THE CHEMICAL EARTH

CHEMISTRY NOTES

JANUARY 1, 2016
CLAYTON FENG
 The Living and non-living components of the Earth containing mixture
Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions
- Reactants are placed on the left hand side of the equation, as they are the chemicals combining
to produce the products, which is on the right hand side of the equation.

Eg. Sodium + chlorine Sodium chloride (salt)

- Balanced equations have equal atoms on both side of the equation. They also include the state
of matter and their chemical symbols.
- Balanced equations are balanced by writing numbers in front of the atoms.

Eg. 2Mg(s) + 02(g) 2MgO(s)

Some main chemical equations:

- Combustion: Fuel + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + water
- Corrosion: Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide
- Precipitation: soluble salt + soluble salt Insoluble slat + soluble salt
- Neutralisation: Acid + Base Salt + water
- Decomposition: Larger molecule Smaller molecule + smaller molecule
The difference between elements, compound and mixtures in terms of particle theory
- Mixture is matter that contains two or more pure substances, it can be either homogenous (of
uniform composition throughout) or heterogeneous (non-uniform composition, where small
particles are noticeable).
- Elements are the simplest substances, cannot be separated by chemical means.
- Compound is two or more elements chemically combined with fixed proportions
- Molecules are two or more atoms bound together.
The Biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere
Biosphere: Living matter of the Earth
Eg. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus.
Elements: oxygen (60%), carbon (21%) and hydrogen (11%)

Lithosphere: outer rock layer, containing crust and upper parts of the mantle
Eg. Rock, metal ores, sandstone, granite and soil
Elements: Iron (35%) and oxygen (30%)

Hydrosphere: Zones containing water, ice or water vapour in the Earth

Eg: Salt water or spring water
Elements: oxygen (86%) and hydrogen (10.8%)

Atmosphere: The gaseous layer which extends from the surface to the edge of space
Eg: oxygen, argon, nitrogen and small percentages of compounds such as carbon dioxide, methane
and water.
Elements: Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and argon (1%)
Procedures used to separate naturally occurring mixtures
Technique Procedure Diagram
Solids of different sizes
Sieving Mixture is poured down where large parts
are trapped in the sieve, small pieces falls
through the sieve

Magnetism One substance magnetically attracted to a

magnet, the other isnt.

Solids and liquids

Filtration Mixture poured through the filter paper,
so the solids are left in the filter paper,
and out comes the liquid (filtrate).

Decanting Heavier substance of a mixture settles to

the bottom, where lighter at the top.

Centrifuging Heavier substances settle on the outside of

the container, where they are collected.

Dissolved solids in liquids

Evaporation/ Lower boiling point substance evaporates,
crystallisation whereas higher boiling point crystallises.

Liquids
Distillation Lower boiling point evaporates, condenses
and followed out to a beaker, becoming
the distillate.

Separating funnel More dense liquid leaves funnel at the

bottom when tap is opened, leaving
behind the less dense liquid.

Fractional Distillation Liquids boil and move up the distillation

column, where liquids are recondensed
and collected.
 Gases
Liquefaction/ Liquid nitrogen used to liquefy gases, by
fractional distillation lowering temperature, and then fractional
distillation applied.

Properties of the separation technique for their suitability

Technique Properties
Solids of different sizes
Sieving Size of particles
Magnetism Magnetic attractions (one is, the other isnt)
Solids and liquids
Filtration Size of particles
Decanting Densities
Centrifuging Densities
Dissolved solids in liquids
Evaporation and crystallisation Boiling points
Liquids
Distillation Boiling points
Separating funnel Densities
Fractional distillation Significant difference but similar boiling points
Gases
Liquefaction/ fractional distillation Different boiling points

Situations with gravimetric analysis supplying out useful data

- Measures the proportion of each component in a mixture and expressed in a percentage (%)
Eg. : Mining companies wanting to know composition of a particular ore sample.
Health authority wanting to know the composition of air, in polluted areas.
Systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the lab
- Metals first, and ending with the non-metal, with the name ending with their prefix.
- If two non-metals, name the first non-metal and then a second with a prefix. But if the first non-
metal, has more than one atom, add its own prefix. The first element is identified from the
element that is most to the left hand side of the periodic table.
- For two metals, name the metal, and then the complex compound of the two metals.
- Common Polyatomic ions:

