression can
have different forms; for instance, relational aggression seeks to
hurt others through social means such as name-calling or exclusion.
Girls are significantly more likely than boys to show relational
aggression (Crick and Grotpeter, 1995).

As for emotions, some researchers suggest that culture

socializes boys to express less emotion as they grow older (with the
possible exception of anger). As a result, boys become less skilled at
understanding both their own and others' emotions (Eisenberg,
Martin, & Fabes, 1996; Kindlon & Thompson, 2000).

When learning, differences in learning style also emerge: girls

are said to be more critical with their work, despite the fact that they
 16

receive generally better marks, while boys tend to have unrealistically

high estimates of their own academic abilities (Pomerantz, Altermatt
and Saxon, 2002). Girls are also said to be more cooperative, helpful,
and more easily influenced than boys (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Ruble
& Martin, 1998) who usually require more space of movement.

Although we are aware of gender differences, we still do not

fully understand why they exist. Biological factors together with
some cognitive processes should be taken into account when
considering the gender issue in question. Many studies show that girls
and boys brains are structurally different: boys brains develop
differently than girls brains, i.e. the areas of the brain involved in
language and fine motor skills mature earlier in girls than in boys. The
largest and most consistent gender differences are found in verbal
language, and certain spatial skills. From childhood, girls produce
words at an earlier age, have a larger vocabulary, and show a higher
level of language complexity. Some of these gender differences seem
to be reduced during adolescence, whereas differences in other areas
like writing remain (Halpern, 2000). Contrarily, boys are more likely to
need space to spread out their materials and move around and do
better when using mathematical-logical thinking. In this regard
schools should try to restructure the environment to arrange more
time for movement, and teachers becoming more noise-tolerant.
Silent and seated is not a comfortable learning condition for boys,
whose brains require more physical movement.

In turn, some authors such as the neuroscientist Lise Eliot

(2009) state that there is almost no solid evidence of sex differences
in children's brains. When adulthood is reached these differences are
greater, but still slight. Generalizations about inherent male or female
skills can have a negative effect since they reinforce stereotypes and
expectations that prescribe the way girls and boys are taught.

Facing researchers who claim that girls are verbally superior to boys when
acquiring the first language, Ekstrad (1980), when analysing the sex differences in
 17

second language learning, believes that the differences found are too insignificant and
inconclusive, this is explained by his stating that behavioural variations are due to
cultural factors or that gender differences regarding the first and second language
acquisition are socially constructed.

2.2.1.1 Factors which influence girls and boys

performance and behaviour
Factors such as socio-economic differences or the ethnic origin seem
to have certain influence on the students academic performance.
These factors are more significant as students grow older. A low
academic performance is overall related to a situation of poverty,
family size and parents in unskilled or low skilled employment, while
enhancements are related to a higher social class level, being a girl
and having educated parents (Sammons, 1995). In Greece, students
at high risk of school failure include boys, students with psychological
problems, those coming from backgrounds with low socioeconomic
and educational levels or a combination of these factors (Livaditis et
al., 2003).

Regarding the ethnic origin, in Spain, for example, research on

Roma children in compulsory secondary schooling shows that girls
face more obstacles than boys and also obtain lower grades;
however, more Roma boys than girls leave school early. These school-
leaving patterns are related to Roma family discourses which make
girls involvement in education difficult, although their continuance is
due to their greater motivation for studies (CIDE & Instituto de la
Mujer, 2006).

On the other hand, recent research in the United Kingdom

(Melhuish et al. 2008) shows the influence of both gender and home
learning environment (HLE) on younger children. HLE involves the
frequency of reading to the child, visiting the library, teaching songs
nursery rhymes, playing with letters and numbers, etc. According to
this study, girls have higher HLE than boys, so this difference may
mainly reflect different levels of parental support.
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2.2.1.2 Equal policies to reduce the gender gap in

classrooms
The concepts of Equality and Equal opportunity were mainly used
from the twentieth century onwards. Before this phenomenon took
place, education was a means of preparing students to play their
traditional roles in society as men and women. The importance of
introducing equal policies relies on the strong influence that they
may have on the process of students socialisation and, consequently,
their career opportunities.

Most of European countries are concerned about gender

inequalities in education and share a common goal: to challenge
gender roles and stereotypes. The concern related to Education draws
attention to the differences between girls and boys in both academic
attainment and the choice of educational paths. In this regard, several
countries concentrate on boys underachievement, the manifestation
of stereotypes in teaching materials as well as the hidden curriculum.

In Spain, Luxembourg and Portugal, there are several action

plans on gender equality for the inclusion of the gender dimension in
initial teacher education. In Spain, the 2008-2011 Strategic Plan for
Equal Opportunities includes, as its first objective, the promotion of
the appropriate initial training for teachers and other educational staff
in co-education, prevention of gender-based violence and harassment
and equal opportunities. Furhtermore, equality plans are introduced
by the Autonomous Communities based on the legislative framework,
thus, in Andalusia, for instance, the regional government has
introduced a policy called Esfuerza which defends values such as
respect, responsibility, evaluation culture, autonomy, and equal
opportunities in the Andalusian Education System. In addition, the
regional law 17/2007 on Education in the region tackles the equality
in the Public Education System.

Taking into consideration the implementation of these policies is

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essential since although the gender differences are obvious and they
still exist, the way in which pupils perceive this issue can differ, affect
and change or add new outcomes to this field of investigation.

2.2.2 STUDENTS ATTITUDES TOWARDS MODERN LANGUAGE

2.2.2.1 The relationship teacher-student and student-

student
Differentiation is deeply embedded in classroom practices: in how
boys and girls speak, listen and interact, and how the interaction is
carried out between teachers and students. The role played by the
teacher is fundamental in determining the type of approach set in the
classroom which will deal with diversity in one way or another.

As for classroom interaction, some studies realised in the 70s

and 80s by authors such as Spender (1982) showed that teachers
unintentionally gave boys more chances to talk than to girls. Studies
focused on the hidden curriculum claim that there is a male
dominance regarding the space and the teacher-time they demand,
and the influence they have over their peers (Myers et al., 2007). On
her part, Kelly (1988), in her study of gender differences in teacher-
pupil interaction, stated that boys were paid more attention by
teachers regardless of the teachers gender. She also argued that this
is due to male dominance in society. Swan and Graddon (1988), when
talking about gender inequalities, considered that this fact is
explained by differential teacher treatment by gender rather than
bias.

However, Sunderland (2000) when referring to gender and

language in education suggests that the most important factor is the
type of attention rather than the amount of it; therefore, the fact that
teachers pay more attention to boys does not necessarily mean that it
is helping their learning. In her study, the analysis showed that the
teacher interacted more with boys to exchange non-academic
behaviour, i.e. disciplinary commands; nevertheless, the teacher
 20

interacted more often with girls for academic purposes.

On the other hand, according to many authors, boys tend to

participate more actively in class than girls and the reason is that
boys try to develop their self-confidence, which enables them to
become competent public speakers in the future (Batters, 1987).

Up to this point, many authors focus on highlighting the

differences between girls and boys; however, according to Sunderland
(1996), who analysed the interaction between teacher-student and
vice-versa and the social construction of femininity and masculinity,
there are more similarities than differences between boys and girls.

When carrying out collaborative tasks in the classroom, there

are different studies which reach different conclusions. Thus, Holmes
(1994) determines that men are more prone to disagree and also ask
more questions than women. Meanwhile, Gass and Varonis (1986)
noted that there is more negotiation in mixed-sex pairs than in single-
sex ones. Finally, Alcn (1994) claims that boys take longer turns and
tend to interrupt more frequently.

