Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Constructional Steel Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jcsr

Full-scale long-term experiments of simply supported composite beams with

solid slabs
Safat Al-deen a , Gianluca Ranzi a, , Zora Vrcelj b
a
School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
b
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia

article info abstract

Article history: This paper presents an experimental study aimed at the evaluation of the long-term behaviour of
Received 2 July 2010 composite steelconcrete beams designed with partial shear connection formed by a steel joist and a
Accepted 5 November 2010 solid concrete slab. Three full-scale simply supported beams with identical spans and cross-sections were
prepared and tested. These specimens were designed as secondary beams of a typical composite flooring
Keywords: system based on Australian guidelines with the lowest permitted level of degree of shear connection of
Composite beam
0.5. They were cast simultaneously to enable comparisons with respect to pouring and loading conditions.
Creep
Partial shear interaction
One beam was cast un-propped and was kept unloaded for the whole duration of the long-term tests to
Shrinkage measure shrinkage effects. The remaining two beams, cast under un-propped and propped conditions,
Serviceability respectively, were subjected to a sustained uniformly distributed load. Standard short-term and long-
term tests were carried out to obtain the relevant material properties of both the steel and the concrete.
Short-term and long-term push-out tests were carried out to obtain information on the response of
the shear connectors. The experimental results were modelled by means of the finite element method.
The time-dependent behaviour was depicted using a step-by-step procedure, while the steel joist and
reinforcement were assumed to remain linear elastic. Two constitutive relationships were adopted for
the shear connection, i.e., a linear-elastic one, and a new time-dependent one, to account for the long-
term effects produced in the complex stress state of the concrete surrounding the shear connectors. The
latter representation is intended to fall within the framework of simplified approaches suitable for design
applications. Considerations of the accuracy of the numerical predictions are presented based on the two
shear connection models.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction dynamic responses. This paper is concerned with the case in

Composite steelconcrete beams represent an economical
structural solution for building and bridge applications. The
composite action is provided by the presence of mechanical
devices. These are commonly specified in the form of shear
connectors, which are welded to the top flange of the steel joist
and embedded in the concrete slab during casting. This structural
solution is efficient when subjected to sagging moments, taking
advantage of the ability of concrete and steel to perform well in
compression and tension, respectively.
Modern building construction adopted in Australia tends to
produce design solutions in which serviceability is often the
governing limit state in composite floor systems, either due to
excessive total or incremental deflections, or due to undesired
Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 2 9351 5215; fax: +61 2 9351 3343.
E-mail addresses: gianluca.ranzi@sydney.edu.au, G.Ranzi@civil.usyd.edu.au
(G. Ranzi).
0143-974X/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcsr.2010.11.001
which the serviceability limit state governs the design due to
excessive deflections, which occur due to creep and shrinkage of
the concrete. When dealing with the time-dependent behaviour
of concrete, there are two main factors to be addressed: (i) the
definition of adequate constitutive relationships (i.e., a material
property problem); and (ii) the use of methods of analysis capable
of handling the structural response over time (i.e., a structural
analysis problem) [1,2].
Early work on the modelling of composite beams highlighted
the importance of accounting for the deformability of the shear
connectors within the framework of partial interaction theory;
see, e.g., [3]. This initial formulation is usually referred to as the
Newmark model. Since then, extensive work has been carried out
relying on this model or extending its applicability. For example,
some of these studies have focussed on the linear-elastic response
of composite beamcolumns (e.g., [46]), the shear deformability
of the steel joist (e.g., [7,8]), the derivation of analytical and
numerical models to predict the time-dependent behaviour of
composite members (e.g., [913]) and related finite element (FE)
 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321
Fig. 1. Details of the cross-section and of the beam layout for CB1, CB2 and CB3.
Fig. 2. Location of dial gauges for deflection and slip readings.
or direct stiffness implementations (e.g., [1420]), formulations to
account for shear-lag effects (e.g., [21,22]) and their FE applications
(e.g., [14,23]), nonlinear material properties (e.g., [2428]), the
nonlinear response in hogging moment regions (e.g., [29,30]),
the occurrence of vertical separation between the slab and steel
joist (e.g., [31]), the behaviour of timber composite solutions
(e.g., [32,33]), making use of thermal prestressing (e.g., [34]), the
derivation of analytical models for the partial interaction analysis
of multi-layered members (e.g., [35,36]), and the buckling or
nonlinear geometric composite response (e.g., [4,3638]).
Despite the extensive analytical and numerical work carried out
in the last two decades on the long-term behaviour of composite
members, only very limited benchmarking experimental data are
currently available in the literature [3944]. In this context, this
paper aims at providing new long-term experimental data to be
used for benchmarking purposes. A companion paper describes
the ultimate tests of these samples to evaluate the influence
of time effects on its ultimate response [45]. Three full-scale
composite members were designed and prepared in accordance
with Australian guidelines [46], therefore possessing realistic
dimensions for both the concrete slab and the steel beam. A
0.5 degree of shear connection was adopted to reflect modern
trends in which lower values are commonly specified in building
applications. A new casting arrangement was developed as part
of this study, with the scope of isolating the effects of creep
and shrinkage in the long-term beam tests. For the first time,
a push-out steelconcrete sample was subjected to a sustained
load and its deformations were monitored over time. To account
for the time-dependent behaviour of the shear connection, a new
constitutive relationship is proposed for the interface response.
After the description of the experiments, the measured results are
compared against those calculated numerically using the finite
element method.
2. Experimental programme
2.1. Test specimens
Three identical simply supported composite beams were
prepared and tested as part of this experimental programme.
These specimens, referred throughout this paper as CB1, CB2 and
309
CB3, respectively, were designed in accordance with Australian
guidelines [46]. Their steel section and slab geometry were
determined based on an extensive parametric study carried out
on typical Australian composite floor systems, varying member
dimensions, and using a degree of partial shear connection
of 0.5, as favoured in modern design. The selected cross-
section is representative of a typical 8 m long secondary beam
spaced at 2.8 m with a slab thickness of 125 mm (Fig. 1). A
310UB40 Australian standard open section was used for the
steel joist. 19 mm diameter headed studs were installed at a
spacing of 500 mm (Fig. 1). The height of the shear connectors
after installation was 95 mm. Four layers of Australian N12
reinforcement at 200 mm spacing were placed with a cover of
25 mm (Fig. 1). The detailing adopted reflects common Australian
practice.
2.2. Instrumentation
All specimens were heavily instrumented to maximise the
information gained from these experiments. Dial gauges were
used for deflection and slip readings, while the strain values were
measured using strain gauges and Demec targets. The deflections
were monitored at the quarter points of the beams (Fig. 2)
using dial gauges labelled as DG-1, DG-2 and DG-3. The relative
longitudinal movement between concrete and steel was measured
using six dial gauges at the beams ends (i.e., end slip) and at the
locations of the last two connectors near the supports (Fig. 2).
These were labelled as SL-1 and SL-6 for the end slip readings and
as SL-2 to SL-5 for the remaining ones. The strain readings were
monitored at three cross-sections along the beam length located
at its quarter points. Considering the likelihood of strain gauges to
become unstable over time, strain gauges and Demec targets were
placed at each strain measurement point. Their arrangements at
the three monitored cross-sections are shown in Fig. 3.
2.3. Long-term testing procedure
CB1 and CB2 were cast using un-propped construction to ensure
the self-weight of the joist (0.4 kN/m) and slab (6 kN/m) to
be carried by the steel alone, therefore enabling the hardened
concrete to be subjected to shrinkage only. With this approach, it
was assumed that no creep developed in the concrete slab due to
the self-weight of the composite beam. The significance to support
industry practice in carrying out experimental work using un-
propped construction was highlighted in [47]. In this study, this
was achieved using a specifically designed steel framing system to
support the timber formwork and wet concrete from the web of
the joist, as depicted in Fig. 4. The details of the steel frame are
provided in Fig. 5(a). With this approach, the timber joists were
removed once the concrete hardened, after which the steel frames
were easily unbolted from the steel joist and taken off from the
specimen. This process was possible thanks to the use of a packing
system consisting of thin steel plates of 11.5 mm thickness placed
between the timber joists and supporting steel frames. During their
placement, these plates were greased on both their top and bottom
sides. Before removing the timber joists, these plates were taken
off from the supporting system. The vertical legs of these thin
C-shaped plates (Fig. 5(b)) provided the necessary grip to allow
310 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321