\
IUPAC names for carbon compounds
- Hydrocarbons with single bonds called alkanes (CnH2n+2)
- Hydrocarbons with double bonds called alkenes (CnH2n)
- Hydrocarbons with triple bonds called alkynes (CnH2n-2)
- Suffix used to tell us how it is bonded.
1: meth- 2: eth- 3: prop- 4: but- 5: pent-

6: hex- 7: hept- 8: oct- 9: non- 10: dec-

Despite most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some elements are found uncombined

Relationship between reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing as an uncombined
element
- The more reactive an element is, the less chance of finding as an uncombined element
- Most unreactive gases are noble or inert gases
- Metals are too chemically reactive, therefore they are mostly found in combinations, to create
stability.
Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to physical properties
Properties Metals Semi-metals Non-metals
Appearance Lustrous Low Sheen Dull
Electrical Conductivity High Low (semi-conductors) Nil (insulators)
Thermal Conductivity High High Low (insulators)
Malleability and Ductility High Moderate Nil (brittle)
Density Generally High Intermediate Low
Boiling Point Generally High Very High Low
Strength High Variable Low

Uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties

Non-metals
- Carbon (graphite): used in lead pencils because of its softness and layer structure, allowing
layers of atoms to slide over each other. Also used in electrodes from batteries because of its
electrical conductivity.
- Carbon (diamond): used in jewellery because it is transparent and high refractive index and in
drill tips because high melting point and hardness.
- Sulfur: used in vulcanising rubber and manufacture of the sulfuric acid, fungicides, insecticides
and hydrogen sulfite bleaches due to its abundance and reactivity.
- Phosphorus: used in smoke bombs and manufacture of match heads because of its reactivity.
- Helium: used in airships due to low density and lack of reactivity
- Neon: used in neon lights because ability to glow red and give out great deals of light when
dealt with electric charge
- Chlorine: used in water treatment and bleaching agent because of its reactivity in decolourising
chemicals.
Metals
- Aluminium: used in domestic utensils, drinking cans, cooking utensils, building construction and
boat construction because of its thermal conductivity, malleability and attractive lustre.
- Copper: used in electrical wiring ductility because of its high electrical conductivity.
- Iron: Structural building materials because of its high tensile strength.
- Zinc: Galvanising of iron because of its high reactivity which allowed it protects it from
corroding.
- Gold: used in ornaments and jewellery lustre, because it is highly unreactive.
Elements in Earth materials at present mostly are compound because of interactions of atomic level

Identify matter that is made up of particles that are continuously moving and interacting
- According to the kinetic particle theory, particles of matter (atoms) are continuously moving and
interacting.
- Energy controls the movement and state of the substance. Heating increases the energy, whereas
cooling/freezing decreases the energy.
- Subatomic particles inside matter are protons, electrons and neutrons.
- Liquid: The particles are close together, and have the ability to move freely. They have a
definite volume, are almost incompressible and can diffuse (spread).
- Solid: The particles are close together, and vibrate in a fixed position. They have definite shape,
definite volume, cannot be compressed and cannot diffuse (spread).
- Gas: The particles are far apart and can move very freely. However they fill all available
space, can be compressed and can still diffuse (spread).
The energy levels of electrons in atoms
- Electrons occupy energy levels (shells) around the nucleus. They can move in between these shells
using their own energy.
- Each shell has a maximum number: 2, 8, 18, 32, 50 and so on.
Describe atoms of mass number and atomic number Mass number

- In atoms, number of protons equals number of electrons.