In short, a variety of studies from different countries have

shown that both female and male teachers treat their students
differently depending on their sex. The tendency is to encourage
passivity and conformity in their female students, and perceive them
as more cooperative and malleable, in charge of caring for others or
cleaning-up in the classroom; while male students are seen as more
independent, naughtier, confident and able (Golombok and Fivush,
1994). Despite all the theories and studies realised in different years
and different educational systems (primary and secondary to higher
studies), the results and the main conclusion referring to the
relationship between the teacher and their students is that it is not
possible to give a definitive answer to explain this phenomenon,
merely that each case is different because of the context, the cultural
and the educational setting (Mulac et al., 2001).
 21

2.2.2.2 Motivation and gender in the foreign language

classroom
Regarding motivation, girls are more instrumentally motivated, i.e.
they have instrumental aims such as meeting and communicating
with foreign people. However, these results are inconclusive (Bacon
and Finneman, 1992). Ludwigs (1983) did not find significant
differences, although in general girls claimed that they were
discouraged if they were not able to produce correct forms while boys
felt disappointed when they did not understand the input they
received. In secondary settings, Batters (1987) found that attitudes
differ: boys enjoyed speaking activities the most, whilst girls enjoy the
activities at all levels (speaking, reading, writing and listening), so
boys feel more motivated in certain areas of this subject.

Students motivation also varies in relation to their teachers

expectations towards the learners, if girls are more likely to build up
on newly presented languages forms, they may also be expected to
be more successful in languages; therefore, the reduced participation
of boys may mean that they are expected to do less well (Sunderland,
2000b). This phenomenon is also known as the Pigmalion effect as
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) reported by trying to explain that the
reality can be influenced by others expectations, so teachers may
reinforce a more positive or negative attitude towards learning a
foreign language depending on their expectancy of students. As a
consequence, this can affect students motivation since they may feel
more or less able to perform classroom challenges in a successful
way.

Cerezo and Casanova (2003), when discussing gender

differences in relation with motivation in a study of which more than
500 secondary schools participated, state that gender is one of the
variables related to the differences regarding motivation and self-
regulation. Girls and boys perform differently, while girls tend to
explain their performance through their effort (internal causes), boys
 22

frequently apply arguments related to luck and their abilities (external

causes).

Regarding academic goals, it has been found that girls show an

intrinsic motivational orientation, unlike boys who are more
extrinsically motivated. Nevertheless, there are studies which show
no difference in this aspect (Ryan and Pintrich, 1997).

2.2.2.3 Students learning preferences: gendered

choices?
When discussing the reasons why students do not enjoy school,
Willingham (2009) explains that the main reason is that their
teachers do not have a full understanding of certain cognitive
principles and therefore do not teach as well as they could. Another
relevant reason is that they do not present material in ways that
appeal best to students; as a result they perceive the school as a
place similar to a prison where they are told exactly what they must
do, and are punished if failing to do so.

An early concern of researchers was the different subject and

career pathways that girls and boys take. A national curriculum which
allows little subject choice tends to reduce the gender gap in subject
choice (Arnot et al., 1999). However where choice is allowed, boys
generally choose male-identified subjects and career/vocational
pathways and girls female-identified subjects and career/vocational
pathways. Hussler and Hoffman (1997, 1998) found that girls choose
careers in art, medicine and counselling, and boys choose physics as
a basis for work in research or technical fields. The researchers
conclude that while the interests stemming from gender are not very
significant girls seem to prefer subjects that are more useful for their
everyday lives (see Eurydice, 2006).

Regarding students leisure-time activities, they often like going

out with their friends, practicing sport and using new technologies
(mainly computers, video games or mobile phones). According to
 23

Papastergiou and Solomonidou (2005) who carried out a research in

Greece, boys are more likely to use technology for entertainment and
webpage creation than girls are, whereas no other significant gender
difference has been found regarding pupils Internet activities in
relation to communication purposes, social networking and
information searches.

2.2.2.4 Language teaching materials

Gender stereotypes in education may appear reflected in different
aspects. One of the most obvious that has caused great concern
among authors is the situation of reading materials. Most of the text
books or handouts reflect a social reality through the language and
pictures used. Some examples related to the language would be the
use of fire-man instead of fire-fighter or boys who simply laugh
and girls who giggle.
Research studies have also focused on the frequency and manner in
which the sexes are portrayed, and have found that men appear more
frequently and in a wider set of roles as workers, whereas women are
shown mainly in domestic and romantic roles (Nilsen 1975).

However, as the curriculum theorist Paechter (2000) points out,

though official curricula tend to address gender equality, there are
still certain gender assumptions; for example, that power subjects
(e.g. science, mathematics and technology) will attract males and
others (e.g. languages, literature) females. This means that the
content of different subjects attracts boys and girls based on the
traditional idea that this is what proper girls or boys do (Forsthuber
et al., 2010). The hidden curriculum which includes, for example, the
relationships between teacher-student and student-student,
friendship or behaviour, everything that occurs and that is not
included in the official curriculum, may also transmit to children a
collection of messages which often reinforce sex stereotyping thus
sustaining a sexual division of labour in the social process of
schooling (Humm 1989, p. 95).
 24

2.2.2.5 Assessment and testing

Exams and tests are tools used to measure the level of knowledge a
person has in a specific area. However, they are not the only way of
assessing and evaluating students, for this reason it is essential to
determine their importance.

Assessment procedures have frequently been found to be

gendered, despite claims of neutrality and lack of bias. In terms of
examination content, boys have been found to perform significantly
better than girls in multiple choice tests across subject areas, while
girls do slightly better in course work and essay-type assessments
(Gipps & Murphy, 1994). Similar criticisms have been made regarding
examination papers and assessment texts: predominance of male
participants and settings, frivolous treatment of women, and sexist
language and illustrations. Additionally studies show that girls/women
tend to be marked down and boys/men marked up when the sex of
candidates is known and which has led to some countries
anonymising the name (and sex) of the student (Goddard-Spear,
1989; Willingham & Cole, 1997)

A test may reflect gender stereotypes: secretaries, nurses who

are women, for example; and vice-versa within boys, if they are given
topics of their interest (Wood, 1978; Carrell and Wise, 1998). As for
tasks, there are activities in which boys or girls are better or more
successful. Cheshire and Jenkins (1991) when studying the gender
issues in the GCSE oral English examination, claim that the gender of
the tester might influence on how female and male students respond
to questions during oral exams. As discussed in Sunderland (2000b),
the above points highlight the need for further investigation into the
impact on gender and language testing.

2.2.2.6 Classroom settings: different ways of

organisation
 25

As part of this research, it is interesting to research the dissimilarities

between boys and girls concerning their learning style, for that reason
we will analyse how the classroom organisation affects their learning.
The first kind of organisation is according to the way of grouping
students. Adame (2010) describes in his article the three main
methods of working and highlights the advantages and disadvantages
of these organisation methods:

Individually. This method is more personalized and it may adapt to each students needs
while the teacher can help him/her to overcome individual difficulties and reinforce
positive aspects. On the other hand, it is not so easy for the teacher to help each student in
a deep way, and the material limitation could be another constrain if, for example, there
are not enough computers for everybody.

In pairs. According to Adame (2010), this is the most popular kind of class organisation
for students. Each student can take advantage of the cooperative working benefits at the
same time that it allows to work individually.

Groups. Students benefits from sharing experiences, ideas and

materials with their peers while promoting social values. However,
these situations in which there is unbalance of work can appear or
even the working pace can be slower.

