A M A N UA L F O R

W R IT ER S
C O V ERI N G T HE N EEDS OF
AU T H O R S FOR

I N F O R M A T IO N ON R ULES OF W R ITI N G
A N D PR A C TI C ES I N PRI N T I N G

BY

JO H N M A T T HEW S MAN L Y
Head 9f the Department of English
The Univ ersity f
I Chicag o

AN D

JO H N AR T H UR BO W ELL
f the
I Univ er sity f Chizago
o Pr ess

T H E UNI V E RSI T Y O F C H I CA G O PR E SS
C HICAG O . I LLIN O IS
 PREFACE

The M anual of S tyle o f the Uni versi ty o f Chicag o

Press origi n a lly p ub li she d a s a guid e fo r p rin ters p roo f
, ,

read ers a n d c opy edi tors w as soon foun d to be s o use

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ful to wri ters fo r the press s ec retari es sten o grap hers

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typi sts an d all other c lasses o fp ers ons in terested in wri t

,

i ng tha t the d em an d fo r i t be came very gre a t a n d the

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volum e h a s pa ssed thr ou gh three e di ti ons e ach m ore ,

volumi nou s than the p rec edi ng Several o f i ts c h ap .

ters however thou gh o f p rim e i nterest to p ri nters a re

, , ,

o f c ompa r a ti vely sli ght v alue to wri ters The p resent .

volum e has therefore been p re pa re d w i th the i ntenti on

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o f su pp ly i ng the i r s p ecia l nee d s .

I t i s b a se d u p on st a nda r d a uthori ti es su pp lem en te d

,

by observati on o f re c ent p r ac ti c es a nd ten denci es am on g

s chol a rs a n d ca reful wri ters Up on many p oin ts re pu
.

t able usage i s o i c ours e divide d ; but fo r p r ac tical p ur

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p oses every news pap er o fce every p rin tin g house has
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to make a choic e an d establi sh a unif orm rule in its prac

tic e Fo r the sam e rea sons the s am e p olicy i s ad o p te d
.

here T he p resent volum e i t i s beli eve d woul d lose

.
, ,

mu ch o f i ts v alue if i t gave all allow able forms an d prac

tic es instead o f givin g in eac h ca se a sin gle standard for m
or p r ac tic e .

A sin gle small volum e cannot c ontain solu ti ons o f all

the p roblem s which may c onfront a wri ter ; but the
V
Vi PR E FACE

authors venture to hOpe th a t f ew ma tters o f imp o rtan c e

h ave been negle c te d a nd th a t this volu m e wi ll b e o f
s erv ic e to wri ter s o f a ll c l a sse s .

A cknowle dgm ent is made o f the assis t an ce re cei ve d

f rom M r A C M cF arlan d gener al su perin ten dent o f
. . .
,

the Univers i ty of Chicago Pres s who contr ibu te d the ,

ma terial fo r ch ap ix The au thor s are also in de bte d to

. .

M rs C N Shup fo r hel pful su ggestions an d very care

. . .

f ul re adin g of the proo fs .

T he s t andar d tex tbooks and author i ti es on the sub

j ects co veie d by thi s wo r k are too num erous to m entio n

'

i n d et ail T he authors can express the i r o bliga tion to

.

these only i n a gener al manner .

J M M . . .

J A P . . .

Septemb er I , 19 13
 TABLE OF CON TEN T S
CHAPTE R PAG E

E N GLISH C OMP OSITION 1

II . GRA MM A I ICAL

N OTE S 25

(With a Lis t o f Pitfalls in Dictio n )

III . SPELLIN G ; WITH R ULE S F OR ABB REVIATIN G AN D

C OMP OUNDIN G WORDS 66

IV . CAPITALIZAI ION
86

V . P UNCTUATI ON 1 01

VI . THE USE OF I TALIC 1 23

LETTE R WRITIN G
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1 29

(With Fo rms)
VIII . HINTS ON THE P REPAR ATION or MANU SCRIPT
THE P RI NTE R 151

I LLUSTRATIONS 1 68

STA GE S THROU GH WHICH A B OOK PASSE S

M AKING 1 76

XI . TYP O G RAP HI CAL P RACTICE S AND TE RM S

MISCELLANE OUS I NF ORMA TION 2 00

211

vii
 C HAPTER I

E NGL ISH CO MP O SIT IO N

I WRITING A C RAF T AND AN AR T
.

The a b ili ty to wri te well ca nnot be i mp rovi se d nor ,

can a ny tre a ti se or te acher p rovid e an em er gen c y re cip e

.

which wi ll en a ble its p o s ses s or to di sp ense wi th lon g an d

m ore or less l a bori ous p repa r a ti on Li ke woo d carving
"
.
-
,

p ottery a r chi tec ture a n d a d oz en other f o r m s o f work

, , ,

wri ti ng i s p rima ri ly a c r af t wi th the capaci ty o f b e in g

,

tr ansf orm e d into an a rt I t i s a c r af t when pr ac tice d

.

f or the uses o f dai ly lif e by p ersons o f or di n a ry endow

m ents ; i t i s tr ansf orm e d into an a rt when to e xcellen ce
of c r af tsmanship i s add e d the f or ma t ive prin ciple th at
differentia tes an a rt f ro m a cr af t .

The a rt of wri ting like the other a rts cannot be

, ,

t aught A rt i s in c ommunicable T he c r af t o f wri tin g

. .
,

li ke the other c r af ts can be le a rne d an d Si n c e the p ro ce s s

, ,

o f le a rni ng can be h a stened an d made e a si er by s ugges

tion c ri tici sm an d di re c ti on we may fai rly s ay a s we
, , , ,

s ay i n a ll simil ar ca ses th a t i t can be t au ght We Sh a ll

,
.
,

there fore i n wh a t f ollows de al wi th wri ti ng solely a s a

, ,

c r af t Wherever there i s a n ade qu a te b a si s o f cr af ts

.

ma nship a rt ca n n d or cre a te i ts own i nstru ments a n d

,

m etho d s
The cr aft can b e le ar n e d b y an y on e T he nu m
.

I . . .

ber o f p ersons who ca nnot und er favor able c ondi ti ons

2 A MANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

le arn a ny c r af t is s o s mall a s to be ne gligi ble I n de e d .

the s uc c ess o f William M orri s a n d other s i n d evelo pi n g

a ny and every chance comer i nto a s ki l ful arti s a n i n
c r a f ts so d epen d ent up on te c hn ical e xc ellen c e a s to r a nk

am on g the in d us trial arts a n d the gener a l e xp eri en ce o f

,

mankin d in the tr ansmi ssi on o f a c r af t o r i n du s tria l a rt

thro ugh ma ny gener a ti ons of a sin gle fami ly p rove th a t , ,

a lthough capaci ti es diff er wid ely s o m e capaci ty f or

,

any and every c raf t may b e a ssu m e d f or every norma l

hu man b eing T he c r af t of wri tin g is no e xc epti on to
.

thi s gener al rul e An yone who is wi lli ng to t ake the

.

tr o uble to do so can ac qui re i t .

The fun dam ent a l requi rem ent f or the r apid a n d

e ective l e a rni n g o f every c r af t i s ac t i ve ef f ort on the
pa rt o f the le a rner I n a c e rt ai n sense nothi n g ca n be
t aughtno p ro c ess no c r af t no s ci enc ea ll must be
.

, ,

l ea rne d T he s imp les t p hysica l p ro cesses su c h a s w a lk

.
,

i ng canno t be t aught ; a s lon g as the p upi l ref uses to

,

participa te in the p ro c e s s ref uses to ma ke the effort to

,

w alk i nstru c ti on is f uti le T he c r afts a n d the s ci en c e s

,
.

are even m ore d e pend ent u pon the participat ion o f the
le arner be cause in them the e le m ents o f phys ica l an d
,

m ent al action are more co mpl ica te d an d more h ighly

o r gan iz e d

Uncon s ciou s tr aini ng T here a re to b e s ure

.

some c r af tsan d wri ting is o n e of themwhi c h see m

.
, ,

to b e ac qui re d by c ert ain p ersons wi thout e ffort a n d

wi thout any app rentic eship But i n every s u c h ca s e i t
.
,

w i ll be foun d up on i nvestiga ti o n th a t the c r a f t i nvolves

 ENGL IS H CO MP O SI T I ON 3

only sp e cial applica ti ons o f p hysica l c ontr o l or m ent a l

pro ces s es which h ave been ac qui red by ad equ a te p r ac tic e
i n other for m s o f ac tivi ty N o man ever wrote w ell
.

unless he ei th er h ad ac tively tri e d to le a rn to wri te or

h ad a lre ady p r ac tice d i n som e oth er f or m the m ent a l
op er a tions essentia l to goo d wri ti ng .

The whole world i s in a sense a s chool for wri ters ,

a nd lif e gi ve s dai ly i nstru c ti on i n the c r af t to all who

wi ll li sten a nd p r ac tic e T he u s e o f l angu age an d the
.

organiz a tion o f thou ghtthe only fundam ent als of the

c r af ta re ta ught daily E very n ew obje c t or id e a
.

n am e d i n o ur he ar ing o ers an in cre a se in vo ca bul a ry

'

every well p hr a se d s enten c e i s a lesson i n synonym s i n

-

gr amma r a n d i n style ; f ro m i nfa nc y onwa rd we re c e i ve

,

lessons i n c le arne ss i n c oheren c e i n uni ty i n e mp h a si s ;

, , ,

an d alm ost every c onvers a tio n cont ai ns s o m e rhetorica l

d evice o r gure Si n c e wri ting is o nly t alk s et d own
.

on pap er an d even the best and m ost arti stic wri ti ng

,

m erely a sub lima te of the best t alk i t is al most i nevi

,

t a ble th a t anyone who li a s a ssocia te d f ro m i nfan cy w i th

cultiva te d an d i ntelligent p eop le will h ave had su ch a
train ing in l angu ag e a nd i n cl ea r a nd ord erly thi nkin g
as wi ll en able hi m to wr i te d e c ently wi thout s p e cic

trainin g in wri tin g T he word c o mp osi ti on i n c lu d es
.

the or ganiz a ti on a n d exp ression o f thought both or a lly

a n d i n wri ting a n d emp h a siz e s the imp ort a nt f ac t th a t
,

the two a re one

.

3
. S pe cial tr ai n in g u s u ally n e c es s.ar y Why then
are there s o many p ersons who t alk i n c ompa r a bly better
4 A MANUAL FO R WRITE RS

th an they wri te an d so m e who tho u gh they t a lk e a s ily

, , ,

are helpless an d agh a st when they a re c o mp elle d to

wri te Ther e are doubtless many causes whi c h si n gly
or i n c ombi na tion acc ount f or these fac ts O nly a f ew .

of th em can be di s cusse d here i n d et ai l .

In s o m e ca ses p erh ap s the fan ci e d sup erio r i ty o f a

, ,

brilliant t alker s c onvers a ti on to his wri tin g i s m er ely

i llu s ory Hi s t alk if c ri tically c onsid ere d would be

.
, ,

fo und to h ave the s am e d e fe c ts a s his wri ti ng His .

s u cc ess wo ul d be f o un d to d ep en d u p on the low st a n da r d s

o f cri tici s m appli ed to co nvers a tio n up on th a t rel ax e d

,

m ood o f s o cie ty whi c h acc ep t s mere r eadine ss i n retort ,

qui ckn es s wi th a p etried c omm onp l ac e a s the equi valent ,

of wit an d which so metim es c onfus e s the bright swif tne ss

,

o fh i gh p hysical vi t ali ty wi th i ntell ec tu a l bri llian c e .

But we all kno w i ns t an c e s i n whi c h the s up eri ori ty

of the c onver s a ti on to the wri ting is not i llusory T here .

a re men and wom en whose c onvers a ti on i s i nterestin g ,

bri lli ant f a s ci n a ting wi th as hes of wi s d om or p ro

, ,

fo un d sugg estiveness an d whose wri tin g i s a web o f the

,

c omm onp l ac e shot thro ugh wi th str an d s o f d ulnes s

, .

The diff erential caus e in su ch ca ses lies usu a lly i n the

temp er am ent T h ese p ersons e i ther h ave wh a t ps y
.

c ho lo gis ts ca ll s ho rt re ac ti on times or they p osses s
,

torpid min d s whi ch d evelop thei r full Sp ee d an d p ower

o nly un d er s tron
g Stimul ant s Su ch a s the e xci te m ent o f
,

ba t tling wits o r the vi sible p resen c e o f a gallery Of pos

si ble a dmi rers Hab i t too may c l aim i ts pa rt i n the
.
, ,

cause j ust as many wri ters can thi nk only wi th a p en

.
 E NGL ISH CO MP O SI T ION 5

in h an d a n d many or a tors can c omp ose thei r eloquent

,

p eri o d s only when they st and an d see or fa n cy they see . ,

an a udien c e bef ore the m so also many bri lliant c onver

,

s atio n ali s ts nee d the fami lia r c on di ti ons o f c onvers a t i on

to set thei r i ntelle c tu a l machi nery in op er a ti on Self .

c ons ci ousness a lso i s a fac tor o f no m e a n imp ort an c e in

, ,

som e ca ses an d o f ten co o p er a tes wi th h a bi t or the l ac k

-

of i t Self c ons ciousness li ke any other di str ac t i on o f

.
-

a ttenti on f rom the mai n ac tivi ty may w i th d r a w fro m

,

th a t ac ti vi ty m uch or ne a rly a ll o f one s m ent al p ower .

An entirely different c la ss o f p ersons who sp e ak well

but w ri te b ad ly i n c lu d es those who h ave not p r ac tic e d
wri ting of ten enou gh to be c om e accustom e d to the
m e c h ani cal ac t o f wri t ing I n the i r di stress there a re
.

two main fac tors I n the rst pl ac e the m ent a l p ower

.
,

a vai l a ble f or thi nki ng is dimini she d by the am ount

d r awn o ff to the i nstru m ent an d the ac t o f wri ting an d
to sel f c ons ci ou s observ a ti on o fthei r uns a ti sfac tory men
~

t a l p ro c esses I n the se c ond p l ac e wri tin g i s ne c ess ar ily

.
,

a slower mo de of exp ressi on th a n s p ee ch an d su ch perso ns ,

h a ve not yet le a rne d to think i n the temp o o f wri tin g to ,

d well on a thou ght lon g enough to set i t down a n d then

p ro ceed to the ne x t w i thout losi ng the imp etus o f co n
tin uo us thi nki n g Thi s c l a ss i s ve ry num erous T he
. .

re m e dy fo r the c ondi ti on obvi ously is p ers i stent p r ac tic e

i n wri ti ng .

M a ny i n dividu als in both these c l a sses a re seri ously

h amp ere d i n thei r eff orts to wri te by the f eeli ng th a t wri t
i n g esp e cially wri ti ng f or the p ubli c shoul d be som e
, ,
6 A M ANUAL FO R WRITE RS

thi ng sup ern e sho ul d be a rticially or a t le a st a rtfully

, , ,

de cor a ted th a t o ver the o rigi n a l f orm o f thei r thou ght

,

should b e d r ape d a be autiful ga rm ent calle d style .

Thi s is of c ours e a thorou ghly p ernici ous ide a ; i t h a s

, ,

not only p revente d many f ro m wri ting who mi ght h a ve

wri tten s imp ly a nd agree ably but worse th an th a t h a s
, , ,

bur dened the worl d wi th thous an d s o f pages o f th a t

useless an d b ad p ro duc t known a s n e wri tin g .

F ortun a t ely n e wri tin g is now c on d e mn e d by a ll

who know an d teac hers an d wri ters uni te i n reco gn iz

,

in g th a t style is not a ma tter o f sup ercia l de c or a ti on

but re s id es i n the very f orm i n which the thought i s
c on ceive d Phr a ses th a t d o not t the thou ght are
.

s een to dis gure not to orn am ent i t a n d the re m e d y f or

, ,

a p oo r s tyle is not n e wor d s but a better m o d e o f ,

thinki ng ju s t as the re me dy f or a f eeble shrunken

, ,

bo dy is not c lothe s but physica l d evelopm ent

.

4. W ri ti n g an d thi n ki n g T o wri te w ell is i n fac t

.
, ,

to thi n k or f eel s o methi ng worth s ayin g to gi ve the ,

thought or f e eli ng clea r an d d e ni te f orm a n d then to ,

s ay i t in p re ci sely thi s fo r m E very tre a ti se on wri ti n g

.
,

theref ore m us t b e not a c olle c ti on o f tric ks but fun

, , ,

d amen tally a tre a ti se on thi nki n g A nyone who h a s .

ac quire d the h a bi t of thinki ng c onst antly o f mixin g ,

thou ght wi th hi s obs erv ations an d e motions o f re e c tin g ,

up on the li kenesses a nd differen c es a n d causes o f thi ng s ,

wi ll h ave ide a s i n a bun dan c e w i ll b e a ble to gi ve the m

,

cl ea r a n d d eni te f orm a n d w ill nee d only p r ac tic e a n d

,

a f ew simp le i nstru c ti ons to be c o m e a g oo d wri ter .

 ENGL IS H CO MP O SIT I ON 7

III N TE LLE C TUA L E QUIPllEN T

.

The i ntelle c tu al equipm ent n ec e s s a ry f or c o mp osi

ti on or al or wri tten i nvolve s two fac tors a store o f
, , ,

i nteresting ma terial a n d the p ower o f thi nki ng c le a rly

an d i nteresti ngly .

I t i s not ne c ess a ry th a t the ma terial Shoul d be very

gre a t i n am ount So me c h armi ng an d even gre a t
.

wri ters h ave h ad li ttle knowledge an d co mpa r a ti vely

few imp ort ant id e a s I t is o f c ourse d esi r a ble th a t
.

there Should be enough knowle dge o f som e o n e subj e c t

to make i t worth whi le f or your au di en c e to a tten d to
wh a t you h a ve to s ay The part icula r n a ture o f the
.

ma teria l is o f even less imp ort an c e th an the am ount .

There i s p erh ap s no p ossi ble subje c t of thought or f eelin g

, ,

whi ch has a rouse d the i nterest of one hu man being th a t

i s not capa ble of i nteresting many The fun dam ent al re.

quiremen t o fa well store d mi n d i s th a t i ts ma terial should

-

c onsi st not o f c olorless re c ord s o f thi ngs re ad and he a r d

,

an d f elt an d seen nor of rem em bere d p hr a se s in whic h

,

others h ave e m bo die d the i r re ac ti ons to the manif old ele

m ents o f lif e but of s in c ere p ers on al re co rd s c olore d by
, ,

p erson al thought an d f eelin g e ac h c onn ec te d wi th multi

,

tu d es of other re c or d s wi th whi c h i t has so m e afn i ty .

The m o d e o f thi nkin g i s obvi ously of mu ch m ore

imp ort anc e than the am ount or the n a ture of the
ma terial I t not only p rovides the ma teria l but a s
. .

, ,

we h ave just seen d etermin es to a l a rge e x tent the

,

n a ture o f i t The enrichm ent of the min d then i s

.
, ,

fundam ent ally d ep end ent up on thi nking succ essfully .

8 A MANUAL FO R WRITE RS

1 . The p rim e c on di t ion o f s uc

Active r eceptivity .

ces sf ul thi nkin g i s p erh ap s a n a tt i tu d e o f wh a t may be

, ,

calle d ac ti ve re c e p tivi ty Thi s i nvolves not only
.

alertnes s of mi nd to o bserve an d to seek a n d re adi ness ,

to re c ord o b s erva ti ons e mo ti ons b i ts of knowledge f ro m

, ,

books a nd fro m men but su ch an a tti tud e a s cau s es

,

a ll the ide as whi c h alre ady inh a bi t the mi n d to be a le rt

to f orm s om e as so cia ti on wi th the ne wc om er I n to o .

ma ny mind s a n ew ide a i s re c eive d a s a str anger is in a n

E ngli sh hotel not a s a newc om er is i n a boo m to wn in
,
-

the West .

Geni us is the capaci ty fo r maki n g n ew an d v a lu a ble

c om bin a ti ons E dga r All a n Poe cert ai nly one o f the
.
,

most origi na l o f m en held th a t origi n ali ty i s capa ble o f

,

cultiva tio n by p ro c esses which i nvolve ac tive re ce p ti vi ty

a s thei r p rin cipal ele m ent Wi lli am Ki ngd on C liff or d
.

i n hi s es s ay o n The C ondi tions of Intelle c tu a l Develo p

ment as serts th a t the p ri ncipa l c on di tions are two one ,

p osi ti ve an d o n e ne ga ti ve T he p osi tive c on di tion
.
,

he s ays is th a t the mi n d shoul d ac t r a ther th a n a ss imi
,

l a te th a t its a tti tu de shoul d be o n e o f c re a ti on r a ther

,

th a n o f ac qui si ti on T he nega tive c on di tio n is

.

p l a stici ty : the avoidanc e o f all su c h c ryst alliz a t i on a s

i s imme dia tely suggested by the envi ron m ent A mi n d .

th a t would grow must let no ide a s be c o m e p er ma nent

e xc ep t su ch as lead to ac tion To w a r d a ll others i t m ust .

mai nt ai n a n a tti tu d e of absolute re c ep tivi ty ; admi tti n g

a ll bei ng m odi ed by all but p erma nently b ia sed by
, ,

none T o be c om e c ryst alli z e d xe d i n opin i on a n d

.
,
 E NGL ISH CO MP O SI T I ON 9

m o d e o f thought is to lose the g re a t ch ar ac te ri stic o f

,

li f e by whic h i t i s di stin gui she d f rom i n anima te n a ture
,
.

Si nc e stu dy an d e xp eri en c e a re the two sourc e s o f

ma teria l an d of style the a tti tud e o fwhi ch we h a ve been
,

Sp ea ki ng is ne c ess a ry fo r e ach Som e p ersons f e a r to

.

Sp oi l thei r origi n ali ty by re ading They wi sh to thi nk .

an d s ay wh a t h a s never been thou ght or s aid bef ore ,

an d they fe a r th a t re adi ng wi ll make the m s ee wi th the

eyes thi nk wi th the mi n d s an d sp e ak w i th the voic es o f
, ,

others T he e ffort to avoid c omm on ide a s o f ten re s ul ts

.

i n mi ssin g c omm on s ense But in d ep en d ently o f th a t

-
.
,

da nger i t shoul d be re mem bere d tha t if we live in huma n

, ,

so ci ety o ur ide a s a re stimul a te d an d organi z e d by the

,

id e a s of others whether we will or not an d i t i s better

, ,

to be i nuen c e d by a n able thi nker th an by a mul ti tu d e

o f loose t a lkers Wh a t counts i n re ading is the w ay in
.

which o n e re ad s .

2 . R eading R e adi ng Shoul d furni sh not only ma

.

terials f or thoug ht but c entr al id e a s f or the orga ni z a

,

ti on o f our id e a s an d the grouping of those f ugi ti ve

,

imp ressi ons those pa ssing e m otions whi c h a re not the

, ,

le a st imp ort ant pa rt o f a wri ter s equipm ent T o be .

n a tur a l does not m e an to susp en d thi nki ng to for get a ll

.
,

th a t re adi ng a n d e xp eri en c e an d re e c tion h a ve wri tten

i n he a rt an d mi n d N othin g i s m or e b a rren f or the
.

p urp oses of e xp ressi on th an the he art th a t has not

Sh are d i n the enrichm ent o f the whole n a ture T he .

n a tur a l l angu age o f pa ssi on is the c ry E m oti on m ust .

be enriche d by a sso cia ti on wi th id e a s be fore i t can yi el d

10 A MANUAL FO R WRITE RS

b eauty o r p o wer i n li ter a ture But pa s sive re adi n g fur

.

ni she s n o thi ng but ma terials whether thes e be m ere ,

fac ts or id ea s f or mula te d by other s Persons who r ead

,
.

pas s i vely h a ve the h abi t o f s eei ng thi ngs i n f orm s

c rea ted by the mi nds o f o ther s a n d of sp e aki n g i n
p hr a se s th a t a re not thei r o wn When they loo k a t a .

pic ture o r a l an d scap e o r he a r a p oe m o r s ee a p l ay

, , ,

they summ o n to thei r aid not thei r i ntellig en c e but thei r

m em ory ; a n d n o t o nly the phr a ses they u s e to express

th ei r em oti ons an d ju dgm ents but the very ju dgm ents

,

and e motions the m selve s are the work o f others T he .

long di sus e d machi nery of tho ught an d fe eli ng r efu s e s

-

to turn o f i t s elf an d m ust be p ush ed r o un d by the h a n d s

o f a noth er .

R e adi ng must be al ert s ympa thetic curi ous T he

, ,
.

m ost prot able book s are tho s e th a t i rri t a te tho s e wi th ,

which we di s agre e But they mu s t be re ad not wi th

.
,

s c orn an d aloofnes s but sympa the tica lly th a t is wi th

, , ,

a n i ntense d e s i re to as cert ai n e xac tly wh a t the wri ter

thi nks an d why M oreover re re adin g i s o f ten n eces
.
,
-

s a ry T he re ad er who n ever re r ead s a book be fore

.
-

he h a s h ad tim e to f orget i t ha s n o t yet ac qui re d the

h a bi t o f r eading .

3. L i
f e The a tti tud e tow a r d lif e a n d its exp eri en c e s
.

should not differ essentia lly f ro m th a t towa r d the wo rl d

o f books A c tive re c ep ti vi ty i s d eman d e d everywhere
.
.

M ost of u s live i n a leth argy h a lf the tim e a n d i n m or e

th a n h alf o f o ur faculti e s The pa rt s o f our b ein g t ake
.

turns i n somnolen c e When the i ntelle c t works the

.
,
 E NGLIS H CO MP O SIT I ON II

sensib ili ty rep oses an d the intelli ge n ce goes to sle ep

,

as soon as the he a rt aw a kes T he self is never aw ake

.

as a whole We h ave d etermi ne d the times an d the

.

thin gs to wh ich the intelligen c e m ust a ttend At other .

m oments a nd f or other obje c ts we make no us e o f i t ;

an d yet i t is the univers a l i nstrum ent tted fo r a ll the ,

p henome na an d m om ents o f li f e T o wri te o f li f e o n e

.

m ust h ave li ve d an d observe d lif e a s he w a s li vi ng

,
.

T he b a si s o f i nventi on i s observa t ion a nd re e c ti on A ll .

the si tu a ti ons an d e m oti ons o f c o me dy a n d tr age dy a re

accessi ble to e ac h of us even if in mi nia ture ; an d the
,

c onstru c ti ve imagi n a ti on ca n use a magnie d e m otion

or eve nt a s su cc ess fully a s the gre a t emotio n or event to
which i t is a n alogous I f o ur e xp eri en c e i s s ma ll thi s i s
.
,

not be cause we h a ve m et f ew events but be cause we ,

ret ai n f ew imp ressi ons We li ve our days di s c onne c te d ly

. .

E vents pa ss over us a nd e m ot ions di e N othi ng is co n .

tin uo u s i n us but un c ons ci ous h a bi ts a n d automa t ic

ac ti on s We f eel pa ssi vely a n d uni ntelli gently li ke
.
, ,

brutes E vents stri ke u s p le a se us woun d us ; we

.
, ,

rejoic e we suffer a nd th a t i s all we know o f the experi

, ,

en ce There remain for m ost o f us from all our sorrows

.

a nd our p le a sures only vague images whic h a re soon ,

too i n di sti n c t f or the uses of li f e or o f li ter a ture .

4. A p ro c e s s o f i n te rpr e tation T he applica tion o f

.

ac tive i ntelli gen c e to all the observa tions sens a ti ons , ,

a nd e moti ons o f lif e d oes not imp ly dry a n a lysi s a n d

f or mal cl a ssica ti on but p erson a l re ac ti on to eve ry
,

stimulus I t i s re a lly only a Simp le ac t o f i nterp ret a ti on

.
,
12 A MANUAL FO R WRITE RS

suc h a s a b a by makes of the manifol d imp r essions th a t

throng up on him At rst these a re to the b aby not
.

even p erc ep ti ons but m ere s en s e imp ressi on s o f color

,
-

, ,

of soun d of he a t o f p ress ure o f t a ste o f o do r o f p le a s

, , , , ,

ure of pai n E ach imp re s sion i s sepa r a te i n i tself an d

,
.
,

t aken alone be a rs no i ntelligi ble m ess age f rom the outer

,

world Th a t there a re obje c ts the i nfa nt knows not ;

.
,

he kn ows o nly imp ressi ons an d sen s a tio ns But a s i n .

,

hi s li ttle br ai n imp re s s i ons th a t belong toge ther n d

,

o n e a nother qu ickly a n d uni t e to f or m a p er c e p t o f a n

obje c t the work of i nterp ret a tion goe s on H ow fa r i t

, .

g oes de termi ne s the i ntelle c tu al life o f the i nf ant a n d the

adult i nto w ho m he develop s In som e mi n d s the worl d .

r emains a hu ddle o f unrel a te d obje c ts an d events ; in

others i t is a rich f abric wo ven c lo s e of dark an d light ,

of p leas ur e an d pai n o f goo d an d evi l , .

III . WHA T TO W RITE AB OU T

I . The s ub j e ct It might be s upp ose d th a t a nyone
who w i she d to wri te would know wh a t he wi she d to
-

wri te about But many m erely w i s h to Wri te T o

. .

r ecomm end th a t su ch a p erson c hoose a subje c t which he

knows well i s not so sup eruous a s i t see m s Wh a t i s .

well known seem s co mmo np l ac e an d only the un fami lia r ,

a llure s But obvi ously the unfami lia r must be le f t to

.

som eone to whom i t is familia r .

Havi ng chosen hi s subje c t the wri ter will usu a lly ,

n d th a t as a t rst c on c e ived i t is too l a rg e o r too

, ,

g ener al Limi t a ti on o f the them e is then the wi se

.
 E NGL IS H CO MPO SI T ION 13

c ourse M a ny a man who can only b a bble vai nly

.

a bout govern m ent ca n wri te a va lu a ble a n d interestin g

acc ount o f the man age ment o f the county hospi t al o r ,

the ci ty c ontroller s of c e or the p oli ce c ourt in hi s

,

p re ci n c t T he h a bi ts an d intelligen c e o f in s e c ts are
.

h ar dly capable o f anythi n g but loose ane cdotic tre a t

m ent a t secon d han d ; o n e o f the most origi nal an d
interestin g books o f re c ent ye a rs i s d evote d to the
hi story o f a sin gle family o f w a sp s F ew m en a re .

exp eri en c e d an d wi se enough to f orm l ar ge g ener aliz a

ti ons an d f ew l a rg e g ener aliz a ti ons a re true enou gh o r
,

d eni te enou gh to be v a lu able .

.2 What to s ay ab o ut it T he very p ro c ess o f li mi t

.

i ng the subje c t to man ag e able siz e w ill i nevi t ably result

i n su ggesti ng s o m ethi ng to s ay a bout i t T he ide a s .

suggeste d may a ri se very di s c onne c te dly a n d i n ve ry

c ru d e f orm T he rst thi n g to make sure o f i s tha t y o u
.

ca t c h an d x the m all N o better w ay h a s yet been

.

di s c overe d to d o thi s th a n to jot the m d own as they

o ccur o n small ca r d s or sli p s o f pap er M anil a ca r d s
,
.

a re better th an pap er unl ess i t i s thi ck an d s ti be cause

, ,

they a re m ore e a si ly han dled T hree by ve in ches is

.

a goo d s iz e thou gh so m e wri ters p refer the m larger an d

, ,

som e smaller I t i s not ne cess a ry to wri te o ut your

.

id e a s i n f ull a t thi s tim e The main thing is to get a s

.

many o f the m a s p ossi ble re c or d e d As these id e a s a re

.

wri tten d own others wi ll suggest thems elves Experi

,
.

enc e w ill soon Show tha t i t is p oor p oli cy to p ut two

id e a s however c losely rela te d on the s am e car d f or
, , ,
14 A M ANUAL FOR WRI TE RS

you d o not yet kno w ho w or wh er e the id e a s are to

be used .

I f a rou gh plan o f o rgani z a ti on has not yet di s c lose d

i tself t ake the car d s an d try to a rr an ge them acc ord
,

i ng to thei r rel a ti ons an d afn i ti es T he re adi ng whi ch .

you mus t give the m f or thi s p urp os e will d oubtless s ug

ges t n ew id eas o r d et ai ls o f tre a tm ent N ote all o f the s e . .

E ven i f you h ave a ro ugh p l an try to see if you ca nnot

,

mak e o thers th a t are b ett er One o f the c hi e f advan

.

t ages o f the car d s is th a t the makin g o f a new p l a n

d oe s not i nvo lve rewri tin g ; but d o not he s i t a t e a t any ,

tim e i n the c ourse o f your wo rk to rewri t e anythi n g ,

th a t nee ds rewri ti ng N0 o n e ever s ave d tim e by such

.

a ref u s a l .

T he rst rough pla n an d p erh ap s sever a l l a ter ones

, ,

shoul d be regar de d not as n al but a s us eful only to

, ,

evoke ideas an d give e xi bili ty to yo ur c on cep ti on o f

the subj ec t T he n al pla n s houl d not be un dert ake n
.

unti l all the ide a s you can evo ke h ave been c olle c te d ,

c l a sh ed together an d weighe d, .

Other m e an s o f evoking id e as may be m entione d ,

though none o f them i s so valu able a s those just sug

geste d One o f the m ost frui tful i s the di s c overy of a
.

gener al an a lo gy between your subje c t an d the l aws whic h

govern i t an d som e other subje c t an d its l a ws I n thi s .

manner all br an che s o f hu man knowle dg e an d s p e cul a

ti on h ave been tr ans for m e d by re al or s u pp ose d an a logi es
to bi ology An alogi es suggest questi ons an d a questio n
.

rightly a s ked i s a p r o blem h alf solve d I n the s am e .

 E NGL IS H COMP O SI T I ON I5

w ay c ontr a st may serve to stimul a te questioni ng an d

,

thought

.

3 .Pro c urin s
g p e cial k no wle d g e At so m e tim e e a rly ,

o r l a te ,
i n the c ourse o f thi s p re par a tory work you ,

may feel the nee d o f sp e cia l knowle dg e I f your gener a l .

knowle dg e a n d your p ower o f th i nkin g are goo d you ,

shoul d h ave som e ide a o f where to n d the s p e cia l

i nf or ma ti on you requ ire I f y o u nee d to consult books
.
,

bi bli o gr aphi es may be o f a ssi st an ce U s ing your sour c es .

o f in forma ti on p rop erly i s of no less imp ort an c e th an

n di n g the right s our ces L et your a tti tu d e be c ri tica l
.
,

ac tively re ce p t ive c re a ti ve ,
.

4 S ele ction
. At thi s a n d a t every e a rli er a n d l a ter
.
-

, ,

st age o f your work id e a s an d ma terial n o t sui te d to

,

your gener a l ide a o r to your pl a n o f tre a tm ent must

be reje c te d So m e ide a s will app e a r unt as so o n as
.

c onsid ere d ; oth ers wi ll not manifest the i r un tn ess

unti l l a ter ; so m e not unti l your c omp osi tion is t aki ng
,

or even h a s t aken its n a l f or m Do not hesi t a te ei ther.

,

now or l a ter to s ac ri c e a ny ide a or ma terial not stric tly

,

g er mane to your p urp ose I t t akes cour ag e an d h a r dn ess

.

to d o thi s but the s acric e w ill be rew a rd e d E xc e llen c e

,
.

li ves by s ac ri c e Partia li ty to o ne s o wn ide a s unw ill
.
,

in gn es s to omi t wh a t see m s to h a ve been well thou ght

o r well s aid i s a mai n cause o f d e f or m e d di sp ro p orti one d
, ,

wri ti ng T he mania to tell i t all hi n d ers c le a rness a n d
.

p re ci si on a n d uni ty an d e mp h a si s M oreover a c omp o .

,

s itio n th a t e mp ti es the wri ter r a rely lls the re ad er ; an d

the lees o f a ny subj e c t a re bi tter to the pal a te .

I6 A M ANUAL FO R WRITE RS

O R GAN IZATI ON
IV .

T he two essentia l l aws o f co mp osi ti on a re those o f

f o cu s an d of m ovem ent F ro m these a re d eri ve d the
.

four usu ally sta te d a s fundam ent al those o f uni ty o f , ,

c le arness o f c oherenc e an d o f e mp h a si s b es id es all the

, , ,

mi n o r l aws an d ordi n an ces F o cus is the result o f

.

selec ti on an d o f a rrange m ent M ovem ent i s se cure d .

i n part by a rr an gement an d in pa rt by e xp ressi on .

A rr angem ent or der organi z a ti on is theref ore the

, , ,

m os t imp ort a nt el em ent i n co mp osi ti on O r d er is .

essential for the re ad er f or wi thout i t a c o mp osi ti on

,

i s unre adable a m ere ch a os of fac t s a n d id e a s I t i s

. .

equ ally essential for the wri ter Wi thout i t wr i tin g .

,

be co m es p rac tically imp ossi ble ; a book is not wr i tten

as a whol e but one ch ap te r a t a tim e
,
T he wri ter .

mus t di vid e hi s t a sk i n or d er to ma ster i t an d di vi si on ,

i s imp ossi ble wi thout a rr ange m ent .

Goo d organi z a ti on c o m es not by i nspi r a ti on but

, ,

by careful thi nk in g E ven m en of gen i us a rr an g e an d

.

organiz e thei r work w i th care N a tive t alent o r lon g .

pr ac tic e may gre a tly abridge the p ro ce ss but the p ro c ess ,

i s ne cess a ry B ad organiz a ti on an d c on fuse d a rr ang e ment

.

h av e cause d a s many fai lures a s ha s p overty o f thou ght .

A p l an i s the only means o f se curin g p rop orti on o f ,

avoidi ng superuity an d m e agerne s s a n d w an d er in g .

An ar chi te c t who truste d to i nspi ra ti on r a ther th a n to ,

ca reful thought f or the a rr ang em ent o f the roo m s a n d

,

h alls a n d st ai rw ays an d doors a n d wi n dows o f the

house he w a s bui ldi ng woul d p ro du c e a sorry s tru c ture .
 E NGL IS H C OM PO SI T ION I 7

I . F o cus .
As
i t i s the aim o f every c omp osi ti on to
s et f orth so m e g ener a l id e a i t is ne c ess a ry th a t the
,

ma terial shoul d be c hosen a n d a rr a n ge d wi th thi s i n

vi ew T 0 f o cus the ma teria l up on thi s ide a the main
.
,

topic s m ust be a rr ange d i n p rop er or d er ; e ach mu s t be

sub di vid e d i nto i ts subor di n a te pa rts ; an d e ac h main a n d
subor di n a te topic must be gi ven i ts p rop er p rop orti on ,

an d no m ore of space a n d e mp h a s is O ne o f the gre a test

, .

foes o f the gener al ide a i s the subor din ate to pic favore d
by the wri ter f or so m e re a son an d gi ven un due emp h a si s .

Another is the rebelli on of subor din a te id e a s T h acker ay .

a n d others tell us how i n c ti on c h a r ac ters som etim es

, ,

f ollow thei r own bent di sobey the i r ma s ters The youn g

,
.

wri ter n d s th a t id e a s of all sorts d o thi s c ontinu a lly .

But he Shoul d p er mi t rebellion only i n hi s p l an not ,

i n his c o mp osi ti on a n d if he cannot supp re s s the rebel

,

li on he Shoul d yiel d to the vic tors an d p ro du c e a new

,

p l a n F o cus the e xp re s sion of the gener al ide a is im

.
, ,

p ossi ble excep t u p on the b a si s o i deni te p l ann in g .

2 The b egin n ing T he be gi nni ng is one o f the m ost

.
.

imp ort ant parts of a c omp osi tion The l a st thin g one .

le arns i n maki ng a book s ays P a s cal i s wh a t to put r st

, ,
.

T he ol d er rhetoricia ns an d wri ters fa vore d Sp e cia lly

prepa re d begi nni ng s o f ten very re mote f rom the mai n
,

the m e M o d ern wri ters f ollow only one xe d rule :

.

to begi n p ro mp tly

.

3 Th
. e o r d e r o f to p i cs T he ord er o f topic s may be
.

d eter mi ne d by any o n e of a num ber o f p ri n cip les T he .

or d er o f tim e the or d er o f p osi ti on i n spac e the cli mac t ic

, ,
I8 A MANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

order o r the ord er of i n cre a sin g c omplica ti on may d omi

,

n a te T he o n e thi ng n ec ess a ry i s th a t no ne o f the s e

.

p rin ciples s ho uld tyr ann iz e over the wri t er Hi s bu s i .

ne s s i s to have an d to give a c le a r V i ew o f the whol e

an d o f the r el a tions o f the parts I t i s also d esi r a ble
.

th a t the ord er Should b e s u ch th a t e ach pa rt is exp l ai ne d

by wh a t h a s p re c e d e d Som etim e s however c le a rnes s
.
, , ,

o bt ai n a bl e i n thi s w ay m ust be s ac ric e d to se cure

,

s urp ri s e or emp h a s i s
. E ac h to pic e ach id e a s h o ul d be
, ,

plac e d where i t will c on tri bute the gre a test eff ec ti ve

n es s to the o th er s a n d to the who le I n gener a l e a ch id e a
.
,

Shoul d be use d only o nce but a wri t er s hould n ever

,

h es it a te to r ep e a t wh a t n ee d s rep eti ti on

.

4 R e latio ns an d proportion s o f topics

. The s urest
.

m e ans o f giving to topic s th ei r p rope r rel a t i on s a n d

p ro po rti o n s is the f o rma ti on o f a ca ref ul stru c tur a l
p lan of the whole c ompo s i ti on T hi s wi ll kee p h ead s a n d
.

subhe ad s in th ei r p rop er rel a tions and s e cure to them

a ttenti on p rop orti o n a te to thei r imp ort a n c e i n the p resen
tatio n o f the p ri n cipa l id e a Sp e cia l d evic es f or the
.

h an dli n g of dif cult p robl em s of rel a tion and p ro p ortion

i n different f orm s of di s c ourse may be foun d i n a ny goo d
tre a ti se on c omposi tio n

.

5
. M ove m en t Mo vem ent may b e d ef e c ti ve i n e i ther
of two w ays : the wri ter may d r ag the re ad er a lo ng s o
f a st th a t he has not time to s ee wh a t i s shown him or
to re ac t to the new id e as p re s ented ; or he may hi n d er

the re ad er s p rogress by p ointing out i n d et ai l wh a t w a s
alre ady familiar o r wh a t be cam e cle ar a t a Si ngle gl a n c e .
 E NGL ISH C O M PO SIT I ON 19

In gener al if the or d er of topic s an d subtopic s i s right

, ,

the m ovem ent o f the c omp osi ti on a s a whole wi ll be goo d ,

unless there a re unusu a lly gr ave d efe c ts o f e xp ressi on

6 The en d T he en d i s a s imp ortant a s the be gi n
.

. .

n in g Like the be gin nin g i t s houl d c om e p romp tly

.
, ,

but the abruptness p e rmi s s ible in a begi nnin g i s r a rely

toler able i n a n end The end may be o f any one of
.

many typ es O f ten i ts fun c ti on i s to summariz e an d e m

.

phasiz e the main the me T he o n e unpar d on able d ef e c t

.

i s to blur o r we aken what p re c e des .

V . E X PR E S S I ON
T o m ost p erson s who a re not i n som e w ay pro fes
sio n ally c on c erne d wi th wri tin g style m e a ns d e c or a tive
,

d et ai l T hi s is pa rtly be cause i n thei r o wn e xp eri en c e

.
, ,

the ma teria ls throu gh which thei r thought n d s e xp res

si on the subor di n a te id e a s which d evelop exp l ai n
, , ,

i llustr a te an d enf orc e the i r gener al id e a are brou ght

, ,

to thei r c ons ci ousness by auto ma tic suggesti on a rr ange d ,

by a uto ma tic p ro cesses o f logic a nd a sso cia ti on an d ,

there f ore seem no t in a ny sense forma l elem ents o f

,

style but m ere ma terials essential an d i nsepar a ble

, ,

parts o f the thought I n a sense thi s i s of c ourse true

.
, .