- The atomic number equals number of protons.
- The mass number equals number of protons and neutrons. Atomic number

The formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons

- Ion is a charged particle formed when gaining or losing electrons.
- Atoms gain electrons by capturing electrons from other atoms, this electron can be either positive
or negative.
- Atoms lose electrons if they have enough energy in them already, letting them escape the
attraction of the nucleus.
- Positive charged ions are called cations (+).
- Negatively charged ions are called anions (-).
Application of periodic table to predict irons formed by atoms of metals and non-metals.
- Group 1, 2 and 3 (metals), cations are formed with charges equalling to their group number.
- Group 4, non-metals form complex ions, whereas metals form cations with a charge of +1 or
+2. But most transition metals has a valency of +2, except for aluminium (+3) and silver (+1).
- Group 5, 6 and 7 (non-metals), cations are formed with charges equalling to their group number
minus 8.
- Group 8 (noble gases), they do not need extra or less electrons, as they are stable.
- Hydrogen can be either cation or anion.
Lewis electron dot structure
- Only the outer electron shell is shown in the diagrams.
- Elements either lose or again electrons during this process.
 - Elements share electrons
- A circle is drawn around the sharing electrons to
represent a bond, and crosses can help differentiate from
electrons from another atom.

The formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of

ions of opposite charge
- Ionic compounds when metallic elements chemically combine with non-metallic elements.
- Ionic bonds when two oppositely charged ions react (cation reacting with anion).
Eg. Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride (NaCl)
- The sum of valencies MUST equal to zero
Molecules as particles which can move independently of each other
- Molecule the smallest unit of matter that can move independently.
- Atoms are held together by covalent bonds, as well as monoatomic molecules (noble or inert
gases).
Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with 1+ atoms
- Noble gases are referred as monoatomic (one atom) molecules
- Elements that appear as gases, exist as one atom and join covalently
- Some compounds occur as molecules, such as H20

The formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing electrons

- Covalent bonds happen between two or more non-metallic elements.
- Covalent molecules bond by sharing electrons, rather than forming ion, to stabilise their outer
shell.
Eg. 2H2 + O2 2H2O
Constructing formulae for compounds formed
Ions
- When ionic compounds form, positive charges must equal to the negative
charges.
Atoms sharing electrons
- Valency of an element equals to the number of electrons need to be shared to complete the
outer electron shell in a molecular compound.
- In simpler molecular compounds that composed of only two elements, the sum of valencies of one
element must match that of another.
- The first element written should be the furthest to the left or the lowest to the periodic table.
 Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring sources
Identify the difference between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement of particles
Physical change do not involve production of new substances and are reversible. Some examples:
- Changes of state: liquid, solid or gas.
- Changes in physical appearance
- Dissolving a solvent in a solute
- Separation techniques, such as: fractional distillation, sieving, magnetism
Chemical changes produce one or more new substances but are no reversible. Some examples:
- Evolution of gas
- Formation of precipitate when mixing a solution
- Significant temperature change, showing energy loss or gain
- Changes in colour or odour is produced.
Both reaction, mass is conserved with particles rearranged.
- Chemical reactions rearrange broken particles into new substances
- Physical reactions rearrange particles without change their nature.
The difference between boiling water and electrolysis of water
Electrolysis of water Boiling of water
New substances are produce H2 and O2 gases No new substances produced, as it changes the
state of water
Difficult to reverse. Easy to reverse by cooling or freezing.
Particles broken up: From H20 broken up into H2 Does not alter particles but separates them from
and O2 molecules. one and another.
Needs more energy Requires less energy
Intramolecular bonds (covalent) are forming Intramolecular bonds (covalent) are breaking

Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or absorbed
during the decomposition or synthesis (combination) of substances, with examples
- Light, heat and electricity can be released from decomposition and synthesis
Eg. Photolysis is the decomposition of light energy
Electrolysis is the decomposition of heat and electrical energy
Light
- Release of light, eg. Combustion of magnesium
- Absorption of light, eg. Photolysis of silver chloride.
Eg. Phoyosynthesis
C02 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2
(Carbon dioxide + water Sugars +Oxygen)
Heat
- Endothermic (absorption of heat), eg. Decomposition of mercury oxide.
- Exothermic (release of heat), eg. Combustion of magnesium
EG. Combustion
Fuel + O2 H20 + CO2
(Fuel + oxygen Water + carbon dioxide)
Electrical
- Decompose chemical compounds/mixtures, such as decomposition of salt water to form chloride,
hydrogen and sodium hydroxide.
Decomposition reactions
- Limestone is decomposed by heating to make lime, cement and glass.
- Aluminium is extract by electrolysing molten aluminium oxide.
Synthesis/Direct combination reactions