The teachers role regarding this question would be to reflect on the suitability of
each modality of grouping depending on the kind of activity, and the space and time
framework and the students preferences.

Secondly, it is possible to group students according to their sex in single-sex groups

or mix-sex groups. In fact, single-sex grouping is an educational modality in schools
which is becoming more and more popular because, according to some research projects
such as Duncan and Schmidt (2010), the benefits for both sexes are notable. It helps to
close the achievement gap between the sexes, and can also improve academic results
and standardized tests scores and, finally, it can enhance the self-esteem and self-worth
of students.

On the other hand, we can find that schools can be also regrouped
 26

by sex, although regarding the public single-sex schools, they only

exist in seven European countries since the majority of public schools
at all levels and in all European countries are co-educational, where it
is an educational principle, so providing public education in mixed
institutions is obligatory. Where public single-sex schools exist, their
number varies largely from one country to another; thus, while there
is only one in Scotland, 7 in Wales and 25 in Malta, there are 77 in
Northern Ireland, 120 in Ireland and over 400 in England. In Spain, the
current Law on Education (2006), specifically article 84.3, outlaws
discrimination with respect to the admission of students for reasons of
birth, race, sex, religion, opinion or any other condition or personal
circumstance; therefore, public financing cannot be provided to these
type of schools in which students are segregated by sex.

2.2.3 A FEMINISED EDUCATION

In 2006 in all European Union countries (except Greece and
Luxembourg) over 60 % of teachers in primary and secondary
education were women. For secondary schooling, while there are still
more women than men, the gender gap is much narrower. This
proportion varies according to the level of education; the lower the
level, the more female teachers, and according to the country; in
countries such as Czech Republic, Italy, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania
and Slovenia the percentage of male teachers in primary education is
5% or less. In constrast, school leadership is occupied by more men
than women as are education inspectorate and assessment
organizations and civil servants concerned with education. It is
thought that the characteristics of being a teacher adjust with
womens expectations of having a flexible schedule that allows them
keep charge of their families, for example.

In most countries, this issue is not a political concern; however,

other countries like the Netherlands and Ireland have developed
specific initiatives to attract more men to this profession so that
students may have a male model whilst studying. The Dutch
 27

government for example is trying to issue a plan for teacher training

which should result in a higher qualification level, a better structure,
specialisation and more diversity in training courses. In the same way
that these countries are trying to attract more men to teaching, they
also wish to encourage women to reach higher positions in school
management.

The fact that there are more female than male teachers is a
component which helps explain that throughout the last few years the
concept of feminised education has been regarded as the cause
of girls outperformance of boys. In the United States a study carried
out by the Stanford University of 25,000 pupils found that girls benefit
from being taught by women and boys benefit by being taught by
men (Orr, 2007). Yet, there is sufficient research that contradicts this
idea. In 1998 a study carried out by Durham University of 8,978 boys
and girls in 413 classes in English primary schools found no difference
in attainment between pupils taught by men and women, except the
possibly significant fact that children taught by female teachers had a
more positive attitude.

3. RESEARCH DESIGN
 28

3.1. INTRODUCTION

Research shows that gender is an influential factor that greatly affects

the learning and teaching process (a second language in this case), so
the social and pedagogical implications derived from this issue might
be very significant. Furthermore, society is in a process of continuous
change, for this reason it is necessary to adapt previous studies to
new situations in different contexts in response to this demanding
society which aims at providing better solutions. Therefore, it is worth
stressing the social and pedagogical relevance that is involved in
studies such as these.

On the one hand, it is necessary to highlight the idea of

differentiation versus the traditional homogeneous teaching
approaches. There are many benefits in teaching when a
differentiated instruction is applied since each student has the
opportunity to develop their full potential in a subject and nobody is
left behind because of the pace, the level or other possible
circumstances. This issue can be perceived from different
perspectives as there are multiple factors which lead to diversity and
make people different from each other (age, social status, level of the
subject, special adaptations, gender). Unlike in the past, this
concept is seen as a challenge to explore new possibilities of
improvement.

On the other hand and from a social-cultural point of view,

throughout history the distinction between sexes has lead to the
struggle against male hegemony giving rise to feminist movements
which have attempted (and keep doing so) to overthrow this situation
of power imbalance or inequality. This social revolution has had its
effects in the classrooms in the form of the introduction of equal
policies, which may be taken into account when considering the way
in which boys and girls learn, a factor which is also affected by this
social struggle.
 29

3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS

3.2.1 OBJECTIVES

General objectives:
Partial replication of a previous research based on the study of gender
differences through students visions on this topic.
Obtaining data from a group of students to analyse the differences existing
between girls and boys when studying English.
Obtain pedagogical implications which can contribute to improve this
controversial conflict.
Specific objectives:
Obtain information about how students perceive the subject of English in
their respective classrooms and analyse if there is any difference between
girls and boys opinions.
Identify girls and boys preferences and differences when studying in and
outside the classroom (teachers gender, system of work, frequency of
study, activities they enjoy).
Identify variables or factors which may influence pupils when learning a
modern foreign language (parents attitudes, real communication
opportunities, success in the subject).
Study the role played by teachers and how gender can influence on them
and their pupils. The relationship between teachers and students.
Analyse the social consequences, causes, and implications.

3.2.2 HYPOTHESIS
Differences between girls and boys can be appreciated easily both from a biological and
a sociological perspective. In an education context, namely, in high-school foreign
language classroom there are many factors that influence students learning process and
teaching. One of these factors is the gender gap, and in this case the general assumption
is the girls outperformance of boys. After considering the limitations of this study,
which is carried out in a very small scale and in a specific environment, the hypothesis
is that, despite biological and socio-cultural gender differences, in this case there more
 30

similarities than differences between boys and girls in their attitudes towards the foreign
language subjects.

3.3 POPULATION BEING STUDIED

With the objective of investigating gender differentiation in the

language classroom based on the research carried out by Barton and
Downes (2003), two secondary schools have been chosen to
participate in the collection of data, which will be analysed to obtain
appropriate implications on a small scale since the context in this
case is quite reduced. Both centres function in a co-educational
system, which signifies that both male and female students attend
the same school and lessons.

1 Secondary School La Asuncin. This school is located in the centre of Granada

and it is a privately-owned but state-funded school managed by a religious (catholic)
group. This centre is involved in a bilingual programme. Fifty students from 3rd and
4th years who are aged between 14-16 have participated.

1. Secondary School Virgen de la Caridad. The school is located in Loja, a western

town in the province of Granada. This is a state-funded school. It is also involved in a
bilingual program. In this case, 25 students in the fourth year of Secondary Education
from 14 to 16 years old have participated in the study.

The following table show the subjects participating in the study:

Secondary School FEMALE MALES

S
I.E.S Virgen 11 14
Caridad
I.E.S. Asuncin -3 15 12
I.E.S. Asuncin -4 12 8
Total 38 34 72

Figure I. Participants in the study about Gender Differentiation

 31

3.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.4.1 VARIABLES

Girls are supposed to be biologically better at languages and when

displaying their abilities to communicate. This assumption can
affect boys expectations in relation to performance.
Policies against gender inequality seem to benefit more girls than
boys, since traditionally the male figure has been prevailing, a
factor which is considered to be reflected in the students
materials, for instance. The result is the creation of approaches
and attitudes to benefit girls, inverting the role of a predominant
sex in class.
Teacher-centred approaches in which lessons are given in a
homogeneous way without considering students differences and
interests. Since the gender differences are obvious from various
perspectives, both sociologically and pedagogically, this type of
approach, instead of a learner centred approach, may not be
advantageous to both boys and girls as lessons are prepared for
the average student, without taking into account their likes,
dislikes etc.
Family support. Depending on the parents role in the family and
their influences on childrens hobbies and behaviours, gender
stereotypes with more or less intensity can emerge among
students and can affect their attitudes towards subjects and
professional pathways.
Practical usage of the subject increases students motivation, as
well as the interaction in real situations of communication, in
which students have opportunities to develop their linguistic skills
would also increase their motivation

3.4.2 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

 32

A questionnaire was administered to pupils from both secondary

schools. All these pupils have been taught in mixed groups, unlike the
original study which also investigated single-sex groups. This
questionnaire was issued to pupils from different years, so it will be
analysed if there is any slight difference between them. In this case
the questionnaires were completed by students in years 3 and 4 (15-
16 years old).