We d o very li ttle thi nkin g in abstr ac t fo rmul ae Our .

thou ghts are usu a lly no t b a re s keletons but c o mplete

, ,

bo di es o f bone a n d esh But just a s p hysi cal beauty

.

i s dep en d ent not upo n the ski n o nly but no less up on , , ,

the am ount a n d di stri buti on o f the esh an d up on ,

the siz e a s well a s the sh ap e of e ach bone so style i n ,

20 A M ANUAL F OR WRITE RS

li ter a ture is d ep en d ent up on every elem ent o f f or m f ro m ,

the general p l an o r organiz a ti on o f a c o mp o s i tion to the

choic e an d p l ac e o f the s mallest word E xp ressi on i s .

the p erf e cti n g o f thi nki n g A thou ght is not wholly .

born unti l it i s exp ress e d .

VI . DE TAI LS OF COM P OSIT I ON

P a s s i ng to the smaller f e a tures o f a c omp osi ti on ,

we may note th a t the go verni n g p ri n cipl e s a re i n the

main the s ame th a t app ly to the c omp os i ti on as a whole
an d to the larger f e a tures H ere to o the m ost imp ort ant .

ma tter i s arr angem ent organi z a ti on

The par agr aph
.
,

.I A ll l arge c o mp osi ti ons a re di

.
~

vided an d sub di vid ed acc or di n g to the i r len g th a n d

,

c omp lexi ty i nto books parts ch ap ters se c ti ons et c

, , , , ,
.
,

an d agai n s ub di vide d i nto pa r agr ap hs a n d s enten c e s .

N one of these divi si ons has a ny x e d o r st an da r d siz e

or leng th A ll are p l a stic an d may be m o di e d to sui t
.
,

the i nner stru c ture o f the whol e o fwhi c h e ac h is a pa rt .

T he l aws o f all these pa rts are f un dament ally the

s ame ; a nd sin c e they a re parts the l aws a re o f two ,

c l a sses those o f c onne c ti on a n d those o f inn er stru c ture

, .

Co nn ecti ons a re so m etim es mad e e xp li ci tly by m e a ns ,

of li nks i e wor d s p hr a ses senten c es pa r agr ap hs or

,
. .
, , , , ,

c h ap ters as the ca se may be But o f ten the rel a ti on

, .

of the id e a s the m selves i s cle ar enough w i thout e xpli ci t

exp ressi on if they f ollow in the right ord er an d when
, ,

thi s i s not the ca se i nteri or a rr ang e m ent o f ten wi ll

ma ke c onne c t ing li nks unne cess a ry T he best w ay to .
 ENGL IS H COM PO SI T I ON 2I

le arn how to c onne c t the sub di vi si on s of a c omp osi tion

is to stu dy care fully the m etho d s o f goo d wri ters notin g ,

where the c onne c ti on i s e xp lici t a n d by wh a t m e an s

i t is mad e an d where i t i s impli ci t i n the id e a s or i n the
a rr angem ent of d et ai ls .

There is no o n e rule f or c onstru c t in g pa r agr ap hs ,

a s there i s none f or c onstru c ting ch ap ters or senten c es .

E fforts to f orm ul a te a sin gle rule a re su cc ess ful only when

they exc lud e from c onsider a ti on a s b ad all examples th a t , ,

do n o t c onf orm to the rule T he p ri n cipa l qu ali ti es to

.

aim a t a re uni ty c oherenc e c le arness a nd e mph a si s

, , ,
.

Uni ty i s l a rgely de p en dent up on exc ludin g in app rop ria te

ide a s ; c oheren c e de p end s u p on a rr angeme nt an d sen
ten c e c onne c ti on ; cle a rness is a fun c ti on o f organ iz a
ti on c onne c ti on senten c e stru c ture gr amma r an d
, , , ,

vo ca bul a ry ; e mp h a si s i s usu ally a ma tter o f climax ,

but even wi thout c limac tic a rr angem ent the end o f the
, ,

pa r agr ap h i s f or p urely m e c ha nica l re a sons the m ost

, ,

emp h a tic p osi ti on .

2 The s ente n ce The essentials o f the senten c e

. .

a re g oo d c onne c ti on soun d or ga niz a ti on a n d c orre c t

, ,

gr amma r To the untr ai ne d wri ter senten c es a re h a r d

.
,

c ryst a lli z e d affai rs When on c e a thought has t aken

.

form i n word s i t seem s p r ac tica lly imp ossible to c h ange

,

i t T he exp eri enc e d wri ter knows th a t a senten c e i s as

.

e a sy to mani p ul a te a s a lu mp of p utty H e can ch ang e .

i ts Sh ap e twi st i t a bout di vid e i t joi n i t wi th another

, , , ,

d o wh a t he wi ll wi th i t F o r style f or eff e c ti ve.

,

ness ski l ful organ iz a ti on o f the senten c e i s even m ore

,
22 A MANUAL F O R WRI TE RS

imp ortant th an c orr ec t gr amma r T he intelli gent re ad er

.

can usu ally c orre c t fa ults of gramma r wi th li ttle eo rt;

b adly c onstru c ted senten c e s can be cure d only by
rewriti ng The genera l p r in cip les of s enten c e stru c ture
.

a re a s h a s been said the s am e as tho s e o f pa r agr ap h

, ,

s truc ture M a ny Sp e cial d evic es of i nterest a n d v a lue

.

a re di scusse d i n books o n c omp o s i ti on Stu dy esp e cia lly .

re ferenc e a nd c onnec ti on the p osi ti o n o f m o diers the

, ,

retenti on o f the subj ec t the us e o fpa r a llel struc ture a n d

,

phr a sin g a nd the r edu c ti on o f p redic a ti on

.
,

3 V
. o cabul ary Word s are the ultima te elem ents o f
.

sp ee ch So import ant i s ca re ful stu dy o f the m th a t style

.

h a s been d ened a s c on s i s ting o f the right wor d s i n the

right p l aces a nd thi s deni ti on is c o rre c t if t aken i n a ll
,

i ts imp lica ti ons .

T he w ay to ac qui re a vo cab ul a ry is to m eet new word s ,

ei ther i n books or i n s pee c h and le arn wh a t they m e a n

,

an d how they a re us ed M any o f us t ake no pai ns to

.

le arn ac cur a tely wh a t a new wor d m e a ns o r how i t i s

use d a nd c onsequ ently there a re l arg e nu mbers of wor d s
,

whi ch we kn ow by sight a s i t w ere but ca nnot use, , ,

be cause we h ave never re a lly kn own the m T o note .

new word s an d then stu dy their me aning s rela ti ons , ,

di stin c ti ons an d u s e s i n dic ti on a ri es tre a ti ses on

, ,

synonym s a nd anto nym s and o ther books o n us age , ,

i s imp er a tive .

The fun dam ental l a w o f l an gu age is us age M u ch .

ha s been wri tten about p rovi n ciali s m s colloquiali s m s , ,

sl ang neolo gi sm s
,
n e wri ti n g
, p oetic dic ti on a n d
, ,
 ENGL IS H C O MP O SI T ION 2 3,

the li ke Questi ons o f d et ail must o f c ou rse be t aken u p

.

i n d et ai l but m ost questi ons th a t a ri se wi ll be ren dere d

,

e a si er of solution if we re me mber the b a si s o f the l a w

o f us ag e L anguage i s a so cia l p ro du c t C orre c tne s s
. .

i n l a nguage i s not li ke keepi ng the m or a l l a w or the l a ws

of the state but li ke d ressing p rop erly or beh avi ng
,

p r o p erly Vi ol a ti ons o f us age i n l angu ag e a re li ke

.

vi ol a ti ons o f other so ci al us ag es ih the main o f f enses ,

agai nst c ustom an d g oo d t a ste T here a re d egrees .

,

of c ourse Som e li nguis tic errors a re an alogous to the

.

weari n g o f a ski rt by a man ; others to a ttendin g an

eveni n g pa rty w i thout a c o a t o r a c olla r ; others to
we ari ng a gau dy w ai stc o a t ; a n d s o on Word s a n d .

exp ressi ons tha t a re p er fec tly t f or one o cca si on or

purp ose a re in b ad ta s te f or oth er s

.

4 . R e ady mad e p hr a s e-
s T he hab i t which i njures
one s vo cabul a ry m ost i s the h ab i t of usi ng c ryst alliz e d

phr a ses T hou ght a n d the re a l p hr a sin g of thought

.

soon be c om e imp oss i ble Sl ang is not b ad in i tself ;

.

in dee d mu ch sl an g is f resh vigorous pic turesque a re a l

, , , ,

addi ti on to the resour ce s o f the l an gu age But the us er .

o f sl ang is a user o f re ady mad e phr a ses not a us e r -

o f li vin g wor d s an d he soon be c om es in capable o f

,

any i n d ep en d ent organi z a ti on o f hi s thou ght A d oz en .

c urrent p hr a ses sufc e f or a ll hi s re ac ti ons to the man i

fol d obje c ts a nd inuenc es o f life At rst the use o f the .

re ad y mad e phr a se re ac ts only up on the user s faculty o f
-

exp ressi on but soon his thoughts a nd e m oti ons be c om e

,

as v ague as ill den ed as f or m less as the e xp ress i ons he

,
-
, ,
24 A MANUAL F O R WRITE RS

has cultiva te d the h ab i t o f using Thi s result i s n o t

.

p e culia r to sl an g ; i t i s n o t a t all due to the un co n ven

tio nal c h a r ac ter o f Sl an g but r a ther to its c onventi ona l
,

use ; i t is just a s mu ch to be f e are d i n c onne c ti on wi th

the hab i tual use o f quotatio ns o r o f an y c o nventi on a l
j a r gon
5 R evis ion M u c h wri ti n g i s d one un der s u c h c on
.

. .

ditio n s tha t c orre c ti on o r r evis i on i s imp ossi ble

. A nyone
who h abi tu ally wri tes under these c ondi ti ons m ust le arn
to thi nk r apid ly an d cle arly an d must red u c e the or gan i
z atio n a n d exp ressi on o f his id e a s to auto ma tic p ro c ess es
.

Wri tin g o f very hi gh qu ali ty can be p ro du ced an d i s

daily p rodu c ed in thi s w ay The wri ter whos e am b i ti on
.

i s lim i ted to bei ng a li ter ary a rti s a n m ust tr ai n him sel f

to th ese r apid automa tic p ro c esses But even he wi ll
.

imp rove hi s p ro du c t a nd his p ower o f p ro du c ti on if , ,

when o cca si on p ermi ts he will p r ac tic e revi sion a n d

,

reorganiz ati on .

The wri ter who wi shes to be c o m e a n a rti st m ust

d evote m u ch o f his a ttenti on an d ener gy to reor ga niz a
ti on co rre c ti on a nd rewr i tin g I d e a s an d l an gu age a re
, ,
.

i nd ee d p l a stic and the ma ster ca n do wh a t he w ill w i th

them but even he m ust o f ten rewr i te a page ma ny tim es
, ,

an d the novic e cann ot le a rn the a rt w i tho ut givin g

hi s days an d nights to p roblem s o f rem od elin g a n d
re p hr a si ng .
 CHA PTER II

GRAMM AT I CAL N O TE S

A gr amma r o f a l an gu age is a systema tic acc ount o f

i ts stru c tur a l l aws a s est a bli she d by us age L ogic an d .

gr ammar a re c losely rel a te d an d lingui s tic us age ten d s

,

to be c om e logica l ; but the two s ci en c es di ffer funda

m ent ally L ogica l p ro c esses h ave no rela ti on to tim e ;
.

they never we a r n o r w a rp nor be c om e dis torte d ; they

, ,

be a r no ma rk o f pa st us e A l an gu age li k e a livin g
.
,

c re a ture be ars i ts whole hi story in its own bein g ; i t

,

is wh a t i t i s to day be cause o f wh a t i t did an d was y es

terday . U s age is the n al l aw o f l a ngu age a nd vi ol ati ons
,

of u s ag e though they may on o cca s i on be justia ble

, ,

a re li ngui stic errors Wh a t was on c e an error may b e

.

c om e us ag e ; i t then c e a ses to b e an error an d be c om es

.

c orre c t E xamp les o f thi s tr ans fo r ma ti on a re num er

.

o us : the rst d i n s o un ded w a s on c e a n e rr o r o f the s am e

sort as the rst (I i n dro wn ded; the I i n if I pleas e w a s

on ce a n error f or me L ogic an d a n a logy a re uns afe
.

guides i n gr amm ar ; they le ad one a right only where

they h ave a lre ady been i n c orp or a te d i n us age .

Gr amm a r c onsi sts o f a c ert ai n nu m ber o f genera l

f orm s and l aws o f very wid e va lidi ty an d a c ert ain
,

nu m ber of sp e cia l ca ses e xc ep tion a l form s a nd u s ages

, ,

an d idio m s a ll of the m re c or d s an d results o f cert ain

,

parts o f the lif e hi story o f the l an gu age Sca r c ely any

-
.

25
26 A M ANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

tre a ti se on E ngli s h gr amma r is ex hausti ve enough to gi ve

all the det ails c onc erni ng whi c h wri ter s o cca s i on ally w i sh
i nforma ti on Here a s we h a
. ve s pac e f or b ut a f ew
, ,

we Sh a ll p re sent only s u ch a s e xp erie n c e Shows to be i n

nee d o f s pecial emp h as i s .

I . NO U NS
I. A ttention sho ul d be given to i rre gul ar
M ur als
p lura ls an d to exc ep tion al uses o f s ingul a r a n d p lur a l
f orm s Li s t s w ill be f ound i n all gr amma rs
. .

2 .Poss es s ive s T he ten d en cy to tre a t a wor d

.

group a s a whole i s ca rried o ut p erfe c tly i n the p oss essive

ca se T he p ossessive en di n g is a tt ac he d to the l a s t
.

word of the group however l a rge the g rou p may b e :

,

the King o f E ngl an d s c rown Jo nes the h a tter s

,

Smi th an d Brown s sho p

house ,
C o mpa re the .

p lur al s o n s i n law wi th the p ossess ive s on in law s
- - - -
.

Sc hola rs now generally re co gn i z e th a t the p ossess ive o f

s o m ebo dy [ so m eone a nybo dy a nyone] e l s e

,
i s f orm e d ,

by a tt aching the p os s es s ive sign to the en d o f the

g r o up : som ebo dy e ls e s N ote th a t when se pa r a te
.

ownership is to be i ndica te d s epa r a te po s ses s ive fo rm s ,

mus t be u s e d : Smi th s an d B rown s hors e s .

The p ossessive f orm i s gener a lly u s e d only of p er

sons or animals but we s ay a day s work
, a night s
,

rest a yea r s vaca t ion

, .

3 C.o lle ctive noun s C olle c tive nouns a re g r am

matically Sin gula r s but may be tre a te d as p lur a ls if
,

i ndi vidu a l ra ther th an c olle c tive ac tion is to be e xp resse d :

 GR AMMAT I CAL NOTE S 27

T he c ommi ttee i s p re pari ng its re p ort but : T he ,

c ommi ttee wi ll not trouble their he ad s a bout your di s

app rova l I n no ca se is in c onsi stency o f tre a tm ent
.

a llow a ble T he c ommi ttee have g one to thei r roo m
'

a n d i s p repa ring i ts rep ort ; Samar ia f or their sins , ,

i s destroye d .

E xp ressi ons of qu anti ty a nd multip le s o f num bers ,

when formi ng a S in gle ide a a re tre a te d as S in gul a r : ,

T en doll a rs is a low p ric e ; T hi s f ty dolla rs i s

yours ; Three t im es three is ni ne

I t see m s best .

to c onstrue the sum o f two or m ore num bers in the s am e

w ay : T hree a n d four i s [or makes ] seven

.

N ouns p lural in form but S ingul a r in m ea ning a re

n o t c o lle c t i ves but are c onstrue d a s s in gul a r ; su ch a re :
,

news ,
a thletic s p hysic s ma thema tic s etc
, , ,
.

II . P R ONOU N S
I n the use o f p ronouns c onst ant care i s ne cess a ry to ,

p revent amb igui ty : H e told the c o ac hman th a t he
woul d k ill hi m if he w a s not ca reful O f ten a s here .

, ,

the only w ay to a vo id am bigu i ty i s to c h ang e in di re c t

di s c ourse into di re c t John Smi th the s o n of the
.
,

mayor who was k i lle d a t San Ju an was my best fri en d ;

, ,

thi s i s enti rely am biguous an d shoul d be reca st .

I t Shoul d not be use d ca relessly : I t was pi tiful to
he a r hi s c on fess ion ; I p romi se d tha t no use should be
mad e o f i t but he insi s te d up on i t th a t he m ust tell a ll
,

a bout i t In g ener a l i t i s da ngerous to all ow a ny noun

.

to c o m e between a p ronoun a nd i ts ante c e d ent .

28 A M AN UAL F O R WRITE RS

The use of the obje c ti ve af te r ni te for m s o f the

co pul a i s c omm on in sp ee ch but not a llow a ble i n a style

wi th a ny p retenti ons to ele gan ce : I t i s me [I ]

It is
him et c .

Who for who m i s c olloqu ial an d careless Who m f or .

who i n Who m do you thin k I am " an d

I did not
know who m he w a s i s due to an unenlightene d eff ort

a t c orre c tness O ne e xc ep tio n al u s e however may be

.
, ,

noted : the phra se than whom i s i n goo d use i nste ad o f

than who :

M r Jones than who m there i s no m ore
.
,

co mp etent judge et c ,
.

In li ke m anner John an d me went i s in c orre c t an d
,

a vulga ri sm whi le T hey went w i th John an d I
,
Keep ,

i t between you an d I whic h a re equ a lly c ommon an d
,

equ ally in c orre c t a re due to the eff ort to be c orre c t

,
.

Af ter let s a sup eruous i ts is o f ten i nserte d : L et s

us g o .

Som e spe cial difculti es wi th relati ve p ronouns may

be m enti one d The comm onest i s the use o f and who
.

o r and wh i ch when no rel a t ive h a s p re c e de d : He
intro du ce d m e to a very n e p layer f rom E ngl an d an d

who h ad won many m e da ls there ; H e picke d u p a
book lying on the w ind ow s ea t and which I h ad not

se en be fore . As an d c onne c t s only ele m ents o f the
s am e order su ch e xp ressi on s a re obvi ously i n co rre c t
, .

Another error consi sts in shif tin g f rom which to that or

f ro m that to whi ch; for the s ake o fc le a rness a n d elegan c e

the s am e form shoul d be used i n pa r a llel cl auses : A man
who m you can trust a n d that [who m] every bo dy likes .

 GRAMMAT I CAL N OTE S 29

Another c omm on error is d ue to c on fus i on o f ante

ce d ents : He i s one o f the best s chola rs th a t goes [go]

to our s chool .

T he exc essive use o f rel a ti ve cl a uses o f ten results i n

he aviness a nd slowness of m ove m ent T he rem e dy i s .

to substi tute word s or p hra ses for the cl auses wherever

th i s i s p oss i ble .

In d en i te p ronouns (a n d adj e c ti ves) gi ve li ttle

trouble exc ep t in the case of the di stri buti ves any
, , ,

every each
, . Sin c e these a re a ll sin gular p ronoun s tha t ,

refer to the m must be sin gula r : E very man must hear

his o wn burd ens ;

E veryone did a s he p le a se d .

III . ADJ E CTIV E S

T wo topic s requi re di s cussion :
I . T he artic le shoul d be rep e a te d wi th two or m ore
c onne c te d nouns or adje c ti ves when separ a te p er s ons or

thi ng s are m e ant : H e h ad a black an d whi te ti e

me ans th a t he had one ti e whi ch was black an d whi te ;

He h ad a black a nd a whi te t i e m e an s th a t he h ad
a black ti e an d a whi te one The s am e rule should be
.

observe d wi th the his her thi s an d other d em ons tr a

, , , ,

tives : The se c retary a n d tre a surer in di ca tes o n e

p erson ; The se c ret a ry a n d the tre a surer i ndica tes
two But where the two thi n gs a re c lo sely c onne c te d
.

o r where no c on f us i on can a ri se us ag e a llows the use o f

,

only o n e d e m onstra tive wor d : T he l aws o f the M e des

an d Persians ; H e love s his fa ther a nd m other ; H e
i nvi te d all the boys a nd girls .

 30 A MANUAL F OR WRITE RS

On the other h a nd when there is no p ossi b ili ty of

,

amb igui ty the a rt icl e is o f ten r ep e a te d for e mph a s i s :

,

He is a g entleman an d a s c ho l a r ; H e w as a c ruel
,

a tre acherous an d a relentle s s foe

.
,

2 .When speakin g o f two p ersons or thing s n o t the ,

sup erl a tive but the c ompa ra t ive Should b e us e d : Thi s
,

i s the better o f the two When any p erson o r th in g

.

is compa red wi th o th er s o f the s am e c l a ss o ther must be ,

use d to exclud e the p erson or thin g c ompa re d : H e i s
qu icker th an a ny o ther b o y on the te am .

Wi th s up erl atives the p ro p er wo rd to us e i s not any , ,

but all: I t is the l ar ge st ca na l o fan y [ a ll] in the worl d ;

I t i s the best fru i t o f any

IV . VE RB S
I . Agree ment A verb shoul d agree wi th i ts s ubje c t
i n num b er an d i n p erso n .

In E ngli sh two S i ngul a r subje c ts c onne c te d by ei ther

o r (or n ei ther n o r) t a ke the verb i n the

s ingul a r : E i th er he or she go es to town every day .

C omp oun d subj ec ts requ i re p lur a l verbs a s a rule ;

but i f the subje c t is a single id e a the verb may be ,

s i n gul ar : Bre ad an d mi lk is a ll She can eat
A .

p lur a l subje c t if rega rd e d as f ormi n g a sin gle qu anti ty

, ,

may be tre a te d a s si n gula r : T en mi les i s noth in g to

h im ; but : T en men are here

.

Phra ses joi ne d to the s ubje c t by with or as well as

d o not affe c t the num ber of the s ubje c t or the verb :

John wi th hi s two b rothers was there .

 GRAMMAT I CAL NOTE S .

3 1:

T he gre a test cause of l ack o f agreem ent of the verb

wi th i ts subje c t i s the o ccurren c e between the two o f a
lon g e xp ressi on cont ain in g o n e or m ore wor d s differ in g

i n nu m ber from the subje c t : The cause o f all hi s
troubles wi th the workm en are [i s] h i s c onst ant d e man d s
f or e x tr a wor
T wo or m ore subje c ts differi ng in p erson if c onne c te d,

by o r t ake the verb form requi re d by the subjec t ne a rest

,

the verb :
Do you or he know the p l ace "
She

o r I go to s ee h i m every day ; Do es he or I help you

m ost " But when su ch senten ces s oun d a wkw a rd

they s hould be re c onstru c te d : H e or I am a t hom e all

day whi le corre c t i s better a void e d
, ,
.

T he cop ul a ag rees wi th the subje c t even if the ,

p re dica te i s o f a different p erson o r nu mber : I am

he ; Yo u are he ;

The many comp l aints are the

cause o f hi s le aving ; T he cause o f hi s le aving i s

the many c omp l ai nts ; The three are one .

T he explet ive (or Sham) s ubjec t i t t akes i ts p re dica te

in the thi rd p ers o n sin gul a r : I t i s I I t is o ur f ri end s

who wrong us .

T he e xp letive there is not a Sh am subje c t an d d oes

not aff e c t the num ber o f the verb : T here are ten .

2 O mis s ion o f the s ub j ect In adverbia l c l auses

.

o f manner a n d d eg ree the Subje c t i s o f ten omi tte d :

Geor ge re ce i ve d these p resents gr aciously a s be cam e ,

hi s sup eri or m eri t ; I guessed an d as a lways h app ens

, ,

guesse d wrong ; AS may be imagin e d we were ,

f rightene d ; We set o ut as happy a s c ould be ; A s

'
32 A M ANUAL F OR WRI TE RS

sur e a s can be here he c om es ,

But the o mi ssi on o f
.

the s ubj ec t of an i n dep en dent c l au s e i s b ad E n gli s h :

Wen t to to wn ye s terday Saw an a erop lan e . .

3 .S h am o b j e ct In vulgar an d co lloqui a l E n g li sh
.

many verbs take a s ham obj ec t i t: Yo u wi ll ca t c h i t

ho t ;

I h a ve mad e i t up w ith him ; Yo u a re t akin g

i t e as y ;

He i s goin g i t p retty f a st ; He h ad rou ghe d

i t all his li f e T his locuti on alm o st a lway s has a

.

collo quia l ton e .

4 .T ense s It shoul d b e note d th a t the p r es ent

p erfe c t ten s e i s not a pa st but a p resent ten se I t .

makes a s t a te ment f ro m the p oint o f V i ew of the p re sent ,

though being a p erf e c t tense i t i s c on cerne d onl y wi th

, ,

ac tion th a t is co mplete d th a t i s th a t o ccurr ed i n the

, ,

pa st : I s aw hi m is a st a tem ent concernin g the pa s t ;

I have s een him is a s t a tement co n c erni ng the p r esent

.

and therefore mu s t n o t b e u s ed wi th a ny ter m in di

ca ting a p oint o f V i ew o f the pa st I have s een your .

f a ther yester day is not goo d E ngli sh I n ever s aw .

a better ca r is a gener a l denia l wi th r egar d to pa s t

ac ti o n ; I have n ever s een a better ca r covers the s am e

f ac ts but impli es the p re s ent as the b a se or p oint o f

,

ref eren c e

.

5 .C on ta m i n a te d tense f or ms C ar el ess Sp e ak ers

-
.

som etimes p ro du ce i ncorr ec t f or m s o f the verbs th a t a re

due to c ontami n a tion : I w i sh you had have gone ;

I would have let him go n e

'

6 S e quen ce o f ten s e s In g ener a l the u s ag e i n re

.

gar d to the tenses o f subordi n a te c l auses i s c lea r a n d well

 GRAMMAT I CAL NOTE S 33

un derstoo d But a gener a l truth is of ten wron gly put

.

i n the pa st tense i n a subor din a te c l ause dep en d ent

up on a verb i n the pa st tense : Ke a ts s aid tha t be auty
was [i s] truth

.

7 The s ub j un ctive
. T he subjun c ti ve is use d in
.
-

i n d ep en d ent c l auses :
a) I n the p resent tense to e xp ress a wi sh f or the ,

f uture : Go d help u s "

L ong li ve the ki ng "

b) I n the pa st tense to e xp ress an imp ossible wi sh

,

wi th re ga r d to the p re s ent : O h th a t he were here now "

c) I n the pa st
,

p erf e c t tense to e xp ress an imp ossi ble ,

wi sh wi th re gar d to the pa st : O h th a t I had been there "

,

In subordi n a te cl auses the subjunc tive i s li ttle used

,

i n current E ngli sh T he only f orm in regula r use i s the

.

pa st tense o f the verb be to e xp re ss a c on di ti on untrue

i n the p resent : If he were here I should not be af r aid ,
.

But i n p oetry an d eleva te d p ros e the subjun c tive i s use d ,

i n clau s es o f c ondi ti on c on cess ion or purp ose an d in

, , ,

temp or a l cl auses rel a tin g to the future : I f thi s be true ,

make the be s t o f i t ; T hough H e s lay m e yet w ill I

,

trust Him ;
Take hee d lest he n d you sleepin g ;

I wi ll depa rt ere he co me up on m e .

8 The impe rative It may be note d th a t a con di

. .

tion may som et imes be p resente d vi vid ly by the us e

of the imp er a tive : S tri p a kin g of hi s robes an d he ,

S pare the ro d an d s po i l
: 3
is but a ma n l ike ourselves .

the c h il d.

9
. T h e in n itiv e
T he
. in n i t ive has tensef orm s but ,

they exp ress not the tim e but the st age of the ac tion
, ,
.
 34 A MANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

F ai lure to r eco gni z e thi s is resp on s i b le f or o n e o f the

c omm onest error s in the u s e o f the inn i ti ve T he .

p res ent inn i tive m er ely indi ca tes th a t the ac ti o n

exp ressed is in co mp le te a t the tim e i n di ca te d by the
pri n cipa l verb ; the p erfe c t i nn i tive th a t i t i s c o mp lete
,

a t the tim e of the p ri n cipal verb : I am gl ad to s ee

you ; I am glad to have s een you ;

H e tol d him to


go ; He is reported to have gon e I t is e vid ent th a t
.

the p er f e c t i nn i ti ve cannot be us ed af ter verbs o f p ur

po s e o r anticipa tio n C onsequently a ll s u ch sent en ces

.

as the f o ll owin g a re i n c o rr ec t : I int en d ed to have


go n e ; I hop ed to have s een him ; I e xp e c te d to have
been ther e But wi th o ught the p erf ec t i nn i ti ve may
.

be u sed even though the ac t io n cannot b e con c e i ve d a s

,

c omplete d b ef ore the obliga tion b ecam e va lid : They
were a ske d to go an d they ought to have gon e .

Am bigu i ty of ten ari se s f rom the ca reless use of in n i

tives : He s aid th a t he wi shed to take his f ri en d wi th
him to vis i t the capi ta l an d to s tudy m ed cine Am b i
i

.

gui ty may som etime s be re m e di e d by the i nserti o n o f

exp lici t c onnec ti ves ; but o f ten the am b iguou s senten c e
must be recas t
P articiples P a rticip les Shoul d a lw ays be at
.

Io . .

tached to so m e noun o r p ronoun : Go in g ho m e I f oun d

a dim e ; T he leader havin g been killed the rebel s e d , .

A very c omm on erro r c ons i sts i n usin g a pa rticipia l

phra se wi th no a tt ach ment : Gettin g no rep ly i t was ,

c le a r th a t we had b een d e c eive d ; Op en ing the d oor ,

the ol d ch ai r c ould e a s i ly be seen .

 GRAMMAT I CAL NO TE S 35

Sin c e a participia l p hr a se is d evoid of rel a t ion a l

i n dica tions am b igui ty som etim e s ari s e s unless the rel a
,

ti on i s c le arly in di ca te d by an adverb :
While go ing

hom e I he a r d a f rightful no i se
,
.

II The ge run d T he gerun d or verb a l noun i n

. .
,

i ng o f ten c losely resem bles the p resent pa rt icip le

, .

M any p ersons a re c onf use d by thi s rese mbl an c e an d a re

a t a loss to know whether to s ay : I w a s af r aid o f hi s

d e c e ivin g m e or I w a s af raid o f hi m d e cei vin g m e
,

.

A f ter a p ronoun or a simp le noun us age favors the ,

f or m er But there a re inst an c es i n whi ch the p ossessive

.

f ollowe d by the gerun d woul d be awkw a r d an d i n these ,

ca ses care ful wri ters use the obje c ti ve f ollowe d by the

pa rticip le : There i s no su c h thin g as a l angu age

beco min g corrup t ; H e s aw the p r o p ri ety o f the style

bein g fas hio n ed to the ma teria l .

I t shoul d be note d th a t the noun in in g when p re -

c e d e d by the a rticle (d en ite or in d en i te) lo s es i ts

-

verb a l f un c tions a n d requi res a p rep osi ti on to s how i ts

rela t ion to a noun o r p ronoun followi ng i t : T he nding

of the c o mpa ss w a s the i r s a lv a ti on ; The clo s ing of the

door w a s the S ign al agree d up on .

12 . The copula T he verb be when i t m erely c on

.

n ects i ts subje c t w i th i ts p re di ca te c omp lem ent is ,

ca lle d the li n k verb or co pula Si n ce i t m erely c onne c ts

-
.
,

wi thout e xp ressi ng an ac ti on i ts p redica te comp lem ent

,

belon gs to the subje c t an d is in the nomin a t ive ca se .

So we s ay : I t is I I t i s they
,

A m erry old s o ul ,

w a s he . I f the p redica te comp lem ent i s a m o di er o f

36 A M ANUAL F O R WRI TE RS

the subje c t i t is usu a lly an adj ec ti ve a s H e was late
, , , ,

Be quick" But the co mp lement may be an ad verb

(or an adverb p hra se) o f p l ace : I wa s thereyesterday ,

He w a s in the wreck .

I3 Copul ative verb s Su ch verbs a s s eem appear

. .
, ,

loo k feel tas te s mell s ou nd beco me remain con tin ue

are of ten use d as link
, , , , , , ,

verb s ; but i n addi ti on to c onne c t

i ng the subje c t an d the p redi cate c omp le m ent they st a te
the n a ture o f the c onne c ti on T he wor d use d after su ch .

verbs to e xp ress the qu a li ty o f the subje c t i s not an

adverb but an adje c t ive : I t s eem s go od
,
I t app e a rs ,

i mp o ssi ble

H e look s ill
, H e f eels ill I t tastes , ,

s o ur , The ower s s m ell s weet The bell soun d s ,

hars h She re maine d s ad

I t be cam e dark
, Yo u , ,

She k ep t qui et

c ontinue d s ilen t ,
He turne d pale , ,

He went craz y Wi th s o m e of these verbs thi s con

.

struc ti on origin a te d by the omi ss i on of the co mp le

m entary inni ti ve to be ; w i th others by the omi s
,

si on o f a ree xi ve p ronoun as obje c t Som e re c ent .

wri ters h ave use d i n the s am e w ay many other verbs ,

simil a r i n m e anin g to these : The le aves tou che d co o l

,

et c ; but su ch us age is bol d an d Should be le f t to the

.

e xp eri en c e d wri ter .

O f c ourse these verbs may t ake an adverb to e xp ress

i
a m od ca ti on o f the ac t ion e xp resse d by the verb : H e

ill
f elt dden y
s u l ; I t be cam e gradually da rk ; She

remaine d long si lent .

I4 S hall an d
.

af rma ti ve senten c es ,

sh all in the rst p erson s ign ies e xp e c t an cy future ,

 GRAMMAT I C AL NOTE S 37

ac ti on ; i ts m e ani n g is reverse d in the se c on d an d thi r d

p ersons an d signi es determi n a tion on the pa rt o f the
,

sp e aker ; will in the rst p erson s ignies will in gness

, ,

o r d etermi n a ti on or p ro mi se ; i n the se con d an d th i r d

p ersons i t signi es m erely future ac ti on : I [o r we]

sh all go to town w i th h im ; He [o r you they] wi ll g o

,

to town w i th him (both these senten c es e xpress future

ac ti on) . I [or we] will go to town wi th him He ,

[o r you they] s hall go to town wi th him e xp res s

,

determina ti on or a p romi se on the part o f the sp e aker .

In i nterroga t ive senten ces will (or wo uld) i s used in ,

the rst p erson only in re p e a tin g a questi o n add resse d

to the sp e aker ; in the s e c on d p erson i t consults the wi sh
o f the p erson add resse d a nd i n the thi rd p erson i nqui re s
,

c onc erni ng the future ac ti on o f the p erson (s ) s p oken

of

Will I [o r we] go to town w i th you " i s imp o s s ible

excep t in rhetorica l rep eti tion o f a questi on addre s se d to

the Sp e aker ; Will you go to town wi th m e

cons ults
the wi sh o f the p erson or p ersons add resse d or a sks for
a p romi se ; Will they go to town wi th m e P i nqui res
'

c on c ernin g future ac ti on .

S hould an d wo uld f ollow the rules for s hall an d will:

I [or we] s hould travel if I h ad the m e ans He [or you ,

,

they] wo uld tr avel if he had the m e ans both exp ress

c onc lusi on m erely as a fac t I [o r we] wo uld tra vel
.
,

if I h ad the m e ans He [or you they] s ho uld tr avel

'

, ,

if I h ad the m e an s both exp ress a d e ci s i on or a tti tu d e

o f the s p e aker S hould must never be use d in the sense

.

o f to

: I w an t y o u s ho uld [to ] go to town ; i t may
,
38 A MANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

however be use d i n the sense o f ought to
,
M y wi f e :

s ho uld [ ought to ] a rr ive soon

.

T he u s e o f s hould a nd wo uld in in di r ec t di s c ourse i s

in gener al determine d by the fo rm use d i n the s p ee c h
reporte d ; but there are many s ubtle ti e s whic h ca n be
le a rned only by care ful a nd minute ob s erva tion .

V . ADV E RB S
1 . negatives
Do uble In Old an d M idd le E n g li s h
.

d oubling o r trebling a n ega ti ve m erely strengthene d i t ,

but the in uen ce of La tin an d the d omi n an ce o f logic

h ave cause d the reje c ti on of thi s idi om fro m En gli sh
wri ting I t is s till he ar d in the Sp ee ch o f c hi l dr en an d
.

of the une du ca te d who s ay wi th emp h a tic intenti on :

,

He n ever did no thing wron g to n o bo dy Double .

nega tives cancel e ach other in su ch p hr a ses as n o t impas

s ible n o t un li kely et c C areless .

wri ter s s ti ll u se e xpr ess i ons in which a n e xp r e sse d ne ga

t ive c oni c ts wi th another exp resse d or im p lie d : T he ,

woman does n t l ive who is n o t afr aid to be a lone i n the
o p en n o t even o n the brightest day

Adverb s re s e mblin g a dj ectives M a ny adverbs

, .

2 . .

h ave the s am e for m a s the corresp on di ng adje c ti ves .

Som e o f thes e had i n e arli er E ngli s h the adverb ia l

en ding e which h a s s in c e been dropp e d ; su c h a re :
,

fas t low lo ud lo ng an d many other s So m e origina te d

, , , , .

by ana l o gy wi th these some i n other w ays H e f ou ght

, .

hard Go s lo w

, He w a lke d fas t
, L ove m e lo n g ,

,

H e t alke d lo ud I bought i t cheap are goo d E n gli sh
,

.
 GR AMMAT I CAL NO TE S 39

Se curi ty i n the use o f these

a t ad verbs can be
a tt aine d only by careful observa ti on o f idio ma tic sp ee c h
an d wri tin g .

3
. R e d u n d an t par ti cles Wi th some verbs up is
use d a s an adverb (or a separ a ble partic le) to e xp ress

c omp leteness of the ac ti on a sserte d by the verb : H e

shot up the town The strikers ti e d up the r ai lw ay
, ,

H e cleane d up the gan g H e intend s to rest up
,

be fore be ginnin g hi s duti es All the s e e xp ressi ons a s
.
,

wi ll be note d a re c olloqu ia l if not vul ga r In others

, ,
.
,

mad e on the s am e m o del up se em s to add nothin g to ,

the m e anin g o f the verb : a s cen d up ; bree d up ;

mix up ; freshen up ; Op en up .

O ther adverbs or pa rtic les a re use d in the s am e w a y :

, ,

follow after ;
conne c t [o r jo in] together ; so f ten ,

do wn ;
e xamine in to ; acc ep t a But eup hony
o r rhyth m so m etim es just ies su c h f orm s .

4 . Like
. In su ch senten ces a s
-
She sin g s li ke a
b ir d,

Wh a t i s the use o f ta lk in g li ke tha t " H e

w alks like him like i s an adverb wi th p rep osi ti on a l

,

f or c e Ca reless wri ters an d s pe akers use like as a

.

c onjun c tion wi th the f or ce o f as : Dre adin g thi s day

li ke I use d to dre ad Sun day ; Do i t li ke I d o
T hi s .

us ag e i s very slovenly .

VI . P RE PO SITION S
The p re pos i tions most o f ten c onfuse d in use a re at
an d to by an d wi th i n an d i n to
,
C are ful stu dy shoul d
,
.

be given to thes e an d to the sta nda r d form s o f su ch

40 A M ANUAL FO R WRI TE RS
N
phra ses as wi th rega rd to wi th a vi ew to c ompa re ,
n
,

to,

compare with agree to agree wi th
,

di ff er ,

,

fro m
diff er wi th
,

different fro m (not to or than )
,

,

di s appo inted by di s app ointe d in
,

T he corre ct a n d .

idioma tic u s e o f p rep osi ti on s i s very h a rd to l ea rn ;

but there a re f ew subj ec ts wh ich wi ll better repay the
Ca reful stu dent o f l angu ag e .

V II . C ONJU NC TI ON S
I . A ttenti on Shoul d be given the di st in c ti on to
b etween and an d but an d to th a t between and an d o r ,
.

C areles s n es s may c au s e inel egan c e or even o b s cur i ty :

I did not s ee Thomas and [or] Jo hn He s ees the ,

right an d [but] d oes the wro ng .

2 Ei ther
. or n ei ther no r a re c orrela
,

tive conjun c ti on s C are s hould be t ak en th a t e ac h

.

m em ber o f the pai r use d be p l ac e d i n the s am e rel a ti ve

p os i tio nth a t is b efo re the s am e pa rt o f s p e ech T he
,
.

f ollowi ng is wrong : I c ould n ei ther s ee him n o r his

f a ther Never u se either
. n o r or n ei ther

o r as c orr e l a t i ves .

T he rule ju s t given for the p o s i ti on o f ei ther

o r n ei ther
, n o r hold s g oo d f or all o ther c orrel a t ives ;

th a t is S in ce they are correl a tive i n f orm they s ho ul d

, ,

be correl a tive in p o s i tion als o So we may s ay : It .

belong s bo th to you an d to m e or I t belong s to bo th ,

you and m e but n o t I t belon gs bo th to you an d m e ;
,

fo r i n the l as t e xamp le the p osi ti on o f the two m em bers

o f the correla tive pai r i s not simi l a r I n li ke ma nner .
,
 GRAMMAT I C AL N OT E S 41

H e n o t o nly gave m e a ticket but als o lent m e ve

d olla rs i s corre c t whi le N at o nly he ga ve m e a ticket
,

but als o lent m e ve d ollars i s in c orre c t

.

E ven wri ters who a re ca reful about correlati ve word s

som etim es vi ol a te the p ri ncip le o f c orrelative arr a nge

m ent in the ca se o f he adi ng s o r sub divi si ons : Henc e
our di s cussi on fa lls un d er two he ad s : (a) T he rel a ti on
o f the envi ronm ent to inventi on ; (b) to the sele c tion

or so cia li z a ti on o f i nventi ons Thi s obviously should
.

be : Henc e our di s cussion fa lls un d er two he ad s : The
rel a ti on of envi ronm ent (a) to inventi on ; (b) to the sele c

ti on or so cializ a ti on o f inventions .

3 One o f the c ommonest causes o f a loose a nd

.

sh am blin g style is the exc essive use o f c omp oun d sen

ten ces . The re m e dy i s to re constru c t su ch senten c es .

Thi s may be d one by omi tting c onjunc ti ons by ch angin g ,

one o f the clauses into a p hr a se or by subordin a tin g

,

one o f the c l auses A li ttle pr ac tic e in su ch ch anges

.

wi ll gre a tly in cre a se the wri ter s sk i ll an d p ower o f

c ontrol .

M I SCE LLAN E OU S NO TE S
I. In verte dr de r The usu a l or der of the de cl ar a
o .

tive sentenc e is o f ten le gi tima tely i nverte d f or emph a si s

or f or rhyth mica l re a sons An abuse o f thi s p r ac tic e is
.

c urrent no w wi th c ertai n magaz ine wri ters who, p erhap s ,

in uen c e d by lega l form s h ave mad e a manneri sm o f

,

su ch exp ressions a s C om es John an d s ays ; C am e

a day when he was no longer a ble to w a lk .
42 A
'

M ANUAL FO R WRI TE RS

2. The in dir ect ques ti o n in dire c t questi on i s .

A n

not rhetorica lly a questi on an d co nse quently Shoul d not ,

be f ollowe d by a question ma rk I a s ke d whe ther .

he could go wi th me " i s i n c orre c tly p unc tu a te d

should ha ve a p eri o d i nste ad o f a n i nterro ga ti on p oint) .

3 .T h e po s it i on o f m o diers M o diers whether .

,

s ingle wor d s or phr a ses or c l aus es requ ire a ttenti on

, , ,
.

I n s p ee ch we a re o f ten ca reless a s to the p osi ti on o fthe m ;

i n wri tin g careles sne s s on thi s p oint of ten gi ves ri s e to
,

amb iguous or absurd exp ressio ns :

I o n ly s aw him .