(a) Cross-section at mid-span. (b) Cross-sections at first and third quarter span.

Fig. 3. Strain measurements at quarter points along the beam.

steel frame supporting the

formwork and connected to
the web of the steel joist

support block
formwork

steel joist

(a) Schematic.

(b) Steel frame.

Fig. 4. Steel framing system to support the timber formwork and the wet concrete from the steel joist for un-propped construction.

splice connection

supporting
supporting frame frame side 1
side 2

packing
formwork end plate
timber
packing steel joist connection
joist
to web
(a) Cross-sectional schematic. (b) Details of the packing system used between timber joists and supporting
steel frames.

Fig. 5. Details and geometry of the steel frames to achieve un-propped construction.

their removal. This process enabled one to free the timber joists after this could the timber joists be removed. Without the use
from the load induced by the self-weight of the concrete, and only of this packing system, the removal of the timber joists would
 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321 311

concrete blocks

supporting
frame of the
concrete blocks

(a) Schematic.

(b) Loading layout.

Fig. 6. Sustained external load applied using concrete blocks.

Table 1 Table 2
Summary of construction methods and loading conditions for beams CB1, CB2 and Summary of concrete strength measured from cylinder tests at 29 days from casting.
CB3.
Cylinder test Concrete strength (MPa) Average concrete strength (MPa)
Beam Construction Sustained self-weight Sustained external load
method (No/Yes) (kN/m) CC1 27.6
27.7
CC2 27.8
CB1 Un-propped No 0
CB2 Un-propped No 13.4
CB3 Propped Yes 13.4 The external sustained load was applied using 12 concrete
blocks with dimensions 1200 mm 1200 mm 280 mm arranged
have been extremely difficult, if not prevented, by the hardened in four groups (Fig. 6). The supporting frame of each group of blocks
concrete. had four legs, producing a total of 16 point loads over the whole
CB1 was kept unloaded for the whole duration of the long- member length, representative of a uniformly distributed load
term experiments to measure the effects of shrinkage. At 29 days (Fig. 7). With this load arrangement, no direct pressure was applied
after the concrete pour, a sustained external load, equivalent to over the connector, which has been shown in [48] to be important
13.4 kN/m, was applied to CB2 by placing concrete blocks on the when testing beams formed with deep trapezoidal sheeting.
slab of the specimen. Consequently, its long-term behaviour was
affected by shrinkage and by creep due to the sustained external 2.4. Material properties
load. CB3 was poured under propped conditions. The props were
removed just before applying the external sustained load (identical
2.4.1. Instantaneous concrete properties
to CB2) at 29 days. In the case of CB3, the self-weight and the
external sustained load were resisted by the whole composite Two concrete cylinder tests, referred to as CC1 and CC2, were
member. A summary of the construction methodologies and of the carried out at 29 days. A summary of the results is reported in
sustained loads resisted by the specimens during the long-term Table 2, and the stressstrain curves are shown in Fig. 8. The
tests is provided in Table 1. cylinders were 300 mm high with a diameter of 150 mm. The
Before pouring, the top flanges of the steel beams were greased elastic modulus was 25 500 MPa.
thoroughly to minimise the possible occurrence of bonding
between concrete and steel. The external sustained loads were 2.4.2. Concrete shrinkage
removed after 461 and 222 days from casting for CB2 and CB3, The free shrinkage of the concrete was observed using three
respectively. concrete cylinders (with diameter 150 mm and height 300 mm)
312 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321
Fig. 7. Layout of point loads produced by the supporting frames of the concrete block.
Fig. 8. Concrete stressstrain curves from cylinder tests carried out at 29 days from
casting.
Fig. 9. Shrinkage deformations measured on the concrete cylinders and slabs.
and one shrinkage slab (with dimensions 1200 mm 1200 mm
125 mm). The concrete cylinders were instrumented using Demec
targets with a gauge length of 100 mm. The shrinkage slab
was made of plain concrete (i.e., no reinforcement) and had the
same thickness as that used for the concrete in the beam. After
curing, it was placed on 16 equally spaced steel balls to enable
it to shrink freely without any restraint. The thin side edges of
the shrinkage slab were carefully sealed with plastic to prevent
moisture exchange and to simulate the continuity condition which
would occur in a typical floor slab. Shrinkage measurements
started after 8 days from casting, the day at which the curing of all
concrete samples was terminated. Two sets of Demec points with
gauge length of 200 mm were used for shrinkage measurements
of the shrinkage slabs. Fig. 9 shows the shrinkage strains measured
from the three cylinders and the concrete slab, which show very
good agreement with each other.
Fig. 10. Total deformation measured on the concrete cylinders under sustained
loads.
2.4.3. Concrete creep
Six standard concrete cylinders (150 mm diameter and 300 mm
height) were used to measure the occurrence of creep. These were
grouped into two sets of three concrete cylinders each, referred