This research does not include the interview, unlike Barton and
Downes research (2003), since in this case, it is necessary to take
into consideration time and space limitations. As the conclusions
obtained in the interview were revealing, some of the questions
included in the interview have been adapted to make the
questionnaire as complete as possible.

A written questionnaire has the risk of finding questions without

answers, which can reduce notably the representation obtained from
the results. Another inconvenience which becomes apparent is if the
researcher is not present; there is no certainty that the person who
answers is the target for the study, and there are no possibilities to
clarify doubts or questions, and so each one may be interpreted
differently. All these inconveniences are described in detail below in
the section of Discussion.

3.4.3 PROCEDURE

Firstly, the objectives of this research were explained to students in

order to create awareness of its main purpose and the importance of
being honest when answering the questions. Once the questionnaires
were presented, all the questions were explained one by one to
assure that students understood what they were being asked. Each
student completed the questionnaire individually and without any
inconvenience. During the process, students were cooperative and
they asked questions in case of doubts. Another important detail is
that, although it was not necessary, teachers decided to leave the
 33

classroom. Students spent around 30 minutes on completing the

questionnaire.

After this initial process, the next step was to register the data
collected in the questionnaires, analyse the information obtained and
create figures which reflected the information in a more effective way.
The tool used to carry out the process of analysing the data was the
software Excel 2007, which is an electronic spreadsheet program
that can be used for storing, organizing and manipulating data. A
practical handbook of statistics through Excel was also used:
Estadstica aplicada a travs de Excel (Prez, 2007).

Once I had the information examined, I proceeded to interpret

the results and obtain my own conclusions and the possible
pedagogical conclusions as described in the last section of this work.
 34

4. RESULTS

After reviewing the data obtained in the questionnaires completed by 72 students of

whom 38 are girls and 34 are boys, the results are shown in the following pages.

4.1. GENERAL INFORMATION

4.1.1 THEIR FAVOURITE SUBJECTS

As it is observed in Figure II, there are similarities and differences regarding the
subjects that students state as their favourites. A common factor is that one of the most
popular subjects among boys is P.E. and Maths. Meanwhile, girls chose P.E and other
subjects related to languages (French and English) or Biology, although these results
vary from one school to another, that is to say, in the Asuncin School, English is not a
popular subject among students (see Figure III). Based on students comments about
why they dislike English or not in the Asuncin School, it appears that they become
bored and feel uncomfortable in this subject.
 35

Figure II. Favourite subjects from the three groups.

When asked the reasons why they enjoy the subject they have
selected as their favourite, almost all the answers were in relation
with their interests. For instance, a student whose favourite class is
Physical Education enjoys sport and activities outdoors. Moreover,
breaking the routine of being in the same classroom and same
conditions for hours make these subjects popular among students
since they allow pupils to disconnect, relax and become motivated.

On the other hand, when analysing the three groups

independently, differences have been encountered (see Figure III).
Despite the fact that Maths is a subject enjoyed by more males than
females since boys are supposed to be more apt at this subject, in
Asuncin year 4, the opposite is found: more girls than boys like
Maths. In the case of English, except for a 7.1% in Virgen de la
Caridad, none of the remaining boys marked this subject as favourite,
girls from Virgen de la Caridad and Asuncin year 3 chose English.

Virgen Caridad Asuncin year 3 Asuncin year 4

Subjects
MALE FEMAL FEMA FEMAL
MALE MALE
S ES LE E
MATHS 21,4% 18,2% 25% 0 12,5% 25%
BIOLOGY 7,1% 27,3% 16,7% 26,7% 0 0
 36

P.E. 42,9% 18,2% 50% 26,7% 75% 33,3%

HISTORY 7,1% 9,1% 0 0 0 0
COMPUTER SCIENCE 14,3% 0% 8,3% 0 0 8,3%
ENGLISH 7,1% 27,3% 0 40% 0 0
FRENCH 0% 9,1% 0 6,7% 0 0
GEOGRAPHY 7,1% 0% 0 0 0 0
CHEMISTRY 0 0 0 0 12,5% 0
ETHIC 0 0 0 0 0 8,3%

Figure III. Students favourite subjects (all groups).

Subjects that students dislike most have been also studied (see
Figure IV). Spanish Language seems to be the least favourite among
all students, followed by Maths. Then, depending on the groups there
is a mixture of less favoured subjects, for example: English is
remarkably unpopular in Asuncin Year 4 among girls and boys, and
also among boys from the other two groups.

Virgen Caridad Asuncin year 3 Asuncin year 4

Subjects
MAL FEMAL FEMA FEMA
MALE MALE
ES ES LE LE
SPANISH 57,1% 27,3% 16,7% 20% 25% 8,3%
LANGUAGE
MATHS 14,3% 27,3% 16,7% 46,7% 12,5% 8,3%
P.E. 0% 9,1% 0% 0% 0% 0%
HISTORY 14,3% 0% 0% 13,3% 0% 41,7%
ENGLISH 7,1% 0% 8,3% 0% 62,5% 41,7%
FRENCH 0% 9,1% 8,3% 0% 0% 0%
GEOGRAPHY 7,1% 0% 0% 6,7% 0% 0%
CHEMISTRY 0% 18,2% 8,3% 6,7% 0% 0%
PHYLOSPHY 0% 9,1% 0% 0% 0% 0%
TECHNOLOGY 0% 0% 41,7% 0% 0% 0%
ART 0% 0% 0% 6,7% 0% 0%

Figure IV. Subjects that students dislike the most.

4.1.2 ABOUT THE ENGLISH SUBJECT

 37

Most students enjoy English and one of the main reasons is because
they think it will be useful in the future, and although some of them
do not like it, they state that it is an important subject. In fact, they
stress that the speaking part is the most relevant skill, therefore
many prefer the oral elements (pronunciation, speaking, listening)
and dislike grammar and the text books they use.

Nevertheless, in Asuncion year 4 there appears to be a

different and negative view towards English due to the way in which
the subject is taught. Most of them, girls and boys, claim that they
dislike English as is shown in Figure IV because it is boring and
stressful. Measures to improve the situation of this specific group
should be taken by the teacher in question who is directly responsible
for creating a classroom atmosphere of engagement and involvement

4.1.3 DO STUDENTS ENJOY SCHOOL?

A small percentage of the pupils studied claim that they do not enjoy
school at all (7% of girls and 14% of boys) which contrasts with the
36% and 40% respectively that do so (See Figure V). Some reasons
why they appreciate it are related to social interactions; a large
percentage of them forge close friendships there and also enjoy
certain learning experiences with their peers and teachers. Here,
gender differences are not found to be an important factor in
determining the satisfaction in a school environment or not.
 38

Figure V. Students school enjoyment

4.1.4 STUDENTS PROFESSIONS IN THE FUTURE

Figure VI. Professions students would like to do in the future.