Wh a t does this me an " M oss grows o n the roof als o ;

Wante d a c omf ortable r o om for two b achelors wi th

,

s team heat ;

O ne o f the la r gest cave s i n I ndia na ,

whi ch has o nly been di s co vered recen tly i s i n Posey ,

C ounty . In gener al m o diers should be ke p t c lose to
,

the wor d or phr a se o r cl ause which they m o dify If

, ,
.

giving a m odier su ch a p osi tion results in awkw ar dness ,

the s enten ce Sho ul d be re co nstru c te d .

A n appa rent e xc ep ti on to the gener a l rule tha t a

m o dier sho uld b e p l ac e d a s close a s p ossi ble to the wor d
i t m o dies is fo und in c onne c ti on w i th the in n i ti ve .

Goo d wri ters avo id p laci n g a ny word between the to

a nd the verb to whic h i t belong s a n d p uri sts a re vi olent ,

i n th ei r o pp osi ti on to thi s s o calle d s pli t or c le f t in ni-

, ,

tive There are however few wri ter s who h ave not
.
, , ,

a t s o m e tim e ei ther c arelessly or p ur p osely been gu i lty

, ,

o f thi s inelega nc e ; a nd p erh ap s the m ost tha t can be

s aid about i t i s th a t sinc e i t is seld o m ne c ess a ry o r
,

justiable i t should be avoid e d if p ossi ble :
, It is
 GR AMM AT I C AL NOTE S 43

diiult to j udge [rightly to ju dge] suc h a man ;

rightly

He tri e d to bo dily as s ault m e [ to a ss ault m e bo di ly]

I t i s easi er to rst i mperfectly co nceive a n id ea [r st
to c on c eive a n id e a
4 P a
.ra lle li s m Pa r alleli s m o f p hr a sin g i s a gre a t
.

aid to c le arness an d to emph a si s Simi l ar ide a s shoul d

, .

be e xp resse d i n Simil a r l a nguage a nd in S imi la r co nstrue

tions if i t i s d esire d to brin g out their rel a ti on But .

e xcessive par alleli s m bec om es we a r isom e esp ecially if ,

emph a tic as in anti thetical e xp ressi ons

.
,

5 R e
.
p e titi o n Do not hes i t a te to rep e a t any wor d
.

or phr ase if the rep eti ti on i s ne cess ary to secure cle arness
or e mpha si s Re p eti ti on is n o t un p leasant if i t seem s
.

d esigne d O nly when i t seem s to be the result o f negli

.

gen ce d oes i t e c ho unp le a s antly

6 Ellips is
.

. A wor d or a p hr a se th a t can be supp lie d

.

f rom the c ontex t i s of ten omi tte d (s ee c hap v sec .

,
.

O f ten thi s results i n c on ci se ness an d vig or ; but when the

omi ssi on is due to ca relessness confus ion or ambigui ty i s
,

the frequent result : M an never i s but a lw ays [i s] to

be blest ;
R ich m on d is ne arer New York th a n

Chicago ; He li kes m e better th an you ; I am ol d ;

they young , .

I n ordi n ary sp ee c h many wor d s a re tr ansf or m e d or

o mi tte d as a result o f r apid a rticul a ti on Som etim es .

we sp e ak s o r apidly th a t unstres se d sylla bles or s ma ll

word s a re p ronoun c e d only m ent ally not p hys ically ,
.

Thi s inner a rticul a ti on gives ri se to su ch f orm s a s M o m

ing f or Goo d m orn in g
,

He worke d a ll m orning
.

44 A M AN UAL FO R WRI TE RS

may be due to thi s or to the an a logy o f

a ll day ,

a ll night Su ch c olloqui ali sm s a re admi ssible i n

.

wri ti ng only when c onvers a ti on i s re p e a te d or a c onver

s atio n al tone i s aim e d a t .

The objec ti onable vu lgari sm s a ri si ng fro m the omi s

si on of to be fore place or places may h a ve a ri sen from

careless a rticula tion : L et s go s o me place [som ewhere]

She won t go an y place [a nywhere] wi th him ;


He
a lways wa nts m e to go [to ] p l ac es wi th him .

PIT FALL S IN DI C T I ON

Und er thi s he ad h ave bee n c olle c te d som e of the

m ost c ommon i nst an ces of the mi suse of wor d s an d
phra ses The li st is by no m e ans exh au s ti ve ; a n d i n
.

gener al an effort h a s b een mad e to exc lu d e f ro m i t

examp le s of faulty dic tion which illustr a te the p rin cip les
of gr ammar di s cusse d i n the f orego in g Gr amma ti cal

Notes .

A ca re ful stu dy o f the N ote s is reco m

m en de d in c onne c ti on wi th the f ollowin g li st .

Ab breviate is so metimes us ed fo r abridge . A bo o k or a lecture

is abridged when it is given in co n d en s ed fo rm ; it is abbrevi ated
when s ho rten ed in an y way .

Dictio n is di scuss ed in gen eral an d in d e tail in every textb o o k o f

En glish co mpo sitio n Lo n g an d valuab le l is ts o f faul ts in dictio n are
.

g e
iv n in th e S nd rd
ta a D ic i on ary ; G en un g s Outli n es ofRhetori c;
t

Al fred
Ay res The Verbalis t; Fitz edward Halls R ecen t E xemplicatio ns of

F als e P hi lo lo gy an d M o dern E n gli s h; Ho dg s o n s E rro rs in the Us e of

E ng is h; Lo n g
l S lips f Ton g ue and llectio n and dis

s o P en . The bes t co

cuss io n o fvul g ar an d co llo q uial E n g lishis in Sto rm s En glis che P hilo lo i e

g .

V ery valuab le are J espe rsen s Gro wth and S tructure of the En glis h Lan

g
gua e, and G reen o ugh and Kittredge s Words an d Their Ways .
 GRAMMAT I CAL NOTE S 45

Ab ove s ho uld no t be used as an adj ective, as : Rules s tated in
me

the above sectio n . Sub s titute preceding, foregoing, o r so

si milar adjective .

Ad apt s ho uld b e dis tinguis hed fro m dramatiz e . A no vel is

dramatiz ed; a play is adapted when it is changed to s uit
.

changed co n di tio ns .

Adm in i s t r is wro ngly us ed in the s entence

e

He ad minis tered a
fatal blo w applied in He a d minis tered

. It is co rrectly

a do s e o fmedicine ; the laws ; an o ath; the go vernmen t

.

A dmi t s ho uld b e dis tinguis hed fro m co nfess : She admitted the

She confess ed her s ins

accusatio n ;

.

Advent means an epo ch making arrival -

. We speak o fthe ad vent
o f Chris t, but o f the arri val o f a train .

A ect is to b e dis tinguis hed fro m the verb ej ect . To a

j ect is

to in uence ; to ej ect is to cause o r bring abo ut . A minis ter

ej ects the co n versio n o f a s inn er ; he aj ects the feelings o f his

audien ce .

Aggravate Sho uld no t be us ed in the sense o f to pro vo ke o r to

It pro perly expresses a heightening o r in tens ify ing :

an n o y .

His o f
fense was aggravated by h s inso len ce ;
i His guilt
was aggravated by his fals ehoo d

.

Alike s ho uld no t be rein fo rc ed by both: They are [bo th]

alike in this res pect T he abs urdity is easily seen in the s to ck
.

Sam and Jim are bo th very much alike, es pecially

example :

Sam

.

All, in co nnectio n with right, is a separate wo rd : all right, never

alright All an d un ivers ally S ho uld never be us ed to gether :
.

r
The p actice is esr o rted t o u n i vers ally [ y
b all] T he prae
tice is reso rted to [univers ally ] by at Avo id the redundan t

use o fof: He received all [o f] the vo tes
.

Allege is a co mmo n erro r fo r s ay : The legis lato rs , it is alleged
[s aid] , will adjo urn is b ad ; the wo rd means to d eclare

,

to a
"

i rm to ass ert with the idea o f po sitiveness an d it

, , ,

is applicable to an
no t o rdinary s tate men t o ffact no t n eeding
emphas is .
46 A M ANUAL FO R WR ITE R S

Allo w m eans perm it n ever think o r admit

.
,

Allud e to do es no t m ean men tio n

A perso n o r t hing .

alluded

to

is f
re erred to , n o t by name , b ut in directly : In s p eaking
b es t frien d , he allud ed to his b ro ther

o fhis .

Alo n e p
ex resses mpanied an d sho uld be dis
the s en se o f un acco ,

tin guis hed fro m on ly whichmeans n o o t her ,
I fo und Henry
alo n e d is turb ed by the news It can b e do n e by him alo n e ;

Virtue alon e is happ iness b elo w All these are ambiguo us

.
.

Altern ative indicates a p o ss ibility o f two co urs es S everal .

altern atives are o p en to me is therefo re b ad

.

Alto gether mus t be d ieren tiated fro m all together See A ll . .

Amo n g is e n e used with o n e an other: T hey divided his

mo n ey amo ng o ne an other [ amo n g

An d is frequen tly misused in a variety o f way s o f w hich the fo l ,

w
lo in g a e r e xa mp les : T r y a nd t ake s o m e ex e rci s e ; He

o wn ed a vio lin m ade by S tradivarius an d w hich was fo rmerly ,

the p ro perty o f his gran dfather ; I have received y o ur

rem ittan ce and f o r w hich I b eg to thank y o u

,
See Try . .

An o ther sho uld no t b e fo llo wed by fro m b ut by than :

M en o f ,

an o ther temp er from [ than] the Greek s See Di

" '

eren t . .

An s w er is that whichis given to a ques tio n ; reply to an ass ertio n : ,

He an swered the q ues tio n ; he repli ed to the argum en t .

An ticipate s ho uld no t b e us ed in the sen s e o f exp ect

It .

m ean s fo res tall

fo retaste
,

to an ti ci pate his death
'

is faulty ; to an ti ci pate o ne s in co m e in the sen s e o f in

,

currin g o bligatio ns in advance o f its receip t is co rrect , .

Anxi o us mean s fee g anx ety ; it d o es n o t m ean des iro us

i i
l n .

I am an xious abo ut her health is co rrect ; I am an xio us

[desiro us ] to o b tain a p o sitio n is b ad

.

Any is s o metim es ambiguo us A n y o f them may b e either
.

sing u lar o r p lu ra l S o a ls o :. It is n o t in ten d ed fo r an y

m achin e m ay m ea
,

n T here is n o machine fo r which it is

It is n o t in ten d ed fo r every m achin e b ut o n ly

in ten ded or , ,

fo r a s pecial ty p e

.
 G RAMM AT I CAL NOTE S 47

An y place See p 44 . . .

An yway , anyhow, as co n j unctive adverb s , are co llo q uial :

An y
way [o r -
how] [ N evertheles s ,
or.
At any rate ] I shall do as I
please .

Apparen t is generally used witho ut any implicatio n o f the

no w

truth o f the m atter s tated He did it with apparent will .

is to b e dis tinguis hed fro m

He did it with evident

ingn ess
willingne s s .

Appear is physical, external, in its meaning, and sho uld be dis

tinguis hed fro m s eem, which expresses a men tal exp erience :

The fo res t appears to be impenetrable ; This do es no t

seem to m e to b e rig t

h .

Apt sho uld n ever b e used in place o f li kely o r liable . It means

capable o r skilled

He is an apt pupil
is co rrect ;

He is apt to arrive so o n is in co rrect . I t also mean s havin g

a n atural ten dency ,

as : T he child is apt to learn

; Iro n is
"
apt to r us t . See Liable .

As to is red un dant in As to ho w far he can b e trus ted is aq ues

tio n fo r y o u to d e cide .

At is red un dant in

Where is he at T he ex re p ssio n is a
vulgaris m . See To .

At b es t, A t preferable to At the bes t At the

rs t, A t las t are ,

rst A t the las t b ecaus e they are well es tabli shed idio ms
, ,
-
.

They aro se fro m fo rms in which the denite article co alesced

with the p repos itio n ving atte which when nal unaccented
'

, , ,

e becam e silent gave a t , .

At length is by s o m e writers res tricted to the m eani ng fully

,

in detail ; b ut there is go o d autho rity fo r us ing it to m ean

after a lo n g tim e

.

Audi en ce is o f ten impro perly used fo r s pectators An audien ce .

lis ten s ; s pectators lo o k o n o r w itn ess .

Aught (any thing) is frequen tly co nfused w ith naught (no ught) :

Six times aught [naught] is aught On e hundred
is written with a o n e an d two aughts [naughts
48 A M AN UAL FO R WR I TE R S

Aven ge mean s to
ss the wro ngs do n e to o thers ; revenge the
redre ,

wro ng do ne to o urselves ; avenge usually implies j us t retri

b utio n ; revenge may b e us ed o f m alicio us retaliatio n .

Avo catio n is no t the s am e as vo cati on A m an s vacati on is his call

.

princip al o ccupatio n ; his avocation is a seco ndary o cen

ing, his
patio u which ho wever may in teres t him mo re than his vocati on
, ,
.

Awful s ho uld be u sed o nly to mean awe in s pirin g : I am
-

awful[ly] s o rry is a vulgar co llo q uialis m

"
.

Balan ce do es no t m ean rem ain der o r res t H ence the

.

balan ce o fthe cro p is a mis use o fthe w o rd .

is slang, an d sho uld s sen s e o f

B an k on no t be u ed in the rely o n .

B eg is o ften s
u ed in the sen se o f b eg leave .

T he co rrect fo rm
of I beg

to s ay is

I beg leave to s ay
.

B etween applies o nly to two p erso n s o r thin gs :

B etw een y o u
is un grammatical

three .

Big is s
u ed co llo q uially fo r large o r great, but s o m etimes it can n o t

be placed by either o f thes e wo rd s : A big man may m ean

re

a man w itho u t p etty q u alities o f heart o r o f m ind .

Blame o n as a verb is a vulgaris m : Do n t blame i t o n me

, ,

mea s D o t accus e e o f t o r D o n t putthe blame o n me
n n m i

,

.

B o th .See A li ke an d p 40 sec 2 .
, . .

B o un d in the s en s e o f determined is an Americanis m : He is

, ,

bo und [determ in ed ] to d o it

; .

Brainy is a co llo quial Americani s m .

Bri g m ea s to tran s fer to ward the s peaker an d m us t b e

n n
,

dieren tiated fro m fetch which m ean s to go to an d b rin g,
.

b ack an d fro m carry w hichimplies a tran s fer o pp o s ite to that

, ,

express ed by b ring an d fetch
F etch go an d b rin g]

me a glass o f water ; B ri n g a b o o k ho m e fro m the s to re ;

Carry t s b as et to hi
h i m
k .

But used in co n nectio n with that is red un d an t, unle ss in ten ded

to ex ppo site o f what the m ean ing wo uld b e w itho ut
press the o

it : in I have n o do ub t but that he w ill die but s ho uld no t

,

be used ; n I have no fear but that he w ill co m e
i the mean ,

 G R AM M AT I CAL N OTE S 49

in g in ten ded is I am s ure he will co me and here the us e o f
,

but is co rrect . T he co llo quialis m but what freq uen tly o ccurs

fo r but that: I
b elieve but what he is guilty generally
cann o t

mean s I canno t but b elieve that he is guilty

; an d I cann o t

but b elieve mean s I mus t believe

.

Calculate d is o ften wro n gly used in the s ens e o f likely : His

inn o cen t actio n is calculated to cause great in j ury

. The w o rd .

m ean s in tended o r planned fo r the purp o se .

Can has the meaning o f ability

po wer and s ho uld no t be ,

,

co n fused w ith may which implies perm issio n : Yo u may

,

s kate if y o u can .

Carry . See Bring .

C ertain is o f ten u ed s
a way that it may m ean either
in s u ch

s ure o r s o me : They bro ught him certain in fo rmatio n .

C aply , fo r cheap, s o un d s affected
he He s o ld it cheap is co rrect

. .

Cheap is an adverb as w ell as an adj ective .

Claim, in the sense assert,

maintain

of

,
or say, is no t

s anctio ned by go o d usage : He clai ms that a bushel o f wheat
w e g s s ixty o und s sho uld be
p
He ass erts

i h etc .

Clever m eans
b rillian t,

acco mplished ,

skilful ,

b ut no t

kin d ,

go o d n atured
-
.

That is very clever o fy o u m eans

That sho ws y o u to b e very s kilful .

C o me is frequen tly us ed when go s ho uld be emplo y ed ; come

.

d en o tes m o tio n to ward ; go m o tio n fro m : They go fro m us

,

to their ho me ; they me fro m their ho m e to us

co .

C o mmo n is a common frien d is a

co n fused with mutual ;

o ften
f riend who m two o r m o re p erso n s have in co mmo n ; a mutual
frien dship is the friendship o f two perso n s fo r each o ther

.

C o mmo nly . See F requently .

Co mpare to

m eans
lik en to

; co mpare wi th mean s meas ure by
or

po in t o ut similarities and differen ces .

C o mpelled . See Bound .

Co n dign mean s s uitable ,

deserved ,

no t nece ssarily s evere

;
fo rm erly it was s
u ed o f re wards as well as o f p unishm en ts .
50 A M AN UAL FOR WR I TE R S

Co n d o n e do es mean m ake amen d s

no t fo r,

b ut fo rgive
wo rd o r act Jo hn co nd on ed the o ffen s e he had

or n ulli fy by .

mmitted again s t J am es Her husb an d

co is in co rrect . con

don ed her fault is co rrect .

Co n s cio us s ho uld no t be u ed s fo r aware o r s ens ible . We can

be co n s ci o us o n ly of the facts o f o ur o wn inn er lif e ; we

are s ens ible o f extern al facts which affect o ur feelin gs ; we
are aware w hatever extern al facts o r general truths are
of

kno wn to us

I was co ns cio us o f his treachery is in co rrect
.

.

Co n s ider in the s e s e o f rega d s lo o k up o n as sho uld
"
, n r a , ,

us ually n o t b e fo llo wed by as : I co n s id er him abrillian t man

.

C o n temptible is used o f an o b j ect o f co n temp t; co n temptuo us o f ,

w hat is directed at s uch an o b j ect : He is a contempti ble

fello w ; I gave him a contemptuous lo o k ; He acted
'

conte mpti bly an d was treated co nte mptuo us ly by all .

C o n tinually . See F requen tly .

C o n tinuo us mus t b e dis tinguished fro m con tin ual; the fo rm er

implies s o methin g un in terrup ted , un cea in g ; s the latter, s o me
with in terrup tio n s :
thing f requen tly recurrin g, b ut The
rain was co n tinuo us fo r seven ho urs

;

T he s uccessio n of

sho wers was con ti n ual thro ugho ut the mo n th .

C o n ven e is o f ten w ro ngly u s ed fo r co n vo ke:

He con ven ed [ co n
vo ked ] asse mbly m ean s me

the Co n ven e

. co to gether,

b rin g to gether : The co mm ittee co nven ed

no t .

Crime is lo o s ely us ed fo r an o f
fen s e again s t the s p eakers s en se
o f right ; it pro perly m ean s o nly an f
o f en e s again s t law ; the
mo s t cruel o r dis ho n es t actio n is no cri me if there is no law
again s t it .

D angero us fo r dangero usly ill is a pro vin cialis m

, , .

Data is plural : This data is as b ad as this facts
.

D ecid ed mus t no t b e co n fused with decis ive; the fo rmer has mo re

than o e shad e o f m eani n g e g s tro n g o fsettled

rm

n ,
. .
, , ,

co n vic tio n
'
He is a man o f decid ed co nvictio n s
; the latter

m ean s deciding o r determ inin g an even t

:

T he en e my wo n
 GR AM M ATI CAL N OTE S 5I

a decis ive victo ry

o ne which decided the o utco me o f the
war] ; the victo ry might have b een a decided victo ry , that is ,
clearly an d s
unm i takably a victo ry , an d y et no t have been
decis i ve .

D ecimate mean s s pecically to

tak e a ay ,w or kill, or des tro y ,

o ne ten th
-
.

D enitive s ho uld b e distinguished fro m den ite; the latter

mean s having certain limits the fo rmer mean s es tablishing ,

lim ts p tti g a e d t He gave a den ite

certai i

n o r u n n n o :

reply b ut it was b y n o m ean s den itive

. .

D emean is related to demean or an d m ean s behave as demean o r

,

m ean s b ehavio r ; it do es n o t mean to lo wer o r degrade

,

.

It is no t likely that the s ugges tio n of bemean as a s ub s titute

will ever generally b e ado p ted .

D eprecate which pro perly m ean s [ try to ] avert by pray er

,

,

is s till used by careless w riters in the s en s e o f d is app ro ve
'

I deprecate [disappro ve] the actio n o f the co mmittee .

D e s iro us See Anxi o us

. .

D etermi n e d See B o und . .

Di er .

I differ with y o u is co rrect in the s en s e o f disagree ;

b ut o b j ectively :
,

This ho us e differs from the o ther An d .

in like m an n er the p hrase I d isagree [differ] wi th y o u is to

be p ref erre d to

I dis agree [d iffer] fro m y o u .

Di eren t s ho uld b e fo llo wed by fro m never by than o r to ,

.

Directly mean s ins tan tly s o metim es with a s uggestio n o f the

,

immed iate f uture : I am co m ing directly It s ho uld n o t

.

b e used in the s en s e o f as s o o n as

or w hen : Directly ,

[as s o o n

as ] the train arrived , he alighted .

D is agre e See Dier

.
'

Dis tin guis h mus t no t b e co nfused with dieren tiate; dis tin '

guis h m ean s to perceive differen ces b etween thin gs o r p erso n s ;

di m s m ake o r co n stitute a di eren ce

eren ti ate ean to .

Due sho uld no t be u eds fo r o win g to , becaus e f
o : Due to
[o w ing to because

,
of ] his b ehavio r, he was o s traciz ed .
52 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITE R S

E ach is dis tribu tive an d therefo re is sin gular, no tplural : Each
o f us have [ has ] o ur [ his ] o wn d uties to perfo rm
. E very ,
alsois alway s s ingular
, .

E ach o ther is co mmo nly dis tinguished fro m on e ano ther; the
fo rmer is s
u ed as a pplicable to two o nly; the latter, to o re m

than two : Husb an d an d w ife lo ve each o ther; several
bro thers an d

s is ters lo ve on e ano ther .

E ect .See Aect .

Ego tis t sho uld be dis tin guished fro m ego is t; the fo rmer is o n e with
a high o r co n ceited Opini o n o f him s elf ; the latter, a b eliever
in ego is m (the do ctrine o f in dividual co ns cio usness) .

Either is distributive an d therefo re s ingular an d sho uld n ever be ,

used o m f o re tha n tw o : Have [has ] either o fy o u s een my pen
Elegant is o ne o f the m any ad j ectives in co mmo n us e as a s lang
term o f gen eral appro val ; pro p erly used it alw ay s implies ,

d elicacy ren em en t :
,

What a p erfectly elegant b ull do g " -

is n o t an elegan t exp ress io n .

E li m i n ate m e a n s
tak e o u t

remo ve fro m , ; we may eli mi n ate

an unk no w n q uan tity fro m an equatio n o r elimin ate a pdis o n

fro m the b o dy ; ifwe eli min ate a truth fro m a gro u p o fideas we
d o an inj ury either to truth o r to lan guage .

Els e s ho uld be fo llo w ed by than , no t by but:

No o n e el e s but
[than] he s o m uch
co uld have do n e
.

En o rmi ty is n o lo nger used to express m erely great siz e ; it is

app lied to wick edn ess cruelty o r s o m e mo n s tro u s o f
, fen s e
, .

E normo us n es s is s
s to mean great s iz e
o cca io n ally u ed .

E n thu s e h as no t y e t o b tain ed the s anctio n o f go o d usage :

He is

en thus ed o ve r the in ven tio n s ho uld be He is enthus ias tic

o ver, etc .

Evid en ce is metimes used when testimo ny wo uld be preferab le

so .

T he tes timony o fawitness may co n tain no eviden ce .

Evid en t See Apparent

. .

Except sho uld n ever b e us ed in the s ens e o f un less o r

bu t

:

N 0 o ne will be emplo y ed except [ unless] he is qualied

;

T he
 GRAM M AT ICAL N OTE S 53

farm wo uld have been pro ductive except [but] fo r his unin telli
g en t manage ent
m
.

Ex eptio nal means un us ual ,

c

fo rmin g an excep tio n ; excep

tionable means

O pen to o bj ectio n o r exceptio n : He was
a man o fexceptional character is the o ppo s ite o f He was a
man o fexceptionable character .

Expect invo lves a sense o f the future ; hence I expect y o u kno w
all abo ut it is in co rrect, an d s uch a wo rd as s uppo se sho uld

be subs tituted fo r it .

Factor is lo osely used fo r caus e by careles s writers : One facto r
"
i n [cause o f] his refus al was his dislike o f no to riety .

Fals ity pplies to things o r ideas ; fals enes to perso
a s ns : The
falsi ty o f his argument is as evident as the falsenes s o f the
man himself
.

Fault At fault means at a lo s s what to d o next, as when a

.

d o g has lo s t the trail ; i n fault m ean s in the wro ng,

to
blame

.

Favo r, in s
the sen e o f

s mble
re e ,

is a pro vincialis m:
He
favors [ resembles]
his father

.

F emale fo r wo man is a vulgaris m :

Clo thing fo r males and

females [ men and wo men] .

F etch See Brin g

. .

F ew s ho uld b e dis tinguished fro m afew; few emp has iz es the fact
that the number is s m all ; afew, the fact that there is anumb er,

F ew shall part where many meet ;

tho ugh it b e small :

A
few perso ns were saved in the ar

Fewer applies to nu mb er; less , to q uan tity : I have fewer [no t
less] bo o ks than y o u
.

Firs tly sho uld no t be emplo y ed fo r rs t, even tho ugh s ucceeded

in an enumeratio n by
se co n dly ,

thirdly,

etc Firs t is .

an adverb , as well as an ad j ective .

Fix, in the s ense o f rep air,

tl , is bad usage :

arr ng ,
a e se t e

avo id all s uch exp res s io ns as :

Fix the b ken table ;
ro F ix
y o ur hair ;

F ix y o ur affairs ;

Fix the rules ;

We are
xed.


54 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITE R S

F o rmer, an d its an tithesis latter, sho uld be used to designate o ne

o f two p ers o n s thin gs ideas e tc In cas e o f mo re than two
, , ,
. ,

the exp ressio n s

the rs t

the seco n d the

the third

, , ,

last s ho uld b e emplo y ed

.

Fre quently s ho uld b e dis tin guis hed fro m commo n ly gen erally per , ,

petually us ually ; each has its o wn renem en t o f mean ing

,
.

Co mmon ly exp ress es the an tithes is o f rarely ; frequen tly

an d gen erally , the an tithes is o f seldo m s
o cca io n ally

or ;
us ually is the o o s ite o f

cas ually

: pp
M ankin d co mmon ly

acco rd s sp ect
re to religio n

; It frequen tly rain s win ter
in ,

tho ugh the co ld is gen erally severe eno ugh to cause s no w ;

He us ually rises

at AM .

F ro m . See When ce .

F unn y s ho u ld no t b e us ed to m ean s trange

,
mark able
re .

G en erally . See F requen tly .

Go . See Co me .

Go od mis used in the sens e o f well ; shuns uch an

is freq uen tly

p
ex e r ss io n as :

I am feelin g go od
G o t in the s en s e o fp o ssess io n is s up er
,
uo us an d is to b e avo ided : , ,

I have go t a large ho use T o express o bligatio n o r co mpul

.

sio n avo id s uch terms as : I have got to [am o bliged to ]

,

Gotten is an o b so lete fo rm o f the pas t parti

catch a train .

ciple rein tro duced in to E n glis h fro m S co tlan d

,
Such a use .

o f the wo d as It has gotten to b e a co mmo n thing has

r in

n ever b een reco gn i ed z as go o d .

G ues s , in the sen se
suppo se thin k of imagine ,
( I gues s

,

he is a rich is a p ro vincialis m s anctio ned in co n vers a

tio n b u t co n demn ed in writin g This applies equally to the .

pro vin cial reckon , the e q uivalen t o f guess .

Han dy sho uld never pro ximity : They had

be s
u ed to ex ress p

s everal neighb o rs quite handy [very near is pro vin cial .

H an ged s ho uld b e us ed to expres s the executio n o fahuman b ein g ;

hun g a the pas t pa ticiple ses : It is the s en ten ce

s ,
r in o the r u

T he drap eries

o f the co urt that y o u b e han ged by the neck ;

were no t hun g with go o d tas te .

 GR AM M AT I CAL NOTE S 55

Healthy sho uld b e distin guished f ro m healthful an d fro m whole

s o me: h
T e child is healthy ;

Exercise is healthful ;

Who leso me fo o d an d healthful exercis e make him healthy
.

H ence See When ce

. .

High sho uld b e distin guished fro m tall It is a mis tak e to s ay .

,

as a N ew Yo rk ne ws pap er recen tly did :

T he Walwo rth
building is the highes t in the wo rld ; there are tho usan ds o f

huts an d cab in s that are higher by tho us an d s o f f eet .

H o me is no t a mere sy no ny m fo r ho us e: He has a b eautif ul

home may if he has a b eautiful ho us e See

no t b e true, even .

R es ide .

Hun g . See Han ged .

If is o ften m isus ed fo r whether :

I d o ub t if [ whether] I shall be

ab le to go ; I wo uld [sho uld] like to

o b tain y o ur advi ce
[o pinio n ] if [as to whether] I co uld o btain [ p ro cure] this letter
by law [legal

Ilk is careles s ly s mean s o rt pro perly

u ed kin d , It

to .

m ean s the s ame

R o b M acGrego r an d o thers o f that
.

i lk m ean s

R o b M acGrego r an d o ther M ac Grego rs


In .

phrases like this it was m is un ders to o d to m ean clan
,
.

Illy is avo ided by careful w riters Ill like well is an adverb .

, ,

as w j
ell as an ad ecti e
v : His illy [ ill] fo rmulated views hardly
d es erve

n o tice .

In augurate a wo rd which implies the acco mpan imen t o f

,

fo rm al an d dign ied ceremo nies is lo o s ely used fo r begin ,

by w riters who like big wo rd s T he rs t s tep s in this .

refo rm have recen tly b een in augurated an d are no w m aking

rap id p ro gress was recen tly written by a teacher o f m any

y ears exp erience S teps canno t b e in augurated no r can they

.
,

make progres s .

In divi dual mean s a p ers o n o r thin g regarded

It is as a unit .

impro perly us ed as a m ere sy n o ny m o f pers on : E ight
indivi duals [p ers o n s] w ere s aved in the ark

.

In s id e o f expressing the idea o f tim e is pro vincial and co llo q uial :

, ,

I n side of[ within ] ay ear I s hall b e o ut o fdeb t

.
56 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT E R S

Invite s ho uld no t be used fo r i n vitatio n :

She sen t me an in vi te

[ invitatio n] to the wedd in g

.

"
Kin d is no t plural ; do no t s ay these (o r tho se) kind
o f things .

Kin d o fs ho uld never b e fo llo wed by the in denite article : What

kind of [a] man is he "

K ind of an d s ort of in the sense o f

rather

are co llo quial : I feel kind of[ rather] ill
.

Kin dly Withs tran ge co nfusio n o ftho ught, many p ers o n s write :
.

Yo u are kindly req ues ted to reco mm end a teacher o f E nglis h
fo r N o do ub t the in ten tio n is that kindly s ho uld

o u r s cho o l .

mo dify recommend , but its p o s itio n prevents it fro m do in g so .

I t is b etter to write : Yo u are req ues ted to have the kindnes s

to reco mmend ,

or

Will y o u have the kindness to reco mm d
en ,

etc .

Las t is o ften mis used fo r lates t His lates t letter o r bo o k may no t

.

b e his las t; he may wri te m o re .

Latter applies o nly to the las t o f two See F ormer . .

Lay as a verb express es causative actio n ; lie exp ress es pass ivity :
, ,

She lays the bo o k do wn ; He lies quite s till ; He lays

p s ; A ship lies at a cho
lan

n r

T he pas t tense o flay is laid ; .

that o f li e is lay : She laid the bo o k do wn ; it lay there

unn o ticed .

L earn is a vulgaris a hen e mplo y ed in the sense o f teach

:

I ll learn [ teac h] y o u to be go o d "

L es s T
. he p as e no thin g les s than
h r

is o f ten m
a biguo us :

He was n othin g les s than co n d escen d ing in his m anner

See .

Liab le is passive , and in go o d mo dern us age is rarely fo llo wed by

an innitive ; do no t s ay , He is liable to co me at an y mo m ent ,

or He is li able to b e hurt . It u uas
lly implies weakn ess or

d efect : liable to acciden t in j ury It is als o s

or . u ed to

ex re p ss o b ligatio n : He is liable fo r this deb t . See Apt .

Li e . See Lay .

Like mus t n ever be used in the s en se of as

: He lo o ked like

his father ;
He died as he lived .

 GRAM M ATI CAL N O TE S 57

Like . See Love .

Lik ely . See A pt .

Literally implies that a s tatem en t to which it is attached is accu

rately an d precisely true : T he audien ce was literally m elted

to tears , is no t literally true .

L o an , used as a verb , is n o t in acco rd w ithgo o d usage :

Lo an me
y o ur umb rella

is an p ss io n
ex re to b e avo ided . Loan is a
no un .

Lo cate in the sen se o f settle

is regarded as a vulgaris m ; do no t

s ay o f a man that he located in the co un ty .

Love s ho uld o rdinarily be e mplo y ed to p s affectio n ; like

ex re s ,

to ex ress p the ta tes : s A man lo ves his family ; he likes fresh
air, bo o ks , fo o d , a p leas an t acquaintance ,
etc .

Lo vely like elegant is a greatly o verwo rked wo rd

, , .

Luxurian t as dis tinguished fro m luxurio us m ean s s uperabundant

, ,

in gro w th o r p ro d uctio n :
T he vegetatio n is luxuriant ; He

lead s a luxuri o us [in dulgen t, given o ver to luxury ] life .

M ad , in the sen s e o f a gry , is a ro vin cialis

n

hich can hardly p mw
be co n de mned as fo rb idden , b ut is better avo ided .

M ale See F emale

. .

M ay See Can
. .

M ighty , in the se se o
n f very ,

is to be avo ided . Do no t make

s p It s mighty hard

us e o f uch an ex ress io n as : .

M in d , in the sen se of o b ey ,

is to be avo ided . Shun s uch

ex re p ssio n s as : make y o u mind me "

I ll

M inus in t e h s en s,e o f

w itho u t lackin g is co llo quial ,

,

.

M o s t has been used in s tead o falmost fo r almo s t a tho usan d y ears ,

It rain ed mos t every day

b ut this us e is no t p ermiss ible

.

is bad s
u age .

M utual . See Co mmon .

N ece s s iti e s has almo s t en tirely u ur ed s p the place o f necess aries

in curren t E nglis h . T he necess i ties of life o f ten red uce o ne

to the b are n ecess aries . It is un fo rtun ate that the dis tinctio n
betw een the wo rds is no lo n ger s
o b erved .
58 A M ANUAL F OR WR I T E R S

N egligen ce is s
d en o te a q uality o f character ; n eglect, to
u ed to

p
ex ress f
a ailure t act
o : The accid en t was caus ed thro ugh
the n egligen ce o f the agman [ o r b y his n eglect to dis play a

N either deno tes o ne o f two , and s ho uld no t be s

u ed fo r n one

Of the two men ,

o r n o o n e: n ei ther was ever s een again ; .

N o ne o f tho se p resent heard him speak As a co n j un ctio n ,

.

neither sho uld b e fo llo wed , no t by or, b ut by n or: He
o wn ed n ei ther mo ney n o r lan d See N o t; als o p

. .
40 , s ec . 2 .

N ever has be co m e co llo q uially an e mphatic n egative : He
lo o k ed at it o n ce an d n ever s aid a wo rd .

N ice , in the s en se of pleasant ,

agreeable, has

es tabli s hed
its elf in co llo q uial, but no t in go o d literary , us age .

N o ho w, a vulgaris m , is rarely s
u ed exce t p by perso n s who us e

[d o esn t]

the do uble negative : He d o n
t

lik e her, n oho w

N o n e sho uld be treated as as in gular : N on e O f the m was presen t
There is n on e o fthem that doethgo o d .

N or . See N either; N at .

Not mus t b e fo llo w ed by the co rrelative nor in s uch sen tences

as :

N o t fo r w ealth n or fo r fame d id he strive ; She

was n ot presen t n or was her hus b an d .

See N either .

N ot b ut, to p ss
ex re a n egative, is a vulgaris m no t to b e

to lerated . S hun s uch a phrase as : I have n o t had but o n e
meal to day .

See p .
38, un der D o uble N egatives

.

N o thin g lik e and n owhere n ear, in such phrases as T he mine is

n o thi n g li ke as rich as p
re o rted ,
"
She is n owhere n ear as
b eautiful as I tho ught,

frequently met wi th in
are co nver

s atio n , b ut are to b e avo ided in all careful w riting .

0 s ho uld be u ed s with the vo cative, an d witho ut pun ctuatio n ;

Oh, fo r the j aculatio n and s ho uld be
e , fo llo wed by a co mma
o r a po in t o fexclam atio n : 0 C aes ar hear me " Oh

, , ho w
Oh"is it p o ssible " See chap v s ecs 5

happy I
.
, .
, 35 ;
p 7 2 s ec 6
.
,
. .
 GR AM M AT I CAL N OTE S 59

Ob ligate d fo r o bli ged is witho ut warran t:

He felt o bligated
[ o bliged , und er o bligatio n ]

to go .

Ob s ervatio n sho uld n o t b e used fo r o bservance: T he o bservati on

[ b servance] o f thes e p recautio ns will b e necess ary

o .

O mus t n ever b e u sed with of; o ne o r the o ther is s up eruo us :

Cut me a piece [o ] of

f [o f] the lo in Cut me a y ard

o ;
that rib bo n

.

On e an o ther See E ach o ther . .

On ly See Alon e
. .

Oral See Verbal

. .

O ther Af ter n o o ther us e than ,

. no t but:

We s o o n s aw that it
was n o o ther but [ than ] Wilso n .

See An other .

Ought, u ed s in co nnectio n wi th had, is a vulgaris m s tudio usly

to b e avo ided : Yo u hadn t

ought to have paid so much .

Owin g See Due . .

Pan acea is ludicro us ly mis used to mean an eective remedy

fo r a s ingle diseas e ; it mean s s o mething that cures all
diseases .

Parado x m ean s what seem s abs urd or s elf -

co n tradicto ry . S eem

in g is therefo re redunda a seemin g parado x
n t in .

an d aected

Partak e o f, in the sen se o f to eat,

is s tilted .

Such an ex p s re s io n as : He partakes of a light lunch is
to
b e avo ided .

Party , exce pt in legal do cum ents , is n ever to b e u sed in the sen se

in

of pers o n
: I have an engage men t w ith an uen tial

party
Per s ho uld b e used in co nnectio n with o ther wo rds o fLatin fo rm :

Per diem, per annum , He is paid

per cen t ; but :

Use a with

$ 50 per week is to b e avo ided . week,

day , etc .

P erpen di cular merely means at right angles to s o mething else

men tio ned; it sho uld no t be used fo r vertical .

Perpetually m ean s witho ut interruptio n o r ce ssatio n .

See
F requen tly .
60 A M AN UAL FO R WR ITE R S

Pers o n See Party

. .

Place , when used in the sense o f where, is a vulgaris m ; s hun

such a phrase as : Let us go s o me place See

p 44 , un der Ellipsis
. .

Po pular means pleas ing to m an y p eo ple

It is n o t very papu
lar with me is therefo re ab s urd

.

Po s t and posted , fo r inform an d informed , are to o co llo quial fo r

serio us writing .

Practical and practi cable are o ften co nfused A plan may b e .

practicable cap able o f b eing carried o ut] , b ut no t practical

[because o f its co s t o r so m e o ther feature] In the sen se o f .

experien ced ,

s kilful practical is abs urd :

or Practical
ho rs es ho er
.

Pre dicate is m is used in two way s : (I ) to mean predict ; (2 )

to m ean b ase,

fo un d : H is early return was predicted b y

his f rien ds ; He predicates [b as es] his assertio n o n these facts

.

Pre mature To call a false repo rt premature is lud icro us , unless

.

there is reaso n to believe that the even t re o rted p will o ccur

later .

Pro mi s e in the sense o f

ass ure

is slang . Avo id s ucha use o f

the wo rd as : I p unis hed him, promis e y o u "
I

Pro po s e is o ften mis used fo r

purpo se, in the s ense o f to plan ,

to o

To propo s e m ean s

to in ten d . er a prOpo s al,

i . e .
,

to s ub mit a p ro po s itio n fo r the co n s ideratio n of so m eo n e ;

to purpo se has the m eani ng o f to d es ign

on the p art of

o ne who entertains the plan :

What do y o u propose [ o er]

as the b es t plan P
; I purpos e [ plan] to write a bo o k See .

als o Propos iti on .

Pro po s itio n isften mis used fo r propos al A propos iti on is a

o .

statement o fa j udgment o r a plan ; a propo s al is the presenta

tio n ment o f an o ffer See Pro pose
o r s tate . .

Pro vidin g is so metim es misuse d fo r provid ed : Yo u may go pro

eiding [ pro vided] y o u are acco mp a

nied .

Purpo s e . See Propose .

 GR AMM ATI CAL N OTE S 61

Q uali ty is gross ly mis used as an adj ective ; fo rtun ately the mis
use is co nned a lmos t en tirely to ad vertisements , where all

s o rt s o f vio lence are do n e to the language : Quality clo thes "
B uilt fro m the mo s t exclus ive des igns .

Q uite m ean s

entirely ,

who lly .

It is therefo re mis used in the

sentence She was quite [very m uc ] pleased with the boo k ;
h

quite dark s ho uld expres s the meaning o f co mpletely

Quite in the sens e o f so mewhat is equally to be

dar
avo ided .
Quite a j aw is no n s en se as well as bad E nglish , .

See also R eal .

R ais e is mis used in s everal senses . It is no t a no un, an d co nse

quen tl y to say , I made a rais e ,

in the s ens e o f I o b tained
so me mo ney ,

is ungrammatical . As a verb , it mus t b e dis
tingui s hed fro m rear: We raise vegetables ; we rear children .

Avo id s uch expres s io ns as : She was rais ed [bro ught up] in

Ken tucky [increas ed] my ren t

T he lan dlo rd rais ed

o ld ; .

R eal, in the sense o f very ,

is a vulgaris m . Avo id : 1 was real

[very ] angry .

See also Qui te .

R eck o n See Guess

. .

R e f erence is o ften wro ngly with the prepo sitio n in : In use d
l s ho uld be With reference, etc

eren ce to yo ur p ro p os a

ref .

The s am e rule applies to the w rds reg

o ard an d res pect :

With
rega rd to

is preferable to I n regard to

Withres pe tc t o

is preferable to In res pect to .

R egard See Reference

. .

R emain d er See Balance

. .

R es earcher is a vulgaris m o f the w o rs t s o rt .

R e si de is us ed fo r live by tho se who like ne wo rds , as res id ence

is fo r ho us e, dwelli ng:

He resides in a p alatial res id ence [ He
lives in a n e
R es pe ct See Reference
. .

R es t See Balance
. .

R etire, fo r go to bed, is aected :

Yo u may retire to y o ur ro o m
an d go to b
62 A M AN UAL FO R WR IT E R S

R even ge . See Aven ge .

R everen d . Co mmo n us age has es tab lis hed the rule that, when
u eds as a title , this wo rd sho uld b e abb reviated and
that it sho uld no t b e preceded b y the d enite article (see ,

ho w ever, chap iii, . sec .

R ev A V . . . S mith was p res en t .

Right sho uld n ever b e us ed in the sens e o f du ty : Yo u had a

t to warn me is avulgaris m fo r Yo u o ught to have w arned

righ

w m R ight, in the s en s e o f

me ,
Itwas y o u r duty to arn e

.

very ,

is a pro vin cialis m :

It is right [very ] pretty .