to in the following as CT1 and CT2, respectively. CT1 and CT2
were loaded at day 29 with sustained loads producing stresses of
7.5 MPa and 5.75 MPa, respectively. The total strain was measured
over time with Demec targets placed with a 100 mm gauge length,
as reported in Fig. 10. The creep coefficients (t , 29) calculated
at a generic instant in time t for a load applied at 29 days after
casting were obtained from the total strain and shrinkage readings
as follows:
c tot sh
(t , 29) = = 1, (1)
i i i
where tot is the total strain (Fig. 10), i represents the instanta-
neous strain, c is the creep strain, and the shrinkage strain is de-
noted by sh (Fig. 9). The calculated creep coefficients are shown
in Fig. 11, in which very good agreement is shown for the results
obtained at the two stress levels.
A new loading rig was designed and fabricated to apply a
constant sustained load to the cylinders. The overall layout of
this rig is depicted in Fig. 12. This rig has the advantage of
being able to apply a constant sustained load over a period of
several months without requiring human control. The principle
at the basis of the system is very simple, as it relies on hanging
a dead load from a small-diameter hydraulic actuator (Jack A
in Fig. 12) which produces a certain pressure in the hydraulic
system. As this system is connected to an actuator with a larger
diameter (Jack B at Fig. 12), the actual force induced by the latter
is greater than the force produced by the dead load; this increase
is, theoretically, proportional to the increase in actuator area. It
 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321
Fig. 11. Concrete creep coefficients for two levels of sustained loads applied at 29
days from casting.
is worth highlighting that the fine tuning of this rig took several
months, due to issues which arose from leakage of the hydraulic
system and from the thermal expansions and contractions of
the oil. The final system was working very well with maximum
variations recorded by means of a load cell of 2% of the applied load.
2.4.4. Steel section
Standard tensile coupon tests were carried out to evaluate the
material properties of the flanges and webs of the steel joists, steel
reinforcement and shear studs. Their results are summarised in
Table 3, and the corresponding stressstrain curves are presented
in Fig. 13.
2.4.5. Shear connectors
The behaviour of the shear connection was evaluated by
means of short-term and long-term push-out tests. The testing
arrangement was based on the recommendations of Eurocode
4 [49], adopting a slab thickness of 125 mm, 310UB40 for the
steel section [50], and 12 mm diameter reinforcing bars, with
concrete cover of 25 mm, as used for the beam samples (Fig. 14).
concrete
cylinder
Jack B
(a) Schematic.
Fig. 12. Layout of the testing rig to apply sustained loads to the concrete cylinders.
313
Identical specimens were used for short-term and long-term push-
out tests. Short-term slip measurements were taken at shear
connector locations using linear variable differential transducers
(LVDTs), as illustrated in Fig. 15(a). Short-term push-out tests
were performed at different instants in time. Measured loadslip
curves are shown in Fig. 17, and details are summarised in Table 4.
The long-term push-out test was performed using the same dead
loading system already described for the creep tests of the concrete
cylinders (Fig. 12). The layout of the sustained loading frame is
detailed in Fig. 16. Unlike in the instantaneous push-out test,
roller supports were placed at the base of the sample to ensure
maximum mobility of the sample during testing. This was achieved
by placing six round steel bars of 25 mm diameter under each
slab. This was carried out to maximise the possible deformations
that the sample could undergo during testing to enhance possible
critical pronounced deformations which might have taken place
over time. It is worth noting that the fixity of these supports
could be easily modified by simply removing these bars. Slip
measurements were taken using dial gauges at the locations of the
shear connectors, as shown in Fig. 16(a). The long-term push-out
test specimen was subjected to a total sustained load of 130 kN at
29 days from casting, equivalent to about 30% of the capacity of
one shear connector (the latter being obtained on the same day of
loading from the results of the short-term push-out test). The slip
measurements recorded over time are shown in Fig. 18, where a
positive reading depicts the case in which the steel joist undergoes
a downward movement with the slab remaining in its position. An
unloaded push-out sample was instrumented and its slip readings
measured over time to monitor the occurrence of shrinkage
(assuming creep effects due to its self-weight to be negligible).
2.5. Temperature and humidity measurements
Readings of temperature and humidity were recorded at two-
hour intervals for the whole duration of the long-term tests. The
mean temperature observed was 21 C and daily average readings
are shown in Fig. 19(a), clearly highlighting the seasonal trend.
Average daily readings of relative humidity (RH) are shown in
Fig. 19(b); the RH values varied between 35% and 80%, with a mean
of 70% RH.
Jack A
dead
weight
self-resisting
frame
(b) Loading rig.
314 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321