Although there is not a clear differentiation, boys still prefer professions in which
strength, or attributes considered as strength are needed such as policing, the armed
forces or fire-fighting according to the data obtained from the questionnaires. In
addition, they opt to choose Engineer degrees. However, there may be a rupture in the
stereotypes since boys are slowly opting to choose professions such as nursing or
teaching.

Meanwhile, girls still prefer jobs related to human care such as medicine, psychology
or biology. They do not choose the same professions that boys do, this could mean that
stereotypes have been created for boys alone, since to be a fire-fighter, a soldier or a
computer engineer is not an option for girls within these groups.

4.1.5 STUDENTS HOBBIES

Similar or common interests have been found among students from

the three groups being studied. Girls and boys like especially going
out with their friends, practising sport and surfing the Internet in their
free time. However, there are also major differences: more boys than
girls prefer computer games, video games, i.e. they are very
 39

interested in new technologies, and for that reason they also choose
professions such as computer engineering. Meanwhile, most girls are
interested in listening to music, dancing or reading.

Significant differences are not encountered when comparing

one school to another or the 4th year to the 3rd year. There are
specific cases in which students have particular interests which are
not shared by others, for example playing any instrument, cooking or
sailing.

4.1.6 WHO IS BETTER AT LANGUAGES?

The analyses for this question shows that in Virgen de la Caridad, all
the girls believe that differences do not exist, while 2 out of 13 boys
state that boys are better at English than girls.

Figure VII. Males and Females opinions on who is better at languages

In Asuncin School, in year 3 most students think that there is no

difference between boys and girls (83% of boys and 53% of girls).
However, 46% of girls stated that girls are better than boys at
languages, a huge contrast with boys opinions. In year 4 in the same
school, just one boy stated that boys are better at languages, and
95% of students, both girls and boys, claimed that there is no
difference.

Similar results were obtained with the question who is it more

 40

important to learn English for? In Virgen de la Caridad, just one boy

claimed that for boys its more important, the others responding that
it is equally important for boys and girls.

Figure VIII. Males and females opinions on for whom it is more important to learn English.

4.1.7 HAVE STUDENTS EVER BEEN ABROAD?

There are no great differences between girls and boys in this question,
since it is not an issue of gender but an issue in which several external
factors need also be considered: the socio-economic situation of each
family and their cultural background or their personal interests.

V. DE LA CARIDAD ASUNCIN YEAR 3 ASUNCIN

YEAR 4
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Yes, once 29% 55% 17% 27% 50% 17%
More than once 14% 27% 17% 13% 13% 42%
No, never 50% 18% 75% 60% 38% 42%

Figure IX. Have students ever been abroad?

It is remarkable that those who have answered that they like English and it is their
favourite subject have been in an English speaking country more than once. In contrast,
those who have never been in an English speaking country prefer subjects such as Maths
or P.E. That shows that the contact with the language in a real context can have certain
influence since students learn a practical use for studying English.

On average more girls than boys have been abroad at least once or more;
although there is only a slight difference. There are also more boys than girls that have
 41

never travelled abroad (54% and 40% respectively).

On the other hand, when asking students if they would like to go abroad (Figure
X) there is little gender difference: more females than males said yes and, although a
very small percentage, more males than girls said no. Perhaps, this is due to their
interests since, according to the questionnaires, more girls are interested in languages,
and probably are more aware of the importance of travelling abroad to learn a language
and its culture.

Id like to go abroad MALES FEMALES

YES 65,8% 82,5%
NOT SURE 25,2% 13%
NO 8,9% 4,4%

Figure X. Students answers on if they would like to go abroad.

4.2 ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

4.2.1 GENERAL INFORMATION

Generally, females have more positive attitudes towards English and

feel more confident as is reflected in this study. When answering
questions or statements such as I enjoy learning English or English is
a useful subject the percentage is higher for girls what is shown in the
charts below (see Figures A and C).

I enjoy learning English MALES FEMALES

YES 41% 49,8%
ITS OK 50,6% 20,1
NO 8,3% 16%
Figure A

I am quite good at English MALES FEMALES

YES 31,7% 52,4%
NOT SURE 34,1% 28,2%
NO 34,1% 19,4%
Figure B

English is useful MALES FEMALES

YES 85,9% 92,8%
ITS OK 14% 7,2%
NO
 42

Figure C

Girls are more confident when studying English and regard

themselves as quite good at English (52,4%) in contrast with boys
who state that they are not good at English or not sure (34,1%).

On the other hand, results obtained in the previous question are

similar to statements such as English is a waste of time (both
disagree with this aspect. See Figure D), English is a difficult subject,
both girls and boys agree that its ok, not to difficult or too easy (see
Figure E). Females find grammar the most difficult of English learning,
whereas for boys it is the listening part. Concurrently, the easiest
part for girls and boys is reading. Finally, they also agree that they
will use English after leaving school.

English is a waste of time MALES FEMALES

YES 2,4% 7,2%
NOT SURE 11,1% 7,2
NO 86,5% 85,5
Figure D

English is difficult MALES FEMALES

YES 24,6% 21,8%
ITS OK 47% 45,5%
NO 28,4% 32,7%
Figure E

I will use my English MALES FEMALES

YES 86,9% 76,7%
NOT SURE 13,1% 20,5%
NO 0% 2,8%
Figure F

Better to speak than to MALES FEMALES

write
YES 64% 65,9%
ITS OK 30,4% 21,6%
NO 5,6% 12,4%
Figure G

English from CD MALES FEMALES

YES 30,9% 36,8
SOMETIMES 37,9% 20,3%
 43

NO 39,5% 37,1%
Figure H

As it is observed from the data provided by the questionnaires

that students from the three schools answered, there are more
similarities than differences when talking about their attitudes, what
they feel when fronting modern languages, in this case, English.
Nevertheless, some discrepancy between girls and boys has been
found in the following questions: half of females claim that they do
not like using text books in the classroom; while boys keep their
position neutral regarding books (see Figure I).

Like using TEXT BOOKS MALES FEMALES

YES 16,3% 16,3%
ITS OK 50,2% 33,5%
NO 33,5% 50,2%
Figure I

It has been observed that most students, both males and

females, enjoy speaking English in class, though the percentage is
higher in girls who dislike practising this skill (see Figure K). With
writing the situation differs since more females than males enjoy this
task though the percentage of Not enjoy is higher. Therefore, most
students enjoy writing sometimes; the percentage of no is higher
than the positive answer and, in general, more girls than boys like
writing in English (see Figure J).

I enjoy WRITING in MALES FEMALES

English
YES 11,1% 26,9%
SOMETIMES 59,5% 36,8%
NO 29,4% 36,3%
Figure J

I enjoy SPEAKING MALES FEMALES

English
YES 55,6% 58,7
ITS OK 41,7% 22,4%
NO 2,8% 18,8%
Figure K
 44

On the other hand, the fact that students enjoy speaking in

English does not mean that they are totally confident when doing so
in class. For most boys, it is sometimes embarrassing to speak in
class, although they enjoy this activity (see Figure L). From the girls
perspective, the percentages are moderately even throughout; more
females state that it is not embarrassing. This could mean two things:
students enjoy speaking in English in a more relaxed atmosphere
outside the classroom and females feel more confident when carrying
out an activity within a classroom environment.