S uch

p
ex res sio n s as

right no w ,

right o ff,

right away ,

right

here

are no w pro vincial
merly in go o d use , tho ugh fo r .

R ubb ers o r I ndia rubbers fo r o vers hoes is pro vin cial

,
-
, , .

S ame sho uld n ever b e used as a p ro no un Avo id the co mmo nly .

used express o n s
i : Yo ur letter received ; in reply to s ame ,

I have to s ay etc (s ee chap vii p , Likewis e the expres.

.
, .

sio n s ame as in the sens e o f jus t as

,
in the same mann er ,

,

is a vulg aris m A vo id :

He treated me the s o me as if I were
.

o wn child

his .

S co re is to be avo ided in the fo llo wing : She s cored [achieved] a
co mplete success

.

S eem See Appear

. .

S et m eaning s it is a vulgarism n eedin g o nly to b e p o in ted

, ,

o ut to in s ure its avo ida nce: S et [s it] in this chair is en tirely

in def ens ible ; His clo thes s et well is mo re frequently co n

do ued, b ut equally ungrammatical .

S ettle . See Lo cate .

S hall See un der

.

Grammatical N o tes p 3 6 ,

. .

(under Grammatical N o tes

S ho uld See S hall
.
,

p .

S ho , t e
w in h se n s e o f p y, p f
la
e r o rm c

an e, is b ad :

Let s go

to see a s how

S ho w up, in the sens e o f expo s e, is a vulgaris m : I will s how

him up [ exp o s e him] at all co s ts

.

S iz e u p, in the s en s e o f es tim ate,

we gh, is also a vulgaris m :
i

I want y o u to s iz e him up [estimate his
 G RAM M ATICAL N OTE S 63

So me , fo r so mewhat is , a vulgaris m :

I feel so me [so mewhat]

b etter .

S o rt . See Kind .

S o rt o f . See Kind f
o .

S plen did means s hining b rilliant ; it sho uld n o t be used as ,

a term o f gen eral co mm en datio n Avo id s uch expressio n s as : .

M y car run s s plendid ly ; M y watch keeps s plendid time ;

He is do in g as plendid wo rk .

S tan d fo r w hich pro p erly mea s b e res po n s ible fo r
,
n has ,

recen tly co m e in to co mm o n us e in the Un ited S tates fo r

s tand end ure an d also fo r permit:

, ,
I wo n t s tand for [s tan d]

his treatmen t O f me It is s till if n o t a vulgarism at bes t

.
, ,

co llo q uial and p ro vincial .

S tate is no w us ed vulgarly fo r s ay: I s tated [s aid] that I tho ught
so methin g o ught to b e do ne abo ut it and he n ally s tated ,

[ replied] in an in differen t way fo r me to co me in [ that I sho uld

co m e in ] again this week ; I pressed him fo r an an swer
,

an d he s tated , No ,

S ure, as an adverb , is n o t permissible : I s ure will do it ; I

will co m e s ure .

In each ca e us e s urely , s o r remo del the s en

tence to read :

I s hall b e s ure to do it .

T each . See Learn .

Team is a pro vin cialis m used co mmo nly in N ew England fo r a

ho rse drawn vehicle an d its use has sp read to o ther p arts o f
-
,

thi s co un try .

in the s en se is a vulgaris m : I

That, of so or s uch a, was

that [ so ] pleas ed I p ss my self clearly ; I
,
co uld n o t ex re

didn t kn o w it was that [s o ] b ad The w o rd that has so many

.

fun ctio n s that care m us t b e taken to avo id the awkward

rep etitio n o f it S uch a s en tence as the fo llo wing needs
.

w The p o lice had a bo o k that they fo un d in his o f

i
re rit gn : ce
that co n tain ed the n am es o f p eo ple that he to o k o rders fo r an d
that was valuable fo r the rea o n s that we co uld inq uire o f these

peo ple .

See p .
41 , s ec .
3 .
64 A MAN UAL FO R WR ITE R S

Thin k sho uld no t have the wo rd fo r

added : He is mo re to

blame than y o u thin k for See p 39 , sec 3

. . . .

am

Thro ugh s ho uld no t b e used in the sens e o f n ished

: I
thro ugh [ have ni hed] s my wo r
To is s uperuo us and w ro n g in

Where have y o u b een to "

See A t .

Tran s pire do es no t m ean
happ en

; it is pro p erly used fo r co me
b eco m e kn o w n T he treas o n did

tran s pi re

to light, : no t

fo r two y ears

.

Try . See An d . Try and [ to ] eat s o methin g

is co llo q uial .

Ugly , in the s ense of

bad temp ered ,

vicio us ,

sho uld be
avo ided :

He keep s an ugly [ bad mpered] do g
-
te .

Unique do es n o t m ean rare o r ,

Odd as m any ,

s ee m to s up
po s e ; it m ean s alo n e o f its kin d

:

V ery un ique,

mo re
an d the like , are therefo re ab s urd

un ique, .

Un les s . See E xcept an d Wi tho ut .

Upward o f is no t go o d us age w hen , us ed to ex res p s mo re than

:

I have b een co nned to the ho use fo r upward o f [ mo re than]
"
a y ear .

Us ually . See F requen tly .

Ve rb al.

A verbal mess age m ean s o nly a m essage in wo rds ;

a message by wo rd O f mo uth is an o ral m essage : He gave

them verbal [o ral] ins tructio n s

.

Vo cati o n . See A vo cati o n .

Way sho uld s no t be u ed in the sen s e o f

a ay w : T he

ho us e
sto o d way [ aw ay ] b ack in the w o o ds
;

Way [ away ] do w n

eas t .

Way s is O ften misused fo r way : It is quite a ways [way ] Oil

.

Well See Good and Illy

. .

What See B ut. .

Who les o me See Healthy . .

When ce mean s fro m what place o r cause an d hence in the

,

exp ess i R eturn to the p lace fro m when ce y o u cam e
r o n ,

from is redun dan t This applies eq ually to hence which .

,

sho uld no t b e preceded by from .

 GR AMM AT I CAL N OTE S 65

Will See S hall (under Grammatical N o tes p

.

,

.

Witho ut fo r unles s is pro vin cial : I will no t go without [un les s]

, ,

y o u go w ith me

See E xcept
. .

Witnes s is used fo r s ee by perso n s who like large wo rds We .

may wi tn ess an even t but ,
no t ap s er o n o r a thin g : T his is
the larges t audien ce I ever wi tn es s ed
Wo rs t kind is slang N ever use such an expres sio n as I want to
.

[ o f a way is s o metimes

go to the theater the wors t kind

added to this o b j ectio n able p hras e] in the s ense O f very

m uch .

I

Wo uld in the sense o f the auxiliary do o r did is a vulgar

,

,

It s a wo nder the

is m : o wers wo uldn t gro w there


See .

S hall (under G rammatical N o tes p
.
,
 CHAPT ER III

S PELLIN G ; WI TH E S FO R ABBR EV IATIN G

R UL AN D
COM POUN D I N G WOR D S

T he l
ru es in ten d ed : (I ) to in di cate
whi ch fo ll o w are
the b etter fo rm where two o r m o re spellin gs Of a wo rd
are reco gn iz ed ; (2 ) to m ak e clear when abb revi ati o n s
s ho ul d n o t b e used i e when go o d fo rm requires wo rd s
,
. .
,

o r gures to b e spelled o ut in s tead o f abb revi ated ,

an d vice vers a; (3) to Offer co n s tru ctive rul es whi ch

will en ab l e a wri ter to mas ter the d if cul t s ubj ect Of
co mpo un ding wo rd s .

M o s t o f the rul es gi ven are s o framed as to rel ate

to co n crete cas e s Several Of thes e are taken fro m the
.

M an ual of S ty le (T he Un ivers ity o f Chi cago

A few gen eral rul es are added in the b eli ef th at they
wi ll pro ve servi ceab l e to wri ters an d o thers who may
co n sul t thi s b o o k It has n o t b een tho ugh t wise to
.

cumb er the b o o k wi th elem en tary rul es nor o n the , ,

o th er h an d wi th rul es go vern in g co mpli cated o r un u

,

s ual cases .

SPE LLI N G

1R ules fo r s pe llin g d erivatives a) In derivatives

. .

fo rmed fro m wo rd s en din g in c by addin g a termi n atio n

b egin n in g wi th e, i, or y , the l etter k is in s erted after
the c wh en the l atter is no t to b e pro n o un ced li k e s :
co lic, co licky ; tra
i c, trafcked , traf
cking, traf
cker .

66
 S PELLIN G 67

b) In d erivatives fo rmed by add in g a termin atio n

b eginn in g wi th a vo wel to mo n o s y llab les o r to wo rd s
'

accen ted on the las t s y llab le when thes e wo rd s

, en d in a
i l
s ng e co n s o n an t preceded by a s in gle vo wel , that co n

so n an t is do ub l ed :
ab et, ab etted , ab etting , ab etto r ; bet, betting; clan , clann is h

(exceptio n : co mbat ,
co mbated) .

) When a diph tho n g o r a digraph repres en tin g a

c ,

vo wel s o un d precedes the n al co n s o n an t o f a wo rd o r

, ,

when the accen t o f a wo rd en din g in a s in gle co n so n an t

falls o n an y o th er s y llab le th an the las t the n al co n s o ,

n an t is n o t do ub led in d erivatives fo rmed by the addi tio n

Of a termi n ati o n b eginnin g wi th a vo wel :

d aub , d aub ed , d aub er ; b enet, b eneted , b en eting; revel,

reveled , revelin g; travel, traveling, traveler ; kidn ap , kidnap er,

kidn ap ed (exceptio n : han dicapped) .

B ut the n al co n s o n an t is do ub led in the derivatives Of a

few wo rd s g, in o rder to dimin i s h the

en d ng ini li kelihoo d
Of its b ein g pro no unced l i k e j b efo re e o r

humb ug, humbugged , humb ugging .

d) In derivatives fo rmed fro m wo rds en d n g

i wi th
sil en t e the e is
, gen erall y retain ed wh en the termin atio n
b egin s wi th a co n s o n an t When , ho wever, the e is
.

preceded by ano th er vo wel (except e) it is , Often d ro pped

fro m the derivative (s ee s ec 4 b elo w) : .
,

incite, in citem en t ; cha s te , chas ten e ss ; m

argue, argu en t ; true,
truly .
(The wo rds : who lly nursling w , m m ,
is do , abridg en t,
ackno wledgm ent , lo dgm ent j udgm en t and their co mp o unds
, ,
are
exce p tio ns ) .
 68 A M AN UAL FOR WR I TE R S

e) In derivatives fo rmed fro m wo rds en d ing wi th

s when the termin atio n b egin s wi th a vo wel , the
i len t e ,

e is generall y o mi tted :
bride, bridal ; guide , guidance ; plum e plumage ; , s
us e, u able ,

us age .

In o rder to guard again s t mi spro n un ci atio n the s i len t

e is so metimes reta ned i (s ee s ec .
4 b elo w)
,

ho e, ho eing ; sho e ,
sho eing ; peace p eaceable ; , change ,

changeab le ; advan tage, advan tageo us .

f) In d erivatives fo rmed fro m wo rd s in y , en d n g i

preced ed b y a co n so n an t, by appen din g an y termi n atio n
except o n e b eginn in g wi th i , the y is usuall y ch an ed
g
in to i :
m ercy m erciful ; mo dify mo dies ;
, , gay , gaiety .

g) T he en d n gs i s i on an d ti on are di s tin gui s h ed in

- -

practice as fo llo ws :
s i o n is gen erall y the fo rm in the cas e o f no uns
-

rel ated to verb s en d ing in nd , de,

ge, re, s e, s s , mi t,
- - - - - - ~

-
vert:
a pprehen d pprehensio n ; pro vide pro visio n ; subm erge
, a , ,

subm ersio n ; co here co hes io n ; immerse immers io n ; co n fess

, , ,

co n fess io n ; p erm it p ermissio n ; pervert p ervers io n

, , .

Exceptio n s to the rule are :

atten tio n co n tentio n in ten tio n (als o with diff eren t m eanin
, , g , ,

in ten sio n) .

-
ti on is the fo rm in all o th er cases wi th few exceptio n s :
co n struct , co ns tructio n ; co n travene, co n traven tio n ; culti
vate, cultivatio n ; e migrate , e migratio n ; po llute po llutio n ;
,

s
re urrect, resurrectio n .
 S PELLIN G 69

Exceptio ns to the ru el are :

co ercio n, diss ens io n , scansio n , m ans io n , to rs io n , di s to rs io n .

Give preference to the fo llo wi ng fo rms o f spelling:

2 .

abridgmen t cen ter favo r J udea '

acco uter check fetid j udgment

acknowledgment chlo rid kidn aper
Ko ran
aegis' cla mo r b er labo r
clinch avo r
aes thetic clue uo rid
after ard w co eval fo rward
full
aluminum
co tillio n gai ety
co un cilo r maneuverx
amo n g s
co un elo r ps
si ) " Markan
anemiaI co zy m
gla o r
arbo r cue gly c erin meager
archaeo lo gy x defen se go o db y e mediaevalx
ardo r demean o r gray meter
armo r d iarrhea grue o mes miter
ascen dancy disk guaran tee (v ) . Mo hammedan
ascendent dispatch guaran ty (n ) . mo ld
Athenaeum di stil harb o r mo lder
ax do wnward m
he o rrhaget mo lt
ay e d raft H in du mo vable
bark (vessel) mustache
b az aar d ueler imb ed n eighbo r
B ed uin d uln ess incase niter
b ehavio r dwe lt in clo se o do r
blessed embitter incrust o ense
bo wlder emir o ne

s self (not
burned emplo y ee
s
cae ura' en cy clo pedic
'

endeavo r in graft
can do r engulf in stal ( en t)
m paean

canno neer enro l in stil paleo g ra p

h y

canyo n en sn are ins ure paleo n to lo gy

I

carca ss en velo pe (n ) . in tren ch paro le

caro led E skimo in trust parq uet
s
ca to r (ro ller) exhibito r w
in ard parti san
caviler fan tasy w
j e eler peddler
I
See sec 9 . be ow
. l .
I
See sec
. r c) , abo ve
.
70 A M AN UAL FO R WR IT E R S

Pho en ixI saber subtle tro us ers

p m
ig y salab le succo r tum o r
p w
lo Savio r sumac upward

practice savo r sy rup valo r

(n an d v ) . . scepter tab o o vapo r
preten e s sepulcher talc vend o r
primeval sergean t techniq ue2 vigo r
pro gram Skepticism theater while3
reco n no iter skilful thraldo m whis eyk
reinfo rce smo lder thras h f
wil ul
renco un ter so mb er to rmen to r f
wo e ul
reverie S pecter to ward wo o len
rigo r staun ch tran q uili e z wo rs hiper
ruble steadfast tran q uilli ty Yahweh
ru mo r s ubpo en a
I
traveler

N O TE M ake wo rd o f m

o ne any o ne, every o n e, to day , to o rro w,

to n ight,

canno t

(s ee s ec .
46 , b elo w) . s
Di tinguis h b et een w

so metimes
an d

so me so meo ne
an d

so me o n e [ o r
m o re ] o f the n u mb er .

3 Dif
feren ti ate b etween
. the termin atio n s -
is e an d
-
iz e as fo llo ws :
SPE LL WITH is e -

adverti e s co mpro mise en ter ri ep s merchandise

advi e s de isem excis e premise
affranchi e s des ise
p exerci e s reprise
p s
a pri e (to devise exo rcis e revise
info rm) d isfranchise fran chise rise
s
ari e dis guise im ro vise
p su ervise
p
chastise p
em rise inci se surmise
circu mcis e en fran chise manuprise sur rise
p
mprise
WITH i z e
co

SPE LL y z e)
-

aggran di e z apo stro phiz e brutaliz e characteri e z

ago n i e z apprize (to can o n i e z christian iz e
an aly e z apprai e) s catechiz e civiliz e
an ato i e mz z
autho ri e catho liciz e classicize
anglici e z auto ly z e cauteriz e co lo n iz e
p
a o lo gi e z b aptize cen traliz e criticiz e

x See s ec .
9 , be o w l .

= In med ca wo rki l no w genera y spe ed ll ll

techn i
c .

Whilst" is ally p f l i

J the fo rm gener re erred in Eng and , but it is to b e avo ded in
the i
Un ted States .
 SPELLIN G 7I

y
cr s talliz e immo rtaliz e o s traciz e s o lilo q uiz e
demo raliz e italiciz e o xid iz e s peciali z e
deputiz e j eo pardiz e paralyz e s piritualiz e
do gmatiz e legaliz e particulariz e s tan dardiz e
eco no miz e liberaliz e pas teuriz e s tig matiz e
emphasiz e lo caliz e patro niz e b
s u s idiz e
energiz e magn etiz e philo so phiz e s ummariz e
epito miz e man umiz e plagiariz e syllo giz e
eq ualiz e memo rializ e po lariz e symbo liz e
eulo giz e merceriz e f
pro es s io n aliz e sy mpathiz e
evangeliz e mesmeriz e pro tes tan tiz e tan taliz e
extempo riz e metamo rphiz e v
pul eriz e tempo riz e
familiariz e metho diz e realiz e tran q uili z e
fertiliz e min imiz e reco gn iz e y
t rann iz e
fo ssiliz e mo dern iz e reo rgan iz e u tiliz e
fratem iz e mo n o po liz e v
re o lutio niz e vapo riz e
galvaniz e mo raliz e s atiriz e visualiz e
generaliz e n atio n aliz e s candaliz e vitaliz e
go rmandiz e n aturaliz e scrutiniz e vo cali e z

harmo niz e ne utraliz e s ign aliz e vulcaniz e

hellen iz e o rgan iz e s o lemniz e ulgariz e
human iz e

4 . T he f ollowin g participles ret ain the n al 6 o f the

primary word (see sec . 1 (1 ) above) :
agreeing y
e eing ho ein g s ingeing
y
d ein g hieing s ho ein g tin gein g

T he following participles illustrate the omiss ion o f

the 6 be f ore the termin al (see sec 1 (1) above) : .

abridging bluing gluing mo vin g

ackn o wledging changing grudging o rgan iz ing
arguin g enco uragin g icing o wing
awing lin g is s uing trudgin g
biting ring j udgin g truing

Differentiate between farther

5 . an d
further

bY usin8 the form er in the s ense o f
'
more remote ,

at a gre ater distan ce

; the latter in the sense of more

in addition

over ,

the arthe f r end ; he wen t s till farther ; further ,

he s ugges ted ;

a further reaso n .
72 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

6 . f orms of add ress (vocative) use the O wi th
In

out a comma following ; f or an exclamation use Oh

,

f ollowed by a commaor an exclamation point (see p 58 .

,

ch ap iv s ec 3 2 ; ch ap v se cs 5
.
,
. .
,
.
,

O tho u mo s t mighty ruler " Oh that I had n ever b een bo rn ,

.

7 .F orm the possessive o f proper names en din g in

s or another sibilant if m onosyllabic by addin g an, ,

apostrophe an d 3 ; ifo f more than o n e syllable by addin g ,

an apostrophe alone :
King James s Vers io n B urns s po ems M arx s theo ries ;

,

,

M o ses law Jesus birth Demo s thenes o ratio n s B erlio z co m

, , ,

po s itio ns ; fo r co nvenien ce s ak e

.

But in the case o f proper n am es en ding in a s ilent sib i

l ant the po ssessive is fo rmed by the addition o f the apos
tro phe an d 3 whether the word is m onosy ll ab ic or not :
,

Charlevo ix s dis co veries ; Illin o is s legislature ; Des M o in es s

po pulatio n ; M aupas s writin gs .

8Be fo re soun de d h long u (or eu an d the wor d s

.

( i
o ne on ce use a as the form o f the indeni te
,

,

article (not
a ho tel, a harmo n ic, ahis to rical, a un io n , a eupho nio us wo rd ,
s uch a o n e , a o n ce -
read bo o k .

9 . T he ligatures ce an d (2 are not use d at the present

day , either in Latin an d Greek word s , or in word s
ad opted in t o English from these langu ages In English .

these words are written either with ac o e separ ately or , , ,

with e alone The ligature is retained however in Old

.
, ,

E nglish an d in F r en ch an d other m od ern langu ages :

,

aetas ; Oedi pus Tyram ms ; aes thetic ; (e uvre b ut : man euv er ; ,

lElfred bu t : Alfred , .
 SPELLIN G 73

1 0. to the exceptions note d in s ec 2 7 spell

Subje c t .
,

out religious civil an d mi li tary titles o f honor an d

, ,

respe ct and f orm s o f address pre ceding the nam e :

,

Admiral Dewey ; General M cclellan ; Bis ho p Kan e .

I I. out Christian names as George Charles

Spell , , ,

John (not : G eo Ch as

an d von as part o f a
.
,
.
,

person s n ame except where the abbreviated form is

,

used in quoted matter or in original signatures (see

chap v sec I ).
,
. .

12 T reat all numbers in conne cted groups ali ke as

.
,

far as possible ; do not use gures f or som e an d spell

out others ; if the largest contai ns three or more di gits ,

use gures for all (see below s ec ,

.

The fo rce emplo yed during the three mo n ths was 8 7 9 3 and , ,

1 0 6 res pectiv ely

, .

A s ageneral rule however d ecimals d egrees dimensions

, , , , ,

distances enumerations money percentage weights

, , , , ,

an d like expressions shoul d be given in gures :

4 5 miles 3 cubic feet 2 4 pages I I I bus hels 9 per
, , , ,

cen t (see chap v s ec 43 po un ds.

,
etc .
, .

Spell out roun d numbers

13 . approximate
nu mbers in tens , hundred s , thous and s , or millions) :
T he attendan ce was es ti mated at ve hundred ; a thes is of

abo ut three tho usand wo rd s .

: 4 . Spell out all numbers no matter how high , , co m

men cin g a senten ce :
F ive hundred and n ine t y three men
-
, 4 1 7 wo men , an d 1 89

chi ldren und er eighteen , bes ides 63 o f the crew , wen t do wn wi th

the s hip .
74 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITERS

When this is imprac ticable or f or an y reason und esirable , ,

re constru ct the sentence ; e g . .

T he to tal numb er o f tho se who wen t do wn with the s hip was

5 9 3 men , etc .

15. Spell out the time o f day in ordinary re adi ng

matter :
at fo ur ; lf
at ha pas t two in the a tern o o n ; at se en
-
f v
l k
o c oc .

Statistically , in enum erations an d always in conne ction ,

wi th A M an d P M use gures :
. . . .
,

at 4 : 1 5 P M (o mit o clo ck in such co nnectio ns )

. . .

1 6. Spell o ut ages :
eight y years and fo ur mo n ths o ld ; chi ldren b etween s ix and
fo urteen .

17. out numbers o f sessions o f Congress o f

Spell ,

mi litary bo dies o f thoroughfares o f centuries o f Egyp

, , ,

tian dynasties an d o f all sim ilar categories unless brevity

, ,

is an import ant consid er ation (see ch ap iv se cs 2 1 .

, .
,

Fifty eighth Co ngres s s eco nd sessio n ; Fifteenth Infan try

-
, ,

Sixth Co ngres s io nal Dis trict; Seco nd Ward ; Fifth

Avenue ; n ineteenth cen tury ; Fifth Dynas ty .

1 8. Spell out re ferences to particular decades :

in the nin eties .

19 . out n ames o f m on ths except in statis tical

Spell ,

matter or in long enumerations (see pp 1 30 .

,

fro m January 1 to April 1 5 (o mit after dates st d rd nd , , , , , ,

and th) .

Spell out Unite d St ates except in quotations
2 0. ,

and in su ch conne ctions as : Gener al Scho eld ,

 SPE LLIN G 75

US ; in an d simi lar

. SS . Oregon footnotes re f erences :
US . Geological Survey .

Spell out R ai lro ad
2 1. F ort , M ount ,

in geographi cal appellations (see lists on

an d Port
p
C hicago , M ilwaukee St Paul R ailro ad
.
(no t: R R . . or

Fo rt Wayne ,
Po rt Huro n , M o un t Elias .

22. In most
ses spell out all names o f publications
ca , .

T hi s rule like many another is open to modication in

"

, ,

particular instan ces f or whi ch no dire ctions can here be ,

given Expe dien cy n ature o f context an d est ablishe d

.
, ,

custom may be consid ere d Generally ifin d oubt spell .

, ,

out ; good taste will condone offenses in this direction

more re adily than in the opposite .

AB B RE VIA TION S AN D CON TRACTION S

Word s are of ten shortened by me ans o f the

23 .

omission o f a letter or o f letters f rom the midd le o f , ,

the word the omission being indicated by an apostrophe

,

(see chap v secs 1 T hese are called contr actions ;

.
,
.
,

they are not followe d by a perio d :

mi
= manufacturin ass

n= ass o ciatio n .

A bbreviate names o f states territories an d

2 4. ,

possessions of the Uni ted States f ollowing those o f towns ,

as f ollows :
Ala . C o lo . Ga . Kan .

Alas a k Co n n . Idaho Ky .

Ariz . DC. . Ill . La .

Ark . Del . In d . Me .

Cal . F la . Ia . M ass .
76 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S

Md . N ev . PI . . Philipp ine T H = T errito ry . .

M ich . N H . . Islands o f H awaii

M in n . NJ . PR . .
=
Po rto R ico Utah
M is s . N M . . R I . . Va .

Mo . N Y . . SC . . Vt .

M o nt . Ohio SD . . as h W .

Okla T enn . Wis .

W Va
.

Ore T ex . . .

Wy o
.

N eb . Pa . .

techn ical matter (f ootnote re f erences bibliog

25. In ,

raphies etc ) abbreviate Company an d Brothers
,
.

,

an d the word an d in names o f commer cial rms :

The M acmillan Co .
, M acmillan Co .
, Harper B ro s ; Chicago , .

M ilwaukee St Paul R ailro ad

. .

In text matter not o f a te chnical ch arac ter Company , ,

an d Brothers shoul d however be spelled out :

, ,

Harper B ro thers have recen tly publis hed two wo rk s o f travel ;

The C en tury C o mpan y ann o un ces a new s eries ; T he extrao r
d inary s to ry o f the So uth Sea Co mpan y .

An d when the n ame o f a commercial con cern does not

consist o f proper n ames the an d should be spelle d out : ,

American Steel an d Wire Co .

A bbreviate Saint

2 6. or Saints be fore proper
n am es :
St Lo uis , St Peter s Church, SS Peter and Paul

. . . .

A bbreviate M r M essrs M rs (F rench M

27. .
, ,
.
,
.
,

M M M me M lle) Dr (but see pp 1 3 3

.
, , R ev ,
. .
, .
,

Ho n St an d Es q Spell out all other religi ous civi l

.
,
.
,
.
, ,

an d mi li t ary ti tles o f honor an d f orms o f add ress Do .

not except on the envelope an d in the address line of

,

letters write the R ev the Ho n (see s ec 1 0 above ;

, .
,
. .
,

ch ap iv s ec 6 an d chap vii p
.
,
.
, .
,
.
 SPELLIN G 77

ref erences to Scripture passages the books o f

2 8. In ,

the B ible and o f the Apoc ryph a and vers ions o f the ,

B ible should be abbreviated as f ollows (see chap iv .

,

sec .

OLD TESTAI ENT

I and II Chro n . Is a . Jo nah

Exo d . Ez ra Jer . M ic .

Lev . N eh . Lam .

Esther Ez e k . Hab .

Deut .
Jo b Dan . Zeph .

Jo sh . Ps (Pss )
. . Ho s .

Judg . Pro v . Jo el
R uth Amo s M al .

I an d H Sam . Song of So l . b
O ad .

I an d II ings K (or Can t ) .

NE W TESTAMENT

M att . I and II Co r . I and II T hese .

Jas .

M ark Gal . I and II T im . I an d II Pet .

Luke Eph . T itus I, II , and III Jo hn

Jo hn Phil . Philem . Jude
Acts Co l . Heb . R ev .

Ro m .

APO R P HAC Y (APOC ) .

I and II E sd . R es t o fEs ther So ng o f P1 o fM an

. .

To b = T o b it
.
W isd o f So l . . Children I , II , HI , and IV
Ith Judith
. Ecclus . Sus .

Bar . B el and Drago n

VE R SI ON S OF THE BIB LE COMM ONLY F

RE ERRED T O

AV. . Autho riz ed Vers io n .

R V
. . R evised Vers io n .

R V
. . m . R evised Vers io n margin ,
.

= American Standard R evised Vers io n .

= American Standard R evised Vers io n margin , .

ER V
. . . nglis h R evis ed Versio n .

= English R evised Vers io n margin ,

.

E V
. . Englis h Vers io n (s ) o f the Bible .

Vulg .
=
Vulgate .

LXX Septuagint .
78 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

29 re feren c es in f ootnotes an d in matter

. In li terary , ,

o f a bibliographical char acter abbreviate volum e , ,

ps alm

nu mber article

division ch apter

, , , , ,

c olu m n

se ction page verse
,

line note ,

,

,

,

,

gure f ollowed by their num ber (s ee chap iv s ec

. .
, ,

an d abbreviate the wor d

f ollowing af ter the number

to d enote co ntinu ance or sequ en ce :

V o l I (plu ral Vo ls ) N o 1 (N o s ) Ps 2 0
. Div III , ,
.
, . .
,

chap ii (chaps ) art iii (arts ) s ec 4 (s ecs )

p 5 co l 6

. .
.
, , , . .

vs .
7 n .
9 F ig 7 (Figs ) ; pp 5 7
. .

( pages 5 to 7 inclusi e) , pp 5
= v . f ( .
=
page 5 an d the fo llo win g
p g ) , pp 5
a e if ( page 5 and the
=
. . fo llo wing pages) .

A bbr eviate the co mmon d esign ations o f weights

30 .

an d me asures in the m etric system as well as the s y m ,

bols of me asurem ent in common use when f ollowing a ,

nu meral
1 m 2 dm 3 cm 4 mm ; c m ( cubic meter) c d c c
.
,
.
,
.
, . . .
=
, . .
,
. .
,

c . mm .
; g .
gr . h . min .

s ec . lb . oz .
yd .
, ft .
,
in ; .

AU ( Angs trtim units)

. .
=
, ( hp
. .
= ho rs e po wer) , C -
.

F . and lcm (
. . .
=
lo wes t co mmo n multiple) , etc .

(See chap v .
, sec .

T he f ollowing is a list o f the standard abbreviations f or

te chnical valu e s recommen d ed by the A merican Insti ,

tute o f E lectrical E ngineers :

altern ating curren t ac (wh . en u sed as a co mpo und
ad j ective ; o therwis e s pell o u t )
brake ho rse po wer -
b hp . . .

bo iler ho rs e po wer -
bo iler h p . .

Britis h thermal units B tu

. . .

candle po w er -
c p .
 SPELLIN G 79

meters
c en ti
circular mils cir . mils
co unter electro mo tive fo rce co unter e . mf . .

cubic cu .

d irect current d -
c .
(when a co mpo und
us ed as

elect ric ho rse po wer

electro mo tive fo rce
-
e 1 pj
e mf
.

.
at d
.
ec
.
ive ; o therwise spell o ut)

. .

feet ft .

foo t po unds
-
ft lb s
.

gallo ns gal .

r
g ains gr

g ams
r g .

g am calo ies
r r g cal
-
.

ho urs hr .

in ches
indicated ho rs e po wer -

kilo grams
kilo gram meters -

kilo gram calo ries -

kilo meters
kilo watts
kilo watt ho urs -

magneto mo tive fo rce

miles per hr (s eco nd) .

millimeters
milligrams mg .

minutes min .

meters 111 .

meter kilo grams

-

po un ds 1h .

revo lutio ns per minute rev .

per min .
, or r .
pm
. .

s eco nd s

s quare
ro o t o f mean s quare
- - sq .

eective, o r r . ms
. .

kilo vo lts kv .

kilo vo lt amperes
- kv a -
.

watt ho urs
- watt hr -
.

watts per candle po wer - watts per c

-
p .

yards yd .

N OTE
In the cas e o fhyphen ated abbreviatio n s , the rst element
o fthe co mpo un d do es n o t take aperio d .
80 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

C OMP OUN DIN G

T he ompoundin g o f word s is accompli she d either

c

by joining two word s so as to mak e one word or by ,

conn e cting two wor d s with a hyphen T he mod ern .

tend en cy is against the hyph en an d in f avo r of uni ting ,

in o n e two word s whi ch when uni te d convey but one , ,

id e a:
s cho o lro o m wo rks ho p headquarters
, ,
.

T hus far,howe ver this practice can be spoken of ,

only as a tenden cy an d there are many compound word s

,

which are better hyphenate d than consolidate d T he .

following rules are d esigne d to cover su ch cases .

31 . Hyphenate as a rul e, nouns f ormed by the

, co m

bin ation of two nouns one o f whi ch stand s in an objective

relation to the other :
mind -
read er, s to ry
ho lder, pro perty
teller , of
ce - -
o wn er ; hero
wo rship, child s tudy ; wo o d turning, clay mo deling
- - -
.

Exceptions are ommon an d brie f compound s usu ally

c , in
a spe cic or te chn ical sense :

lawgiver, taxpay er, pro o fread er, bo o kk eeper ,

s to ckho lder .

A large group o f these word s is f orme d by word s the

rst elem ent of whi ch is a verb al noun in z ng stan ding
'

in the s am e rel ation to the se con d element as if it were

the object o f a preposition :
bo ardi ng ho us e -
, din in g hall, -
l
s eeping ro o m, -
dwelling plac e, -

pgin ting o ice,

-
walkin g s tick , -
s tarting~po in t, s teppin g s to ne , -

s tumbling blo ck , wo rking m an

- -
.
 SPELLIN G 8I

A verbal noun ending in z ng uni ted wi th a

'

32 -
.

preposition used absolutely not governing a follow

in g noun) should t ake a hyphen :
the pu tting ih o r taking o ut o fa hyphen
- -
.

33 Hyphenate two or more word s (except proper

.

n ames f orming a unity in themselves) combin e d in to

one adje ctive preceding a noun :
s o called Cro es us , well kno wn autho r, rs t cla
-
s s in ves tmen t,
- -

high s cho o l co urs e, half dead ho rs e, up to date apparel ; but : N ew

- - - -

T es tamen t times , Old En glis h s pelling .

But do n o t connect by a hyphen adje ctives or participles

with adverbs ending in ly or su ch combinations as the -
'

above when f ollowin g the noun or when predicative : ,

highly d evelo ped s pecies ; a man well kn o wn in the n eigh

b o rho o d ; the fly leaf s o called ; Her go wn and carriage were
-
,

s trictly up to date .

3 4 Hyphenate two or more nouns when combined

.

in an adje ctival sense be f ore a proper noun :

the marty r pres iden t Linco ln ; the po et artis t R o ssetti
- -
.

35 Compoun d s o f fellow
. father mother
,

,

,

parent an d f oster

brother sister ,

d aughter ,

, ,

should be hyphenated when forming the rst element

o f the co mpoun d :
fello w man fello w bein gs father lo ve (but : fatherland)
-

mo ther
-
, , ,

to ngue bro ther o f cer s is ter natio n fo s ter so n daughter

,
-
,
-

,
-
,

cells parent wo rd
,
-
.

3 6 Compoun d s o f in dicatin g the fourth

.
great ,

degree in a dire ct line o f d escent shoul d be hyphen ated :

,

g r ea t gran-
d father gre at grandso n ,
.
82 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

37Compound s o f d ealer
.
go d (when this word ,

f orm s the se cond element o f the co mpound) lif e , ,

maker master an d world take a hyphen :

, ,

co al dealer s un go d
-

(but : go dso n go d father go ds end)

,
-
, , ,

life principle (exceptio n : lifetime)

-
to o l m aker mas ter s tro k e ,
-
,
-

(exceptio n : mas terpiece) wo rld ,

-

po wer .

38 . qu arter etc combine d with a noun
Hal f ,

,

.
,

should b e followed by a hyph en :

half truth half to n e half year half
-
title ; q uarter mile
,
-

,
-
,
-
.

Compound s h aving self or by
39 .

as the rst
element o f the compound are hyphenate d :
s elf eviden t self res pect ; b y pro duct b y laws
-

,
- -

,
-
.

Combinations with fold should be written as
4o .

one word if the number cont ains only one syllable ; ifit
cont ains m or e as two : ,

two fo ld ten fo ld ; fteen fo ld a hun dred fo ld

, , .

41 . A dje ctives o f li ke formed by the s ui xatio n

to a no un are usu ally written as one word if the noun

c ontains only one syllable (except when end in g in l) if
it contains more (or is a pro per noun) they should be ,

hyphenate d :
childlik e ho melik e warlik e go dlik e ;, eel like bell like ; , ,
-

,
-

wo man like bus iness lik e ;

-
N apo leo n lik e (but : Chris tlik e)
,
- -
.

Vice
42 . ex elect gener a l
an d lieuten
, ,

,

,

co nstitutin g parts o f titles

an t , should be connecte d ,

with the chi ef noun by a hyphen :

Vice Co nsul T aylo r ex President R o o s evelt the go verno r
-

,
-

elect the po s tmas ter gen eral a lieutenan t co lo nel

,
-

,
-
.
 SPELLIN G 83

43 . non should ordinari ly be f ollowe d
T he pre x
by a hyphen except in the comm onest word s :
,

n o n co n tagio us
-
no n unio nis t no n in terference ;
,
-
but : ,
-

no n age no n s en s e no n d es cript no n ess ential no n co mb atant

, , , , .

44 T he prexes
. ante anti bi co

d emi in fra inter intra pre post

semi
'

te sub super tr are or dinarily

join e d to the word without a hyphen unless f ollowed ,

by the same vo wel as that in whi ch they terminate :

an techam ber ,
antis eptic (but : an ti imperialis tic ,
-
biweekly ,

bipartis an co eq ual (but:

, ) demigo d inframargin al
co o rdinate
-
, , ,

intern atio nal in ters pers e , ,

intramural (but : in tra ato mic) po s t -
,

graduate, prearrange (but : pre empt) recas t (but : re enter)

-

,
-

semian nual, s ubco n s cio us , subtitle ,

s uperne , triwee l ky , trico lo r .

Exceptions are such f ormations as :

an te bellum an te N icene, an ti Semitic , demi -

relie o , v in ter
v
- - -

vr y
uni e s it , po s t re o lu tio n ar y , s emi centennia
-
l;

an d ombinations with proper names long or unusu al

c ,

f ormations an d wor d s in which the omi ssion o f the

,

hyphen would convey a me aning diff erent from that

in tend ed (see ch ap iv se cs 1 3 1 7 ; an d below see .
, , ,
.

pre R aphaelite, re tammaniz e; re po s tpo ne , re pulveriz atio n ;

- - - -

re
f matio
or n (as dis tinguis hed fro m refo rmatio n) re co ver (co v er ,
-

again ) , re creatio n
-
(as dis tinguished fro m recreatio n) .

45 . The negative prexes un in
il im
an d a do not usu ally requ ire a hyphen :
un manly , un demo cratic, in an imate, in determin ate, illirn itable,
i mperso n al, as ymmetrical .
84 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

46 the hyphen f rom today
. Omi t

,

tomorrow ,

standpoint (See sec 2

tonight viewp oint ,

,
. .
,

note p 70 above )
,
.
,
.

47 Qu asi
. extra supra and ultra (pre
,

,

,

xed to anoun or an adjec tive) as a rule call for ahyphen :

quasi co rpo ratio n quasi
-
hi s to rical extra haz ardo us supra
, ,
-
,

tempo ral ultra co ns ervative (but : extrao rdinary Ultramo n tane)

,
-
, .

48 . Over

an d under shoul d ordinarily be pre

xe d to a word wi thout a hyphen except in unusu al ,

ca ses :
o veremphas iz e o v erweight ; ,
u nder ed,f un deres timate ; but :
o ver s piritualis tic o v er careful
-
,
-
.

In f raction al numbers
49 . spelled out conne ct by , ,

a hyphen the numerator an d the denomin ator unless ,

either alre ady contains a hyphen :

The year is two thirds go n e ; fo ur an d ve sevenths ; thirty
- -

hundredths ; b ut : thirty o n e hundred ths -

.

But do n o t hyphen ate in su ch cases as :

o ne half o fhis fo rtun e he b equeathed to his wido w ; the o ther ,

to charitable ins titutio ns .

5 0 In the
. se o f two or m ore compoun d word s
ca

o ccurring together which have one o f their component ,

elements in common thi s element is frequently omi tted ,

from all but the last word an d its implication should be ,

indicated by a hyphen (though some wri ters regard this

prac tice as an obje c tion able T euto n is m) :
in English and German s pe aking co un tries ; o n e ve and -

ten cent piec es ; Ifthe s tud ent thinks to nd this character where
-
 SPELLIN G 85

ritic is searching
many

a literary c 4n ni th and tenth century -

Euro pe he must loo k o utside o f manus cript tradi tio n .

A hyphen is used to in di cate a prex or su x ,

as a syllable not a complete wor d :

,

The prex a ; the German di minutive sufxes chen and

" -

52 F ollowing is a list of hyphenate d word s of every

.

day occurren ce o f which so me ar e dif ,

cult to clas sify ,

and others do not fall un der an y o f the cl asse s given

abo ve (see sec 3 1 abo ve) :
d eath
.
,

after years
-
rate s ubj ect matter -

has relief
-
rs t fruits o bj ect les so n
- -

birth rate
-
fo lk so n g -

bloo d feud -
foo d stu -

blo o d relations fo untain head well being

po o r law

- - - -

co mmo n -
sens e go o d will po s t o f
ce
-
well nigh
-

mine v well wisher

cro ss- exa guin ea pig s ea le el

- - -

cro ss- re erencef ho rse po wer-

s ense p erceptio n will po wer
-

cro ss - s ectio n man o i war

- -
so n -
in law
-
 C HA PT E R IV

CAPITALIZATION

T here is pro b ably no subje ct covered by thi s book

ab o ut which id eas o f good fo rm will be f oun d to dif
fer
more widely than that o f capitaliz ation . It is a subjec t
cult
dif to tre at with arbitrary rules since it must ,

b e admitted th at in very m any cases there is equ ally

goo d authority f or an d against capit aliz ing (see chap .

viii p 1 5 7 ) a word und er id entical cir cumst ances In the

, . .

preparation of this book it has been d eemed best ho w

, ,

ever not to state an y rule in the alternative but to

, ,

enunciate as the rule to be f ollowed that for which there

is n o t o nly good authority but the best authority
,
To .

a writer accustom ed in an y given case to a pr ac tic e

dieren t f rom that calle d f or in thi s book some of these ,

rules may appear arbitrary Each however has been

.
, ,

f rame d in view o f its be aring on some other rule or

situ ation an d adheren ce to these rules in the prepar ation
,

o f a manuscript or in or dinary practice will insure a

harmonious co nsistent whole It is h ar dly necess ary to
,
.

add f or great er cle arness th at a dire c tion to
, , capit al

iz e appli es o f co urse only to the rst letter o f a word

, , ,

an d n o t to the whole word .

M any o f these rules have been t aken in an abbrevi

ate d an d con densed f orm f rom the M an ual of S ty le

(Chi cago : T he University of Chicago Press 3 d ,

86
 CAPIT ALIZATION 87

1 C apitaliz e proper nouns an d adjectives :

.

N o rth America E nglis hman ; Eliz ab ethan French

, ,
.

But do n o t capitaliz e proper n am es or their derivatives

in whose present generaliz ed accept ation the origin has
,

become forgotten or obscure d :

u to pia b o hemian philis tin e plato nic quixo tic mo ro cco
, , , , ,

(leather) bo yco tt ro man (type) pasteuriz atio n ;

, , ,

an d do n o t capi taliz e su ch word s as the following when

used in the sense o f ele ctrical units :
vo lt , ampere watt farad henry o hm co ulo mb etc
, , , , , ,
.

2.C apitaliz e epithets use d as substitutes for proper

names or afxe d to a n am e :
,

the Pretender the Virgin M ary R ichard the Lio n hearted

, ,
-
,

Alexander the G reat .