Table 3
Summary of the material properties measured from tensile steel coupon tests.
Sample Coupon ID Yield stress (MPa) Average yield stress (MPa) Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) Average ultimate tensile strength (MPa)

310UB40flange 1 324.50 490.80

310UB40flange 2 323.20 324.27 482.30 490.43
310UB40web 3 325.10 498.20
Studs 4 346.40 518.44
5 347.30 351.67 516.80 517.47
6 359.80 517.16
N12 reinforcing bars 7 595.20 664.10
8 590.80 591.10 662.70 662.69
9 587.30 661.28

Table 4
Summary of push-out test results.
Specimen
PT01 PT02 PT03 PT04 PT05

Time of testing after concrete casting (days) 29 551 551 552 552
Previously subjected to a sustained load for the duration of the long-term tests (yes/no) No Yes No No No
Applied sustained load in kN (if applicable) 130
Time of application of the sustained load after concrete casting expressed in days (if applicable) 29
Time of removal of the sustained load expressed in days (if applicable) 461
Max strength (kN) 111.97 116.57 122.02 131.7 128.2
Initial slope of the Load-slip curve (kN/mm) 200 360 320 360 280

(a) Steel joist. (b) N12 reinforcement.

(c) Shear studs.

Fig. 13. Experimental stressstrain curves of the steel components.

3. Test results At 29 days from casting, the instantaneous deflections measured

3.1. Deflection
The mid-span total deflections measured over time for the
three beams are shown in Fig. 20. These readings included
the instantaneous, the creep and shrinkage components. The
deflections for CB1 and CB2 measured at the time of pouring were
nearly identical, and represent the deformation due to the self-
weight of the steel beam and of the wet concrete just after casting.
for CB2 and CB3 were 15.14 mm and 22.94 mm, respectively.
The difference in these value was due to the fact that CB2 was
subjected to the external sustained load (13.4 kN/m), while CB3
supported both its full self-weight and the external sustained load
(19.8 kN/m). Despite the fact that the concrete component of
CB3 was more heavily loaded than the one of CB2, the actual
creep deflection coefficients, calculated as the ratio of the creep
deflection vc over the instantaneous one vi , were nearly identical,
highlighting the validity of the linear creep assumptions in this
 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321 315

Fig. 14. Details of the push-out specimens.

(a) Schematic of the short-term push-out test. (b) Short-term push-out test.

Fig. 15. Instrumentation, loading arrangement and set-up for the short-term push-out tests.

case (Fig. 21). The deflection recorded for beam CB1, constructed
under un-propped conditions, was assumed to be representative
of shrinkage effects only. The creep deflections of CB2 and CB3
were calculated by subtracting their instantaneous deflections and
shrinkage deflections (where the latter was assumed to be equal to
the deflection of CB1) from their total deflections.
3.2. Slip
Fig. 22 shows the slip values recorded for the whole duration
of the test at the shear connectors nearest to the beam supports.
Measurements for CB1 were negative due to shrinkage, i.e., the
concrete slab shortened over its length. For CB2 and CB3, the main
slip variations took place at the time of loading, after which no
significant differences were observed. As slip caused by creep is
opposite in direction to slip caused by shrinkage, it is reasonable
to conclude that for test specimen CB3 the slip values produced by
shrinkage and creep were of similar magnitudes as the total slip
measured did not vary over time. In the case of CB2, the total slip
measurement reduced slightly with time. This is still acceptable
as, while the shrinkage slip is assumed to be the same for both
CB2 and CB3, the actual creep affecting CB2 is smaller than the one
316 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321
Jack B
(a) Schematic of the long-term push-out test.
Fig. 16. Instrumentation, loading arrangement and set-up for the long-term push-out test.
Fig. 17. Loadslip curves measured from the short-term push-out tests.
Fig. 18. Loadslip curves measured from the long-term push-out tests.
influencing CB3 (because the sustained load for CB2 was smaller
than the one for CB3). Because of this, the negative shrinkage
slip slightly overcame the positive slip induced by creep for CB2
(Fig. 22).
3.3. Strain measurements
Total strain readings were recorded throughout the long-term
tests at different locations of the cross-section. Measurements
taken place at mid-span at the top and bottom faces of the slab
as well as at the top and bottom flanges of the steel joist are
plotted in Fig. 23. Over time, the neutral axis of the three specimens
Jack A
dead
weight
dial gauge
self-
resisting
frame
(b) Long-term push-out test.
moved downwards, as highlighted by the change in sign in the
strain readings at the bottom side of the slab. Significant long-
term deformations took place after the application of the sustained
external load in the slab and top steel flange when compared to its
instantaneous values. This trend was not observed for the bottom
steel flange, in which case only minor variations were recorded
with time, of the order of approximately 0.3 of their instantaneous
values.
4. Numerical modelling
4.1. Finite element formulation
The finite element method has been used in this study to model
the behaviour of CB1, CB2 and CB3 observed during the long-
term experiments. For this purpose, the 10DOF (degree of freedom)
finite element depicted in Fig. 24 has been used, previously shown
in [51,52] to be an efficient and robust element for this kind of
simulation. This approach relies on an analytical model derived for
a prismatic steelconcrete composite beam, as shown in Fig. 25. In
its undeformed state, the composite beam occupies the cylindrical
region generated by translating its cross-section A, with regular
boundary A, along a rectilinear axis orthogonal to the cross-
section and parallel to the Z axis of an orthonormal reference
system {O; X , Y , Z }; i, j, k are the unit vectors of axes X , Y , Z . The
composite cross-section domain is formed by the slab, referred
to as A1 , and by the steel beam, referred to as A2 . The two
components of the composite cross-section, A1 and A2 , are assumed
to be symmetric about the YZ plane. Loads are symmetric with
respect to the YZ plane, which represents the plane of bending.
No torsion or out-of-plane flexure is considered. The behaviour
of both the slab and the steel joist is described based on the
EulerBernoulli beam model, i.e., small displacements and strains,
plane sections perpendicular to the beam axis remain plane, rigid
and perpendicular to the beam axis after deformation. A perfect
bond occurs between the reinforcement and the concrete. The
composite action between the two components is provided by
a continuous deformable interface along a rectilinear line at
the interface between the two layers, whose domain consists of
the points in the YZ plane with y = ysc and z [0, L], ysc
being defined in Fig. 25. The connection is assumed to permit
only discontinuities parallel to the beam axis; thus no vertical
 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321 317