Its embarrassing speaking MALES FEMALES

English in class
YES 10,7% 29,4%
SOMETIMES 64% 32,4%
NO 25,2% 38,3%
Figure L

I speak a lot of English MALES FEMALES

YES 13,5% 9,4%
SOMETIMES 63,3% 72,3%
NO 23,2 18,3%
Figure M

4.2.2 STUDENTS MARKS

It is a general assumption that girls outperform boys and that they

receive better marks in foreign language subjects and that girls have
developed more complex language skills. Nevertheless, the results
obtained from these three schools reflect that there are comparatively
very few differences between girls and boys regarding their marks
since the percentages are quite similar. In general, girls have been
found to obtain slightly better marks than boys. On average both girls
and boys obtain Bien (equivalent to C-D grades) in English, however
more females than males obtained Sobresaliente (A), being the
difference very small, and more boys than girls obtained Suspenso
(Fail), a greater difference.
 45

*Sobresaliente = A-B grades; Notable=B-C grades; Bien= C-D grades; Suspenso= F (fail)
Figure 1. Analysis on students marks in English

4.2.3 TESTS / EXAMS

A high percentage of girls (45%) are convinced that tests are necessary nevertheless
21% think they are dispensable (See Figure 2). Regarding boys, most of them feel they
are necessary or have responded not sure and just 13% chose the negative answer.

Figure 2. The importance of having exams for students

The main reasons given when responding no or not sure are

that speaking is more important, it is better to speak a lot, or you
can learn by speaking; so they connect the idea of test or exam
with a written task. While, those who mark yes explain that exams
 46

are necessary to control their learning, if not, students wouldn't study.

One of the most interesting answers shows preference to learning by
listening to music or watching films rather than through exams.

4.2.4 STUDENTS VISIONS ON TEACHERS GENDER

As is shown in Figure 3, most students, both girls and boys have been taught by both female
and male teachers. Interestingly and according to this data, they have never been taught
English only by males, however, some of them have been taught only by females.

Fig
ure 3.
Analysis on the
students
teachers
gender

On the
other
hand, a
high percentage of girls believe that the teachers gender does not
affect their learning. More boys than girls have doubts regarding this
and more boys than girls state that this issue has influence in their
learning (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Teachers gender influence on students learning.

 47

In general, when students choose whether they prefer male or

female teachers, they do not opt for any and state that it is all the
same for them (See Figure 5). Nevertheless, those who have chosen
this option tend to prefer teachers of the same sex as them, boys
prefer male teachers in a small percentage and girls prefer female
teachers in a much higher percentage (11% and 29% respectively).

Figure 5. Students preferences on teachers gender

The results in this section contradict those regarding the

previous question; if a teachers gender influences or not, although
students stated that it does not have influence, the percentage of
them that state the opposite is higher than those who have chosen
their preferences. It was expected that those who have given
importance to the teachers gender opted for whom they prefer to be
taught by.

4.2.6 PREFERENCES WHEN STUDYING

The results are quite similar for boys and girls. In the case of boys,
they prefer to work more in pairs than in groups, while girls prefer to
work in groups. Nevertheless, the students opinions are divided and
around 20% prefer to work individually (see Figure 6). This depends on
students personality: introvert people normally prefer to study
 48

individually different from extrovert students who enjoy more working

or studying with their peers.

Figure 6. Students and their favourite styles of working in class

Although students mostly prefer to work in groups or in pairs there is a significant

percentage of students (more females than males) who still have doubts when cooperating
in this way as is shown in Figure 7 and recognize that they do not work well in small
groups or pairs, or only on rare occasions do they work in well in small groups or pairs.

Figure 7. Students opinion on working in groups or in pairs

Students were also asked if they prefer working in single-sex or

mix-sex groups as is shown in Figure 8. Both girls and boys, with only a
slight difference in percentages, agree that they work better or they
simply feel more comfortable in mix-sex groups. Nevertheless, more
 49

males than girls stated that they prefer single-sex groups in a percentage
of 36% in contrast to the 27% of girls.

Figure 8. Students preferences on single-sex or mix-sex groups

4.2.6 HOW OFTEN DO STUDENTS STUDY?

As is reflected in Figure 9, students were asked the frequency in which
they study English, and no significant gender differences appear. It is
noteworthy to observe the amount of students that study just before
exams, being much higher the percentage of girls than boys; 54% and
33% respectively. The percentage of students that study regularly is
not as high as desired; despite that fact girls register lower
percentages than boys.

Figure 9.Frequency in which English is studied

Students with the highest marks were analysed, i.e. notable

 50

and sobresaliente and the frequency in which they study English to

verify if there is any relation between these two variables.

The results show that more girls than boys state that they usually
study just before exams and once a week. However, more boys claim
to study frequently and every day (see Figure 10).

Figure 10. Relation between the frequency of studying and the students marks

4.2.7 ACTIVITIES THAT STUDENTS ENJOY THE MOST IN CLASS

The activities that all students, girls and boys, share as favourite are
games and songs, work in groups and pairs and activities with
multimedia material as is shown in the following figures:

Figure 11. Students favourite English activities

 51

Figure 13 reflects the activities that students from the three

schools enjoy the most on average, and then the main differences are
described according to students sex and their habits of working in
class. In Figure 14, this information is broken down to analyse the
differences among schools. Therefore, the activities in red signify that
there are some interesting aspects to be highlighted in this activity.

Activitiy FEMALES MALES

Games and songs 87,3% 76%
Work in groups or pairs 74,3% 63,3
Multimedia 78,3% 78%
Vocabulary 43,3% 44%
Reading books and news 35%* 53,7%
Pronunciation 53,7%* 31,7%
Grammar 13% 48%*
Free writing exercises 29% 48,3%
Teachers explanations 32%* 36,7%
Repeating and learning dialogues 25,7% 33,7%
Self-assessment 35,3% 25,7%

Figure 13. Favourite activities on average

Regarding teachers explanations the average percentage of

girls is 32%; however none of the girls in Virgen de la Caridad school
chose this option, so the result is not totally representative. This is the
same case with reading books and news. There is an obvious
difference between girls and boys among schools. In Asuncin School
4 year, the percentage of girls that choose this activity is quite high in
comparison with boys (83% and 38% respectively). This result stands
out over the other groups, too.

Regarding grammar, girls are not very keen on this part of the
English subject; however, boys, especially from Asuncin School year
4, show that it is one of their favourite activities, while the rest of
students show less interest in it.

In the case of self-Assessment, the percentage of students from

Virgen de la Caridad declines in contrast to the other groups. This
may be explained by the fact that students do not usually practise this
 52

type of exercise or if they do, they dislike doing it.

Virgen de la Asuncin year 3 Asuncin year 4

ACTIVITIES Caridad
Females Males Female Males Female Males
s s
Reading books and 0% 43% 47% 55% 58% 63%
news
Teacher's 0% 36% 13% 36% 83% 38%
explanations
Pronunciation 18% 29% 60% 28% 83% 38%
Grammar 9% 14% 13% 55% 17% 75%
Self-Assessment 9% 0% 47% 27% 50% 50%

Figure 14. Favourite activities for each group.

 53

5. DISCUSSION

5.1 Problems found and possible solutions

Questionnaires are the most widely used data collection methods in

educational and evaluation research since they help gather
information on knowledge, attitudes, opinions, behaviors, facts, and
other data. When carrying out a research in which the main tool used
to collect data is a questionnaire several inconveniences can emerge
during the process. Since in this case this questionnaire was created
to obtain the students perceptions on the existence of gender
differences in the second language classroom, the results obtained
are rather subjective.