3 .C apit aliz e nouns an d adjec tives used to designate

the Supreme Bein g or Power or an y member o f the ,

Christian T rinity ; an d all pronouns ref erring to the

Deity unless closely pre ced ed or followe d by a dis tin c
tive n ame or unless the ref erence is otherwise per fe ctly
,

clear

the Almighty the R uler o f the univers e the Firs t C aus e the
, , ,

Ab s o lute Pro viden ce (pers o nied) Father So n Ho ly Gho s t

, , , , ,

the Spirit Sav io r M ess iah So n o f M a
, ,
n the L o o
g ;s T rus t
, ,

Him who rules all things (but : When Go d had wo rked s ix

days , he res ted o n the

But do no t capi taliz e such expressions and derivatives as :

(Go d s ) fatherho o d (Jes us ) s o ns hip mes siahs hip mes s ianic

, , ,

ho pe chris to lo gical (b ut : Chris to lo gy)

,
.
88 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ERS

4C apitaliz e the names

. an d epithets o f peoples ,
races an d tribes :
,

Aryans , Kars , N egro es , Ho tten to ts , Bugin ese, C eles tials .

5C apitaliz e the particles in F rench nam es as 1e
.
, ,

la ,

de du when standing without a Christian
,

,

n ame or title preceding ; but no t when pre ceded by su ch

nam e or title :
Le B o ss u , La To rre, De Co ligny , D Aub ign (b ut : R en le

Bo s su, M iguel de la T o rre , Gas pard de Co lign y , T ho mas

d Aubign ) .

A lways capitaliz e Van in Dutch names ; never capit al

iz e von in German n ame s :

Stephen V an R ens s elaer ; Hugo vo n M artin s , vo n Do b s chii tz .

N o re
Pers o n al preferen ce is re spo ns i le fo r the b fo llo wing amo ng,

o thers , as excep tio n s : Henry van Dy e, J H an t HOE

k . . v .

6 C apitaliz e titles o f honor an d respec t whether

.
,

religious civil or mili tary prece ding the n am e an d

, , , ,

acad emi c d egrees in abbreviate d f orm following the ,

nam e ; all titles of honor or o f nobili ty when re ferrin g ,

to spe cic persons e ither pre ce din g the n ame or used ,

in place o f the proper n am e ; familiar n ames applied

to particular persons ; orders (decorations) an d the
titles accompanying them ; titles without the name , ,

used in dire ct address ; titles without the nam e when

used o f existin g incumbents o f ofce ; an d su ch word s

President King K aiser

as C z ar , , ,

Sultan an d Pope
, standi ng alone when re ferring ,

,

to a spe cic ruler or incum bent :

King Geo rge IV ex President Taft R ear admiral Dewey
,
-
,
-
,

United States Co mmissio ner o f Educatio n Claxto n St Paul , .

,
 CAPIT ALIZATION 89

Father Bo niface Deaco n Smith; the Prince o fWales His M aj es ty

, , ,

Yo ur Grace ; Dav id Starr Jo rdan Ph D LL D (Litt D Sc D ,

. .
, . . . .
, . .
,

the Father o f his C o un try ; Knight Co mmander o f

Allo w me to s ugges t Judge ; the Secretary o f the

the B ath; ,

Treas ury ; the Bis ho p o fLo ndo n ; but : T he king in En glan d the ,

cz ar i n R us s ia the s ultan in Turkey repres en t o ppo s ite extremes

, ,

o f the mo n archical idea .

But do n o t capitaliz e the o f cial title o f a person when

the title follows the name o r the title when standin g ,

alone with out the n am e (with the exceptions note d

above) or when f ollowe d by the n ame it is prece de d
, , ,

by the article the :
Wo o dro w Wilso n president o fthe United States ; Paul Sho rey
, ,

pro fess o r o f Greek ; the empero r o f G ermany (meaning gen erally , ,

an y ho lder o f the o f ce no t a s pecic in dividual) ; the senato r

,

(when no t referring to a specic pers o n ) ; the apo stle Paul .

an d similar term s

7 C apitaliz e N ature an d

.
,

abstract ide as when personie d : ,

F o r N ature wields her s cepter merciless ly ; representatio ns

ofVice in the o ld English mo rality plays .

8 C apitaliz e n am es f or the B ible an d other s acre d

.

books :
Ho ly (Sacred) Scriptures Ho ly Writ Wo rd o f Go d Bo o k o f
, , ,

Bo o ks ; Ko ran Vedas M is hna the Upanis hads Apo crypha

, , , ,
.

But do n o t capit aliz e adjectives derived from su ch nouns :

biblical s criptural ko ranic vedic talmudic apo cryphal
, , , , ,
.

9 C apitali z e books an d divisions o f the B ible an d

.

divisions o f other s acred boo ks (s ee ch ap iii s ec 2 8 ; .

,
.

ch ap vi s ec 4)
.
,
.

Old Tes tament, Pen tateuch, Exo dus , II (Seco nd) Chro n icles ,
the Bo o k o f Jo b , the (M o s aic) Law and the (writings o f the)
90 A M AN UAL F oR WRITER S
Pro phets , M ino r Pro phets , Wis do m Literature , Go s pel o f Luk e,
Syn o ptic Go s pels , the Fo urth Go s pel, Pas to ral Epis tles , Sermo n
on the M o un t .

But do taliz e word s like book
no t capi gospel , ,

epistle p s,
al m

in su ch uses as :

the ve b o o ks o f M o ses the rs t thirty ps alms biblical apo ca , ,

lypses .

1 0. C apitaliz e versions an d edi tions o f the B ible :

King James s Vers io n Autho riz ed Vers io n

R evis ed ,

Vers io n Po lychro me B ible Septuagin t (LXX ) Peshitto , ,

(see chap . iii, s ec .

11 C apitaliz e the n ames or titles o f biblical par ables

.
:

the parable o f the Pro digal So n .

12 . C apitali z e such mis cellaneous te rms as :

Las t Supper, E ucharis t, the Pass io n , the T welve (apo s tles ) ,
the Seven ty (dis ciples ) , the Sn ering Servan t, the Go lden R ule .

13 .C apitaliz e the names o f poli tical parties religious ,

denomi n ations or sec ts an d phi losophi cal l iterary an d , , ,

artistic schools an d their adherents : ,

R epublican C o nserv ative ,N atio n al Lib eral ; Chris tian , ,

Pro tes tan t C atho lic Papis t Ultramo n tane R efo rm ed G reek
, , , , ,

Ortho do x An abaptis t Seven th Day Ad ven tis ts the Es tablis h

, ,
-
,

ment High Church; Epicurean Sto ic Gno s ticism (but : n eo

Plato nism ps eudo Chris tianity
, , ,

, s ee s ec 2 4 b elo w ; chap iii s ecs

-
.
, .
, .

the R o man tic mo v emen t ; the Symb o lic s cho o l o f painters .

But do no t capitaliz e an y o f these or simi lar word s or ,

their d erivatives when used in their original or acquired

,

general sense :
repub lican fo rm o f go vernment a true d emo crat and a co n ,

s ervative s tates man the co mmunis tic theo ries ; catho licity o f
,

mind puritanical id eas pharisaic s upercilio us ness ; epicurean

, ,

tas tes .
 CAPITALIZATION 91

14C apitaliz e the word chure
. in properly ci te d
titles of nationally organiz ed bo di es o f believers ; or
when forming part of the name o f a particular e dice :
Church o fR o me Church o f the Latter day Sain ts ; Church
,
-

o f the Ho ly Sepulcher Fifth Avenu e B aptis t Church

,
.

C apitaliz e the proper (of cial) ti tles o f social

15 .
'

religious e du cational political comm er cial an d in dus

, , , ,

trial organiz ations and institutions :

Unio n League Club Knights T emplar ; Bo y Sco uts ; Yo ung
,

Peo ple s So ciety o f C hris tian En deavo r As s o ciated Charities ;

,

Smithso n ian In s titutio n ; the Uni vers ity High Scho o l ; Co o k

Co unty Demo cracy .

But do no t capitaliz e su ch generic terms when use d to

d esign ate a cl ass ; nor when st anding alone even if ap ,

pli ed to a specic insti tution except to avoid ambiguity : ,

yo ung peo ple s s o cieties the high scho o l at R o ckfo rd lo cal

, ,

typo graphical unio ns .

C apitaliz e the n am es o f monastic orders an d

1 6.

their m embe rs :
the Order o f St F rancis the Little Sis ters o f the Po o r
.
, ,

C arthus ian s .

17 . C apitaliz e the names of cree ds an d c on fessions

o f faith :
Apo stles
C reed , N icene Creed (but an te N icene - s ee chap .

iii, s ec . Augs b urg Co nfes s io n , T hirty nin e Articles -

.

18C apit aliz e the n ames of conventions congresses

.
, ,

expositions etc : ,
.

Co un cil o f T rent Parliamen t o f R eligio n s Third An nual

, ,

C o nferen ce o f the Wes tern Eco no mic So ciety Wo rld s Pure

,

Fo o d Expo s itio n .
92 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

19C apit aliz e the word father
. when used f or ,

chur ch father an d re f ormers when use d o f R efo r
, ,

mation le aders if the meani n g would be ambiguous

,

otherwi se :
the early Fathers the Pilgrim Fathers the R efo rm ers
, ,
.

2o C apitaliz e the names o f legislative jud iciary

.
, ,

an d admi nistrative bodies an d govern mental d epart

ments an d their branches when specically applied :
, ,

Co ngres s the Ho use o f R epresen tativ es the Co mmittee o f

, ,

Ways and M eans the Ho use o f Co mmo ns the General Assembly

, ,

o f Illin o is .

But do n o t capitaliz e su ch general or in complete designa

tions as :
the natio n al as s embly the s tate legis lature the co uncil the
, , ,

departmen t the b o ard ,

.

z r C apitaliz e ordinals use d to d esignate sessions

.

o f Congress names o f regimen ts Egyptian dyn ast ies

, ,

an d in similar connections (see ch ap iii s ec .

,
.

the Fifty s ixth Co ngress ; the Sev en th Illino is R egimen t

-

the E ighteen th Dyn as ty .

22. C apitaliz e generic terms for political divisions :

(1 ) when the term is an organic part of the name an d
f ollows the proper n ame direc tly :
Ho ly R o man Empire French R epublic Uni ted K in gdo m , , ,

N o rthwes t Territo ry C o o k Co un ty ; ,

(2 ) when with the preposition of it is used as an

, ,

integral part of the name to in di cate certain minor

administrative sub divisions in the U n ite d S t ates :
Department o fthe Lak es , Bo ro ugh o fM anhattan ;
 CAPIT ALIZAT ION 93

(3) when used singly as the acc epted design ation f or a

specic division :
the M iddle Wes t Canada Wes t the Do minio n the Wes t Side ;
, , ,

(4) when it is part of a fanciful or popular appellation

used as a re al geographical name :
the W indy City the City o fBro therly Lo ve the Ho o s ier State
, , .

But do n o t capit aliz e su ch terms when standin g alone ,

or when not an integr al part o f the specic n ame :

the city ; the empire o f R uss ia; s tate o f Illino is co un ty o f ,

Co o k city o f Chicago
, .

23 . Capitaliz e numbered poli tical divisions (see chap .

iii , sec .

E leventh Co ngression al Dis trict, Seventh Ward ,

T hirty
s eco n d Precinct .

C apitaliz e the names o f political alliances an d

2 4. ,

su ch te rms from se cular or e cclesiastical hi story as have ,

through their associations acquire d spe cial signi can ce ,

as design ations f or parties classes movemen ts etc (see , , ,

.

s ec 1 3 above) :
.
,

Pro tes tant League Ho ly Alliance Dreibun d ; the R o s es

, , ,

the R o undheads Indepen den ts Independ ency (Englis h his to ry)

, , ,

N o nco n fo rmist Diss enter Separatis t

, ,
.

C apitaliz e generic terms f orming a part o f geo

25.

graphical n ames :
Atlantic Ocean, Dead Sea, B anin

s B ay , Gulf of M exico .

But do no t capitaliz e wor ds of this clas s when simply

add ed by way o f d es cription to the specic name wi th ,

out forming an organic part o f such name :

the river Elb e the des ert o f Sahara the is land o fM ad agascar
, , .
94 A M AN UAL FOR WR IT ER S

Subject to the rule just state d the following li st will

,

be found useful :
CAPITALIZE , IN SIN G ULAR FORM ONL Y WHE N
, IM MEDIATEL Y
FOLLOWIN G THE N AME

Archipelago Creek Harbo r Park

Bo ro ugh Delta Head
B ran ch (s tream) Fo res t Ho llo w R ange
B utte Fo rk M es a R eser atio nv
N arro ws R idge
Co un ty Ri erv
Crater Gulch Parish (La ) . R un

CAPIT ALIZE IN SI N GU LAR 0R PLU R AL FOR M WHE N IMME DIATEL Y

FO LLOWIN G THE N AME

Hill Islan d M o un tain Spring

CAPITALIZE , IN SIN G ULAR FOR M , E ITHE R F

BE ORE OR AF TE R Tn
N AM E ; AND IN P LUR AL FOR M F
B E ORE THE N AME

Bay Desert M o un t Po rt
Bayo u F all s Oas is Sea
Camp (military) Fo rt Pas s Strait
Cape Isle Pe ak Valley
Dalles Lak e Po in t Vo lcano

C apitaliz e adjectives an d nouns use d singly or in

2 6.

conjun ction to distin gu ish den ite regions an d when

, ,

use d in conne ction with a geogr aphi cal name ; an d also

terms applied to groups o f states :
Old Wo rld Wes tern Hemis phere N o rth Po le Equato r
, , , ,

the N o rth the Eas t (the Orien t) the F ar Eas t; ,

the N o rth So uth Ea

, s t Wes t (Uni ted States ) ; N o rthern Euro e
, , p ,

So uthern Califo rnia; N o rth Atlan tic s tates M idd le Wes tern ,

s tates .

But subje ct to the foregoing rule do no t capitaliz e adj ec

, ,

tives derive d f rom such n am es 0 1 nouns simply d esi

g ,

n ating dire ction or point of compass :

o rien tal cus to ms the so uthern s tates a so utherner (but :
, ,

N o rthman Scandin avian) ; the win d is fro m the west

=
.
 CA PITALIZ ATION 95

In or der to distin gu ish between a local an d a world wide -

application the latter should be capi taliz ed :

Eas tern peo ples peo ples o f the Orien t) ; Wes tern n atio n s .

27 C apitaliz e the names o f thoroughfares parks

.
, ,

squ ares blo cks buildi ngs etc (see chap iii sec
, , ,
. .
,
.

Drexel Avenue R ingstrasse Via Appia Chicago Drainage

, , ,

C anal ; Linco ln Park ; T rafalgar Square ; M o nadno ck Blo ck ;

Lak es ide Building Capito l White Ho use
, , .

But do n o t capitaliz e su ch gener al designations of build

ings as courthouse post o i ce library
,

etc -

,

,

.
,

except in conne ction with the place in which they are

situ ated .

2 8.C apitaliz e names o f important events :

T hirty Years War R evo lutio n (French) War o f Independ

, ,

ence Whis key Ins urrectio n (American)

,
Civil War (American) , ,

Franco Pruss ian War B attle o f Gettys burg ; Lo uis iana Purchas e
-
, .

29 . C apitaliz e the names o f civic holidays an d e ccle

s ias tical fast an d f e ast days .

Fo urth o f July Labo r Day Thanksgiving Day ; Pas so ver

, , ,

As h Wedn es day F eas t o f T ab emacles Chris tmas Day

, , .

30 C apit aliz e comm only accepte d appellations f or

.

hi storical epochs period s in the history of a l angu age or

,

liter ature an d geological ages an d strata the word age
, ,

itself being capitaliz ed only where a failure to do so would

result in ambiguous m eaning :
Sto n e age M iddle Ages ) , C rus ades , R enais s an ce,
(bu t :
R efo rmatio n , In quis itio n , Co mmune (Paris ) ; Old Engli s h (OE
s ee chap v, sec
. M iddle High German (M HG) ; the Age o f
.

Eliz ab eth; Pleis to cene .

96 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITE R S

CaPitaliz
: e ti tles o f specic tre aties ,
acts , laws
(juridical) bills etc : , ,
.

Treaty o f Verdun Peace ,

of Prague, Ed ict o f N an tes , Co n
co rdat, the Co ns titutio n (o f the United States ) , Declaratio n of

Independen ce, Act o fE mancipatio n , M agn a C (h) arta Co rn Law , ,

R efo rm B ill (Englis h) Fo urteenth Amendment ,

.

32 . Capi taliz e the exclamations O

an d Oh

(see chap . iii, s ec .

33 A s a rule capitaliz e nouns followed by a numeral

.
,

pa rt i cul arly a capi t aliz e d R oman nu meral in dicatin g

their order in a sequence :
R o o m 1 6 Ps 2 0 Grade IV Act I Vo l I N o 2 Bo o k II
, .
, , ,
.
, .
, ,

Div III Part IV

.
, .

But do n o t capitaliz e su ch min or sub divisions or their

abbreviations as :
rule 9 sec 4 s cen e i art iii chap 2 (ii) p 7 (vii) vs 1 1
, .
, , .
, .
, .
, .
,

l 5,
. n . 6 .

34 . R e f erences to parts of a spe cic work should be

capi taliz ed :
The Intro ductio n s tates ; T he Index is very co mplete .

But gen eral referen ces should not be capitaliz ed :

The bo o k has a co mplete ind ex (See chap v s ec . .
, .

35 C apitaliz e the rst wor d o f a ci ted spee ch or

.

thought in direct di scourse whether prece de d by a colon ,

or a comma (see chap v secs 9 .

,
.
,

On leavin g he re mark ed : N ever s hall I fo rget this day

;

With the wo rds , N ever shall I fo rge t this day ,

he departed .
 CAPIT ALIZAT ION 97

36 resolutions capi taliz e the rst word following

. In
'

Whereas and R esolved (see chap vi sec

.
,
.

WHEREAS It has pleas ed Go d

, therefo re be it
Res olved , That

37 C apitaliz e the rst word af ter a colon only when

.

introdu cing a complete passage or a senten ce whi ch ,

would h ave an ind epend ent meaning as in summariz a ,

tions an d quotations not closely connecte d with what

prece d es ; or where the colon has the weight o f su ch

expressions as as follows namely for instance
,

,

,

or a similar phr ase an d is f ollowed by a logically complete

sentence :
In l
co nc us io n I wis hto say : I t will b e seen fro m the ab o ve that
there is n o alternative ; As the o ld pro verb has it : Has te makes
was te ; My theo ry is : The mo men t the ho t r
cu ren t s tri es k
f
the s ur ace, the g as s l breaks .

But do t aliz e the rst word o f a quotation if

no t capi
immediately connected wi th what preced es ; or the rs t

word af ter a colon if an implied namely or a similar
, ,

term is f ollowed by a bri e f explanatory phrase logically

, ,

d epen d ent upon the pre cedi n g clause ; or if the colon

in dicates a note o f comment :
The o ld adage is t ue that r
has te makes was te ; T wo ex
r
planatio ns p esent thems elves : eithe r he came to o late fo r the
train, o r he was detained at the s tatio n .

38 A s a rule capitaliz e the rs t word in sec tions o f

.
,

an enumeration if an y one link contains two or more

distin ct clauses s eparated by a semi colon colon or
, , ,
 98 A M AN UAL F OR WRI TE R S

perio d , unless all are d epen d ent upon the s am e term

pre ce ding an d leading up to them (see chap v s ec .
,
.

His reaso n s fo r refus al were thes e : (1 ) He did no t have the

time .
(2 ) He d id no t have the means ; o r at any rate had no , ,

funds available ; but : He o bj ected that (1 ) he did no t have

the time ; (2 ) he did n o t have the mean s ; o r at any rate had n o , ,

fund s available .

39 C apitaliz e all the prin cipal word s

. nouns ,

pro nouns adje ctives adverbs verbs rst an d last

, , , ,

word s) in English titles o f publications (books pam ,

phlets do cuments periodicals

, reports pro cee dings
, , , ,

an d their d ivi sions (parts chapters sections , , ,

po em s articles ,
in subj ec ts o f lec tures papers
, , ,

toasts etc (see sec 43 below) :

,
. .
,

S tand ard Thes aurus f

o E nglis h Words and Phras es ; In
Harper s Di ctio n ary of Class ical Li terature and Anti quiti es will b e

fo und a useful article o n The T emples o f Ancien t R o me ; a

The Gues t o f the Even in g v

to as t to .
(See chap .
, s ec .

40 f oreign titles in addition to capit aliz ing the

. In ,

rst wo r d f ollow these general rules :

,

a) In Latin titles capit aliz e proper nouns an d adj ec

tives d erive d there f rom :
De co mpendio s a do ctrin a, De bello Gildon ico .

b) In F rench Italian Spanish an d Scan dinavian

, , ,

titles capitaliz e proper nouns but not adje ctives derive d

,

there f ro m :
La vi e de R ons ard, His to ire de la litt rature frangais e; Il B oc
cacci o a N apoli , N ovelle e racco nti popolari italiaui; An to logi a de

p oetas lirico s cas tellan os , S vens ka litteraturens his toric

.
 CAPIT ALIZAT ION 99

c) In German an d Dani sh ,taliz e all noun s but capi

not the adje ctives except German adje ctives derived

,

from the names o f pe rsons :

Ges chichte des deuts chen F eudalwes ens (but : Die Homeris che
Frage) ; F rems krit i der n ittende Aarhund red e .

d) In Dutch , capi
taliz e all noun s an d all adjecti ves
derived f rom proper nouns :
Ges chiednis det N ed erlands che Taal .

4r C apitaliz e ti tles of anci ent manus cripts (abbrevi

.

ation : M S in the sin gular ; M SS in the plural) :

Co dex B ernens is ; Co d C an o nicianus . .

42 . In menti oningtitles o f newspapers magaz ines , ,

an d s imi l ar publications the d eni te article should not

, ,

as a rule be capitaliz ed or treated as part o f the title

,

(see chap vi sec .

,
.

the Chi cago Record Herald , the Century M agaz i ne, the Annual
-

R egis ter ofthe Univers ity of Chicago .

43 . titles o f bo oks ar ticles etc with the main

In , ,
.
,

word s capitaliz ed all nouns f orming parts o f hyphenate d

,

compound s should be capit aliz ed :

Eighteenth Cen tury Stage Setting

-
(See s ec 3 9 abo ve ) . .
, .

But do no t capi taliz e su ch components when other than

nouns :
Sixty third Street ;
-
Lives of Well kno wn Autho rs
-
.

And in e heads do n o t capit aliz e any but the rs t

sid -
,

word an d proper nouns (see chap v s ec 65 an d .

,
.
,

e xamples) .
 1 00 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

44 . bot an ical geological z o ological an d paleo n to

In , , ,

logical matter capitaliz e the Latin (scientic) names o f

,

divisions ord ers f amilies an d genera but not their

, , , ,

English derivatives :
C o tylo s auria bu t : co tylo s aurs ; F elidae but : felid s ; C arni
, ,

vo ra but : carn ivo res

, .

In botanical an d z oological matter capitaliz e the n ames ,

o f species if d erived f rom n ames o f persons or f rom

, ,

gen eric n ames ; but in geological an d m edical matter ,

the names o f species are never capitaliz ed :

F elis leo , Co co s nuci era, f R o s a Caro lin a, Parkins o nia Torreyan a,
S tyrax californ ica, Ly thrum hyss o pifoli a; Phy teuma Halleri , Carex
Hallerian a (but [geo lo gical] : P terygo matopus s chmidti , Con odectus
favos us) (see chap . vi, s ec . II ) .

45 . In astronomical work capitaliz e the names o f

,

the plane ts stars an d groups o f stars (bu t not sun

, , ,

earth mo on
,

,

J upiter Aldebaran the M ilky Way

, , , the Great B ea r , the B ig
Dipper .
 C HA PTER V
PUN CT UATION

T he Cen tury Diction ary , M r

Wilson s work A
.

,

Treatis e o n E n glis h P unctuati o n an d the M an ual of

,

S tyle o f the University o f Chi cago Press have been

used as authorities in compiling the rules whi ch follow
un der thi s head .

T he present ten dency is to redu ce pun ctuation to

a minimum . What is a proper mi ni mum is to a great
extent a matter o f taste an d pred ilectionm ore so in
E ngli sh than in an y other langu age Wi th the possible
.

exception o f rule 2 0 (regardi ng which the practice must

be admitte d to be quite irregular) no rule which is ,

unnecessary or which could consistently be omitte d

has been given an d conversely every rule given i s
, , ,

believed to be ne cess ary for good practice .

Be f ore entering on spe cic rules the general one ,

may be laid d own : N o punctu ation mark should be

used unless necessary ; let the punctuation assist in
maki ng the meaning clear ; when that en d is attaine d
further punc tuation is superuous an d should be
avoid e d
.

THE PE R IOD

1. A period should be placed af ter all abbreviations

(f or contractions see chap iii s ec
,
. T he metric
, .

symbols should be treated as abbreviations but not the ,

10 1
10 2 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITERS

chemical symbols nor the , phrase per ent
c ,

nor the
format of books :
M acmillan M r Smith, St Paul, N o 1 , Chas (see
Co .
, . . . .

cha 9 mm ; but : m fg pl t ( manu

p iii , sec ibid , =
. . . .

facturing plan t) (see chap iii , sec 0 , H20, F e ; 2 per cent ; . .

4to , 8 vo (s ee chap iii .

, sec .

But do no t use a period in technical matter af ter the , ,

r ecogniz e d abbreviations f or linguistic epochs or for ,

titles o f well known publications o f which the in itials

-

only are given or af ter su ch symbols as M S ( manu

=
,

script) ; IE In d o European) OE Old E ngli sh) , ,

M HG ( M iddle High German) ; AJ S L ( American

= =

J o urn al ofS emiti c Lan guages an d Literatures) See al so .

p 7 9 n o te
.
, .

2 U se no period af ter R oman numerals even when

.
,

they are used as ordinals :

Vo l IV ; Lo uis XIV was
. on the thro ne .

A perio d is use d to indi cate the en d o f a d eclara

3 .

tive sentence .

4 When a quotation f orm s the en d of a declarative

.

sentence the period should always be place d wi thi n the

,

quotation marks But when a parenthesis fo rm s the .

en d o f a d e clarative senten ce the perio d shoul d be place d ,

outside of the marks o f paren the sis A perio d may .

occur withi n a paren thesis only af ter an abbreviation

or an ind ependent sentence lying en tirely within the
parenthesi s
'

Tenn yso n s In M emo riam

When the parenthes is fo rms .

part o f the preced ing sentence put the perio d o uts ide (as fo r , ,
 P UN CT UATION 103

ins tance , here) . T his was v

s e en t y years earlier 44
Put the perio d within the quo tatio n mark s .
(T his is a rule

witho ut exceptio n ) .

T HE E X C LAM ATION P OIN T

5 . exclamation point is generally used to mark

The
an expression o f surpri se pain sorrow anxiety sham e , , , , ,

disapprob ation a wish or an outcry an d there f ore it

, , ,

is sometimes used alone as a mark o f critici sm or sur

prise :

Lo g live the k g
n in "
Heave n fo b d " Go o d " he
r

i

cried ; T he sub j ect o fhis lecture was

T he T hisn es s o f the T hat '

T he speaker went o n : N o bo dy s ho uld leave his ho me to mo rro w
witho ut a marked b allo t in their po cket

.

But except in very rare inst ances use a comma not an

, , ,

exclamation point af ter the exclamation Oh followe d
,

by other exclamatory word s (see p 5 8 ; chap iii s ec 6 ; . .

, .

ch ap iv s ec
.
,
.

6 T he exclamation point is placed insid e the quo

.

tatio n marks when part o f the quot ation ; otherwise ,

outside .

See illus tratio ns in sec.

5 .

THE IN TE R R OGA TION P OIN T

7 . T he interrogation poin t is use d to mark a query ,

or to express a doubt :

Who is this T he pris o ner gave his name as R o ger
Cro wnins hield , the so n o f an Englis h baro net

In dire ct questions however should not be f ollowed by

, ,

an interrogation point (see p .

He asked whether she was ill .

1 04 A M AN UAL F OR WRIT ER S

The interrogation point should be place d insid e the

8 .

quotation marks only when it is a part o f the quotation :

The q ues tio n : Who is who and what is
What Were
y o u ev er in Ts ints in nati

THE C OLON

9 . olon has two distinct f unctions o n e separa

T he c .

tive the other continuative (I ) It may separate two

,
.

clauses or grou ps o f clauses which might be tre ate d as

in depend ent senten ces an d s eparated by a perio d but ,

which the writer wishes fo r purposes o f clearness or ,

emphasis to connec t in a single sentenc e T his use

,
.

is antiqu ated an d has almost entirely d isappe are d .

may separate a clause which is grammatically

ts f rom a se cond which presents an illustr at ion
or an amplicatio n o f its meaning Or (3 ) it may .

intro du ce a f ormal st atem ent a list an extract or a , , ,

long quotation n o t intro du ce d by that (see sec
.

(1 ) A s in less creature , transgress ing the mo ral law is , then

no t an un s cien tic ass umptio n : co n s cience f
as s ertin g its el as the
vo ice divine within the hum an s o ul is then no t o nl y po ss ible , b ut
actual and real, in the his to ry of man s earlies t pro genito rs .

(2 ) M o s t co un tries have a n atio n al o wer : Fran ce the lily ;

E ngland the ro s e, etc .
(3 ) T he ru le may b e s tated thus :
A s en ten ce s ho uld always begin with a capital letter . We
quo te fro m the ad dress :

I am called upo n to pro po s e the

health, bu t : Declaring, The letter is a mo n s tro us
f o rger y ,

he tried to was h his han ds o f the who le affair .

10 . T he olon thus o f ten takes the place o f an

c

implie d

n amely
as f ollows
,

f or in stance or a ,

,

 PUN CT UATION I O5

similar phrase Where su ch a word or phrase is use d

.
,

it should be f ollowe d by a colon if what follows co n

sists o f one or more grammatically complete clauses ;
otherwise by a c omma (see below sees 2 2

, , ,
.

This is true o f o nly two natio ns the wealthies t, tho ugh
no t the larges t, in Euro pe : Great Britain and France ;

but :

This is true o f o nly two natio n s the wealthies t, tho ugh no t

the larges t , in Euro pe viz , Great Britain and France
-

. .

1 I.U se a colon af ter the salutatory phrase at the

beginning o f a formal letter an d af ter the salutation ,

o i a speaker to the chairman an d the au dien ce he is

addressing :
M y dear M r Bro wn : (See chap vii pp 1 3 3
. .
, .
,

M r Chairman , Ladies
. and Gentlemen :

12 . U se a colon between chapter an d verse in Scr ip

,

ture re ferences an d between hours an d minutes in time

,

indications (see sec 1 7 below) : .

,

M att 13 ;
. PM .

13 . U se a colon between the place o f publication

an d the publisher s n ame in literary an d bib liographical

re ferences :
Clement of Alexandria (Lo ndo n : M ac millan) II 9 7 (see , ,

chap viii p I 6 1 )
.
, . .

14 . Theolon should be placed outside the quotation

c

marks unle ss it is a part o f the quotation :

,

The fo llo wing ins tructio n is given un der the head o f Bus ines s
C o rres pondence : When a rm is the add ressee the salutato ry

,

phras e s ho uld b e Gentlemen : o r Dear Sirs :

106 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

THE SE MI COLON

15 . semicolon is used wi thin a sentenc e to mark

T he
a di vision somewh at more distin c t than that mark ed
by a comma (see above s ec ,
.

Are we giving o ur lives to perp etuate the things that the pas t
has created fo r its n eeds fo rgettin g to ask whether thes e thin gs
,

s till s erv e to day s n eed s ; o r are we think in g o f liv ing m en "

T his is as impo rtan t fo r s cience as it is fo r practice ; in d eed , it

may b e s aid to b e the o nl y impo rtan t co n s id eratio n .

16. enu merations separate the item s by semi colons

In ,

u nless they are very short an d contain no commas ; or

they are very lo ng an d require by their gr ammatical ,

stru cture period s exclamatio n o r interrogatio n poin ts

, , ,

colons or oth er s emi colons :

,

T he memb ers hip o f the in tern atio n al co mmis s io n was mad e

up as fo llo ws : France 4 ; G erm any 5 ; Great B ritain I (o win g
, , ,

to a misun d ers tanding, the anno un cemen t did no t reach the

E n glis h s o cieties in tim e to s ecure a full quo ta fro m that

co untr y) ;
Italy , 3 T he d efendan t, in j us ti catio n o f his act,
.

plead ed that (a) he was d espo n d en t o v er the lo s s o f his wife ;

(b) he was o ut o f wo rk ; (c) he had had n o thing to eat fo r two
d ays ; (d) he was un d er the inuen ce q
o f li uo r . B ut : The ques
tio ns ,

What is y o ur n atio n alit y"
What is yo ur religio n "
Are y o u n aturaliz ed " all pro ved to b e

s tu mblin g blo cks

-
to
the applican ts .

17 . re ferences the semi colon is us ed to

In Scripture
separate passages co ntainin g chapters (s ee sec 1 3 above)

.
,

Gen . 6 , 9, 14; chap .

5;

18 . semicolon should be place d outside the quo

T he
tatio n marks unless it is a part o f the quot ati on
, .
 PUN C T UATION 10 7

T HE COMMA

19 . o mma is used to ind icate the smallest
T he c

inter ruptions in continui ty o f thought or grammatical

constru ction the markin g o f whi ch cont ributes to cle ar
,

ness :
The d o ctrin e is indeed laid do wn by an autho rity here an d
, ,

there ; but s peaking gen erally it has no place in the s tan dards
, , ,

creeds o r co nfes s io ns o f the great co mmunio n s ; e g the Apo s tles

. .
, ,

Creed the N icene Creed the cano ns o f the early ecumen ical
, ,

co uncils the Wes tmins ter Co nfes s io n the T hirty ni n e Articles

, ,
-

G o ss iping wo men are happy {to dis tin guis h fro m

, ,
Go s s ipin g
wo men are happy .

20 (I ) If a series of word s or groups o f words co n

.

sists o f only two members they should not be separate d ,

by commas unless the groups them selves are very long ;

(2 ) if the series consists of three or more members with
c onj unc tions conne cting each no comma is ne cessary ,

unless the series is very long or the groups themselves

are long ; (3 ) ifin a series of three or more members the
conjun ctions are omitte d except between the last two

e ach group o f the series should be set o by a comma:

(1 ) Co pper and go ld are pro duced in quantities ; bu t:
T he co ns tan t tho ugh wavering s truggle b etween the represen ta
tives o f the two attitudes o f min d and the mis fo rtun e and ev il,

which co me fro m religio us dis b eli ef co ns tituted the main s ub j ect

o f his address (2 ) He was equally familiar with the wo rks
.

of Ho mer and Dan te an d Go ethe ; but : He was equally

familiar with the wo rks o fHo mer, and Shakespeare and M o liere , ,

v
and Cer an tes , and Go ethe, an d I b sen ; N either Fran ce fo r her
art, no r G ermany fo r her army , no r England fo r her d emo cracy
1 08 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT E R S

can be t ci ed .
3) The d isco urse was beautifully , l quently
eo ,

and fo rcefully d elivered ; T he b rav ery its men ,

of the b eauty
of its wo men , and the in telligen ce o f the ris ing generatio n ,

co mbined , etc.

a comma

Etc . should always '

b e preced ed by .

2 1. use a comma (two if necessary) to

Ordinarily ,
separate from the rest o f the sentence clauses introduced

by su ch conjun ctions as an d but if while ,

,

,

,

as ,

whereas since be cause when
,

af ter ,

,

, ,

although etc especial ly if a chan ge o f subjec t takes
,
.
,

pl ace :
When he arrived at the railway s tatio n the train had go ne , ,

and his friend who had co me to bid him go o dbye had departed
, , ,

but left no wo rd As the next train was no t due fo r two ho urs

.
,

he decided to take a ride abo ut the to wn al tho ugh it o ered little ,

o f interes t to the Sights eer While he regretted his failure to .

meet his frien d he did no t go to his ho us e

, .

But do no t use a comma before clauses intro du ce d by

su ch conj un ctions if the pre ceding clause is not logically

complete wi thout them ;

nor be fore if but an d ,

,

altho ug in brief an d closely weld ed phrases :

This is especially in teres ting b ecause they repres ent the two
extremes a nd b ecaus e they pres en t dif feren ces in their relatio ns ;
This is goo d b ecaus e true ; I s hall agree to this o nly if y o u accept
my co nditio ns .

22 onjun ctions ad verbs connective par ticles

. Such c , , ,

an d phras es as

now then however in d eed , , , ,

therefore m or over
e ,

furthermore
n everthe ,

,

in f act

less , though in short ,for instan ce , , ,

 PUN CT UATION 19 9

2 u
that is of course
, on the contrary , on the ,
(d

other han d af ter all ,

to be sure for example
,

,

,

etc . should be followed by a comma when standing at

,

the beginni ng o f a sentence or clause to introdu ce an

in f erence or an explanation and shoul d be place d ,
"

between co mmas when wedged into the midd le o f a

sentence or clause to mark o ff a distinc t break in the
continui ty o f thou ght or stru c ture to in dicate a s um ,

mariz in g of what prece des the point o f a new departure , ,

or a mo difying restrictive or antithe tical addition etc :

, , ,
.

In deed this was exactly the po in t o fthe argumen t; M o reo ver

, ,

he did no t thin k it feas ible ; N o w the ques tio n is this ,

N evertheless he co nsented to the scheme ; In fact rather the

, ,

revers e is true ; This then is my pos itio n : ,

The s tatement
, ,

therefo re canno t b e veried

,
.

But do n o t use a comma with su ch wor ds when the

conne ction is logica lly close an d structurally smooth
enough not to call for an y pause in re adin g ; wi th

there f ore nevertheless etc when directly follow
,

,
.
,

in g the verb ; with ind eed when directly preceding

or followin g an adje ctive or another adverb which it

qu alies ; nor ordinarily with su ch terms as perhaps
,

also ,
li kewise etc :

,
.

He was therefo re unable to be presen t; It is nevertheless true ;

He is reco vering very s lo wly indeed ; He was perhaps thin king
o f the future ; He was a s cho lar and a s po rtsman to o .

2 3.A comma is pr ef erably omi tted before rather

in such an expression as :
The tun e value is to be meas ured in this way rather than b y
-

the time equivalent o f the s trata

- .
1 10 A M AN U AL F OR WR IT ER S

2 4. If among
several adje ctives pre ceding a noun
the last bears a mo re direc t relation to the noun than
the o thers it should not be prece de d by a comma:
,

The admirable po litica

l ins titutio n s o f the co un try ; a hand
s o m e wealthy yo ung man
, .

Participial phrases , espe cially su ch as cont ain an

25.

explan ation o f the ma in clause , sho uld usu ally be set

of
f by a comma:
B eing as leep, he did n o t hear him ; Exhaus ted by a hard day s

wo rk , he s lept lik e a s to n e .

26 . omma b efore not introd ucing an

Put a c

antithetical clause or phrase :

M en addict thems elves to in ferio r pleas ures n o t because they ,

d eliberately prefer them but because they are the o nly o n es to

,

which they have access .

27. F o r parenthetical , adverb ial ,

or apposi tion al
clauses or phrases use commas to ind icate stru c tur ally

disconn ected but lo gically relate d interpolations ; use

, ,

d ashes to indicate both structurally an d lo gically di s ~

c onn e cted inserti ons ; do not use the two togethe r

(s ee below secs 5 9 6o
,
.
, ,

Sin ce fro m the naturalis tic po in t o f view men ta

, l s tates ,

are the co nco mitants of phys io lo gical pro cesses ; T he French,

gen erally speakin g, are a natio n o f artis ts ; The Engli sh, highly
demo cratic as they are, ne ev rtheless deem the no bility fun da
men tal r
to thei po litical and s o cial ys tems ; There was a time
fo rget the exact date
s h
I
when thes e co nditio ns were changed .

Use a comma to separate two identi cal or closely

2 8.

similar word s even if the sense o r grammatical co n

,
 PUN CT UAT ION I I I

stru ction does not require su ch separation (see above ,

s ee .

Whatever is
is go o d ; What he was , is n o t kno wn ; T he chief
,

aim o facademic s triving o ught to b e, to b e mo s t in evi den ce ; It is

q
un i ue o nl y in this , that it presents o nl y o n e side o f the ques tio n .

U se a comma to separate proper nouns meaning

29 .

diff erent persons or places :

To Jo hn ,
Smithwas always kind ; T o America, Euro pe awards
the priz e of mechanical s kill .

30 . Simi larly , use a comma to separate two nu mbers :

In 1905, 3 47 teachers attend ed the co n ventio n ; N o vemb er
1 , 19 13 .
(See belo w ,
s ecs .
38 ,

A dje ctival phrases containin g a complementary

31 .
,

qu alifying d elimi ting or antithetical adje ctive adde d

, ,

to the main epithet prece di ng a noun should be set o

by commas :
This hars h tho ugh perfectly lo gical co nclus io n ;
,
T he ,

d eceas ed was a s tern and unappro achable y e t withal sy mpathe tic ,

an d kind hearted gen tleman ; Here co mes in the mo s t respo n

-
,

s ible because it is the nal o i ce o f the teacher ; The mo s t

, ,

sens itive if no t the mo s t elus ive part o f the training o f children

, ,
.

32or more co ordi nate clauses or

. T wo -

phr ases
ending in a wor d governin g or mo difying one an d the
sam e word should be separated by a comma:
A s hallo w bo dy o f water co nn ected with but pro tected fro m,
,

the o pen s ea; He was as tall as , tho ugh much yo un ger than ,
his bro ther .
112 A M AN UAL F OR WRI TE R S

33 A comma is employed to indicate the omission

.
,

f or brevity or convenience o f a wor d or words the ,

r epeti tion o f which is not ess ential to the meaning :

In Illino is there are seventeen such ins titutio ns ; in Ohio ,

twenty two ; in In diana thirteen ;

-
Price ten d o llars
, , .

Of ten , however such constru ctions are smooth enou gh

,

not to call for commas (an d the consequent semicolons) :

One puppy may res emble the father ano ther the mo ther and , ,

a third so me d is tan t ances to r .

34A direct quotation maxim, or simil ar expression

.
, ,

when brief , Should be separated from the pre ce ding part

o f the sentence by a comma (see above s ec , .

Go d s aid , Let there b e light

.

35 . Ordin arily put a omma af ter the exclamation

c

(see above ; chap iii s ec 6 ; chap iv

0h p 58 ;
. sec .
5, .
, . .
,

s ec .

Oh, that I had n eve r been bo rn "

U se a c omma bef ore
36 . of
in c onnection with
residence posi tion or title : , ,

M r and M rs M cIntyre, o f Detro it, M ich

. . . Pres iden t Harry
Pratt Judso n, o f the Univers ity o f Chicago .

Exceptions are those cases hi storical an d political in , ,

which the place n ame practically has be co me a part o f

-

the person s n ame or is so closely connec ted wi th it

,

as to ren der the separation articial or illogical :

Clement o f Alexan dria; Philip o f Anj o u ; Kin g Geo rge o f

En gland .
 PUN CT UATION 1 13

37 Do not use a comma b etwe

. n c
. onse cutive pages
in li terary re ferences but use the , eu -
dash (see below ,

sec

.

pp 4 , 7 8 ,
. 10 ; Ez ra 8 .

38 . Put a comma af ter digi ts indi catin g thousand s ,

except in a date or in a page reference : -

January 1 9 09 2 200
, p , . 2 46 1 .

39 . Separate month an d
year , an d similar time di vi
sions by a co mma (see abo ve s ec ,
.

N o vemb er 1 9 0 5 ; N ew Year s Day F riday M ay

, , 1 906 ; , 3 .

40 Omi t the
. omma in signatures when followe d
c , ,

by or position in a separate line an d af ter

add ress , title , ,

address f ollowe d by a date line etc (f or the practice ,

.

in letter writing see chap vii und er The
-
, .
,

JAME S P R OB IN SON .