(a) Average daily temperature. (b) Average daily relative humidity.

Fig. 19. Environmental conditions measured during the long-term tests.

separation can occur between the two layers. With the 10DOF FE
formulation, linear polynomials have been used to approximate
the axial displacements of both the slab and the joist, and a cubic
representation has been adopted for the deflection, as detailed for
example in [51,52].

4.2. Material properties

The time-dependent behaviour of the concrete described based

on the integral-type creep law [1,2] has been approximated, subdi-
viding the time domain into discrete times t0 , t1 , t2 , . . . , ti , . . . , tk ,
by means of the step-by-step procedure based on the trapezoidal
rule [1,2]:
k
Fig. 20. Total mid-span deflections measured for CB1, CB2 and CB3.
1
ck = shk = c (t0 )J (tk , t0 ) +
[J (tk , ti )
i=1
2

+ J (tk , ti1 )][c (ti ) c (ti1 )], (2)

where ck is the total axial strain, which combines both stress-

dependent and stress-independent strains, shk is the shrinkage
strain, c (ti ) is the concrete stress calculated at time ti , and J (tk , ti )
is the creep function, which is defined as the strain at time tk caused
by a constant unit stress acting from time ti to time tk .
It is also assumed that the time-dependent behaviour of the
concrete is described by Eq. (2) in both compression and tension.
This is acceptable for stress levels in compression less than about
one half of the compressive strength of the concrete, and for tensile
stresses less than about one half of the tensile strength of the
concrete, as recommended by [2]. For the purpose of the proposed Fig. 21. Creep deflection coefficients for beams CB2 and CB3.
comparisons, the creep values have been calculated relying on the
format provided by [1] and modified to match the creep properties
of Fig. 11. The free shrinkage values adopted in the simulations are
based on Fig. 9.
It is assumed that the steel joist and the reinforcing bars
behave in a linear-elastic fashion with elastic moduli Es and Er ,
respectively, equal to 200 GPa.
Two constitutive relationships have been used for the shear
connection. One is based on the linear-elastic assumptions, and is
defined as

q(z ; t ) = ks(z ; t ) = k[u2 (z ; t ) u1 (z ; t ) + hv (z ; t )], (3)

in which z is the coordinate along the member axis, t depicts the

time measured from casting, u1 (z ; t ) and u2 (z ; t ) represent the
Fig. 22. Experimental slip measurements at the shear connectors nearest to the
axial displacements at two arbitrary reference levels located in supports for CB1, CB2 and CB3.
the slab and the joist, respectively, v (z ; t ) is the rotation along
the member length, h defines the distance between two arbitrary
reference levels in the slab and the joist, and the connection the corresponding slip s(z ; t ). A second constitutive relationship is
stiffness k relates the longitudinal force per unit length q(z ; t ) to proposed here, and it accounts for the time-dependent behaviour
318 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321

(a) Top of slab. (b) Bottom of slab.

(c) Top steel flange. (d) Bottom steel flange.

Fig. 23. Strains measured at the mid-span for CB1, CB2 and CB3.

creep coefficient of the connectors defined as the ratio between

the slip that occurred due to creep (due to a sustained force
applied at time 0 ) and the initial slip observed at time 0 ,
and SC (t , 0 ) is the aging coefficient, taken as 0.75 for external
loads [2] and 0.55 when considering shrinkage [49]. Based on the
consideration that the long-term response of the shear connectors
is produced by the complex stress state surrounding the stud, the
proposed expression for SC (t , 0 ) is a function of the concrete
Fig. 24. 10DOF finite element. creep coefficient c (t , 0 ), and is written as

of the shear connection. This is stated as

SC (t , 0 ) = SC c (t , 0 ). (5)

q(z ; t ) = ke (z ; t )s(z ; t ) The value for SC has been calibrated against the experimental
k results to be 0.4. This proposed constitutive representation is
= intended to fall within the framework of simplified approaches
1 + SC (t , 0 )SC (t , 0 )
suitable for design applications. In fact, more refined material
[u2 (z ; t ) u1 (z ; t ) + hv (z ; t )], (4) relationships might need to be adopted for an accurate modelling
where ke (z ; t ) is the age-adjusted effective shear connection of the observed structural response, which is outside the scope of
stiffness accounting for creep effects, SC (t , 0 ) represents the the present paper.