The first inconvenience found is the reliability, i.e. the

participants are expected to be honest when answering the questions;
however, this is a matter that the researcher cannot control. For this
research, the technique used to diminish the possibility of such an
occurrence was the following:

Anonymity. Students may feel more comfortable and unrestricted

in their responses if they believe that nobody can judge them. In
addition, the risk that students wish to satisfy researchers
inquiries with their answers or try to be diplomatic is considerably
reduced. In this case, the only essential requisite was to clarify
whether the questionnaire was answered by a male or female, but
even this information does not affect their anonymity since the
researcher does not know the students in question. Another
possible solution for this type of problem is the use of a
 54

pseudonym, but in this case I did not consider that this

information was relevant.

Secondly, the questionnaire was written in English and this may

have affected the comprehension of each question; students may
have selected their answers at random, without being aware of its
true meaning. Since this questionnaire was designed to measure
other variables, and not those of linguistics, a questionnaire in the
mother tongue of the student, in this case Spanish, may have been
more apt, at least to guarantee the comprehension of the language.

Reading and translation. In an attempt to minimise this

inconvenience, I was present when students carried out the
questionnaire and together with the students I read and translated
all the questions and the possible answers. Then, I also aided
students with any doubts that emerged during the process.

Despite guaranteeing the questionnaire comprehension and

attempting to assure confidentiality, some questions were not
completed. It is not possible to know the real reasons, but it is likely
that they did not know how to answer, that they simply skipped the
question unconsciously or that they felt unable to answer in that
moment.

Next time, in order to improve this type of research, questions

should be arranged in a simpler and clearer way, with more space
between one question and the next, and more multiple choice
instead of short essay questions.

5.2 Conclusions

Throughout all this work, we could realise that there are different perspectives to tackle
gender differences in the classroom from various disciplines (sociological,
neurobiological, pedagogical). While some theories or studies are focused on finding
out the existence of such differences, their origin and possible implications, there are
 55

also authors who based their conjectures on a more constructive idea which is to
establish more similarities than differences between boys and girls.

As explained in further detail in this section, the dissimilarities

between males and females are fewer than expected for this study,
taking into account the this research has been carried out with limited
conditions, so the conclusions and implications are referred to this
case and they are not generalisations. Thus, one of the main
conclusions is that there are possibly more similarities between both
sexes when talking about the results obtained from these three
groups of students.

In relation to other works of research, especially when

comparing with the study of Barton and Downes (2003), some
different outcomes have been obtained for some questions. It is
possible to conclude that some generalisations can be established
around this topic, and the learning and teaching context
characteristics give rise to specific differences. Therefore, if a school
or a teacher is interested in reducing the gender gap in a determined
framework for space and time, they should consider the features of
this specific group, and elaborate appropriate measures for these
students.

Other particular conclusions attained after analysis of the data

collected are the following:

- There are several factors (the teacher him/herself, students

interests or their abilities) that influence students when choosing
their favourite subjects, for this reason the results being studied
can differ from one group to another. Nevertheless, all these groups
agree that P.E is one of students favourite subjects for both boys
and girls. That could mean that teachers should have a full
understanding of certain cognitive principles and present materials
and activities in a more appealing way for students as well as
introducing new techniques that allow students to have more
 56

interaction and more space for movement, for example: carrying

out collaborative tasks or teaching with visual aids, such as audio
and multimedia materials; and above all, it is essential to involve
students in this process and generate an atmosphere of
engagement. Generally the subjects that students dislike the most
are Spanish Language and Maths, but these results are not as
conclusive as the previous question. Regarding this point, some
stereotyped gender differences appeared although they were
slight: more males disliked Spanish language and more girls
disliked Maths, as could be expected by the statements made
about males and females cognitive skills.

- The conflict with the English subject in one of the groups

studied. From the results, we can notice that there was a problem
in the group of Asuncin School year 4, since most of the students
agreed to state that English was boring and stressful, becoming the
least favourite subjects among pupils. Perhaps the teacher should
interact firstly with students to recognise this conflict, and then
take into account students interests to adapt the curriculum to
their needs. The situation of stress in a classroom could be negative
or positive depending on the students motivation; however, in this
specific case, students seem to have to work harder but with little
or no motivation at all. Some reflection is necessary to improve this
situation and create a better atmosphere in the classroom.

- Their abilities and skills. In Barton and Downes research (2003),

the results indicate that boys think that girls are more successful in
languages. However, in this research there is no gender difference
and both girls and boys agree that it is not a factor when
determining which gender is better at languages or for whom
English is more important, so no difference has been found.

- About English. More girls than boys enjoy learning English.

However, most students agree with the idea that English is very
 57

useful and that it will be necessary in the future. In general, they

also consider speaking as one of the most important skills of this
language (more important than writing) so they state that they
should practice speaking harder outside and in the classroom.

- Attitudes towards English. Girls seem to be more confident

when learning English than boys do. And regarding the English
skills, both girls and boys find reading the easiest part, while for
girls the most difficult is grammar, for boys, listening. These are
just general assumptions since the answers were varied.
Nevertheless, the core point in relation to this idea is that every
skill should be promoted as much as possible by choosing a wide
range of materials and contents and the most adequate
methodology that better fits with the students needs and the
classroom context.

- Their marks. In previous studies, it was noted that girls perform

better than boys and that they receive better marks in foreign
language subjects. It is also a general assumption that girls have
developed more complex language skills. Nevertheless, the results
obtained from these three schools reflect that there are
comparatively very few differences between girls and boys
regarding their marks since the percentages are quite similar,
although boys still have a higher percentage of Fail (Suspenso).
Therefore, although girls seem to be more successful than boys,
this cannot be considered as a result of gender differences in this
case. The solution would be to help each student to overcome their
difficulties in an individual way through differentiated instruction.

- Their professions in the future. There is still a great gender gap

when choosing professional careers because of the stereotypes
that mark jobs which frequently are socially addressed just for
males or females and this affects girls and boys decisions when
opting for the jobs they would like to carry out in the future. The
origin of this assumption seems to be in pupils hobbies, in the
 58

stereotyped education and cultural behaviours they receive and

perceive. Nevertheless this gap seems to be smaller than in
previous decades according to the research analysed in the
Literature review section.

- Hobbies. Both girls and boys have common interests which are
mainly going out with friends, practising sport and surfing on the
Internet. Again, there are also gender differences: while girls prefer
more artistic-related activities (dancing, playing instruments,
listening to music), boys prefer activities related to new
technologies, specifically game consoles and computer games. The
existence of such disparity can be explained by social and culture
influences. Moreover, this may be a factor that determines the
choice between one profession or another.

- Going abroad. There is a relationship between those who have

travelled abroad once or more and those who marked English as
their favourite subject. More girls than boys that have been
overseas, although this issue does not depend on the gender, but
on other possible factors such as economic situation or general
familiar interests. Therefore, students should be provided with more
real communication opportunities by organising linguistic
exchanges when possible, for example.

- Teachers sex. There is some evidence that the education could be

feminised, meaning that there are still more females than males
working as teachers, which can affect students learning. Both girls
and boys think that the teachers sex does not influence the
learning process although the responses are quite varied. They also
claim that a teachers sex makes no difference to them, so they do
not opt for being taught by one or the other. In case that the
teachers sex could affect students learning, this is a question that
could be resolved by focusing on students common interests or by
applying differentiated instruction. However, Amanda Barton and
Peter Downes (2003) claim, to explain the reasons why girls
 59

outperform boys, that boys and girls may feel more attracted by
teachers of the same sex as them, since female teachers could
focus the contents of the subjects on a more female-oriented way so
boys would get demotivated and lose interest in the subject. This
fact could also show evidence that a teachers gender influences
students learning.
- Teachers attitudes. A relevant factor affecting students learning
would appear to be the teacher who influences negatively or
positively in the students views depending on their attitude. For
this reason, it is fundamental that teachers enjoy what they are
doing so they can transmit positive feelings such as enthusiasm,
endeavour, engagement or creativity.
- Working methodology. Pupils generally prefer to work in groups
or in pairs, and here there is not a great gender difference,
although more boys than girls prefer to work individually. Moreover,
boys seem to feel more comfortable in single-sex groups and
females in mix-sex groups. Barton and Downes (2003) explained
this phenomenon by stating that boys are relieved of the pressure
to impress. Teachers can select ways of organising the classroom
that adapt better to student's needs and their activities. However, it
is important to promote different ways of organisation so students
can take advantage of the benefits of each.