S uperintenden t ofS chools

4 1 The . c omma is always place d inside the quotation

marks .

THE APOSTR OPHE

42 . The apostrophe is use d to mark the o mis sion o f a

letter or letters in the contraction o f a word , or o f
gures in a number :

do n t, twas , takin me at ; m fg ; the class

of

ne er, 96 .

(See chap iii , sec 2 3 ; chap v, s ec

. . . .

43The possessive
. se o f nouns common and ca ,

proper , is f ormed by the addi tion of an apostrophe ,

or apostrophe an d s (see chap iii s ec .

, .

aman s ho rses tails ; Sco tt s I vanho e Jo n es s farms Themis

, , ,

to oles era; fo r appearance s ak e

.
1 14 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITE R S

44 T he plural o f num erals , an d of rare or articial

.

noun coin ages , is fo rme d by the aid o f an apostrophe

-

an d s ; that o f pro per nouns of more th an one syllable

ending in a sibilant by addin g an apostrophe alone ,

(monosyllabic proper names ending in a sibilant add es ;

others s ) : ,

in the 1 9 00 s ; in two s an d three s the three R s the

thes e I j us t d o
, ,

ll the T o mmy

as I a - - -

Atkins o f England (but: the R o sses and the M acdo ugals) ;

the Pericles and So crates o fliterature

.

Q U OTATION M AR K S

Quotations of a passage f rom an au thor in his

45 .

own wor ds run into the text should begin an d en d wi th

, ,

quotation marks .

46 U se quotation marks f or qu o tations f rom dif

.

feren t authors o r f rom different works by the s ame

,

author f ollowing each other unin terrupted by an y

, ,

intervenin g origin al matter or by an y re f eren ce to ,

their respective sources (other than a re f eren ce gure

for a footnote) even though su ch quotations are to be
,

in reduced type (see chap viii p I .

,
.

47 Quote a wor d or phrase accompan ied by its de

.

n itio n :

fo lio mean s a page number at the fo o t o f the page
Dro p -

-
.

48 Quote an un usual te chn ical iron ical etc wor d

.
, , ,
.
,

or phrase in the text whether or not accompan ie d by a ,

word like s o called direc ting attention to it:
,
-

,

Her ve o clo cks were famo us in the n eighb o rho o d ; She

lo bs ter

was w i f co lo red s ilk ; He was elected

ear ng a go wn o
 PUN CT UAT ION 1 15

mas ter of the ro lls

; We repaired to what he called his

quarter deck

; A lead is ins erted between the li nes .

49translations quote the English equi valent o f

. In ,

a word phrase or passage f rom a f oreign langu age :

, ,

Weltans chauun g wo rld view o r fundamen tal as pect o f

,

-

life ; M o mms en Komische Ges chichte ( His to ry o f

,

Quote word s or
50 .
phrases to which particular
attention is d ire c ted :
lynch law ; the phrase liberty o f co ns cience

the term

;

the co n cepts go o d and b ad ; the n ame Chicago

.

51 . The titles o f book series should be quoted :

E nglis h M en s eries ;

of Letters In tern atio n al C ritical
Co mmen tary

.

52 . Ti tle s o f short poems are put in quotation

marks (see chap . vi , sec .

Shelley T o a Skylark

s .

Cited titles o f sub divisions

53 .
parts books , ,

chapters etc ) o f publi cati ons titles o f papers le ctur e s

,
.
, , ,

addresses s erm ons articles toasts mottoes etc should

, , , , , .
,

be inclose d in quotation marks (see chap iv s ec .

,
.

B eginn in gs fthe S cien ce ofPolitical Econ omy

o , Vo l I , . chap . i,
T he Britis h Scho o ; chap ii, J o hn Stuart M ill ; the articles

l .

Cro ss ,

Crucixio n , and Crus ade

i Has t gs Dicti on ary
in

JapanIts
n

f the B ible;
o The su bj ect of the lecture was Pas t,
Pres en t, and Future .

When ref erence is made to parts o f a specic work ,

i e Pre face Intro duction T able o f Contents In d ex

. .
, , , , ,
1 16 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITE R S

etc .
,
su ch word s should be capi taliz e d but not quote d
,

(s ee chap . iv, s ec .

See the Preface , p iii ; T he Intro ductio n co n tains much o f

.

in teres t ; T he Appendix o ccupies a hundred pages ; but : T he

bo o k has a very co mplete index .

54 . N ames of ships are put in quot atio n marks :

The US

. SS . Orego n .

55 . Titles pictures an d works

of of art are quote d :
T he Ho ly Family

M urillo
s

.

5 6 Quotation marks shoul d always in clu de elli pses ,

.

an d the phrase etc

when it otherwise would not be .

l r that it stand s for an omi tte d part o f the matter

c ea

quo ted per fect clearness in each individual cas e b ein g

,

the best cri terion :

Art II s ec 2 o f the Co n s titutio n pro vides that each s tate

. .
, ,

s hall appo in t a numb er o f electo rs equal to the who le

numb er o f s en ato rs and representatives He also wro te

a s eries o f Helps to Disco very etc

here indicatin g , .
,

n o t that he wro te o ther wo rk s which are unn amed but that ,

the title o f the o ne named is n o t given in full ; b ut o n the ,

o ther hand : Preachin g fro m the text F o r Go d s o lo ved the
,

here bein g placed o uts id e o f the

wo rld etc ,

quo tatio n marks in o rder to s ho w that it do es no t s tand fo r o ther ,

unn amed o b j ects o f G o d s lo ve

.
,

57Quoted prose matter whi ch is broken up into

.

par agraphs should h ave the quot ation marks repeated

at the beginn ing of each paragraph .

D ouble quotation marks are used f or primary

58 .

quotations ; f or a quotati on within a quotation , single ;

 PUN CT UATION 1I 7

goin g back to double for a thi rd to sin gle for

, a fourth ,
an d so on :

The r then pro ceed ed : The dictio nary tells us that
o rato

the wo rd s freedo m and liberty tho ugh o ften interchanged

,

,

are dis tinct in so me o f their applicatio ns .

THE DASH

5 9 A dash is use d to d enote a sudd en bre ak , stop ,
.

or transition in a sentence , or an abrup t ch ange in its

constru ction along or signi cant pause or an unexpe cte d
, ,

or epigrammatic turn o f sentiment :

Do we can to es en d o u t educated b o ys and girls fro m the

high s cho o l at eighteen " The Plato nic wo rld of the s tatic ,
an d the Hegelian wo rld o f pro cessho w great the co n tras t "

that is the magic wo rd o f the mo dern perio d ; Yo u
b
Pro ces s
'

will un ders tan d ut n o , I believe vo u are in capa le o f un der b

s tanding "

U se dashes (rarely parenthesessee below sec

60 .
,
.

7 0) f or parenthetical clauses whi ch are both logi cally

an d stru c turally in d epend ent interpolations (see above ,

see .

This may b e s aid to b e but, v mind we will v er

pass
ne er ,
o

that ; There came a time let us s ay , fo r co n v enience with

wh
,

Hero do tus and Thucydid es en this atten tio n to actio ns was

co n s cio us and d eli b erate .

A clause add ed to len d emphasis to or to explain

61 .
,

or expand a word or phrase occurring in the main

,

clause wh i ch word or phrase is then repe ate d should be

, ,

introdu ced by a dash :

To him they are mo re impo rtan t as the so urces fo r his to ry
the his to ry o f ev ents an d ideas ; Here we are face to face
I 18 A M AN UAL FOR WRITER S

with a n ew and di

icul t pro blem n ew and difcult, that is ,
in the sense that we are un prepared fo r it .

62Wherever a n amely is impli ed be fore a paren
.

thetical or complementary clause a dash should pre f er ,

ably be use d (see above sec

.
,

These dis co veries gu n po wder, printing press ,

-
co mpas s ,

an d te les co pe were the weapo n s b efo re which the o ld s cien ce

b
trem led ; B ut here we are tren ching upo n ano ther divis io n
o f o ur eld th e inte rpretatio n o f N ew Tes tament bo o ks .

63 In
senten ces broken up into c lauses the n al
summariz ingclause should be preced ed by a d ash :
.
,

Amos , with the id eathat Jeho vah is an upright judge

Ho sea, who se M as ter hated in j us tice and falseho p d
Is aiah, who s e Lo rd wo uld have mercy o nl y o n tho se who relieved
the wido w and the fatherles s these were the spo k es men .

64 A word or phrase set in a separate lin e an d

.

su ccee de d by par agraphs at the begin nin g o f e ach o f ,

which the original phras e is implied should be f ollowed ,

by a dash :
I reco mmend
1 T hat we k ill him
. .

2 . That we ay him .

A d ash should be used

65 . in onne ction with side
c

heads whether paragr aphe d or
, run in :

B i bli cal cri ticism in o ther den omin atio n s

A mo s t interesting ar ticl e appeared in the E xpos itory Ti mes
o f Decemb er, 1 8 9 1

The language of the N ew Tes tamen t The

21 . lexico ns of
Grimm Thayer, Cremer, and o thers treat this sub j ect
-
fully .
 PUN CT UAT ION 1 19

The language o f the N ew T e s tamen t

21 . T he lexico ns
o f G rimm T hayer, C remer , an d o thers treat this s ubj ect fully
-

Th
.

N OTE e wo rd has been ta ken fro m Webs ter s

I n ter
n ati on al Di cti on ary .

66 U se a dash in place o f the word to conne ctin g
.

two word s or numbers (see above s ec ,

.

M ay July 1 9 0 6 (en das h) ; M ay 1 1 9 0 5N o vemb er 1 1 9 0 6

- -

, , ,

(em da
-
s h) ; pp 3 7 (emdas h) ; Luke
.
-
(em das h) -
.

But if thewor d f rom pre ce d es the rst wor d or n um

b er do n o t use the d ash in ste ad o f to :
,

Fro m M ay I to July 1 1 9 0 6 , .

In connec ting conse cutive nu mbers omi t hund re d s ,

f rom the se cond number use only two gures

unless the rst nu mber end s in two ciphers in which ,

case repeat ; if the next to the last gur e in the rst

number is a cipher do not repe at thi s in the se cond

,

number ; but in citing d ates B C always repe at the . .

,

hun dred s (be cause representing a diminution not an ,

in cre ase) :
1 8 80 9 5 6 6 pp

7 pp 1 00

103 ;

pp 1 1 3,1 ; 1 9 00
. 1 9 0 1 0 2 ,
.
,
.

387 3 2 4 D C . .

67 A dash should pre ce d e the re ference (to autho r

.
,

title of work or both) f ollowing a dire ct quotation co n

,

sisting o f at le ast one complete senten ce in f ootnotes ,

or when cite d ind ependently in the text :

I felt an emo tio n o fthe mo ral s ublime at beho lding s uch an
I

in s tance o f civic hero is m Thirty Years I 4 7 9.

, ,
.

The Wedding Gues t he b eat his b reas t ,

Yet he can no t cho o s e but hear

C
.

The An cient M

o leridge, arin er .
1 20 A M AN U AL F OR W RITERS

68 A dash should not ordin arily be used in conne c

.

tion with an y o ther pun ctu ation point except a perio d ,

(s ee above sec
Dear Sir : I have the ho no r etc ; no t: Dear Sir:
.
,

I have the
ho no r etc ; T his I say it wi th regret
.
,

T his
, . was no t do ne ; no t :
,I s ay it with regret was no t do ne
,
-
.

But in a senten ce where a co mma woul d be necess ary if

the parenthetical clause set o ff by dashes di d not exist ,

the co mma may b e retaine d be fore the rst dash :

Darwin the pro mulgato r o f the theo ry tho ugh by no mean s
its o nly s uppo rter
, ,

is regarded to day etc ,

.

An d when the parenthetical cl ause set o by dashes

i tsel f requ ires an interrogation or exclamation poin t ,

su ch pun ctu ation may be retaine d in conn e ction with

the se cond d ash :
Sen ato r B lan ks hall we call him s tates man o r po litician

in tro duced the bill ; If the s hip s ho uld s in kwhich Go d fo rbid "
he will be a ruined man .

PARE N THE SE S

The term parentheses is applie d to the elli ptical

as di s tingu ished f rom the squ are brackets .

69 . Paren theses are

used to in close gures or letters
th at mark divisions in enum erations whi ch are run into
the text :
The reaso ns fo r his res ign atio n were three : (1 ) advanced age ,

(2 ) failing health (3) a d es ire to travel

, .

When su ch di visions are separate d into paragraphs ,

by means o f gures or capital letters parentheses should ,

 P UN CT UAT ION 121

not be used but a period should follow the gure or

,

letter If the paragraphed sub divisions are ind icate d

.

by the symbols a b c etc these should be used with a

, , ,
.
,

half parenthesis
-
a parenthesis on the right o f the
gure only) (see chap vi s ec .
,
.

A Un der the head o f

.

1 Under .

1 Under .

a) Un der

70 . should not ordinarily be use d to

Parentheses
mark parenthetical clauses (see above secs 2 7 ,
.
,

unless confusion might arise from the use o f less d is

tin ctive marks or u n less the content o f the clause is
,

wholly irrelevant to the main argu m ent :

He mean t I take this to b e the (s o mewhat o b s cure) s ense o f
his s peechthat the matter was o f no co nsequence ; T he perio d
thus in augurated (o f which I s hall s peak at greater length in a
later chapter) was characteriz ed by man y exces s es ; T he co n ten tio n
lIas been made (o p cit ) that he was no t the o rigin ato r o f the plan

. . .

B R AC KE T S

T he term brackets is applied to the square

marks as d istinguishe d f rom the elliptical paren

theses (
7 r Brackets are use d (I ) to inc lose an explanation
.

or note (2 ) to indicate an interpolation in a quotation

, ,

(3 ) to rec tify a mistake (4) to supply an omission an d , ,

(5 ) for parentheses within paren theses :

(I ) [T his was written b efo re the pub licatio n o f Spencer s

bo o k EDITOR ] (2) T hey [the free s ilver Demo crats ] ass erted
.

.
-
122 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

main tain ed in den itely

that the present articial rat o i can be .

(3 ) As the Italian [Englishman] Dante G ab riel R o s [s ] etti has
s aid (4) Jo hn Rus kin . By Henry C arpen ter .

[ Englis h M en o f Letters series Lo ndo n : B lack

,
1 9 00 .
,

(5 ) Gro te the great his to rian o f Greece (s ee his Histo ry

, , I, 2 04

[s eco nd s ays that etc ,

.

E LLIPSE S

7 2 Ellipses , consisting of a series o f d ots , or period s

.

usu ally fo ur are used to indicate the omission f r o m a

quotation o f one or more wor d s not essential to the id e a
whi ch it is desired to convey an d also to in dicate ,

illegible word s mutil ations an d other l acun ae in a docu

, ,

ment M S or other material whi ch is qu o ted

, , Where .
,

in poetry one o r more complete li nes are omitte d insert

, , ,

a full line of perio d s .

The po in t is that the s am e fo rces are s till

the und ercurren ts o f ev ery human life We may n ever .

unrav el the metho ds o f the phys ical fo rces ; b ut

he so ught the lumb erer s gang
,

Where fro m a hundred lak es yo ung rivers s prang ;

Thr
o ugh these green by eld es t n ature dres t
ten ts , ,

He ro am ed , co n ten t alik e with man and b eas t .

7 3 A n ellipsis wi thin a quotati on should be tre ate d

.

as a part of the quot at ion ; an d consequently shoul d be

in close d in the quotation marks (see above , secs .
56,
71
H YPHE N S

hyphen is use d (I ) at the end o f a line when

7 4 T he.

it is ne cessary to divide a wor d there an d (2 ) in many ,

compound wor ds (see chap iii se cs 3 1 .

,
 CH A PTER VI

T HE USE OF ITALIC

Italic isused (1 ) to express emphasis an d (2 ) to set ,

off a title passage or word from the co ntext

, , With the .

purely typographical uses o f i talic su ch as its choice for ,

he ad s or f or display thi s book has nothing to do W e

, .

conne ourselves here to rules governing its use by

writers an d authors A ccordingly the rules which f ollow

.
,

(in part con densed from the M an ual of S tyle [T he Un i

versity of Chicago Press 3 d will be f oun d to be
,

only those whi ch good practice requires an d whi ch may ,

be followe d saf ely .

T he use o f itali c type is in dicated in the manuscript

by un d erscoring with a sin gle straight line the letters or
word s th at are to be itali ciz e d .

On e rule o f general appli cation may be stated at the

outset : Italic should be use d sparingly to express
emphasis The practice o f it ali ciz ing word s too f reely
.

spoils rather than add s to the eff ect and we aries the ,

re ader .

1 U se i talic (underscore) for word s or phrases to

.

whi ch it is d esired to len d emphasis or importance etc : ,

.

, , cien tly plain that

This was ho wever n o t the case ; It is s uf
the s ci ences o flife
,
at leas t, are s tudies o f pro ces s es .

2 . Italiciz
e foreign wor d s an d phrases adopted into
the Engli sh language ; also (as a rule) single sentences
1 23
 1 24 A M AN UAL F OR WR I TE RS

or brief passages not o f s uicien t length to call for formal

quotation
the Darwini an Weltans chauung; the lais sez faire habit ; -

the deb ater par excellen ce o f the Sen ate ; De gusti bus n on es t
dis putandum o r as the French have it Chacun ason go ut
, , , .

But do no t italiciz e foreign titles preceding n ames or ,

names o f foreign institutions or places streets etc the , ,

.
,

m e aning or posi tion o f which in E ngli sh would r equire

roman type :
Pere Lagrange Freiherr vo n Schwenau the Champs E lys ees
, , ,

the German R eichs tag the M useo d elle T erme , .

F ollowing is a partial li st o f word s which h ave been

ad opted into the Engli sh lan gu age f rom other langu ages ,

but which are now r egarded as angliciz e d an d should

'

no t be it ali ciz e d even when retaining the ir origin al

,

accents

ad in terim bo na de co n sen sus d no uemen t

adden dum bo n to n co n tra depot ( =
depo s i
(plur da) .
-
bo uillo n co n trete mps to ry)
ad lib litum] bravo co rrigen du m de rigueur
bric abrac - -

d to ur
a po s terio ri cabaret

co up d etat dilettan te
a prio ri caf co up de grace divo rcee
apro po s creche do ctrin aire
aide de camp canto criterio n d ramatis per
alias carte blan che (plur a) .
-
so n ae
ali bi cen sus c ul d e s ac
- -
clat
Alma M ater chapero n datum (plur a) .
-
lite
amateur charg d aaires

b
d ris enco re
ann o Do mini chau eur b
d ut enn ui
an te ellum
-
b che f d o euvre


d co ll et ensem ble
atelier Chiaro scuro d elicatess en en tr e
attach cle f d emi lun e
-
en trepot
has reli e
-
f clien tele d emi mo nde
-
erratu m (plur .
-
a)
beau ideal co n re f
re demi relie o
-
v et cetera
billet do ux co nno is seur demi tas s e
-
ex cathedra
 THE USE OF ITALIC 1 25

ex o cio perso nn el s auer raut k

expo se matad o r sa van t
facade matinee po s tmo rtem (u . seno r
facsimile melee seraglio
menu po s t o it b so briquet
fete mo tif s o ir e
n is n ai ve pro an d co n [ tra] s pirituel
fracas n e pro c s er al v b s tein

garage net pro rata su bpoena

gratis n v pro t g techn iq uex
b
ha eas co rpus n iche pro tem [po re] tete atete- -

b
ha itu n il pro toco l to nn eau
hangar no l 1e [ ]
pro s q ui]
no m de plume q uo n dam umlaut
hegira o nus q ueue verbatim
ho rs do euvres papier ma ch rago ut verso
pater amilias f vers us (v .
, vs )
.

l s e maj es t pato is regime

levee vice versa
litterateur per capita r su m vis -
avis-

litterati per cen t

M agn a C [h] arta per co n tra tale viva vo ce
man damus per se
l
See chap iii , . sec . 2 .

3 . The f ollowin g
word s phrases and abbreviations , ,

l ref erences should be it ali ciz ed :

u se d in liter ary an d lega

ad circa et al .
, ibid .
,
id em, i nfra, loc . cit , o p cit ,
.

pas si m, sic , su ra, s

p . v, aide
. .

But do no t i taliciz e :
cf , etc. .
, eg i e
. .v , . .
, . or vs .
(versus) , viz .

e ti tles of publi cationsbooks (in clu ding

4 Italiciz
.

plays ess ays cycles of poem s an d single poems o f co n

, , ,

s iderable length usually printed separately an d not , ,

f rom the context un derstood to fo rm parts of a larger

volume) pamphlets treati ses tracts documents an d
, , , , ,

periodi cals (in cludin g regularly appe arin g pro cee dings
an d tran sactions) ; in the case of newspapers , perio di cals ,
1 26 A M AN UAL FOR WR IT E R S

etc the n ame of the city (where published) when f ormi ng

.
,

an integral part o f the n ame (but see chap iv s ec .

. .

but n o t books o f the B ible canoni cal or apo cryphal , ,

or titles o f an cient manuscripts or sy mbols use d to ,

design ate manuscripts (D 1 6 ; M b ; P) which should

.
,

invariably be in ordin ary type (see chap iv .

,

secs 3 9 4o
.
, ,

M id s ummer N ight s

Spencer, Principles o f S o cio lo gy; A -

Dream; I dylls of the King; P aradise Lo s t; the Ind ependen t, the

M odern Lan guage R eview, R epo rt ofthe Un ited S tates Co mmis s ion er
f Educati on
o ,
Trans actions fthe Illino is
o S ociety for Child S tudy .

T his rule may b e departed f rom in extensive bib lio gr aph

ical lists in t ables or in o ther matter wh ere to fo llo w it
, ,

would result in an undue prepond erance o f i tali cs .

5 I taliciz e the word s S ee an d S ee als o when used in

.
,

an in dex or simi lar compilation f or the purpo se o f a ,

cross ref eren ce where the differentiation o f those word s

,

f rom the context is desirable ; an d the word s fo r an d read

in li sts of errata to separate them f rom the in correc t an d
,

corre c t readin gs (see p .

S ee als o So cio lo gy ; for lev ee read lev e .

6 signatures italiciz e the title or

. In position added
af ter the n ame :
ARTHUR P . M AGUI R E , S ecretary
CAR TE R H HAR RI S ON .

M ay or of Chi cago

7 Italiciz . e the symbols a) b) c) etc use d to indicate

, , , .
,

subdivisions when beginnin g a paragraph ; an d a b c , , ,

 THE USE OF ITALIC 1 27

etc .
, to the number o f verse page
af
xe d , , etc .
, to de
note a fr action al part (see ch ap v s ec .
,
.

See chap iii s ec 2 a) Luke 4 : 3 1 a

.
, .
,
.

8 . e letters used to d esignate qu antities lines

Itali ciz , ,

etc .
,
in algebraic geom etrical an d simi lar matter :
, ,

the lines ad and AD; the n th po wer .

A s a rule italiciz e letters in legend s to illustrations

9 .
,

o r in the text referring to correspondin g letters in

,

accompanying illustrations (see chap x s ec 3 p .

,
.
, .

At the po int A abo ve (see diagram) .

10 . Italiciz e particular letters o f the alphabet when

re ferre d to as su ch :
the letter u , a s mall 0 '
.

11botanical z oological geological an d paleon

. In , , ,

to lo gical matter i tali ciz e scientic (Latin) nam es of

genera an d species when used together (the generic name

being in the nominative singular) an d o f genera only , ,

when use d alo ne :

R o s a Carolin a, F elis leo , Con odectes favos us , Phyteuma Halleri;
P in us , B as idi o bo lus , Alternari a, E rythros uchus .
(See chap . iv ,
s ecs .
44 ,
In medical matter ,
however the general prac tice is to ,

print such n ames in roman avoidi ng itali cs altogether , .

In astronomi cal an d astrophysical matter :

a) It ali ciz e the Greek Latin an d A rabic names of , ,

plan ets s atellites constell ations an d individ u al stars :

, , ,

Jupiter Tethys Lyra Antares It Orion is (but: Orio n type

, , , ,
-

s tars) .
1 28 A M AN UAL FOR WRIT ER S

b) Italiciz
e d esignatio ns of celestial obje cts in well
known cat alogues ; also the F lamsteed num bers an d
B aeyer letters :
M I3 (fo r N o . 13 of M es s ier s Catalogue of N ebulae

and
Clus ters ) , B ond 6 1 9 , N G C 6 1 65 ; 85 Pegas i , f Tauri , Laland e 5 7 61
. . .

c) I taliciz e symbols f or the chemi cal elements (but in

all other cases these shoul d be wri tten in roman) (see
ch ap v sec
.
,
.

H , Ca, Ti .

d) I taliciz e the lower -

se l etters design ating certain
ca

F raunho fer lines :

a, b, g, h;

but n o t the capital le tters given by F raunho f er to Spe ctral

lines :
A H an d K ;
,

an d the letters d esign ating the spe ctral types o f stars are
n o t i t ali ciz ed :

A5 , B 3 , M b .

12 resolutions italiciz e the word
. In , R es o lved ,

but

(See chap iv

not the wor d Where as . .
,
s ec .
 C HA PTE R VII

LETTE R -
WRITIN G
In general , the considerations applicable to compo
sitio n (see chap i) should govern the writin g o f letters
.
,

an d in this connection a care ful stu dy o f chap ii is also .

recommende d T here are however several mo di ca

.
, ,

tions o f the general rules to be taken into consideration ,

d epen din g on the character o f the letter the position o f ,

the person add ressed etc Bef ore we dis cuss the vari
, .

ous classes o f letters a f ew general rules applicable to

,

all may be laid d own :

1 .T he writer of a letter Should be ar in mi n d that
the written page is to con vey ideas to the min d of ano ther .

T he su ccess with which thi s can be accompli she d de

pen d s o f course primarily on the langu age use d ; but
, ,

there are other details whi ch have a highly important

bearing on the effe ct a letter will create Paragraph .

in g pun ctu ating an d the arr ange ment of the id eas

, ,

expressed are subje cts d emandi ng especial care an d

thou ght T o o o f ten id eas are not co ordin atedare
.
-

not expresse d in proper sequence A ski lful letter .

writer is one who having rst mastered the general

,

rules of composition visualiz es so to spe ak the frame

, , ,

work o i his letter an d build s it up on a coherent an d

,

c onnecte d plan which will make itsel f clear to the mi nd

of the re cipient .

1 29
1 30 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITE R S

2 . omi t the d ate in even the most in f ormal

N ever
note ; the d ay o f the m onth expressed in gures should , ,

be un accompanie d by s t n d d rd or th: September , , , ,

not Septemb er 9 th .

3 Do not jump f rom the rst page to the f ourth

.

an d then b ack to the se cond Write on conse cutive .

pages .

4 N ever wri te in the margin o r acro ss what has been

.

written .

5 A void po stscripts
. .

6 Place the letter in the envelope so f o ld ed that

.

when r em oved it will open with the right sid e up in

position to be re ad .

Letters may be classed as (1 ) private or social ;

(2 ) business ; (3 ) formal The style an d general tre at.

ment o f these should differ considerably .

I . PR IV ATE OR SOCIA L LE T TE R S

The private or soci al letter m ay be very inf ormal ,

the d egree o f info rmality al lowable being d ependent

upon the intimacy o fthe writer an d the person add resse d .

In general one may s ay that su ch a letter should re

,
ect
the personali ty of the writer an d give the impression o f
c onvers atio n But since it is a letter attention should
.
,

be given to securing ord er (f or the s ake o f cle arness) an d

variety of expression (in order to avoid monotony an d
trivi ality o f tone) .

Colloquial language an d even Slan g are permi ssible

in a letter to one with whom the writer is on very f amili ar
 LETT ER -
WR IT IN G I31

terms ; but they should be used less f reely than in spee ch ,

for the written word has a sharpness an d a permanency

th at the spoken word lacks an d what might seem hu m or
,

ous when spoken o f ten seems c ru de or even vulgar when

written .

F or simi lar reasons carelessness o f expression n eg

, ,

lec t o f gr ammar an d all o en s es against culture an d good

,

breedin g should be avoide d .

Postscripts though unavoid able if an important

,

addi tion occurs to the writer af ter the letter is close d ,

Should always be gu ard ed against as they give an ,

impression o f scrappiness an d carelessness .

Private letters f rom the n ature of the case must

, ,

of ten contain mu ch about the writer an d there fore ,

there is always danger that they may be too full o f 1 s

,

an d on that account may seem egotist ical T he way to .

avoid this is to n arr ate events as objec tively as possible .

T o substitu te f or I su ch expressions as the pres

ent writer ,

your correspond ent is apoor device It , .

betrays sel f consciousness prod u ces awkward Engli sh

-

, ,

an d xes attenti on u pon the writer even m ore than woul d

the unobtrusive use o f I .

Und ers coring f or emphasis is attractive but d anger

ous If resorted to f requently it loses its f or ce an d
.
, ,

three or four lines o f underscorin g become necessary to

obtain any effectiveness It is better to se
. cure emphasi s ,

when possible by me ans of expression an d arrangement

,
.

So cial letters should be written with pen an d in k by

the writer him self T he use o f a pen cil or typewri ter
.
15 2 A M AN UAL FOR WRI TE RS

or the di ctation o f su ch a letter to ano ther is felt as a

lack of courtes y to the person add ressed as well as an ,

in dication of carelessness an d in di fference on the part o f

the writer Only the most extraor din ary circumst ances
.

can justif y f ailure to observe thi s man date o f custom

The he ading In so cial correspon d en ce there is

.

1 .

no h ard an d fast rule requiring the address (city or

- -

town) o f the wri ter al though i t is always desirable th at

,

it should be given an d pre f erably at the right h an d ne ar

, ,

the to p o f the sheet in two lin e s thus :

, ,

9 00 M ICHI GAN AVEN UE

CHICAGO, ILLIN OIS

letters o f this kind however it is permi ssible to

In , ,

place the address of the writer as well as the date at

the en d of the letter but in that case the position should
,

be at the lef t of the shee t below the line o f the sign ature ,

thus :
9 00 M ICHIGAN AVE N UE
CHICAGO, ILLIN OIS
September 9 , 19 13

N o pun ctu ation sho ul d be placed at the end o f the

lines ; an d the day of the month is usuallyto be expressed
in gures (see chap iii s ec It is customary
.
,
.
,

however in social correspondence th at is at all formal to

, ,

spell out the day of the month an d the year : September
the ninth ninteen hundred [an d] thirteen

The addr es s
.
,

2 . In so cial letters the name an d ,

address of the addr essee m ay be inserted or omi tted .

If inserted it may be placed at the lef t in a line below

,
 LETTER -
WRIT IN G 1 33

the signature at the close In this case the city and .

,

state o f the writer an d the d ate should be placed at the

beginnin g o f the letter in the posi tion indi cate d above

.

.
3 Th e s al uta to ry p hra s e Thi s may take any one .

o f a great number o f forms The formal Dear Sir

.

is o f course rare in social correspond ence Where for .

mality is desired Dear M r Brown or (slightly more

,
.
,

cordial) M y dear M r Brown may be reso rted to
.
,

.

In the increasing degrees o f familiarity goo d taste an d

common sense wi ll di ctate the f orm o f s alu tation
-
Vary .

ing cir cu ms tan ces will at dif ferent times afford achoice
, ,

o f wide range from which however phrases such as

, , ,

F riend Brown
Frien d John 01 almost as had
,

,

, ,

simply John Should by all m eans be exclu de d The

,

.

rst word and the n ame or the wo rd use d in place of the

,

name and the title before the name should be capital

, ,

iz ed :

M y very d ear Brother ; an d the n ame should

be followed by a comma A void abbreviations in the .

s alutation : D ear C aptai n B rown is better than

Dear Capt Brown ; but M r M rs an d D1 are
.

.
, , .

al ways to be pref erred to the unabbreviated f orms (see

c hap iii s ec

. .
,

.
4 The text O u the subjec t o f the text nothing ,

need be add ed here to what has been said in the intro

ducto ry paragraph o f this subdivis ion

.

.
5 T h e co m plim en tary cl o s e In so cial letters the .

language used depend s on the d egree of cordi ali ty ,

intimacy or relation ship exis ting be tween the corre

,

The cust omary phras es : Yours sin cerely

spo n den ts .
,
1 34 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S

Yours very truly may be added to emphasiz ed or

,

, ,

varied but the writer shoul d always remember that

,

mod eration an d reserve are pref er able to effusiveness .

Und er all circu mstances shun the offensive Yours etc ,
.

T he close is f ollowed by a comma an d is place d a li ttle

to the right o f the center o f the page
6 The s ign atur e T his is to be written on a li ne
.

by itself to en d ne ar the right hand m argin T he Chri s

,
-
.

tian nam e may be spelled o ut or abbreviated by ini tials ; ,

the surnam e sho uld of course be given in full Except .

when wri ting to an intimate friend a woman should Sign ,

her full n ame or indicate in parentheses the f orm in

I
which she should be add ressed :
GEOR GIA M ARIA BR OWN
(M R S GE OR GE C )
. .

(M R s ) . G E OR GIA M AR IA BR o wN
(M ISS) GE ORGIA M AR IA BR OW N

7 . The nv e lope
e The add ress on the envelope
.
~

Shoul d begin with the n am e pl ace d about mi dw ay b e

tween the to p an d bottom o f the envelope (In the .

Uni ted States M r preceding the n ame is pref erre d
,
.

to Es q following it ) In the li ne below rather m ore
.

.
,

to the right are placed the number an d n ame o f the

,

street (avoiding all abbreviations such as Ave , ,

an d this in turn is f ollowed in the next line still ,

more to the right by the name o f the city or town an d

, ,

in still another line by the n am e o f the state Spelled ,

in full In the lef t hand co rner may be place d an y di

.
-

re ctions or instru ctions su ch as : T o be f orward ed , ,

 LETT ER -
WRITIN G I 35

Private ,C are of Brown Publishing Company etc

,

.
,

or the number o f the post o i ce b o x A variation o f -

.

the arr angement o f the address as given above in what ,

is termed the block f orm is per mi tte d by good t aste

.
,

Both forms are given here :

M R GEOR GE C B R OWN
. .

CHI CAGO
ILLIN OIS
c c / BR OWN PUBLISHIN G Co .

or in the
, blo ck
f orm :
M R GE OR GE C B R OW N
. .

9 00 M I CHI GAN AVEN UE

CHI CAGO
ILLIN OIS
c o / BR OWN PUBLISHIN G C o .

should pref erably be omi tte d If any

Punctu ation .

is used a comma shoul d f ollow e ach line except the l ast

, , ,

where a perio d is ne cessary The stamp should always .

be place d straight i e without an y fantastic revers al or

,
. .
,

turnin g in the upper right h an d com er

,
-
.

8 Exampl e o f s o cial le tte r

. .

1 8 9 M ICHI GAN AVE N UE

CHICAGO, ILLIN OIS

DEAR GE OR GE ,
It was a dis appo in tmen t no t y o u at the club las t night
to see .

The fact is , I had a favo r to as k o f y o u that co uld be explained

better by wo rd o f mo uth than o n paper but as I s hall no t have ,

ano ther o ppo rtunity o f s eein g y o u befo re y o u leave fo r Lo ndo n ,

I mus t prefer my reques t by letter .

It happens that my s is ter M ary has been planning to s tart

fo r England abo ut the middle o fn ext mo n th which I un ders tand , , ,
1 36 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITERS

is the time at which y o u expect to leave . She wan ts to d o so me

wo rk in the B ritis h M useu m an d to meet s o me dis tan t relatives

o f o ur mo thers who m s he has ne ver seen She had in ten ded

.

v
tra eling with an aun t, b u t that lady has n ally allo wed her
q ualms o ver a s ea vo yage to cause her to ab and o n the plan .

I am wo n dering if, un der the circums tances , my s is ter co uld

j o in yo ur party Witho ut Yo ur mo ther

in co n v en ien cin g anyo n e .

an d s is ter are go in g I hear an d while they have no t me t M ary

, , ,

they hav e do ub tless heard abo u t her an d her wo rk s o that they ,

wo uld n o t regard her as a s tran ger Will y o u tell me frankly.

ho w they wo uld co n s ider this s ugges tio n

With b es t wishes fo r a pleas an t trip ,
Very s incerely yo urs ,

J OHN B R OW N
September 9 , 19 13

II . B U SIN E SS C OR R E S PON DE N CE

The writing o f business letters is an art to which

all too little attention i s paid T erseness clearness .
, ,

poli teness an avoidance o f monotonous an d hackneye d

,

expressions are all as essential as is the rigid obs ervance

,

o f the rules o f grammar spelling punc tuation an d , , ,

paragraphing N o unn ecessary word s should b e us ed ;

.

nevertheless the personality of the wri ter an d the

,

atmosphere

so to spe ak of the relations existing
, ,

between the correspond ents should be manifest throu gh

out A curt formal or h ackneye d letter m ay cre ate
a poor impressionmay even ten d to d estroy or injure
.
, ,

business relations A business letter should be so

.

written as to compel attention d evelop interest create , ,

d esire or eect a de cision

,
T he su ccessf ul writer o f a.
 LETTER -
WRIT IN G 137

business letter is one who sen d s hims elf along with hi s

message A su ccinct well word ed polite letter inuences
.
,
-

the recipient u nconsciously to himsel f in the writer s

, ,

f avor .

T he stationery used the character o f the printe d

,

or the engraved letter head the appearance o f the type

,

writing even the manner in which the letter is f old e d

, ,

all tend to exert a subtle in uence on the min d o f the

re cipient
The he ad in g The arr angement o f the place an d
.

I .

d ate in business letters is usu ally arbitr ary sinc e the ,

name an d details of the business an d the location ,

together with the name o f the city or town are usually ,

printed a space f or the date being left blank on the

,

right Either of the f ollowing forms may be used

.
,

d e pending somewhat on the space available :

9 00 M ICHIGAN AVE .

CHICAGO, ILL , September 9 , 19 13

or ,
in block
f orm :
9 00 M ICHI GA N AVE .

CHICA GO, I LL .

Septemb er 9 , 19 13

ses such as the forego ing the word Street or
In ca

A venue is usually abbreviated Ordin arily no pune .

tuatio n f ollows an y o f the lines T he n ame o f the .

month should not be abbreviated nor should the day ,

of the month be f ollowed by s t nd d rd or th

The add r es s The business n ame an d add ress
.
, , , ,

2 .

of the add ressee should be placed at the beginning o f

1 38 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S

every business letter at the lef t o f the sheet b elow the , ,

d ate line the n ame in a line by itsel f the add ress in

, ,

two lin es below Either of the f ollowin g f orms may be

.

use d :
M ess rs B ro wn Jo nes 69 Co
.
,

.

9 00 M ichigan A ve .

Chi cago , I ll .

or ,
in block
f orm :
M ess rs Brown , Jo n es {9 Co
.
'
.

9 00 M ichigan A ve .

Chi cago , Ill .

Whichever o n e o f these f orms is ad opte d the practice ,

should be uni form in respec t to the place an d date lines ,

an d the name an d add ress o f the ad dr essee In a .

typewritten le tter unless it be very short the add ress, ,

lines sho uld in both cases be single spaced

3 T.he s a l utator y ph ras e In business letters thi s .

,

should begin ush on the le f t lining up with the rst ,

line o f the address an d sho uld be f ollowed by a colon ,

.

When a rm is the ad dressee the phr as e should be : ,

Gen tlemen z or De ar Sirs : and when an in dividu al

is addressed i t should be : ,
D ear Sir : or M y d e ar

Sir : substi tuting in the case o f a woman eith er marrie d ,

or single the word M adam f or Sir
, In thi s

.

country contrary to the E nglish pr ac tice

, the phrase ,

M y de ar Sir is regard ed as more cord ial an d less

formal than De ar Sir

4 T.he t e x t A s state d in the intro du ctory par a

graph to this se ction all hackneye d phr ases are to be ,
 LETTER -
WR IT IN G 1 39

avoid ed espe ially c in complete

sentences such as : ,

Yours o f even d ate received R eplying to yours o f ,

even date we h ave to s ay
, s ame wi ll re ceive prompt ,

attention n d inclosed thankin g you in ad vance
, , ,

as above st ated etc C are should be t aken not to
, .

write in the rst person sin gular when the letter is signe d
with a rm name The rst wo r d o f the text should
.

begin in the line next below the s alutation an d should

have the s ame ind ention as all su ccee ding paragraphs
in the letter Leaving a blank line between paragraphs
.
,

as is the practice o f some business houses sets o the ,

paragraphs sh arply an d gives emphasis to each o f them ;

but it produ ces a staccato effe ct an effec t o f dis
,

continui ty an d som etim es o f overemphasis whi ch is o f ten ,

c ontrary to the intention o f the writer M u ch the s ame

may be s aid o f over
.

paragraphin g which is sometimes ,

carrie d so far as to m ake a separate par agr aph o f e ach

sentence A li ttle consideration o f these effe cts will

.
.

enable e ach writer to de cid e wh at style he wishes to ad opt

.

5 Th e.co m plim en tar y cl o s e P resent p r ac tic e li mi ts

this to the f orm s : Yours truly or Yours very trul y

,

.

The phrases : R espec tfully yours Fai thfully yours

, ,

etc . are no longer regarde d as goo d f orm in ordin ary

,

business letters Phrases introductory to the compli

.

ment ary close su ch as Beli eve me to be
,

I am ,

,

A waiting an e arly reply etc should form a separate ,

.
,

line The rst word only o f the complimentary close

.

should be capitaliz e d an d a comma should f ollow the

,

close o f the line arr ange d as follows :

,
1 40 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITER S

Awaiting an y reply earl ,

I am
Yo urs very truly ,

GE OR GE C B R OWN .

01
Yo urs truly ,

BR OWN PUB LISHING Co .

per Geo rge C Bro wn .

T he vulgar Yours etc 13 never permitte d an d no
,
.
,

d egree o f haste or famili ari ty will excuse its use

.

6 Th
. e s ign ature A s indicate d in the illustration
.

given in the preced ing section in a letter signed by the ,

rm n ame the latter should be f ollowe d by the sign ature

,

o f the person wri tin g the le tter pr eceded by the word ,

per . F or addi tional suggesti ons s ee sec 6 under

.
,

Private or Social Letters

.

7 The e n velope
. See s ec 7 under . Private an d .
,

Social Letters ,

an d s ec 7 under F ormal Letters .
,
.

8 Examples o f b us in es s letters
. .

{I "
CHICAGO, ILL , July 24, 1 9 1 3

M essrs S mith
.
, Jon es 59 '
Co .

9 9 F etter Lane
London , E C . .
, England
GE NTLE MEN :
We are ingreceipt o f yo ur co mplai nt to the effec t that N o s 7 .

an d 8 o fthe Jo urn al ofPetro lo gy were no t received by the Directo r

o fthe Geo lo gical Survey .

Our reco rds s ho w the d ispatch o f thes e n umb ers by regis

tered mail o n February 2 In V iew o f the fact that so much time
.

has been allo wed to elapse befo re the claim was made an d o f ,

the fact that o ur s to ck is V ery lo w we hes itate to duplicate this ,

 LETT ER -
WRITIN G I41

o rder further inves tigatio n We are to day sending o ut

witho ut .

a tracer and will repo rt to y o u later when we hear fro m the

, ,

po s t o
ice autho rities In the event o fadvice fro m yo ur cus to mer
-
.

that the package co mes to hand later yo u will o f course let us ,

kno w .

Yo urs very truly ,

BR OWN PUB LISHIN G Co .

per J G . .

[ 2]
C HICAGO, ILL .
, July 2 4, 19 13

M essrs S mith,
. Jones 5 '
Co .

9 9 F etter Lane
London , E C , En gland
. .