Fig. 25. Typical composite beam and cross-section for the FE formulation.
 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321
(a) Beam CB1.
(c) Beam CB3.
Fig. 26. Comparison between numerical and measured mid-span deflections.
4.3. Comparisons between numerical and experimental results
The numerical results presented in this section have been
obtained by discretising the time domain into 40 time steps based
on a geometrical sequence [1] and subdividing the member into 20
finite elements, more than is necessary based on the conclusions
of [51,52]. Considering the fact that the cylinder creep tests (Fig. 11)
were started at 29 days from casting, only measurements from this
instant in time have been considered in the proposed simulations
and comparisons with the experimental results.
Two sets of numerical results have been produced: one based
on the linear-elastic properties of the shear connectors, using
Eq. (3), and the other based on their time-dependent properties,
based on Eqs. (4) and (5). For clarity, these have been referred to as
FE-1 and FE-2, respectively.
The numerical and experimental results have been compared
in Tables 5 and 6, considering the mid-span deflections and
the end slips, respectively. Their values have been divided into
their instantaneous, creep and shrinkage components to gain
better insight into the structural response. The material properties
adopted for the concrete and the steel joist have been based on
the standard tests carried out on each of these components, while
the rigidity of the shear connection stiffness of 160 000 kN/m2
has been determined based on the instantaneous deflections
measured for CB2 and CB3 at 29 days from casting. This has been
carried out based on the consideration that the use of the rigidity
obtained from the push-out tests (Table 4) in the simulations
would underestimate the instantaneous deflections.
Considering the results reported in Tables 5 and 6 for the
creep and shrinkage deformations, the use of the age-adjusted
shear connection stiffness (used for FE-2) provides a better
representation of the time-dependent composite behaviour, with
319
(b) Beam CB2.
maximum errors of 5.9% (compared with measured data) when
considering creep deflections and of 0.4% for the shrinkage
reading at 461 days from casting. Modelling the composite
behaviour by means of a shear connection stiffness constant in
time (used for FE-1) produces excessive shrinkage deformations
(with an error of 43.2%), due to the higher shrinkage moment
developed with time, and lower creep displacements (with an
error of 51.7%). These discrepancies observed for the creep and
shrinkage effects considered in isolation tend to reduce when
combined together, since the errors produced in the two cases
counterbalance each other (Tables 5 and 6). A comparison between
the numerical results and experimental measurements related
to the mid-span deflections that have taken place over time is
presented in Fig. 26, from which it can be observed that the
predictions obtained for FE-2 are better than those for FE-1. The
distinction between the creep and shrinkage effects was possible
thanks to the use of the proposed casting arrangement (Fig. 4).
The necessity of including the time-dependent behaviour of the
connectors to predict the structural response well is also shown
by considering the slip results. These readings and numerical
results are very sensitive to the adopted connection rigidities
and, therefore, provide useful insight into the partial interaction
response. Supposing the shear connection rigidity to remain
constant with time, i.e., for FE-1, the calculated slip values can lead
to significant errors (Table 6), when compared to the experimental
measurements, of the order of 90% and +33% for creep and
shrinkage effects considered separately, respectively. These errors
reduced to 10% and 16%, respectively, in the case of FE-2.
Based on the numerical and experimental results outlined, it
is recommended that further experimental studies on full-scale
samples and push-out specimens need to be carried out to gain
better insight into the time-dependent behaviour of the shear
connectors.
320 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321

Table 5
Comparison between the numerical and experimental mid-span deflections.
Loading condition Measured FE-1 (with constant connection FE-2 (with time-dependent
stiffness) connection stiffness)
vmid-span (mm) vmid-span (mm) error (%) vmid-span (mm) error (%)

Shrinkage between 29 and 222 days 4.24 7.11 +67.7% 5.10 +20.3%
Shrinkage between 29 and 461 days 5.05 7.23 +43.2% 5.03 0.4%
Instantaneous external load (13.4 kN/m) at 29 days 15.14 15.34 +1.3% 15.34 +1.3%
Creep due to the sustained external load (13.4kN/m) at 461 days 7.82 3.78 51.7% 7.36 5.9%
Shrinkage and creep due to the sustained external load 12.87 11.01 14.5% 12.39 3.7%
(13.4 kN/m) at 461 days
Instantaneous external load (19.8 kN/m) and beam self-weight at 22.94 22.67 1.2% 22.67 1.2%
29 days
Creep due to the beam self-weight and the sustained external load 9.26 5.14 44.5% 8.13 12.2%
(19.8 kN/m) at 222 days
Shrinkage and creep due to the beam self-weight and the sustained 13.50 12.25 9.3% 13.23 2.0%
external load (19.8 kN/m) at 222 days

Table 6
Comparison between the numerical and experimental end slips.
Loading condition Measured FE-1 (with constant connection FE-2 (with time-dependent
stiffness) connection stiffness)
send (mm) send (mm) error (mm) send (mm) error (mm)

Shrinkage between 29 and 222 days 0.64 0.46 +0.18 0.69 0.05
Shrinkage between 29 and 461 days 0.70 0.47 +0.23 0.81 0.11
Instantaneous external load (13.4 kN/m) at 29 days 0.50 0.67 +0.17 0.67 +0.17
Creep due to the sustained external load (13.4 kN/m) at 461 days 0.60 0.06 0.54 0.55 0.05
Shrinkage and creep due to the sustained external load (13.4 kN/m) 0.10 0.41 0.31 0.26 0.16
at 461 days
Instantaneous external load (19.8 kN/m) and beam self-weight at 29 0.70 0.99 +0.29 0.99 +0.29
days
Creep due to the beam self-weight and the sustained external load 0.65 0.09 0.56 0.59 0.06
(19.8 kN/m) at 222 days
Shrinkage and creep due to the beam self-weight and the sustained 0.01 0.37 0.38 0.10 0.11
external load (19.8 kN/m) at 222 days