- Regarding pupils study habits, a higher percentage of girls claim

to study just before exams, whereas more boys claim to study
frequently or every day despite their lower marks. Therefore,
exams are tools which should be considered carefully and not as
the only instrument of assessment since they do not assure
students learning and they cause anxiety among them, resulting in
the omission of the most important factor: their learning.

- Teaching materials (text books). These results may be in

relation to the students interests, i.e. their text books may be not
appealing enough, and therefore they become bored and
demotivated when using them. Strictly following the text book is
 60

not always the best solution; teachers should consider that text
books are just one type of various materials available. In order to
learn English there are many kinds of materials which are more
useful when regarding the enjoyment factor for students, such as
multimedia material or new technologies. Text books are created
by experts for the average student in accordance with a general
curriculum; however, teachers need to evaluate if they are
appropriate in the doses their students require. The key point is to
provide intensive practice opportunities.
- Students favourite activities. After analysing the students
answers, some common activities that students generally enjoy the
most in class have been found and, on the other hand, several
differences among the three groups being studied. These
differences could be explained by the frequency in which students
practise certain activities, or even the possibility that they have
never practised them before; and the importance given to them by
the teacher and students.

5.3 Pedagogical implications

Every conflict that emerges in a classroom is analysed and resolved

for the purpose of increasing the students performance in a specific
subject. Ultimately, every resolution results in the same conclusion:
motivation, since it is the key that opens the doors of possibility,
engagement and involvement. Most of the gap differences found in
this research could be reduced just by analysing the students
interests. There will be occasions in which both girls and boys share
common interests, which aid in creating the opportunity to work
together. When interests or another relevant circumstance differs, it is
important to apply differentiation and let students work freely and
creatively according to their needs, their hobbies or their own rhythm.

Motivation can be increased through adequate teaching

materials if they are appealing enough. Teachers must develop critical
 61

thinking when using text books to select appropriate parts and

discriminate against those which lack interest. If we wish to motivate
the pupils being studied, the most appropriate option would be
through tasks of different levels of difficulty, in groups, pairs and on
occasions individually. These tasks or projects could include the use of
new technologies: video recordings, voice recordings, visuals etc. the
organisation, the type of materials and the topic can be issues to be
negotiated between students and their teacher.

The methodology used to work daily in class should bear in

mind the importance of follow a series of steps with students, for
instance, trying to keep students as statues, in silence and working
individually placed in their seat looking at the blackboard might be a
huge mistake. Students need movement and interaction to develop
their full creativity, being this statement equal for both girls and boys.

Undoubtedly, the teacher plays an essential role when trying to

involve students in their learning. Therefore, it is not the gender that
makes the difference but the attitude transmitted to them. For that
reason, it is necessary to introduce practical guidance on the legal
and pedagogical context for gender equality.

Regarding the curriculum, the main goal when designing it is to

maximise each students growth and success, i.e. to develop their full
learning potential. However, new values related to the introduction of
a pedagogy for autonomy are added to this general assumption:
promoting lifelong learning and foster on developing attitudes such as
the initiative or the personal creativity.

Introducing a differentiated instruction means to be aware of the different

students knowledge backgrounds, readiness, learning styles and interests. As a result
we would attain more effective learning outcomes and would promote each student
learning performance. It is possible to promote differentiation in each curriculum
process by following some pedagogical guidelines:

- Encouraging higher levels of thinking and reflection. This idea includes, for
 62

instance, open activities in which there is not just a correct answer but an ample one
which let students produce their own thoughts based on their previous experience
and knowledge and by using their critical thinking ability.
- Promoting self-directed attitudes by providing students with freedom of choice
regarding contents, methodology and even evaluation and assessment. There should
be a negotiation between teachers and students so that students have the possibility
to become more involved in the process which requires greater responsibility, and
as a consequence the level of interest and motivation would be also increased
significantly.
- Collaborative learning. Differentiated instruction can be accommodated in any
context providing that individual differences are treated in a proper way. Through
collaborative work, students can obtain the advantages of working in groups and
individually since they can share a sense of overall achievement and help each
other while studying at their own pace.
- Discovery and inquiry are the best methods to support a lifelong learning, since
students arouse their curiosity towards topics they are interested in, develop certain
skills which implies the use and management of data and information and they get
engaged both professionally and personally.
- Experiential learning. It includes tasks in which students need to develop critical
thinking and inductive reasoning to analyse diverse situations, ideas and underlying
principles. This method could both fulfil students individual needs and provide
teachers with pedagogical implications which can be useful to the implementation
of a differentiated instruction.
- Pacing, variety and variable support. In order that teachers can fulfil students
needs and their learning styles, it is essential to consider the implementation of a
constant and adequate pace, wide-range of techniques and methods to carry out and
provide different types and degrees of support.

Finally, I would like to underline a major idea behind all these pedagogical implications.
At the beginning of each teachers professional career, every teacher dreams of an ideal
type of teaching; however, there is a remarkable or considerable gap between what is
considered the ideal teaching and the real teaching. This gap represents a light, a space
for possibility in which every teacher can do something, by pushing reality forwards
(Jimnez Raya, X?). First of all, we need to think about the type of teacher we would
 63

like to become and what our role is, then a deep reflection about the objectives: where
we want to get and how to do it, what means we are going to use to achieve these goals.
Sometimes all these ideas need to be changed because the circumstances avoid
developing teachers first intentions. Nevertheless, something important to bear in mind
is that we have to try harder until getting as near as possible our ideal utopia. It is
essential to trust on students possibilities and avoid putting barriers such as they cant
do it, or they are not good enough at this subject. These assumptions are banned.
They are just excuses for teachers and handicaps for students who will feel less
confident towards their challenges.

5. REFERENCES

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Alcn, E. (1994). Negotiation, Foreign Language Awareness and Acquisition in the

Spanish Secondary Educational Context. International Journal of Psycholinguistics 10:
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Arnot, M., David, M. & Weiner, G., (1999). Closing the Gender Gap: Postwar
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Barton, A., & Downes, P. (2003). Differentiation and gender: boys and language
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Beaman, L., Duflo, E., et al. (February 3, 2012). Female Leadership Raises Aspirations
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Beaman, L., Duflo, E., Pande, R., & Topalova, P. (2012). Female leardeship Raises
Aspirations and Educational Attainment for Girls: A Policy Experiment in India.
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Science , 335 (6068), 582-586.

Burman, Douglas D. (2010, October 12). Gender differences in language abilities:

evidence from brain imaging. Education.com. Retrieved May 19, 2013, from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Gender_Differences/?page=2

Carrell, P. L., & Wise, T. E. (1998). The relationship between prior knowledge and topic
Interest in second language reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 285
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Cerezo, M.T. & Casanova, P.F. (2004). Diferencias de gnero en la motivacin

acadmica de los alumnos de Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria. Revista electrnica de
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6. APPENDIX

1. Questionnaire about differentiation and gender in the classroom