G ENTLE ME N :
Yo ur letters o f Jun e 4 an d June 1 3
Re:
We have b een delayed in canvas sing the details o f yo ur
in vo ice o f J une 4 fo r 1 6 1 53 5d and yo ur credit no te o f June 1 3
. .

fo r 7 s 6d
. On the item o f
. catalo gues there s ee ms to b e

a m arked discrepan cy b etween the amo unt autho riz ed an d the

amo unt charged . R eviewing the deta
i ls fro m o ur les we nd

the fo llo wing:
(a) Our o rder N o . 2 2 5, January 2, 1 9 13 , autho riz ed
Catal o gue o f Publicatio ns fo r Englis h and
co pies o f the

fo reign boo ksellers , private indi viduals , and Sco ttish

minis ters in acco rdance with yo ur letter o f Decemb er
1 5 , 1 9 1 2 , to co s t appro ximately 7 1 0s
'

(b) Our letter o f January 9 autho riz ed y o u to include the

co s t o f extra co pies o f the cata logue fo r Indian univer
sities a nd co lleges .

(c) The charges o n yo ur invo ice o f February 2 4 fo r 1 6 1 4s .

1 1d a nd o f July 4 fo r 1
. 1 0d are fo r the to ta l .

charges o n cata lo gues fo r the Indian univers ities an d

co lleges as per (b) abo ve .
 14 2 A M AN UAL FOR WR IT ER S

(d) Yo ur invo ice of June 4 fo r the catalo gues is 8 1z s . 6d .

plu s 4 1 7s .
3d .
, to tal 13 9 s 9 d . .
, les s credit no te 7 s .

1 od .
, 13 1s . 1 1d . T his , witho u t dis co un t, is , we un

ders tan d , yo ur to tal charge fo r (a) abo ve .

If we are co rrec t in o ur deductio n regarding (d) in the fo re

feren ce o f appro ximately
go in g, y o u wil l n o te that there is a dif
6 b etween the es timate in yo ur letter o f Decemb er 1 5 , 1 9 1 2
which was the bas is o f o ur o rder , an d the actu al amo un t
charged . We ,
o f co urs e , appreciate the act that the amo un t f
7 1 0s . was merely an es timate ; y e t we certainl y d id no t expect

that the to tal co s t wo uld amo un t to nearl y 13 . M ay we as k

y o u to go o ver yo ur gures again an d see ifa mis take has no t been
made
Yo urs very truly ,

B R OW N , WHI TE Co .

per J G . .

III . F OR MA L LE TTER S

Formal letters as distingu ished f rom either private

,

or business letters are (1 ) those add ressed to persons

,

o ccupying high positions to whom it is d esired to Show ,

some mark o f unusu al respect an d (2 ) in vit ations or ,

accept ances o r d eclin ations o f some n ature

The he adin g
.

I . In f ormal s o ci al letters the place

an d d ate are never given at the to p but at the en d an d ,

o n the le f t ; in other f orm al letters however the place , ,

an d date should b e at the right han d near the to p o f the

page as in busin ess letters without abbreviation o f the

, ,

n ame of the mo nth .

The add res s This is place d at the en d an d on

'

~
2 .

the le f t below the pl ace an d date if the l atter are not at

, ,
 LETTE R -
WR ITIN G 145

the beginning of the letter (but see pp 1 3 2 It as .

,

well as the place an d date may be arran ged as in the ,

examples given in secs 1 an d 2 und er Business Corre.

spondence but the style should be unif orm f or both

,

.

In replying to fo rmal invi t ations the add ress o f the ,

ad dressee is omi tted F or special f orms see the list at

.

the en d o f this sub divis ion (pp 1 4 5

.

3 . T he s a l utato ry phr as e Custom has estab lished

avariety of f orms f or diff erent classes of indi vidu als F or .

spe cial f orms see the li st at the en d o f thi s subd ivision

(pp 1 4 5 ii ) In cas es not covered by this li s t Sir

.
,

may be used where extrem e f ormali ty is intend ed ; in

other cases either Dear Sir or M y d e ar Sir is in

per f e ctly good taste

.

4 . Th e te xt Specially f ormal so cial letters are

.

o f ten written in the thi rd person but in that case they ,

take n o heading add ress o f the add ressee s alutatory

, ,

phrase complimentary close or s ign ature (see example

, ,

below p ,
T he d ate an d the add ress of the wri ter
.
, ,

however should always be given on the le f t at the close

, ,

an d the date should pre f er ably be spelled in full It .

must not be inf erred however that all f ormal communi

, ,

c ations should be in the th i rd person In many cases .

su ch a form o f correspondence would cause grave

offense In general it may be s aid to be usual f or
.
,

formal social invitations acceptances or d eclinations , , ,

b ut f or other purposes thi s f orm is not in favor in thi s

count ry T o express f ormality respe ct etc the gen
.
, ,
.
,

er al tone an d langu age should s u i ce .

1 44 A M AN UAL FOR WRITE R S

5 . o m pl im e
The n tary close
c A s not ed in the pre .

cedin g sec tion f orm al le tters writt en in the th

,
i rd person
take n o complimentary close The complim entary close .

in extremely f ormal letters addressed to persons in high

o i cial positions may be (with m odications) as f o llows :

I have the hon or to be Sir yo ur most o b ed ient serv , ,

o r in case o f a lesser d egree o f f o rm ali ty I am

an t , , , ,

Sir yours mo st respe ct fully ; except however in

, , ,

unusu al an d especially f ormal letters the phrase

, ,

Yours very truly is greatly to be pre ferred Except

.

in o fcial corr espon d en ce f rom an of cial o f the

gov ernment to a private perso n an d som etim es between ,

o f
ce rs o f the rmy or navy the phr ase Yo ur obe di
a

,

ent s ervant is passing out o f u s e In re cent years the .

phrase Yo ur obedient servant has been use d in this

country by a public of cial in writing to a private

in dividu al to in dicate the relation o f servant o f the
,

public which exi sts on the part o f the occupant o f
the pub li c of ce But in letters from private persons
.

it is n o longer regarded as am on g the customary co n

ven tio n s F or special form s see li st at the en d o f this
.
,

subdivision (pp 1 4 5

.

h
6 T e S ign ature
. See s ec 6 und er Pr ivate or .
,

Social Letters (p

.

7 T h e.e nvelo p e Ordin ary cases will be f oun d to be

.

covere d by the rules in s ec 7 un der Private or Social .
,

Letters (p

F or comprehensive form s covering
.

many special cases see list at the en d o f this subdivision

,

(pp 1 45
 LET TER -
WR IT IN G 145

F or conveni ence f orm s fo r the name an d add ress

, ,

the salut a tion the complimentary close an d the envelope

, ,

required in spe cial cases are grouped in the f ollowing

li st
. E very class o f persons to whom f or an y reason , ,

the f oregoing rules are not applicable is enumerate d ,

an d letters to an y person not comi ng withi n an y o f the

c lasses enu mer ated in the list should be governed by the

gener al rules given above In f ormal business letters

.

to persons covered by the li st below the name an d ,

ad dress o f the ad d ressee should ordinarily be pl ace d at the

en d of the letter an d on the le f t h an d sid e the langu age
,
-

f or the envelope being the s ame as that given for the

nam e an d address in the li st below T o place the n ame .

an d add r ess at the beginnin g however is in perf ectly , ,

good taste the choice o f the en d inste ad o f the begin ning

,

f or these details being customarily a mark o f gre ater

f ormality .

Pres id en t ofthe Un ited S tates

N ame an d address : T he Pres iden t, Was hin gto n DC , .

Salutatio n : Sir : (o r
, less fo rmal) Dear M r Presiden t: .

Clo se : Yo urs v ery trul y ,

Envelo pe : Same as given fo r name and address .

M ember of Cabin et
N ame an d address : T he Secretary of State, Was hingto n ,

DC .

Salutatio n : Dear M r Secretary : .

Clo s e : Yo urs very tru ly ,

Envelo pe : Same as give n fo r na me an d address .

146 A M AN UAL F OR W R ITER S

A mbas s ad or
N ame an d address : His Excellen cy the French Ambass ado r ,

Was hingto n DC
,
. .

Salu tatio n : Dear M r Ambas s ado r:

.

Clo s e : Yo urs very trul y ,

E nvelo pe : Same as given fo r na me an d address .

S en ato r
N ame an d address : T he Ho n . Shelby M . C ullo m United
States Sen ate, Was hin gto n , DC . .

Salu tatio n : M y dear Sen ato r : (o r mo re

,
in timate) Dear M r .

Cullo m :
C lo s e : Yo urs very trul y ,

E n velo pe : Same as given fo r na me an d address .

Co n gress man
N ame an d address : M an n , United States
T he Ho n .
J . R .

Ho use o f R epresen tatives , Was hingto n , D C . .

Sal utatio n : Dear Sir: (o r, mo re in timate) Dear M r M ann : .

Clo se : Yo urs very trul y ,

E n v elo pe : Same as giv en fo r na me and address .

Go vern or
N ame an d addres s : The Ho n E . . F . Dunne, Executive M an
s io n , Sprin geld , Ill .

Salutatio n : Dear Sir : (o r mo re

,
in timate) Dear Go vern o r
Dunn e :
Clo se : Yo urs v ery trul y ,

En velo pe : Same as given fo r n ame an d addres s .

S ecretary fState
o

N ame an d address : T he Secretary o f State, Sprin geld , Ill .

Sal u tatio n : Dear M r Secretary : .

Clo s e : Yo urs very trul y ,

E nvelo pe : Same as given fo r name an d address .

 LETT ER -
W RIT IN G 14 7

M ayor
N ame an d address : T he Ho n C arter H Harriso n , M ayo rs
. .

Off
i ce, Chicago , Ill .

Salutatio n : Dear Sir : (o r, mo re in timate) Dear M r M ayo r : .

(o r, s till mo re in timate) Dear M r Harris on : .

Clo se : Yo urs very truly ,

En velo pe : Same as given fo r na me an d address .

Jud ge
N ame an d add ress : The Ho n . Henry A . Freeman , State
Circuit Co urt B uilding, Chicago , Ill .

Salutatio n : Dear Sir : (o r mo re

, in timate) Dear Judge Free
man :

Clo se : Yo urs very trul y ,

En velo pe : Same as given fo r na me an d addres s .

C o ns ul
N ame an d addres s : T he French Co nsul , Chicago , Ill .

Salutatio n : Dear M r Co n s ul :
.

Clo s e : Yo urs very trul y ,

Envelo pe : Same as gi ven fo r na me and add ress .

Pres id ent ofa Univers ity

N ame and addres s : Pres iden t Harry Pratt Judso n Un iver,

s ity o f Chicago , C hicago , Ill .

Salutatio n : Dear Presiden t Judso n : (o r , mo re fo rmal) My

dear Sir :
C lo s e : Yo urs very trul y ,

E nvelo pe : Same as giv en fo r na me an d add ress

The P o pe
N ame an d addres s : His Ho lin es s , Po pe Pius X ,
The Vatican ,

R o me .

Salutatio n :
Yo ur Ho liness :
Co mplimen tary clo s e : Sin cerely yo urs in C hris t,
E nvelo pe : Same as given fo r name an d address .
1 48 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

Cardi n al
N ame an d addres s : His E min ence , William Cardinal O Co n

n ell, Archbisho p o fBo s to n , 2 5 Granb y Street B o s to n M as s , , .

Salutatio n :Yo ur Eminence :

Co mplimentary clo s e : F aithfully yo ur Eminence s s ervan t

,

o r Sin cerely yo urs ; if the writer is a C atho lic the wo rd s

,

in Chris t are us ually add ed

.

E n velo pe : Same as given fo r na me an d address .

A rchbis hop
N ame an d address : T he M o s t R ev . Jo hn Irelan d, D D . .
,

Archbis ho p o f St Paul, C athedral, St Paul M inn

. . .

Yo ur Grace : o r Sir :
Salu tatio n : ,

Co mplimen tary clo se : Any o f the o rdin ary fo rms s uch as ,

Very truly yo urs o r Yo urs s incerely will b e fo un d to b e

, ,

in go o d tas te ; if the writer is a Catho lic the wo rds : Sin
cerely yo urs in Chris t,

Sho uld be used .

En velo pe : Same as given fo r name an d address .

B is hop
N ame and address : T he R t R ev . . James A M cFaul, D D
. . .
,

B is ho p o f T rento n , Tren to n , N J .

Salutatio n : Right R everen d an d dear B isho p : o r, R ight R ever

en d B is ho p : o r, s i mply , an d perhaps mo re co mmo nly , Sir :
Co mplimen tary clo s e : Same as that given fo r an archb is ho
p
a b o ve .

En velo pe : Same as given fo r n ame an d addres s .

Dean or Archdeacon
N ame an d addres s : T he Very R ev . Dean R o b inso n , St .

Paul s C hurch, e tc .

Salutatio n : R everen d Sir :

Co mplimen tary clo se : Very truly yo urs , o r, Sin cerely yo urs ,

Envelo pe : Same as given fo r n ame and address .

 LETT ER -
WR IT IN G 1 49

Pries t
1 . A Paris h Pries t :
N ame and addres s : [The] R ev . Jo hn A . B ro wn , 9 00 M ichigan
Avenue, C hicago , Ill .

Salutatio n : R everen d an d dear Father : 01 , Dear R everend

Father :
Co mplimentary clo se : Yo urs s inc ere ly , or any of the mo re
fo rmal phrases .

Envelo pe : [The] R ev Jo hn A Bro wn , R ec to r J

. . o f St. o hn s

Church, etc .

2 . A Do cto r of Divinity or

N ame an d addres s : Add the letters indicating the degree to

the n ame .

Salutatio n : R everend an d dear Do cto r:

Co mplimen tary clo se and en velo pe : Same as fo r a paris h
pries t .

3 . A Vicar General o r Head o f an

-
eccles ias tical ins titutio n , s uch

as a semin ary :
N ame an d addres s : Very R ev . Francis C . Kelley ,
DD . .
,

Chicago , Ill .

Salutatio n : Very R everend and dear Father : 01 , Very R ever

end Do cto r : as the case may be
an d dear .

Co mplimen tary clo s e : Same as fo r a paris h pries t .

En velo pe : Same as given fo r n ame an d address .

8 . Exampl es o f fo r mal letter s .

[Invitatio n]
M rs G eo rge Charles B ro wn reques ts the pleasure
.

o f M r J o hn Smith s co mpany at d inner o n Wed nes

.

day even ing, Septemb er the nin th, at eight o clo ck

.

9 00 M ICHI GAN AVE NU E

September the third
N ineteen hun dred thirteen
1 59 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITE RS

[Acceptan ce]
Mr Jo hn Smith accepts with much pleas ure M rs
. .

B ro wn s kind in vitatio n to di ne o n September the

n inth As M rs B ro wn failed to name the ho ur M r

. .
,
.

Smith ho pes he is right in as s uming it to b e half

after s even o clo ck

.

9 LA KE SHORE DRIVE
Septemb er the third
N ineteen hundred thirteen

9 00 M I CHI GAN AVEN UE

CHI CAGO, ILL .
, September 9 , 19 13

The S ecretary o fState ,

Was hingto n , DC . .

D EAR M R SECRETAR Y :
.

I b eg to reques t that a pas spo rt fo r travel in Russ iahe is s ued

to me with all po ss ible d ispatch .

I am a citiz en o f the Uni ted States , and I trans mit herewith

the n eces sa ry credentials .

I am, Sir,
Yo urs respectfully ,

(o r Yo urs very truly )

, ,

G EOR GE C B R OWN .

[or,
ins tead o f at the beginning place the n ame and address
, at the
end ; s ee pp . 132

THE SECRETAR Y OF STATE

WASHIN GTON , DC . .
 C HA PT ER VIII
HIN T S ON T HE PREPARATION OF M AN U SC R IPT F OR
T HE PR IN TER

T he preparation of the manuscript f or the prin ter is

a process which usu ally be gins af ter the manus cript is
c ompleted While the d egr ee o f preparation necessary
.

diff ers with e ach work o r j o b whi ch com es to the

printer involving in som e cases actu al e ditin g an d in

, , , ,

other cases s carcely more than the notation on the

manus cript of the siz e of type in whi ch it is to be set an d
the length o f the type line it will be evid ent to anyone
-
,

that som e te chn ical supervi sion on the part of someone is

necess ary bef ore the written pages can be turned over to
different printers to set into type
Definition s
.

I
. In all printing est ablishments the
written mate rial which is to be put into type is terme d

copy When this is put into type it is Spoken of as ,

being set or set up
the terms composition
,

compositor

an d being appli ed to the process and to
the printer respe ctively The length o f the type line
.
-

(which o f course varies f or differen t works d epend ing ,

on the Siz e of the book the siz e o f type an d o f paper to

,

be used etc ) is termed measure

T his is more fully

. .
,

treate d below (chap xi pp 1 8 9 9 2 to whi ch the read er

.
,
.
,

is ref erre d) It will sufce at thi s point to state the self

.

evident fact that the compositor must be instru cted

15 1
15 2 A M AN UAL FOR WR IT ER S

regarding the measure an d the siz e o f the type to

be used before he can begin composition AS to siz es

o f type see chap xi pp 1 88
.
,

,
89 .
,
. .

The term legen d is applied to the de scriptiv e lan

guage afxed to illustrations A n illustration printed

with text
.

o n the same page as the text material

above below or besid e i t) is called a text

, ,
gure ;
a full page illustration o n spe cial paper d iff ering f rom ,

that on which the text is printed is calle d an insert ,

(see p .

T he imprint is the inscriptio n usu ally appearing

at the f oot o f the titlepage giving the n am e o f the ,

publisher the city an d year o f publication etc (see

, ,
.

p .

2 O rd er o f materi al
.

Be fore the copy re aches .

the printer however there are several things to be d one

.
, ,

by the author or by an editor f or him It should be .

b o rne in mind that it is n o part o f the du ty o f the pub

lis her or Of the printer to write an y part o f the copy f or
the author Every part o f the book there f ore m ust
.
, ,

be written out bef ore it goes to the printer What are .

termed the prelimi nary pages are too o f ten overlooke d

by the author but e ach is an in tegral ne cessary part o f

, ,

the work .

T he rst printed page in the book is known as the

half title -
som etimes calle d the short title or

b astar d title It is a page bearing only the main

.

title of the book an d is usu ally blank on its reverse ,

s id e Hal f titles are sometimes inserte d in the bo dy

"
-
.
 PR EPARATION OF M AN U SCRIPT F OR PRIN TER 153

o f the boo k either be fore e ach ch apter or to mark

, ,

special divisions o f the work T hey should usu ally .

appe ar be fore an appen dix an d be fore an index unless

these are very short .

T hen f ollows the title page bearing the ti tle an d sub

-

title (if any ) the author s name hi s academi c or other

,

,

titles (ifd esired) an d in case the book is to be privately

, ,

is not to be ar the imprint o f a publi sher)

printed ,

such imprint as the author may desire su ch as Pub

,

Printed for Private C irculation

lis hed by the A uthor , ,

etc. with the year o f publi cation below

,
.

On the next page should follow the d e claration o f

copyright in case the book is to be copyrighte d an d thi s ,

should re ad : Copyr ight 1 9 by A ll R ights
R eserve d (see chap xii p

. .
,

In case a d edication to the work is planned the page ,

cont aining the d ed icatory l anguage f ollows .

N ext in ord er should come the Pre face if an y is co n ,

templated .Thi s is usu ally placed be f ore the T able o f

Contents an d is not enumer ate d in the latter bein g ,

regarde d as not strictly a part o f the text proper .

T hen f ollows the T able o f Contents F or thi s it is .

ordin arily enough to list the titles o f the several chapters .

Sometimes however the sub divisions o f each chapter

, ,

are summariz ed un der the chapter ti tle but th at is a ,

matter to be governed by the pref erence o f the author

an d by questions o f expedien cy space available etc , ,
.

T he preparation o f the T able o f Contents should be

attend ed to in the beginni ng or the matter may be over ,
1 54 A M AN UAL F OR WRI TE RS

looked an d the book be printed wi thout it" The actu al

page num bers can be inserted later when the book has ,

be en made up into pages T he compilation o f this pre

.

supposes that titles have be en a i xed to e ach chapt er

an d th at e ach has b een numb ered in its proper or d er .

If a List o f Illustration s is desire d its proper posi tio n ,

is o n the rst o dd numbered page f ollowing the T able

-

o f Contents .

Af ter the prelimin ary matter has been prepared an d

put in place the S heets o f the complete d work should
,

b e numbered consecutively Great con f usion an d po s

.

sible expense may ari se fro m negle ct to number every

page of the copy Sheets are e asily transpose d or even
.

lost an d if they are set up o ut of their ord er the mis

, ,

take may be overlooked until too late or may involve ,

an expensive readjustment o f typ e .

If an In dex is desired one b ased on page numbers,

-

canno t o f course be prepare d un til the book has reache d

, ,

the page proo f stage when the page numbers become

-
,

available If the re f eren c es are however to be mad e to

.
, ,

sec tions or paragraphs instead o f to pages it is obvio us

, ,

that the Index can be made fro m the manuscript Ih .

d exes b ased on paging are however more convenient , ,

an d customary except in r ar e inst an ces

, F or hints on .

making the Index see below s ec 7 this chapter

, ,
.
, .

If the book is to cont ain illustr ations a d e ci sion ,

should be re ached as to their ch aracter an d number an d

siz e (whether full page o r o therwise) pref erably be fo re
-
, ,

the manuscript leaves the author s hands There are

.
 PR EPAR ATION OF M AN U SCR IPT F OR PR IN TER 1 55

several ki nds Ofillustrations an d for a f ull den ition an d ,

description o f these the reader is re f erred to ch ap ix .

,

b elo w A n estimate o f the cost o f the book must o f

.

course in clu d e the illustrations an d consequently it is ,

wise to pro cure the photographs or d rawings to be used

bef ore turning in the copy o f the work C are should
.

be exercise d in d etermini ng the language o f the legen d s

for the illustrations (see p which should be conne d

.

to one line in length when possible an d should r arely ,

exceed two lines in length

.

S ty l e In so m e publishing houses the copy

3
. .

is rst turne d over to a c opy read er who edits it f or

-

oversights errors in phraseology paragr aphing etc He

, , ,
.

notes on it the me asure (see p an d marks the

.

various passages in the text with the siz e of type in

which they are to be set prescribes the char acter o f type
,

for the chapter head s subhe ad s side heads etc ; num

, ,
-

, .

bers an d marks the f ootnotes ; un derscores or quotes

titles (see chap v s ec 5 3 ; chap vi s ec
.
,
. casts up .
,
.

t abular matter (see p an d marks the position

.

an d character o f the rul es in tables as a guide to the

printer ; an d last but not least read s everything care

, ,

fully in ord er to apply consi stent m ethod s o f capitali

z atio n punctuation an d spelli ng
, , T hese ch aracteristics .
,

in the langu age of the printing establishment are termed ,

Style is d en ed by W ebster as the mann er

style .

or plan followed in an y particular o ice or case in d ealin g

with cert ain d etails o f typo gr aphy prepar ation o f
copy d isplay an d the lik e which may be regulate d by
, , ,
1 56 A M AN UAL FOR WRIT ER S

rule an d in regard to which customs may di er as

, ,

spelling capitaliz ation an d d ivision punctu ation abbre

, , , ,

viatio n s , etc .

Within certain limi ts therefore the style appli ed , ,

to any particular manuscript may be either that pre

s cribed by the author o r that ad opted an d en for ce d by
the publishi ng house F ar abo ve all questions o f the

.

ho o f style i the rule a cast iron one in all

c ice s -

hi gh class est abli shm entsregarding cons is tency Within

- .

cert ain limi ts

style do es not matter provided only
,

,

that consistency o f treatment is followed T hat is to .

s ay it is o f comparatively li ttle m omen t whether su ch

,

word s as St ate Christology presid ent
,

are ,

spelle d with a capital or lower case r st letter ifonly they -

are co n s is ten tly treate d throughout A ll high cl ass pu b .

-

lishi n g hous es h ave their own rules o f style but in the cas e ,

o f books an d other ind epend ent publications su ch ,

e st ab lishm ents are generally willi ng to waive their

own rules within re asonable limits in favor o f the
, ,

author s pref eren ce ifhi s manus cript consistently f oll ows

,

an y goo d an d well recogniz e d practice -

If a manuscrip t .

is n o t prepared by the author with due care in this

particular ei ther it wil l be edited by the copy re ad er at
-

, ,

some co st to the author or later when it is in type the , , ,

proof reader will point out the in consisten cies ; an d the

ne cessary corre ctions which are som etimes very he avy , ,

are then charged to the author s alterations (see p

.

It shoul d be borne in mind that the copy is usu ally

d istribute d among several co mpositors who all work ,

 PR E PARA T ION OF M AN U SC R IPT FOR PRIN TER 157

on it at once If there fore consistency in capitaliz a

.
, ,

tion an d other d etails is not brought about in advan ce ,

it is f olly to expe ct consisten cy to result f rom the work

o f sever al in dependent compositors none o f whom has auv
knowledge of what rules of style are bein g observed by
the others .

Some rules ind eed un der the he ad o f

, ,
style are
too technical for the ordinary author to burd en his mind
with Yet the subje ct as a whole is one on whi ch every
.

writer should be informed in a gen eral way T hose .

who wish more detaile d inf ormation th an is given in thi s

ch ap ter an d who desire an authori t ative standar d as a
,

guide in all typographi cal matters where rules are need e d

'

are re f erred to the M an ual of S tyle (Chicago : The Un i

versity o f Chicago Press 3d

,

4 . T e chn i cal pr acti ce s T he ordin ary roman type has

C A PITAL S (called by printers SMA LL CAPS

capital letters usu ally about half the Siz e o f the

an d lower case the ordinary un capital

iz ed letters) T he term s
.

upper case (sometim es

appli e d to caps ) an d lower case cam e into use from

the fact that the type set by hand is kept in two cases

shallow wood en boxes d ivid ed into compartmen ts ,

f or each char acter) the upper of which hold s the caps
, ,

an d the lower the lower case
,
.

T o in dicate on the manus crip t

that caps

are d esired dr aw three li nes an d to in di cate
,
small ,

caps draw two lines un der the letter or word to be

,

capit aliz e d It is also a f requent practice to express

.
 1 58 A M AN UAL F OR WRITE RS

(small caps)

these directions by writing caps s e ,

.
,

(lower case) o r c an d LG (caps an d lower

or ,
. .

case) in the margin as a dire ction f or a li ne or pass age

Small caps are

to be so treated (s ee belo w p , .

rarely use d alone fo r an y purpose other th an center

heads or legend s f or illustratio ns Except in extremely .

rare cases they should not be used in the plac e o f italic , ,

f or one or more wo rd s in the text o f ordi nary re ading

matter .

T o indicate a redu ction o f a capi tal letter to a lower

case letter d raw an o bli que line throu gh it d ownwar d
,

f rom r ight to le f t .

T o indicate i tali c un d ers core with a straight line

, .

F or itali c caps und erscore with three lines an d add the

,

word s italic caps in the margin F onts o f itali c

.

type do not contai n small caps .

T o in dicate b lack f ace or b ol d f ace type un d erscore

- -

with a wavy line thus , T hi s type is f requently

M .

resorte d to f or side h ead s or center he ad s and to secure

- -

spe cial emph asi s where f or an y reason ordin ary italic

would not accompli sh thi s result .

The G erman practice o f hair spacing word s (some

-

times calle d letter spacing in ord er to express empha

-

s is is one whi ch is r arely resorted to in th is country

, .

F or this purpose it alic shou ld invariably be pref erre d .

A hair space is the thinn est space made an d when

,

inserted between the letters o f a wo rd the effec t is to

cause the wor d to st an d out prominently f ro m the rest

o f the text Its use in this country is practically limite d

.

,
 PR EPAR ATION OF M AN U SCR IPT FOR PRIN TER 1 59

so far as book work is concerned to transliterati o ns o f ,

som e o f the Semi tic languages an d cun eif orm charac ters .

Q u o ted matter exceeding ve or s ix lines o f typ e is

usually set in type o f a smaller siz e than the bo dy o f the

text It will s ave trouble to the copy reader an d to
.
-

the printer an d o f ten avoid inconsistent typogr aphical

tre atment if su ch matter is single
,

,
space d when written ,

on the typewriter or is otherwise set o ff from the bo dy

,

o f the text in the copy (see pp 1 5 1
.
,

In case s pe cial fo rms o f spelling dialec t or capi taliz a

, ,

tion are desired in apassage su ch as matter quoted f rom

,

another writer the word s
,
F ollow copy should be
wri tten in the margin o f the passage in question .

If all d irec ti ons to the printer are wri tten in ink o f a

color d if f e rent f rom that in which the copy is written
,

con fus ion and error will o f ten be avoid e d .

C o py should be wri tten on one side o f the Sheet only

N o ci rcumstances excuse a d eparture from thi s rule

.

If af ter the copy is written it is

5 In s erti on s
.

desire d to add matter of an y l ength the new matter ,

should be written out on a s eparate sheet which should ,

be marked Insert A an d attached to the shee t to whi ch

the new matter is to be adde d On the latter the s ame .

wor d s ,
Insert A should be written at the point
,

where the insertion is to be made If several pages .

of such new matter are to be inserted at one point they ,

shoul d be mark ed with the number borne by the page

calling f or the insertion f ollowe d by A B C etc
, T hus , , ,
.

inserts f or page 2 7 shoul d be marked 2 7A 2 7 B etc If , ,

.
 A M AN UAL F OR WRITE R S

pages are taken out s ay f rom 9 to 2 7 inclusive af ter the

, ,

pages o f the co py are numbered page 8 shoul d be ,

marked 8 2 7 to show the omi ssion ; o r at the bottom o f

,

the page may be written p 2 8 f ollo ws ,
. .

Wh er e copy is written in lo ngh and the letter u ,

should be unders core d an d a co rresponding li ne should

,

be drawn above the n T hi s prac tice will obviate co n

.

fu sion an d mist akes in proper n am es f oreign word s

, , ,

etc .

having written a gure or abbreviation the

If af ter
author desires to have it spelled out the printer will ,

un d erst an d the wish if a ring is d rawn aroun d the

ch ar ac ters o r wo rd s to b e so tre ated .

Pun ctu ation sh o uld b e care f ully in dicated on copy .

T he period Shoul d always be surroun d e d with a circle ,

thus 0 The hyphen should be distingu ished from the

.

dash by using two short lin es fo r the f ormer thus l; ,

an d care shoul d be taken to make the colon an d the

semico lo n e asily distin guish able f rom e ach other
6 F ootnotes A f o o tnote Shoul d not be placed at
.

the f oot o f the page in the manus cript but should be ,

place d imme diately below the line whi ch carrie s the

number o r oth er ref eren ce mark an d set o ff f rom the ,

text by drawing a li ne across the page imme diately above

an d below it The text should continue below it
. When .

the matter is rst put into type the f ootnote will be ,

put in this s ame relative position so that when the pages

,

com e to be made up n o mi stake or con fusion can

ari se as to whi ch f ootnote belongs on the page in question .

 PR E PAR ATION OF M AN U SCRIPT FOR PRIN T ER

If ref eren ce numbers are used f or footnotes these should ,

be contin uous on the page but not continuous throughout ,

the chapter Thi s prac tice will permit o f later ins ertions
.

of additional f ootnotes without expense for renum bering ,

the entire series N umber in g o f footno tes is pref erable

.

to the use o f asterisks or other symbols .

If the au thor s n ame is given in the text in connec tion

with a reference to or a quotation from his work , , ,

i t should not be repe ate d in the f ootnote :

This theo ry is ques tio ned by Herb ert as fo llo ws : I cann o t ,

admit, etc .

1
Laws o fthe Ancients , I , 1 53 .

[Autho r s na me is o mi tted ]
It is better to place at the en d of the quotati on rather ,

than be fore it the index gure or symbol which re fers in

,

the text to the footnote (see illustration above) .

T he f ollowin g should be the f orm of ref eren ces in

f ootnotes :
I
C R Henderso n I ndus tri al I n s urance (2 d cd ; Chicago :
. .
, .

The University o f Chicago Pres s p 3 2 1 ; S I Curtis , . . .

,

The Place o f Sacrice B i blical World XX I

,
24 8 E , .

The order o f the details Should be : (I ) author s nam e

,

fo llowed by a comma not a colon ; (2 ) ti tle (if o f a book

'

or periodical und erscored ; if o f an article quoted ) ;

, ,

(3 ) number of edition if desired ; (4) place o f p ublica ,

tion f ollowe d by a colon ; 5) n ame of publi sher an d date

,

o f publication ; (6) reference to volume an d page In .

cas e the ref erence in clud es the volume number i t is ,

better to omit the abbreviations Vol an d p as in .

.

the sec ond example above (see chap v s ec .

,
.
1 62 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITER S

7 . In d e x T he makin g
. of a good in d ex is far m ore
technical an d difcult than many autho rs suppo se T he .

su ccess o f a book may be s aid o f ten to d epend on its

in d ex; certainly the pro per us e o f the b o ok d oes Unless .

the author is f amiliar with the elementary requ irements

o f a go od index it is o f ten d esirable if the b o ok is te ch
, ,

n ical or complicated to h ave the in d e x c ompile d by o n e

,

who mak es a business o f this sort o f work T he pub .

li sher can always d ire ct the autho r to som eone o f this

class .

T he m echan ical wo rk o f compiling an in d ex Shoul d

b e accompli shed by m eans o f card s Pro cure car d s o f
a conven ient siz e an d make one entry on e ach car d
, ,

adding o f course the page number belongin g to the

,

entry T hi s work is d one irrespec tive o fthe alph abetical

.

ord er o f the entries While the car d s are still in the or der
.

in whi ch the work was d one the re f eren ce s should be ,

verie d It is impo rtant that verication sh o uld be d one

.

at this st age sin ce i t results in a large s avin g o f time an d

,

lab o r an d there is m ore li keli hoo d o f d is covering the

,

loss o f a car d o r re f eren ce at this tim e than later when

the card s are arrange d alphabetically When this work .

is completed the card s are arr anged in their alphabetical

,

ord er an d at this stage o f the work those cat ch word s
,
-

the rst o r ind ex word s un der whi ch the s ub

,
-

divisio ns o f the subje c t are arrange d) whi ch are dupli

cate d o n various card s are e rased thus bringin g to gether ,

the various sub

subj ects und er the main subjec t or

wo r d T hese sub subjects are best arr anged with
.
-
 PRE PAR ATION OF M AN U SCRIPT F OR PRIN TER I 63

reference to their alphabetical order instead o f the ,

numerical order o f the page re ferences just as the main ,

catch word s
-
are arr anged T he work o f in dexin g
.

should begin as soon as the r st in stalment o f page proo f s -

(see pp 1 7 6 ii ) arrives from the printer

. . .

Cross references are a vi tal element o f a good ind ex

-
.

By this is meant that wherever a catch word can be -

employed to refer the read er to the treatment o f a sub

j ect under some other catch word

it should be -

res orted to F or example if the main subject o f s ay

.
, , ,

M ankind is ind exed und er th at cat ch word

,
the -
,

words Human beings

R ace

People might wi th
,

,

propriety be add ed in their proper alphabetical position ,

f ollowed by the word s : S ee M ankin d In li ke man .

ner if the subje ct Childhood o f M an is to be indexed

,

,

it is o f course pl aced un d er C an d when M is ,

re ached the entry should re ad :
,
M an Chi ldhoo d o f , .

S ee Child hoo d of M an

.

In indexes o f proper n ames an d other simi lar alpha

betical lists the f ollowing rules Shoul d be observe d :
a) N ames beginning wi th M M ac or M e St
, , ,
.
,

Ste whether the following letter is capi taliz ed or not

, ,
"

should be listed as if the prex were spelled M ac Saint , ,

Sai nte thus making it unne cessary for one who consults
,

the index to look in several places to make sure o f

n din g the n ame sou ght :
M achiave lli St Lo uis
.

M acInty re, Hen ry St Vincen t

.

M cIntyre, J ames Sain te B euve

M In ty re, T ho mas

Salt Lake City
M ack
1 64 A M AN UAL FOR W RIT ER S

Compoun d names should be li sted un d er the rst

b)
part of the n ame List the other parts o f the n am es in
.

their respe ctive alphabetical positions an d give a cross

re ference to the rst :
C ampb ell B an n erman , Sir Henry
-

Llo yd G eo rge, David-

Watts Dunto n , Theo do re

-

Geo rge , Llo yd David . S ee Llo yd Geo rge

-
.

the other hand in the case o f hyphenate d n ames

On ,

gratuitously ad opte d as in the case o f marri e d women,

adding the maid en n ame to the married n ame the n ame ,

prece ding the hyphen may be disregard ed an d li stin g ,

S hould be un d er the letter of the true n ame wi th a ,

cross ref eren ce un d er the n am e pre ce di n g the hyphen

-
.

c) N ames with prexes S hould be li sted un d er the

part f ollowing the prex except (i) in English (see b ,

above) ; in F rench when the prex consists o f or

cont ains the article ; (iii) in I t ali an an d Spani sh when the

prex consists simply of the article ; (iv) in D ut ch the ,

V an T en etc bein g always capit aliz e d (see chap iv

, ,
.
,
.
,

sec .
5 note) ; (v) when the prex an d the name are
,

wri tten as one word N aturaliz ed nam es with prexes

.

should be tre ated accor ding to the rules f or the langu age
ad opte d .

Ho mann , vo n ; Lima, d e ; Po n te e Ho rto , da; San to s Pereira

J ardin , do s .

E n glis h: A Becket ; De Quin cey ; De M o rgan ; DIsraeli ;

M acDo nald ; V an B uren .
 PREPARATION OF M AN U SCRIPT FOR PRIN T ER 1 65

F ren ch: Du M o ncel ; La R o chefo ucaul d ; Le Sage ; Du Pin ;

Du Bo cage ; but : R o sny, d e ; B o uille, de ; Allard , de .

I tali an and Span is h: La Lumia; La Farina; Lo Gatto ;

but : Farina
da; R io , d el ; To rre, d ella
,
.

Prex compo und ed wi th the n ame: V anderkin de, Zurlauben ,

Dechamb re, Vanderho eck , Delacro ix .

In the case o f the exceptions above note d the rst ,

letter of the prex governs the alphabetical position o f

the name .

d) N ames Spelle d wi th the u mlaut a a u should be , ,

li sted as if the umlaut were Spelle d out ae o e ue: , ,

M ii ller, A .

M ufo la, C .

M uller, B .

e ) h aving two parts or names o f rms co n

N ames , ,

y
(Spani sh) 01 et (F rench)

nected by an d , , ,

(G erman) e (Italian) should be listed accord

un d ,

in g to the rst letter of the n ame pre ceding the connective :

Smi th 81 E vans (und er Gomez y Pin eda (under
Loubet et M euni er (un d er Duncker un d
Humblo t (und er San d ro ne e Vallardi (un der

f) On the subject of cross

ref eren ces see chap viii .
,

p. 1 63 .

What been said appli es to what may be terme d

has
the mechan ical sid e of index m akin g T hi s is all highly
-
.

important o f course ,
But o f far greater importan ce is
.

the intelle ctu al side o f the work for unless thi s is d one ,

in a manner whi ch will make the bookan d every part

1 66 A M AN UAL FOR WRIT ER S

an d subje ct in itre adily an d e asily accessible the us e ,

fuln ess an d consequently the su ccesso i the book itself

will be destro ye d .

Some books an d o f course some subje cts len d them

, ,

selves mo re easily to the work o f ind exing than do others .

In su ch cases the work is co mpar atively simpl e It is .

in the ind exing o f complex an d involved subje cts that

the art of the ind exer is seen at its b est Suppose by .
,

way o f example th at the work o r passage to be ind exe d

,

is o n e covering the several processe s o f colo r printing -

a complex an d intricat e subj ec t If each pro cess is

.

treated separately in the text und er its appropriate

title the work of in dexin g will be co mparati vely e asy
,
.

But if all the various processes are covere d by par a

graphs m or e o r less general an d wi thout special segre
,

gatio n of subje c ts an intelli gent pickin g out f or ind ex

-

, ,

in g o f e ach pr o cess an d of each word which will express

, ,

an y phase o f the subje c t is necessary ,

Without su ch .

discrimin ation a casu al glan ce at the in dex m ay f ail to

in dicate to the read er that some particular bran ch o f
the subje ct on which he is seeking in f ormation is tre ated
at all Supercial in d exing may cause a f ailur e to use
.

the bo o k in the belief that it d oes not cover the sub

,

j ect thou gh all the whi le the inf ormation may be there
,

though un disclose d by the ind ex .

A n in dex unli ke the book i tself can s car cely be too

, ,

prolix or lib eral T he in dex unlike the text is not read

.
, ,
.

It is referred to an d only those catch

,
word s actu ally
nee ded are re ad at an y one time Hen ce every wor d .
 PR EPAR ATION OF M AN U SCR IPT F OR PR IN T ER 16 7

which will aid in direc ting the reader to the subje ct he

seeks should appear in the index T o d etermi ne what
.

are su ch word s the compiler Shoul d f requently as k him

,

self : If I mys elf nee d ed in f ormation on this subject ,

what are the word s or sub subjects und er whi ch I

-

mys elf should be likely to look for it in another man s

work T his point o f view will o f ten assist hi m in

covering the need s o f the other man who will use his

work .
 C HA PT ER IX

ILLU ST R ATION S

If authors an d tors were better acqu ai nted with

edi

modern method s o f illustrating mu ch more adequ ate ,

an d satisf actory results might be o bt ained .

In considering the subje ct o f illustr ations f or a book ,

the rst qu estion to be d ecid e d is whether the gures

shall be distribute d in the text (see pp 1 5 2 1 8 2 ) or aggre .
,

gated into pl ates Sin ce the d e ci sion o f thi s qu estion has

.

a distin c t bearing on the mechanical mak e u p o f the book -

it shoul d be mad e only in consul tatio n with the printer

or publi sh er If a ro ugh eggshell paper is d esirable
.

for the text o n account o f its lightness an d bulking prop

,

erties ,
only the coarsest o f line d rawings can be use d
unless the illustrations are pu t in as plates
see pp 1 8 2
. while the presence o f n e line d r awin gs
an d h alf ton es in the text requ ires the u s e o f a highly
-

nishe d heavy an d non bulking paper

, ,
-
A d e cision o f .

the questions involved in these d etails can there fore be

mad e only af ter consultation with an expert .

T he pro cess o f engraving on wood was the origin al

an d costly m etho d o f illustr ating books an d magaz ines .

Later the inventi on o f lithography o ff ere d a vastly

,

cheaper metho d which was quickly ad opte d T he

, .

Fo r the fo llo win g chapter o n Illus tratio n s the autho rs are ln

debted to M r A C M cFarlan d general s up erin tendent o f the Un i

. . .
,

vers ity o f Chicago Press .

1 68
 ILLUSTR ATION S 1 69

ad vantage o f having gures close to the text they illus

trated was surrend ere d chie y on acc oun t o f the nancial
,

advantage an d partly be cause better effe c ts could be

,

se cure d by the new process M o dern metho ds however .

, ,

have made possible again the use o f the text cu t at the

point where the gure will be o f the most service to the
re ader T here are in scientic works however cases
.
, .

in which plates are pre f erable to the text cuts ; e g . .

,

when a large series o f gures must be be fore the eye

at one time or when some gure must be re ferre d to at
,

many points .

When it has be en determin e d whether text cuts or

plates are to be use d the mo de o f repro du c tion must be
,

sele cte d for it is ne cess ary to adapt the copy for the
,

illustr atio ns to the f orm o f illustration de cide d upon (see

ch ap x p
.
,
.

T he f ollowing forms o f illustrations appe ar in bo o ks

an d magaz ines : (I ) lithogr aphy (2 ) photolitho gr aphy , ,

(3 ) photogravure (4) hal f tone 5 ) z inc an d copper

,
-

etching (6) wax engraving It is purpose d to state the

,
-
.

nature o f e ach o f these its limitations its adaptab ility , ,

to special nee ds an d the requ isites for success ful repro

,

duc tion o f illustr ations by e ach pro cess .

.1 Litho gr aphy While this pro cess was formerly

.

mu ch used for illustrating s cientic works it has been ,

l argely superseded in sin gle color work by pho to litho g -

ra phy . It is still the most satis factory m ethod f or

the reprodu c tion o f obje cts in color although the cost ,

is almost prohib itive F or this re ason i t is being

.
1 70 A M AN UAL F OR WRIT E R S

replace d by the three co lo r hal f tone pro ce ss later - -

(s e c 4

describe d un der the subj ec t o f h al f ton e -
.
,

below) .