5. Conclusions and shrinkage should be calculated based on the proposed age-

This paper has presented the results collected during an
experimental programme investigating the long-term behaviour
of composite steel concrete beams. For this purpose, the main
measurements, i.e., deflection, slip and strain readings, obtained
from the long-term testing of three 8 m long simply supported
beams were reported. Both propped and un-propped conditions
were utilised in the preparation of the specimens. The specimens
were designed in accordance with Australian guidelines, adopting
a degree of shear connection equal to 0.5. Standard short-term
and long-term tests were carried out to obtain the relevant
material properties of both steel and concrete. Short-term and
long-term push-out tests were carried out to obtain information
on the response of the shear connectors. Considering the limited
experimental data available to date for this form of construction,
these results are very useful for benchmarking of numerical
models.
The experimental results were modelled by means of the
finite element method. The time-dependent behaviour of the
concrete was modelled by means of the step-by-step procedure,
while the steel joist and reinforcement were assumed to remain
linear elastic. Two constitutive relationships were adopted for
the shear connection, i.e., a linear-elastic one, and a new time-
dependent one, to account for the long-term effects produced
in the complex stress state of the concrete surrounding the
shear connectors. The latter representation is intended to fall
within the framework of simplified approaches suitable for design
applications. Considerations of the accuracy of the proposed
numerical predictions were provided based on the reported
experimental results. These highlighted the need to account
for the time-dependent behaviour of the shear connection in a
design situation. In particular, the long-term effects due to creep
adjusted effective shear connection stiffness. This has been shown
to be particularly significant when dealing with creep effects, as the
use of a constant shear connection stiffness would underestimate
the deformations of the overall member. On the other hand,
in the case of an unloaded member, the effects of shrinkage
calculated using the age-adjusted effective approach yield smaller
deformations. Further experimental work has been recommended
to gain better insight into the time-dependent behaviour of shear
connectors.
Acknowledgements
The work in this article was supported under the Australian
Research Councils Discovery Projects funding scheme (project
number DP0667127) and by a research grant awarded to the
second author by the Commonwealth through the AustraliaKorea
Foundation of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. The
experimental work was conducted in the J.W. Roderick Materials
and Structures Testing Laboratory of the School of Civil Engineering
at the University of Sydney. The assistance of the laboratory staff is
greatly acknowledged.
References
[1] CEB-FIB. Comit Euro-international du BtonFdration international de la
prcontrainte. Model Code 1990: design code. London: Thomas Telford; 1993.
[2] Gilbert RI, Ranzi G. Time-dependent behaviour of concrete structures. London:
Spon Press; 2011.
[3] Newmark NM, Siest CP, Viest IM. Tests and analysis of composite beams
with incomplete interaction. Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Stress
Analysis 1951;9:7592.
[4] Girhammar UA, Gopu VKA. Composite beamcolumns with interlayer slip-
exact analysis. Journal of Structural Engineering 1993;119:126582.
[5] Nie J, Cai CS, Wang T. Stiffness and capacity of steelconcrete composite beams
with profiled sheeting. Engineering Structures 2005;27:107485.
 S. Al-deen et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 308321
[6] Ranzi G, Bradford MA. Direct stiffness analysis of a composite beamcolumn
element with partial interaction. Computers & Structures 2007;85:120614.
[7] Ranzi G, Zona A. A steelconcrete composite beam model with partial
interaction including the shear deformability of the steel component.
Engineering Structures 2007;29:302641.
[8] Schnabl S, Saje M, Turk G, Planinc I. Analytical solution of two-layer beam
taking into account interlayer slip and shear deformation. Journal of Structural
Engineering 2007;133:88694.
[9] Tarantino AM, Dezi L. Creep effects in composite beams with flexible shear
connectors. Journal of Structural Engineering 1992;118:206380.
[10] Bradford MA, Gilbert RI. Composite beams with partial interaction under
sustained loads. Journal of Structural Engineering 1992;118:187183.
[11] Dezi L, Tarantino AM. Creep in composite continuous beams. I: theoretical
treatment. Journal of Structural Engineering 1993;119:2095111.
[12] Kwak H-G, Seo Y-J. Time-dependent behavior of composite beams with
flexible connectors. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering
2002;191:375172.
[13] Bradford MA. Generic modelling of composite steelconcrete slabs subjected
to shrinkage, creep and thermal strains including partial interaction.
Engineering Structures 2010;32:145965.
[14] Amadio C, Fragiacomo M. A finite element model for the study of creep and
shrinkage effects in composite beams with deformable shear connections.
Costruzioni Metalliche 1993;4:21328.
[15] Ranzi G. Short- and long-term analyses of composite beams with partial shear
interaction stiffened by a longitudinal plate. Steel and Composite Structures
2006;6:23755.
[16] Mirza O, Uy B. Finite element model for long-term behaviour of composite
steelconcrete push tests. Steel and Composite Structures 2010;10:43961.
[17] Macorini L, Fragiacomo M, Amadio C, Izzuddin BA. Long-term analysis of
steelconcrete composite beams: FE modelling for effective width evaluation.
Engineering Structures 2006;28:111021.
[18] Ranzi G, Bradford MA. Analysis of composite beams with partial interaction