- Rusting of iron and steel to form iron (iii) oxide

- Burning of carbon to release heat energy
Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of the
strength, or bond, between them
- The stronger chemical bonding in a compound, the more energy required to break the compound
into elements.
- Stronger chemical bonding, more energy released when compound is formed into its element.
- Because large input of energy needed to break the strong bonds holding atoms together.
The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and structure
Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds and mixtures

- Physical properties: odour, colour, taste, lustre, hardness, malleability, ductility, melting and
boiling points and solubility.
- Chemical properties: reactions with oxygen, water, acids and bases, and specific reactions with
other substances.
- Compounds have different properties from the elements used to combine the compound with.
- But has distinct properties
The physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or covalent
network
Physical property Metallic Ionic Covalent Covalent
Molecular Network
Hardness Variable Hard Soft Very hard
Malleability/Ductility Malleable, Ductile Brittle Brittle Brittle
MP/BP High High Low Very High
Conductivity (solid) High Low Low Low
Conductivity (liquid) High High Low Low

Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds.

Metallic bonding
- Occurs between metals
- Electrostatic attraction between delocalised electrons and metal cations (positive charged ions),
holding together the 3D lattice.
Ionic Bonding
- Occurs between
non-metals and
metals
- Transfer of
electrons from
one atom to another.
- Electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions formed by the transfer of electrons,
holding together the 3D lattice.
Covalent Bonding

- Occurs between non-metals

- Intermolecular forces holding the particles together
- Forces can be either hydrogen bonding, dipole to dipole or dispersion forces.

Describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons

- Metals lose electrons from their outer shell to become cations (positive charged particles), which
is surrounded by delocalised electrons.
- Electrons do not remain with an individual atom

Ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions

 - Cations and anions form an array of
ions in a fixed 3D lattice

The formula for an ionic compound is an

empirical formula
- Empirical formula is the simplest form of a compound and represents simple whole number ratios
of atoms/ions in the crystal.
- No discrete molecules in ionic compounds as there is an infinite array of ions, hen giving ratios
by atoms of elements rather than the actual number of atoms in a molecule.
- All pure samples of the same compound contain the same elements combined together in the
same proportions by mass Law of Constant Composition.
Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices
Elements that exist as covalent molecules include:
- H2, F2, Cl2, O2 or N2: diatomic gases
- Br2, I2: Diatomic liquid and solid
- P4 (phosphorus) and S8 (sulphur)
Elements that exist as covalent lattices include:
- Non-metal elements such as carbon or silicon and compounds such as silicon dioxide
- Carbon (diamond) is a 3D lattice, whereas Carbon (graphite) is a 2D lattice
- Covalent lattices in the earth include: sand, quartz, gemstones and clays.

Relationship between properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent
molecular and covalent network structures
Ionic
- Hard and brittle: Forces will cause ions of opposite charge to come close together
- Non-conductive when solid, but conductive when liquid: Ions are in fixed positions and are
not free to move, as it is being held by electrostatic forces. When over MP, bonds are partially
broken and ions become mobile.
- High Melting and boiling points: Ions are held strongly due to electrostatic forces
Covalent molecular
- Soft and brittle: Weak intermolecular attractions between molecules
- Low conductivity: Weak intermolecular forces between molecules can easily being broken
down.
- Low melting and boiling points: They do not have free electrons or an overall electric charge.
Covalent network
- Very hard and brittle: Atoms are strongly bonded together (3D), but altering these atoms can
break these covalent bonds
 - Low Conductivity: Diamond does not conduct electricity.s Graphite conducts electricity, as it
contains free electrons. Silicon is semi-conductive, as it is between conductive and non-conductive.
- Very high melting and boiling point: Giant covalent structures leads to high melting points,
because a lot of strong covalent bonds must be broken.
Metallic
- Malleable and ductile, variable hardness: The sea of electrons act as a cushion, so that the
metal atoms are able to roll over each other when stress is applied.
- High conductivity: Electrons are free, meaning that it can travel through the metal with ease
and these electrons can act as charge carriers of electricity.
- High melting and boiling points: The strength of the metallic bonds gives the high melting and
boiling point. This strength comes from the number of delocalised electron and the arrangement
of the metal atoms, meaning if they are closely packed, they have stronger bonds.