using the direct stiffness approach accounting for time effects. International
Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 2009;78:56486.
[19] Nguyen Q-H, Hjiaj M, Aribert J-M. A space-exact beam element for time-
dependent analysis of composite members with discrete shear connection.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2010;66:13308.
[20] Faella C, Martinelli E, Nigro E. Steelconcrete composite beams in partial
interaction: closed-form exact expression of the stiffness matrix and the
vector of equivalent nodal forces. Engineering Structures 2010;32:274454.
[21] Adekola AO. The dependence of shear lag on partial interaction in composite
beams. International Journal of Solids and Structures 1974;10:38999.
[22] Dezi L, Gara F, Leoni G, Tarantino AM. Time-dependent analysis of shear-lag
effect in composite beams. Journal of Engineering Mechanics 2001;127:719.
[23] Gara F, Leoni G, Dezi L. A beam finite element including shear lag effect for
the time-dependent analysis of steelconcrete composite decks. Engineering
Structures 2009;31:1888902.
[24] Oven VA, Burgess IW, Plank RJ, Wali AAA. An analytical model for the analysis
of composite beams with partial interaction. Computers & Structures 1997;62:
493504.
[25] DallAsta A, Zona A. Non-linear analysis of composite beams by a displacement
approach. Computers & Structures 2002;80:221728.
[26] Ayoub A. A force-based model for composite steelconcrete beams with partial
interaction. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2005;61:387414.
[27] Sousa Jr JBM, Oliveira CEM, da Silva AR. Displacement-based nonlinear finite
element analysis of composite beamcolumns with partial interaction. Journal
of Constructional Steel Research 2010;66:7729.
[28] Jeong Y-J, Kim H-Y, Kim S-H. Partial-interaction analysis with push-out tests.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2005;61:131831.
[29] Fabbrocino G, Manfredi G, Cosenza E. Ductility of composite beams under
negative bending: an equivalence index for reinforcing steel classification.
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2001;57:185202.
321
[30] Loh HY, Uy B, Bradford MA. The effects of partial shear connection in composite
flush end plate joints part IIanalytical study and design appraisal. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 2006;62:391412.
[31] Ranzi G, Gara F, Ansourian P. General method of analysis for composite beams
with longitudinal and transverse partial interaction. Computers & Structures
2006;84:237384.
[32] Planinc I, Schnabl S, Saje M, Lopatic J, Cas B. Numerical and experimental
analysis of timber composite beams with interlayer slip. Engineering
Structures 2008;30:295969.
[33] Fragiacomo M. A finite element model for long-term analysis of tim-
berconcrete composite beams. Structural Engineering and Mechanics 2005;
20:17389.
[34] Kim S-H, Ahn J-H, Jung C-Y, Kim J-H. Multi-stepwise thermal prestressing
using a cover-plate in steel structures. Journal of Constructional Steel Research
2009;65:146479.
[35] Ranzi G. Locking problems in the partial interaction analysis of multi-layered
composite beams. Engineering Structures 2008;30:290011.
[36] Schnabl S, Planinc I, Saje M, as B, Turk G. An analytical model of layered
continuous beams with partial interaction. Structural Engineering and
Mechanics 2006;22:26378.
[37] Pi Y-L, Bradford MA, Uy B. Second order nonlinear inelastic analysis
of composite steelconcrete members. I: theory. Journal of Structural
Engineering 2006;132:75161.
[38] Ranzi G, DallAsta A, Ragni L, Zona A. A geometric nonlinear model for
composite beams with partial interaction. Engineering Structures 2010;32:
138496.
[39] Roll F. Effects of differential shrinkage and creep on a composite steel concrete
structure. ACI Special Publication, SP-27 1971;187214.
[40] Johnson RP. Shrinkage induced curvature in composite beams with a cracked
concrete flange. Journal of Structural Engineering 1987;65B:726.
[41] Bradford MA, Gilbert RI. Time-dependent behaviour of simply-supported
steelconcrete composite beams. Magazine of Concrete Research 1991;43:
26574.
[42] Wright HD, Vitek JL, Rakib SN. Long-term creep and shrinkage in composite
beams with partial connection. ICE Proceedings, Structures and Buildings
1992;94:18795.
[43] Alsamsam I. Serviceability criteria for composite floor systems. In: The
University of Minnesota; 1991.
[44] Fan J, Nie J, Li Q, Wang H. Long-term behavior of composite beams under
positive and negative bending. I: experimental study. Journal of Structural
Engineering 2010;136:84957.
[45] Al-Deen S, Ranzi G, Vrcelj Z. Shrinkage effects on the flexural stiffness
of composite beams with solid concrete slabs: an experimental study.
Engineering Structures [submitted for publication].
[46] AS2327.1, Composite structurespart 1: simply supported beams. In: Stan-
dards Australia (Sydney); 2003.
[47] Byfield MP, Dhanalakshmi M, Goyder HGD. Modelling of unpropped semi-
continuous composite beams. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2004;
60:135367.
[48] Ranzi G, Bradford MA, Ansourian P, Filonov A, Rasmussen KJR, Hogan TJ, et al.
Full-scale tests on composite steelconcrete beams with steel trapezoidal
decking. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2009;65:1490506.
[49] Eurocode 4. EC4 design of composite steel and concrete structurespart 1.1:
general rules and rules for buildings. In: British Standards Institution; 2004.
[50] Onesteel, Hot-rolled structural section properties. Onesteel, Sydney; 2003.
[51] Gara F, Ranzi G, Leoni G. Time analysis of composite beams with partial
interaction using available modelling techniques: a comparative study. Journal
of Constructional Steel Research 2006;62:91730.
[52] Ranzi G, Gara F, Leoni G, Bradford MA. Analysis of composite beams with
partial shear interaction using available modelling techniques: a comparative
study. Computers & Structures 2006;84:93041.