Litho graphs are m ade by drawing on sto ne with

c r ayo n o r pen the d esign to b e printe d It requires an .

expert d raf tsman f amiliar with the subje ct in h and

, ,

to make su ch dr awings well an d even the best o f draf ts ,

men may make mistakes an d intro du ce interpretati ons

foreign to the author s design T he poo rer the o rigin al

.

drawin g the gre ater the ch an ces o f error an d the m o re

, ,

the litho graph er has to alter it to make it presentable .

2. Pho tolithography B y this pro cess an exac t repro

.

du c tion o f the original dr awing in one co lor is o btain e d , , ,

enlarge d redu ce d o r o f the sam e siz e as desire d T he

, , , .

pro cess consists o f photogr aphing o n a sensitiz e d pl ate

o f z in c the copy to be re ro du ce d T hi s pl ate is then
p .

treated in su ch a way as to make only the lines o f the

d esign pervio us to acid an d the pl ate is then very slightly
,

etche d F ro m this as many trans fers as may be desire d

.

are taken to the li tho graphi c stone f rom whi ch the print ,

in g is do ne B e cause o f the very slight etching require d

.
,

mu ch ner lines an d d ots m ay be repro du ce d than by

z in c e tchin
g where there is d an ger o f the lo ss o f very
,

n e de t ail .

Copy for repro du ction by thi s pro cess should be

d rawn with black in dia in k on whi te paper or cardboard , ,

an d be made exactly as it i s inten de d to appe ar in its

complete d f orm N o wash or ti nts o f an y k in d should
.

be introdu ce d .
 ILLU STRATION S I 71

3 . Photogr avure .
T his process is o f great utility for
the illustration o f s cientic works its advantage bein g ,

that photo graphs an d all kin d s o f d rawings (whether

in in k crayon or pen cil in line or tint or wash) can be
, , ,

reprodu ce d with the utmost d elity wi th an alm ost ,

per f e ct renderin g o f light an d shade Owin g to the .

rather elaborate me chanical an d photographi c me ans

employe d this pro cess is rather expensive an d is use d
, ,

only for the more important works .

Copy should be prepared as the nishe d work is

intend ed to appe ar but in asmu ch as contrast is always
,

somewh at re du ce d by an y photographi c process Shade d ,

parts o f d rawi ngs should Show a li ttle more contrast

than is desire d in the repro du ction .

4 .H alf tone Hal f tones are printe d from relie f

-
.
-

pl ates an d hen ce may be use d in the text ; they requi re

, ,

however a very n e sur face o n the paper for proper

,

prin ting Like photogravures they are ad apted to

.
,

photo graphs an d to varie d styles o f d rawing but owing ,

to the presen ce o f the s creen resul ts obtaine d f rom ,

half tones do not equal in delicacy an d r ange those

-

f rom photogravu res The printing plate is made by

.

photographing the subje ct throu gh a s creen the result ,

being the bre akin g up o f the picture into lin es an d dots

-

o f varyin g strength representin g the various lights an d

,

S hades o f the or iginal T hese s creens are made with

.

diff erent numbers o f lines to the inch f rom 6 5 f or co arse , ,

newspaper work to 400 f or the n est s cientic work .

T he s creen must be adapted to the qu ality an d n ish

1 72 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITE R S

o f paper to be used an d the author should n o t there fore

, , ,

attempt to designate on his copy the siz e o f s creen to

be use d in the making o f the hal f tone If the copy -
.

consists o f photo graphs good cle ar prints should be

, ,

furni she d an d faili ng these the original negative

, ,
.

A lmost an y so rt o fprin t can be repro du ce d but engravers ,

pre f er those made on Solio paper tone d brown If an y ,

.

alter ations in the photograph are to be m ade su ch as ,

blotting out marks o r toning out und esirable lines e tc ,

.
,

dire ctions to this effec t S houl d b e clearly given in writ

in g attache d not marke d o n the print itsel f
,
Paintin g .

out o f portions o r all o f the b ackgroun d can e asily be

accomplishe d by the engrav er .

If wash or pencil d rawings are to b e r eprodu ce d ,

contrast should be gre ater than is d e sir ed in the n ishe d

engraving since the high

,
lights are o f a light gray
inste ad o f whi te be cause o f the h alf
,
tone screen .

R e cent d evelopm ents h ave made possible the r epro

du ction o f colored subjects by the hal f tone pro cess By .

thi s pro cess a set o f thre e plates is made to carry the

three primary colors in the sam e proportion as in the
original subje ct so that when superimposed in their
,

proper position the result will be a repro d uction o f the

,

copy in i ts original colors A fourth plate is fr e quently

.

added by many engravers carryin g black o r neutral ,

tint to give the subject a body which it is sometimes
,

impossible to obtain by the us e o f the primary colors

alone A lmost an y colore d subject can be repro duced
.

by this process an d while not so satisfactory artistically

, ,
 ILLU STR ATION S 1 75

as is li thography its deli ty to det ail as a res ult

, ,

o f photogr aphy an d its comparative cheapness have

,

brought it into more general use

.

5
. Zi n c an d co pp er e tchin g Like half tones z in c -

an d copper etchin gs are printed f rom r eli ef plates an d ,

there f ore may be inserted in the text as text gures -

.

Unlik e half tones however they do not require so hi ghly

-

, ,

n ishe d a paper f or printing An y drawing or print .

having black lines or dots on a whi te b ackground wi thout ,

any wash or middle shades may be repro du ce d by this ,

pro ce s s .

The d rawing or print is photographed on a sensi tiz ed

z in c or copper plate wh i ch is treated so as to make the
lines of the picture impervious to acid af ter whi ch the ,

plate is et ched suf ciently to make them of the height

requ ire d for prin ting Zin c is ordin arily used f or this
.

purpose but copper bein g o f a d enser h ar der texture

, , , ,

gives better resul ts f rom very n e drawings The plate .

is then mounted on woo d or metal type high an d may ,

-
,

be inse rted in the page o f type at any point d e sire d

(see p 1 8
.

In preparing co py f or etchi ngs care shoul d be ,

t ak en that the ink is a de ad black Win so r N ewton s

.

or Higgins indiaink should be us e d an d always in suf

,

cient quan tity to avoid gray or brown lin es or dots ,

which are likely ei ther to be lost or to appe ar as ifbroken ,

in etching

.

6
. W a x en gr avi-
n gs T hi s pro cess is used prin cipally
.

[
in the reprodu ction of maps an d geometrical gures .
1 74 A M AN UAL FOR WR ITER S

A copper plate is prepare d by be in g rst blackene d an d

then coate d with a thin layer o f wax on which the copy is ,

transf erre d either by photography or by d rawi ng d irec tly

on the wax T he outlines are go ne o ver with an en grav
.

in g tool which cuts a chann el d o wn to the sur f ace o f the

co pper pl ate representin g the lines o f the copy
,
The .

lettering is pu t in by pressing ordinary type into the

wax T hi s wax cov ered plate f orms the matrix f or
.
-

the molding o f a co pper shell by ele ctrolysis the shell ,

b eing b acked up to the requ ir ed thickness wi th met al .

Thi s process is superior to etching in the case o f maps

an d similar subjec ts sin ce a cle aner sh arper pr int in g
, ,

plate is possible Copy should b e prepare d in black

.

an d whi te so that it may e asily be phot ographe d on the

,

wax Care however is not so ne cessary in maki ng

.
, ,

lin es as they are to appear as it is in d rawings f or etch ,

in g in asmu ch as the engraver can e asily corre ct an y

,

irregul arities o f outli ne in the copy T he essential .

parts o f the d rawing however shoul d be cle arly repre , ,

sente d .

7 G e ner
. al s u gge s ti o n s In sen ding dr awin gs an d
photographs by mail it is advisable th at they be un ,

mounted Ii they are to be arranged in groups which

.

cannot be design ated by s erial nu mbers the outl ines ,

may be roughly trace d on sheets o f paper an d su ch ,

ch arts may be f orward e d with the se ar ate d r awin s

p g
or photographs In writing on the b acks o f unmounte d
.

photogr aphs care shoul d be use d not to press har d enou gh

,

to Show m arks on the face as su ch marks reprodu ce in ,

 ILLU STRATION S 1 75

photographi ng . Etchings an d h alf tones on the s ame

-

plate should be avoided if possible .

Drawings f or any f orm o f photographi c reprodu ction

should be made at least half as large again as they are
intend ed to appear in the ni shed illustration .R ed ue
tion by photography permi ts ren ement o f lin e an d n e
shading wi thout exce ssive care in making the origin al .

Enlargement o f either photographs or d rawings is not

ad visable as the camera thereby exaggerates every
,

imperf ec tion an d rou ghness in the origin al

.
 C HA PTER X

ST AG ES T HR OU GH WHICH A BOOK PASSE S IN T HE

M AKIN G

1 Pro o f s an d proo f re ading

. Wh en all preliminary
qu estions h ave been s ettled , su ch as the editing an d
pr eparation o f the manuscript for the printer the siz e o f ,

type to be use d the length o f the type line etc the next
,
-

,
.
,

stage on which the book enters is the composition or ,

setting up o f the type A s this pro ceed s type is place d

-

in a gall ey
.
,

a lo ng me t al tr ay usu ally about 2 f eet

long an d varying in wid th A s each galley is lled

.
,

a proo f is t aken ull e i the r int r s t r m

p d s p e e an d
is then given to the proo f reader who corre cts it (s ee ,

Proof r eader s M arks p 1 7 9 ) f r o m the copy which i s

,
.
,

re ad to him by a copyhold er

Sin ce this is a process .

which in m ost cases should b e repeate d b y the autho r

him self it may well be explain ed at som e length her e
, .

T he copyhold er is se ated at the sid e o f the proo f
re ader an d on her car eful an d co rr ect r eading o f every
,

wo r d in the copy her clear enunciation an d her accurate

, ,

in dication o f the presen ce o f i talic o f unusu al capit aliz a ,

tion of paragraphs o f an y d eviatio n from the general

, ,

stan dard s e tc very mu ch d epend s Copyhold ers an d

,
.
, .

proof re aders f r equently agree on a series of sign als to t ake

the place o f oral statement o f the fact that it alic or caps
are indicate d in the copy T hus one tap on the t able .

1 76
 STAGES IN THE M AKIN G OF A B OOK 1 77

with the pencil coincidently with the utterance of a word

may serve to indicate th at su ch wor d is itali ciz e d in the
manuscript an d the practice enables the copyholder to
,

continue the reading without a bre ak an d ten d s to dis ,

tract the attention o f the proofread er less than would

the necessary statement in wor ds .

T he proo f bearing the proof read er s marks is taken

to a printer who m akes the corrections indicate d an d a ,

corre c te d proo f is then pulled which together with
,

,

the original marke d proof is t aken to a reviser who sees

,

that all the corrections in dicated have been made T his .

proo f is term ed a revise d proo f

T hese pro cee din gs .

are repeate dsome times sever al times if the origin al ,

proo f is dirty or f oul i e contain s very many

, ,
. .
,

e rrors until nally the proo f is cle an i e f ree f rom ,

. .
,

errors an d this clean proo f is then sent to the au thor

, ,

accompani ed by the origin al c opy or manuscript

.

T he au thor makes any corre ctio ns an d changes he sees

t by marking them in the margin o f th e proo f in d icat ,

in g in the type lin e where the corre ction is d esir e d an d ,

returns it to the publisher f or these corre ctions or changes

to be mad e The pr actice o f having the copy re ad to
.

the author by a copyholder at the time he re ad s the

proof is strongly re comm end ed He shoul d re ad the .

proo f s with the id ea in min d that some of the pe culi

arities o f the origin al copy h ave been overlooked or mi s
un derstoo d o r th at some passage or sentence has been
,

misplaced misread or even omitte d However cle arly

, ,
.

he may think he has his original work in min d the ,

1 78 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT E R S

author never be sure that he is saf e in these par

can

ticulars unless he follows thi s plan .

It is better to corre ct proo f s with in k than with

pen cil sin ce pen cil marks of ten b eco m e too blurred in the
,

hand ling which the pro of s und ergo by the time they
reach the printer to insure their being corre c tly re ad or
deciphered If corrections are too nu m erous to be re ad
.

cle arly an d e asily the whole pass age should b e r ewri tten
,
.

Correc tions an d alter ations sho uld b e mark ed on the

pro o f o nly an d never o n the co py
,
.

If it is f oun d ne cessary to change or add a word or

phrase an eo rt Should be made to substitute new
'

matter equ al in length to that d eleted or to add matter ,

which will ll o n e o r mor e complete lines T he addi tion .

o f an extra word in a par agraph so m etime s ne cessitates

running over the whole paragraph which m e ans a

,

rehand ling o f every word an d a respacing of every lin e ,

in order to get the new wor d in T hus a seemingly.

trii ng additio n o f ten proves to be a costly altera

tion (s ee s ec

requiring an expenditure o f mu ch time
.

on the part o f the printer at the expense o f the author .

Corrections an d changes m ade in proo f s should be

made by me ans of the re cogniz ed marks an d signs used
by proofread ers an d und erstoo d by printers On the .

f ollowing page a facsimile o f the several marks is given ,

an d these should be care fully stu die d be f ore an attempt

is mad e to correc t proof s .

T o in dicate that a le tter or s vllab le Shall be carried

from the en d o f a line to the begi nni ng o f the next or ,
 STA GE S IN THE M AKIN G OF A BOOK 1 79

PR OOFREAD ER S

M AR K S

9 Dele , or delete : take it o ut

turn
.

91 Letter i l vers ed .

$ P ut i pace
s
n
Cl e upno space
.

m
BadV Spac g i spaci no re evenly
A
.

Wrong f ont : character of wrong siz e or

s tyle .

S T rans pe

, M ake a new paragraph .

o ,I ndent ; or , put in an em -
quad space .

n EC arry to the left .

u Ca
rry to the right .

'
J Efevate .

X Ipfperfect e orre t
c c .

-
e

\
\
Straighten alignm
ent .

R estore words crossed out .

Print ( ii etc ) as a ligature

, ,
. .

Words are omitted from, or inJ Opy

E .

Query to author : Is this correct"

Put in
Put in
19 Put in LOWER GAGE .

Put in ro man type .

Put in E type .

Put i n b o ld -
face type .
1 80 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S

that o n e o r m ore word s sh all be tr ansposed f rom o n e

po sition in the senten ce to ano th er su ch letter syll able
, , ,

wo r d or word s sho uld be in closed in a rin g an d a line

,

sho uld then b e drawn f rom the ring to the position to

which the transposition should be mad e .

In case a corre ction or chan ge cann ot be design ate d

with certainty or clearness by any o f the above d escribe d
m arks o r signs it is b etter to write a brie f directio n to the
,

printer o n the margin o f the pro o f : T ranspos e thi s

par agr aph to the point mark ed A o n gall ey Insert
new matter here

A lter ation s It should be b o rne in mi nd th at

.

2.

af t er matter has b een put in type all changes f rom the

original copy are charged fo r as alterations T he n e
.

ces s ity f or many changes o f th i s so rt may be avoid ed if

the author will exer cise a li ttle car e to de cid e in advance
what he wishes d o ne an d will mark his copy accordingly
, .

Lack o f suf cient thought at the right tim e i s responsible

f or many later changes which would b e avoid e d by a
care ful wri ter an d which pr o ve h i ghly expensive .

A n ad dition al re ason f or care an d d ecision at the right

timem or e potent than that o f expenseis that
eleventh hour additions or ch anges are Of ten mad e in
-

su ch a mann er as to be out o f harmony with the context ,

or in c onsistent in matters o f style with the rest o f the

, ,

wo rk an d when too late arise to plagu e the author the

, , , ,

publi sher the proof re ad er an d the r eading publi c

, , .

A goo d exhortation with which to en d this se ction is :

Do not let your manuscript go to the printer until you
 STAGE S IN T HE M AKIN G OF A B OO K 181

h ave wri tten every word just as you wish it in type an d ,

until matters o f capitaliz ation punctu ation paragraph

, ,

in g etc
, have been brought into consistency an d
.
,

uni f ormi ty throughout An d set your face stead fastly

.

against changes in the proof which are not essential to

c orre ctness o f st atement or to consistency o f style .

3 .C o rrec ti o n s in pro o f Ii the proo f read er sees

.

occasion to question the accuracy o f a statement or ,

suspe cts an error on the part o f the author whi ch it is ,

not his province to correc t or change he will mark ,

a query 3) on the margin o f the li ne in question

'

A uthors too o f ten igno re these queries T hey are .

meant in good faith to call attention to the wor d or

passage indicated an d should be replie d to by the

author on the galley proo f being marke d O K if no

.
,

change is d esire d or corre cted if an y corre ction is

,

nee ded Do not write a message o n the subje ct but

.

simply your d e cision A ll the proofre ad er wishes to

.

know is whether the word or passage is correct or ,

whether a change is de sired .

M arks or queries made by the proo f re ad er should

never m erely be er ase d by the author If for an y re ason.

the author does not agre e with the mark he should draw ,

a li ne through i t substituting his own mark f or it

,
If .

su ch queries or marks are erased the proo f re ad er is likely

,

to repe at them at a later stage or even to make a co rrec

,

tion on his o wn responsibili ty whi ch m ay not be d esired .

T his can be obviated if the author will pay attention to

all su ch ma rks as they are en countere d on the galley pro ofs .
18 2 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT E R S

Do not dr aw rre ctions made in the

a line around co

margin for pr inters are tr aine d to re gar d su ch a mark as

,

in dicatin g th at the matter so in cl o se d is not to be set up .

T he galley proof s bearin g the author s changes an d
alter atio ns are then returne d to the printer along with
the original manuscript an d the type is corre c te d in ,

accor dan ce with these n ew marks If f or an y r easo n the .

author wishes to see another galley proo f he sho uld ,

indorse the rst set : Send revise .

4 I
. llustration s A t the time o f returni ng the galley

proof s all proo f s o f illustrations shoul d also be r eturned

with their appro priat e legend s written below an d e ach ,

one nu mber ed its appro ximate position in the text b ein g

,

marke d in the margin of the galley proof thus : Insert

c ut N o I here
. Cuts o r charts whi ch run in with
.

the text i e whi ch do not o ccupy a full page cannot

, . .
, ,

always be placed exac tly wher e in d icat ed since th ere ,

may not be room betw een th at point an d the f oot o f the

page . Some latitud e an d discretion must there f ore
always b e allowed to the printerin thi s case the

make up man-
as he i s calle d

A failure to indicate
,
.

the approximate position on the galley proo f however , ,

will o f ten result in an expensive reh and ling o f the paged

matter if the position accorde d the cut by the make up
,
-

man turns out to be un desir able ; an d an author will

frequently save a charge for alterations by f ollowin g

the f oregoing direc tions car efully .

Full page illustrations are known either as text
-
 STAGES IN THE M AKIN G OF A B OOK 1 83

gures or as inserts

T ext gures are those illus
.

-

tratiOnS which are printed on the same paper as is the

te xt matter (see chap viii p 1 5 2 ) an d these may or may
-
.
,
.

not carry a running he ad an d f olio although the page is

-
,

o f course counted in the sequen ce just as ifit bore a f olio , .

Inserts are those illustr ations which d o not per mi t o f

being printed on the paper used fo r the rest o f the book ,

or whi ch bein g too large f or a page the siz e o f the book

, ,

require folding T hey are not counted in the page

.

numbering
F or text
.

gures the di rec tions on the galley proo f s

should be the s ame as for ordinary gures or cuts :

Insert ou t N o 1 0 here

. .

F or inserts the dire ctions are better given when the

page pro o fs are returne d an d they should be indorse d o n
-

,

the proof of the insert itself thus : T o face page
F or full details regarding the various kind s o f illus
tratio n s see pp 1 6 8 75

. .
,

5 R
. un n in g h e ad s When the book reaches the stage
-
.

where it is ready to be made up into pages the rst step ,

ne cessary is to d etermine the form of what is known as

the running head s T hese are the li nes which run at
-
.

the to p of the page an d carry the folio or page number
at their outer e dge R unn ing he ad s usu ally consist o f
.
-

the main title o f the work on the le f t han d page (verso) -

and of the ti tle o f the chapter or o ther subdivi sion on the

right (re cto ) This pr actice may o f course be varied to
.

su it dieren t circumstan ces .

T he preparation o f the runn in g head s is o f ten un d er -

1 84 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S

taken by the pub lisher without co nsultatio n wi th the

author .But if for an y reaso n the author wishes to
re are hi own runn in he ad s (an d thi s esp ecially in
p p s g
-
,

techn ical wo rk is o f ten highly d esirable) previous co n

, ,

s ultatio n wi th the publishe r wil l be n ecess ary It is o f .

c ours e axio matic th at only a giv en num ber o f letters an d

spaces can be put into a line o f a given length T he .

questio ns o f what siz e or kind o f type is appropriate to

be use d fo r runni ng head s an d o f the maximum nu mber
-

o f letters an d spaces available in each case are f or the

publi sher to settle Havin g thi s in form ation the autho r
.
,

f requ ently nd s that he is called on to m ake use o f co n

s iderable ingenui ty to r ed u ce the l angu age o fa l o ng ti tle

to a satis factory par aphrase within the typographical

limi ts o f the Space at hi s disposal T hus if su ch a title .

as : Stage Decoration an d the U nity o f Place in F r an ce
in the Seventeenth C entury were encountered an d a
,

maximum o f 4 6 letters an d spaces were avail able f or

the runn ing h ead it would b e ne cessary to re d u ce the
-
,

matter to : Seventeenth Century St age D ecor ation in
-

F rance thus expressing the s alient points o f the title
,

in a f ew wor d s T o o o f ten this work is not in telli

.

gently o r eectively done an d enough is not expr esse d ,

in the runni ng he ad to give a clear idea o f the subject

tre ate d .

6 Drop f o lio T here is of co urs e the altern ative o f

.
-
.

having no runnin g head at all In this case the f olio or

-
.

page n umber is usually placed at the f oot o f the page in ,

the center o f the li n e an d is th en termed d rop f olio
,
-
.

 STA GE S IN T HE M AKIN G OF A BOOK 1 85

The position o f the drop foli o is sometimes varied ; it may

-

be place d at the extrem e right or le f t o f the line bein g ,

then usually pre cede d or followe d by a single bracket -

thus : 9 6] if at the le f t ; [ 9 7 if at the right

.

7
. P a e
g p r o o fs All preli mi nary questions having
-

been settle d the type is next made up in to pages

,

,

is sent to the author accompanied

an d a page proof -

by the marke d galley proof s A t this stage it is danger .

ous an d expensive to make an y further ch anges or

additions T he addi tion or d eletion of a Single line may
.

mean that every f ollowing page may h ave to be made

over to the en d of the chapter since every page must be ,

o f exactly the same length as every other page On the .

other hand the page proo fs should be re ad care fully by

,
-

the author to see (I ) that the appropriate running head s -

an d f olios are in position (2 ) th at no li nes are tr ansposed,

or omitte d espe cially at the to p or at the foot o f pages

, ,

3) that f ootnotes are in place on their appropriate pages ,

(4) that alterations in dicated on galley proof s have been

corre ctly mad e (5 ) that letters or punctu ation marks
,

have not been d roppe d f rom the end s o f lines .

Ifno revise d page proo f s are desire d this is ord in arily

-

the last the author see s o f hi s work be f ore it i s printe d .

He marks the page proo f s O K or O K with co r
-

,

.

re ctions o r O K with alterations as the case may be

,

.
,

,

an d returns them along wi th the galley proofs to the

, ,

printer .

8 In dex M e anwhi le the author should be preparin g

. .

the in dex (see chap viii p F or thi s purpose two

.
,
.
1 86 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT E R S

or more sets o f page proo f s are usu ally sent one o f which
-

is to be retained f or in d ex makin g the other bein g-

,

returned as above dire cted All m arks corrections or

.
, ,

changes mad e on the set returne d to the printer should be

mad e also on the set retained f or ind ex making T he -

.

in dex should not be m ad e until all ch anges in the pages

necessi tating a making over have actually been mad e

an d aproof showing the changes is in the author s hand s

9 . B in din g If the author has s een that each page is

.

properly numbere d in the proofs that all ill ustrati ons are
,

in place or if inserts that the page e ach is to face has

, , ,

been duly indicate d hi s labors are en de d The respo n

,
.
~

sib ili ty o f seein g that the page s are printe d in their right

sequen ce an d that th ey an d the illustrations are duly

bound in their proper o r d er rests on the printer an d the
binder .

Be fore binding actu ally t akes place it is so metimes the

custom to show the author an unboun d set o f the sheets

f olded and placed in their sequen ce with the inserts ,

in their places so th at the bin der m ay be s ure he has

,

made no mi stake in their relative posi tions but except in ,

rare cas es thi s is unne cessary .

Publication an d copyrighting (see chap xii

.
,

pp 2 0 5 10) will follow an d the completed book is then

-
.
,

on the market .

 C HA PTER XI

T YPOGRAPHICAL PRACTIC E S AN D TER M S

M ost of the te chnical terms employed by printers

which it concerns the author to kn ow are enumerated

in the chapter Hints on the Preparation o f M anu
script for the Printer (see p

A few d etails remain .

to be m entioned , a kn owledge o f which is not essential

but m ay on o ccasion prove useful .

1 S iz e o f type s
.
T ype is measure d by points the

,

diff erent siz es o f type containi ng a certain num ber o f

points in their vertical m e asurem ent


A poin t is .

one seventy se con d o f an inch an d type is spoken o f as

-

being I o poin t or 1 2 poin t type me anin g

-
1 2/7 2
-

o f an inch in siz e T hi s measurem ent does not apply to

.

the face i e to that part o f the type f orming the

,

. .
,

letter or c haracter whi ch appe ars on the printed page ,

but to the bo dy or entire pie ce o f metal or wood on

which the face o f the type (the letter or charac ter) is cut .

It o f ten h appens that a 1 2 point face is smaller than

-

a I o point f ace
-
but in that case the b ase has what is
,

calle d a should er representing the measurem ent by

which the siz e is d esignated .

The b asis o f type m e asurem ent is the siz e f ormerly

known as pica T his is atype whose vertical m easure

.

ment is 1 2 points ; an d for purposes o f m easurement a

pica is 1 2 points squ are It is of an in ch in length or.

187
 1 88 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S
bre ad th The length o f a type
. line is express ed in
picas by a printer T hus on the b asis o f 7 2 po ints to
.

the inch as above stated an d a pica being 1 2 points

, ,
.

0 1 % o f an inch a type line o f 3 in ches in length is spo k en

,
-

o f by a printer as being 1 8 picas T he len gth o f the .

line is called the measur e by the printe r an d the
,

phr ase : T he m easure is 1 8 picas means the type

line is 3 in ches in length T hi s who le subje ct is o f .

interest to the author only in en abling him to sele ct the

type f or hi s text matter or to d etermi ne how much
-

matter in a given Siz e o f type will go in a given space .

B o th o f these subjects are better re f erred to the publi sher ,

who in addition to f urni shi ng an estimate o f space more

,

accurate th an the author hi m self can make will giv e ,

intelli gent advice as to the siz e o f type best adapte d to

the boo k in question .

Be f ore the ad option o f the point system the diff er ,

ent siz es o f type were kn o wn by nam es arbitrarily

appli e d an d printers still occasion ally use som e o f th ese
,

term s when speaki ng o f the more commonly use d siz es

o f type Fo llowing are illustrations o f the var ious siz es
.

o f type in ordinary use in book work with their respec ,

tive new an d o ld names :

S p o in t ty p e .
-
or PEAR L , meas ures ap p ro xi mately 14 lin es to the inc h .

-
y
6 po int t pe, o r NONPAR EIL, meas ure
s 12 lin es to the inch . It is ju t s o ne f
hal
o f the pica in v
ertical meas uremen t .

7 po in
-
t typ M IN ION meas ures appro ximately
e, o r , 10 lines to the inch .

It is no t in v ry e co mmo n use .

-
y V
8 po in t t pe , o r BR E IER , meas ures 9 lin es to the in ch It is a .

v y
fa o rite t pe , an d is in mo re co mmo n u s e than an y o f the s maller s iz es .
 T YPOGRA PHIC AL PRACTICES AN D TER M S 189

9 po in t type, o r BOU R GEOIS, measures 8 li nes to the inch

-
.

The name is pro no un ced as if spelled bo orj oy ce .

t type o r LON G PRIM ER me asure s appro xi

I o - po in , ,

mately 7 lines to the inch It is a favo rite siz e fo r bo oks

.

in to which it is d esired to co mpress as m uch matter as po s

sible within a limited space .

1 I-point type or SM ALL PI C A measures appro xi

, ,

mately 6% lines to the inch It is a siz e very frequently .

use d in book work .

12 po in t type, o r PICA, meas ur es 6 lin es to the

-

in ch. It is the lar ges t s iz e co mmo n ly used in bo o k

w ork .

The siz es o f type in most common use in books are

9 point 1 0 point 1 1 point or 1 2 point f or the text ;
, , ,

6 poin t 7 point or 8 poin t f or f ootn otes ; 8 point 9 po int

, , , ,

or 10 point for poe try or reduced matter (see p
.

an d 6 point 7 point or 8 point f or the in d ex

Table I (p 1 9 0) states the
.
, ,

2 T ype meas urement

. .

approxim ate average num ber of word s o f lead ed matter

,

to the average type page in a book whose siz e is known

-

as o ct avo (8 vo ; see p the average siz e o f whose

.

type page is 4% by 7 in ches

- .

T able II (p 1 9 1 ) shows the average number o f wor ds

.

to thesquare in ch of type and is useful in d ecidi ng on ,

the siz e of the type page an d the siz e o f type in whi ch

-

to set a man uscript the number o f word s in which is

,

known .
190 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

By a resort to either o f these t ables an d by ob serving

the f ollowing d et ails an autho r may f orm an id ea o f the
,

nu mber o f pages his book will make in an y given siz e

Of typ e A llowing 2 pages for the half ti tle (see p 1 5 2 )
.
-
.

(the revers e Sid e b eing blank) 1 page f or the title page

'

,
-

1 f or the copyright page 2 pages f or the d e dication if

,

an y (the reverse being blank ) 2 (o r a multiple o f two),

f or the pre face 2 (or a multiple o f two) for the table o f

,

TABLE I

ll l r r h i
il gfgh
l Wig t: f
b i
y
Siz e o fT pe L re t : l t: g fd{l
V e
Page Lin e Page

6 po in t
-
6o 1 7 1 ,0 2 0

8 48 13 % 648

9 44 13 572

10 40 I2 480

11 37 11 % 4 20

12 36 10 3 60

contents all of whi ch are termed preliminary matter

, ,

the text may be estimated on the basis of the tables

given above but it must be borne in mi n d that the rst
,

page in each chapter is shorter than the stan dar d page ,

since there is wh at is term ed a s ink or blank space

above e ach chapter title F or each chapter

. endin g half
a page should be added as a m e asure o f s af ety Sin ce a ,

ch apter rar ely end s a f ull page If hal f titles (see p I 5 2 )

.
-
.
 TYPOGR APHICAL PR ACT ICES AN D TER M S 19 1

T ABLE II

NW ER o r WORDS To THE SQUARE IN CH 1N TYPE

or T YPE , SOLID'
SQ UARE IN CHES
8 Pt
-
. I o -Pt . I I - Pt . 1 2 - Pt .

32 21 17
42 34
1 88 1 28 68
282 19 2 1 26 10 2
376 256 136 112
470 3 20 210 1 70 1 40
5 64 3 84 25 2 20 168
6 58 29 4 33 19 6
75 2 $12 27 2 224
84 6 576 3 78 25 2
4 20 3 40 2 80
7 04 46 2 37
7 68 50 40 33 6
83 2 54 44 2 3 64
89 6 5 88 47 6 39 9
63 0 5 10 420
67 2 5 44
71 578 47 6
75 61 2 5 04

SIZE S or T YPE LE Ao En WITH 2 -

PT LEAE S'
.

SQUAR E IN CHES
G Pt
-
. 7 Pt-
. 8 Pt
-
.
9 Pt
-
. 1 1 -Pt. 1 2 -Pt.

34 27 21 3 I"
1 00 68 54 42 23 22
13 6 108 6
g4
2 00
3 0 204 1 62 1 26
27 2 2 16 1 68 112 88
10 270 21 0 1 4 1 10
l 2 40 8 3 24 25 2 1 68 132
47 6 3 78 29 4 19 6 3 54
I 33 5 44 43 2 336 2 24 17
18 9 00 61 2 3 78 25 2
20 5 4 4 20 2 80 2 20
22 7 84 5 04 462 24 2
I IIIIII I
.

816 3 36
333
'

2 $ 04
3
. O O O I O

2 8 84 70 2 5 46 3 64
28 9 53 756 5 88 39 2
810 42 0 3 30
32 67 2 35 2
9 18 7 14 476 3 74
972 7 56 5 04 396

Fo r the meaning

o f the terms

so lid

' and leads , s ee p . 19 7 .
19 2 A M AN UAL F OR WRITER S

are used in the bo dy of the book 2 additional pages f or,

e ach must be counte d To this tot al must o f course

.
, ,

be adde d the illustr ations counted as full or frac tional

,

pages as the case may be

, .

The cost o f composition calculated by the page varies

in inverse ratio to the siz e o f the type used bu t thi s is ,

o f co urse largely be cause o f the f act th at the smaller

the type the more there is o f printe d matter on the page

3 . M achi ne co mpo s iti on M onotype composition is

.

that whi ch is done on the m onotype machin e nam e d

Lan s to n af ter the patentee a co mposin g machi ne on -

which by tou chin g a keyb o ar d per forations are m ad e

, ,

in strips o f paper whi ch the n are tr an s fe rre d to a se cond

,

machine where the matrices to which the per for ations

,

corr e spon d are brou ght in co nt act with molten type

met al the type char acters b eing cast separ ately an d

,

arr anged automatically on a galley in

justied lines .

T he advantage o f this machi ne lies in the fac t th at a

c orre c tio n can be mad e by c han ging a single letter or

word inste ad o f resettin g an entire line as is ne ce ssary ,

on the linotype where the line is in a sin gle slug
,

or s o lid pie ce o f met al .

Lino type co mpositio n is that which is d one on

the lin o typ e machin e n ame d M ergen thaler af ter its
inven tora co mposing machin e on whi ch by tou chin g
-

a keybo ar d the matrices f rom which the ch ar ac te rs are

,

c ast arr an ge the mselves auto matically in a line in a

re ceptacle whi ch is then brou ght in contact on the ,

s ame machin e with molten type met al from which

,
-

,
 T YPOG R APHICAL PRACTICES AN D TE R M S 19 3

the entire line is then cast in one pie ce or strip termed ,

T he advantage o f thi s m achine consists in the

a S lu g .

fac t th at the pro cess o f setting an d castin g is conn e d

to one o peration on the s ame machin e Co mposition .

is there fore spee dier than o n the monotype whi ch ,

requires two machines T he disad vant ages may be

.

s aid to be that the s ingle slu g which constitutes the line

is liable to co ol unevenly with the result th at so me o f
,

the letters in the line m ay be higher than others T hi s .

results in the ir presenting a blacker appe aran ce on the

printe d page with a co nsequent irregular effect whic h
,

mars the gener al results Or if the matrice s be come

.
,

worn in dividu al letters appe ar out o f alignment th at
, ,

is above or b elow the level o f the others

,
A nother dis .

adv ant age lies in the fac t th at in or der to correc t an

error the entire slu g has to be reset with the consequent ,

poss ibility o f a new mist ake bein g made again ne cessi ,

tating a resettin g o f the line .

In most of ces all the co mposition on a book will be

,

done on one or the other o f the machines n ame d above ,

e xcept the co mposition o f the h alf ti tle an d the title -

page . If the use o f some f an cy or job type is desired
f or chapter titles or subhead s an additional expense is
, ,

in curre d sin ce these have to b e set by h an d an d co n

, ,

s titute an Oper ation distin c t f ro m the contin uous work

o f the operator o f the machine .

4
. P l ates Books are prin ted either directly from

the type or fro m plates
T hes e are repro du ctions
.

o f the type page in o n e solid sheet o f metal an d are

-

,
.

,
1 94 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S

kno wn either as ele c tro type s o r as stereotypes
.

Stereotypes are made by po ur in g molten type me t al -

into a mol d cont ainin g the matrix or reverse impres

sion o f the type page which re sults in a repro du c tion

-

o f the type face o f the page T he matr ix c onsists o f
-
.

several layers o f thi ck paper presse d to gether an d

so f tene d by ste am an d then applie d und er gre at pres
,

sure to the typ e matter to be plate d -
Of co urse the .

impression o n the matrix is the reverse o f the f ace o f

the type but when in turn metal is poure d over
, , ,

the m atrix the r e sult is the reverse o f the matr ix

,

the type f ace repro d uced The ordin ary stereotype will
-
.

pri nt f ro m to impressions wi thout we ar

in g out Sever al plates can o f course be made f ro m the
.

same matr ix .

E le ctrotypes are produ ce d by depositing by electro ly ,

s is a thin copper shell u pon a wax matr ix o f the type

,

page .T his Shell is then backe d up with lead to the

requ ired he ight f or printi n g T he copper coverin g o n .

the face o f the plate add s to its d urabili ty an d hard

ness an d consequently to the nu mber o f impressions
that can be t aken from it be fore it wears outusually
,

many m ore than f rom the type metal cast in the type -

setting machines The ordinary electrotype can be use d

.

for more than impressio ns be f ore we arin g out .

In addition to the gre ater nu mber o f impressions which

can be t aken f ro m the m the chie f advant age o f ele c tro ,

types over stereotypes lies in the f act o f the ir gre ater

strength If af ter they have been made an y corree
.
, ,
 TYPO GRA PHI C AL PR A C T I C E S AN D TE R M S 19 5

ti ons are f oun d to b e d esir able the p l a tes ca n be c ut ,

a nd c orre c ti ons ca n be sold ere d i n wi thout in m ost ,

ca ses imp airin g the stren g th o f the p la tes C orre e

, .

ti ons o f th is so rt so metim es exten d to the substi tuti on

o f sever al lin es o f new ma tter whi le they ma y on the , ,

o th er h a n d equ all y well be c onn e d to s in gle word s

,

o r even letters T hi s p ro c ee di n g is som ewh a t c ostly

.
,

however sin c e in addi ti on to the c ost o f ele c trotypin g

,

the new ma terial an i tem o f f tee n c ents fo r e ac h c ut

,

i n the p l a te i s the usu a l char ge mad e .

T he gen er al ad vantage o f p l a tes li es in the fac t th a t

it is che ap er be ca use o f the c o mpar a tively s mall c ost
,

o f the m et al use d to store them for future imp ressions

,

an d e di tions of the work th an i t is to store a ll the m et a l

which is cont aine d in the origina l typ e C o mpa r a tively

.

f ew books a re now p rinted f rom the type p l a tes being

usu all y mad e rst A f t er the pl a tes are ca st the m eta l
.
,

i n the typ e is then m elte d and i s used afresh f or c om

p osi ti on on the t yp e settin g machi ne (see p

-
.

5 F o rms

. The wor d form as used by p rinters
.
, ,

i s appli e d to the eight six teen or thi rty two pages which
, ,
-

a re printed a t one imp ressi on One pag e of typ e if

locked up a lone f or pr intin g
.
,

s uch a s a letter head

o r ca r d is a lso sp oken o f as a f orm B oo k f orm s .

a re alway s mad e up o f a mul tip le o f f our B ooks are .

known as foli o qu a rto
,
o c t avo d uo decim o
, ,

r mo

rz mo

or , 3 2 mo , et c T hese term s ,
.

origin a te d i n the fac t tha t when bo oks were rst p rin ted
o n the h an d p res s the siz e o f pap er used w a s almost
,
 19 6 A M AN UAL FO R W RITE R S

i nvaria bly 2 0 X 2 4 in ches These ter m s then h ad a n .

exac t signicanc e a foli o m e anin g a book the s iz e
,

o f whose pag e was the s iz e o f the sheet (2 0 X 2 4 in ) .

f old ed on c e t hus maki ng the f old e d sheet c onsi st o f two

,

le aves o r four pages I n li ke m anner a
. qu a rto

resulte d from folding the shee t tw ic e p ro du ci ng f our ,

le aves or eight pages A third f ol d p ro du c e d a sheet o f

eigh t le aves or six t een pages an o c t a vo

.

F
an d s o on
.

A book spoken o f a s an oc t avo h ad theref ore a

, ,

re cogniz ed siz e o f 6 X 1 0 i n ches N ow aday s however .

, ,

wi th the g re a t va ri ety o f p resses i n use a n d the equ a lly ,

gre a t vari ety of siz e in sheets o f pap er these term s h a ve ,

li t t le m e ani ng beyond exp ressin g t he app ro xim a te siz e

o f the book The f ollowi ng rep resen t the app roxima te
.

dim ensions o f books und er thi s sy stem o f no m en c l a ture :

3 2 m o 4 X 5 % in ches ; I 8 mo 4% X 6 % i n ches ; 1 6 m o 4% X
, , ,

7 % i n ches ; I em o 5 % ; X 7 i i n c hes ;
, c rown 8 vo ,

i n ches ; 8 vo 6 X 9 in ches ; roy a l 8 vo 6% X 9 % in ches ;

, ,

4 to I O X 1 2 i n ches ; f oli o 1 3 X I 5 i n ches

, S p e cia l siz es
, .

such a s small 4 to squ a re 8vo squ a re I om o et c

, , , .

are m o dica tions of the siz es n am ed a bove The .

gures here gi ven re f er in all ca ses to the e x tern a l

m e a sure m ents o f the cover The typ e
, ,

page is o f c ourse
.

c onsid er ably sma ller

6 Err ataAf ter a book i s p l a te d or p rinte d i t
.

.
,

som etim es h app ens th a t errors a re f oun d to exi st in the

tex t etc I f i t is imp oss i ble or und esir able to c orre c t
,
.

the p l a tes thi s si tu a tion i s m et by p rinting the li st o f

errors on a separ a te sheetp refer a bly a full pag e siz e
,

-
 TYPO GRAPHI C AL PRA C T I C E S AN D T E RM S 19 7

a nd i nsertin g i t between the p relimi n a ry ma tter

(s ee p 1 5 2 ) an d the rs t page of the te x t The page

. .

shoul d be he ad e d E rr a t a and e ach error di sc overe d , ,

wi th its app rop ria te c orre c ti on should be i ndica ted i n a ,

sep a r a te li ne thus : ,

Page 8 1 line three : fo r j udgemen t read judgment

.
,

Page 9 4 line s even : fo r s eems read s eemed

.
,

Page 9 9 Table III third co lumn fo urt h line fro m bo tto m :

, , ,

for read

7 . Lead ed i d m a tte r
an dO rdin ary re adin g
sol .

ma tter is le ade d i e between e ach two lin es of typ e
,

. .
,

i s inserte d a thi n m etal strip usu ally 2 p oints (see ,

p 1 8 7 S iz es of Typ es ) i n thi ckness La rge t yp e

usu ally any siz e l arger th a n 1 2 p oint typ enee d s thicker

.
, .

le ad s ; very small typ e i e f rom 6 poi nt d own may t ake ,

. .
,
-

thi nner le ad s usu ally 1 p oi nt in thickness When

,
.

di re c ti ons a re given to a p ri nter to i nser t le ad s he

,

w ill wi thout further i nstru c tions und erst an d 2 p oint

, ,
-

le ad s to be m e ant I f i t is d esi red to d etermi ne whether

.

a given typ e page i s le ad e d or not sele c t a c oup le o f

-

lines where the t ai l of a p or a g i n the upp er li ne m eets

the he ad or upp er p orti on o f an h o r a n I in the line
below I f no app re cia ble whi te spac e remains between
.
,

the t yp e is solid i e wi thout le ad s (The ma tter on
,

. .
,
.

th i s page is le ad ed ) .

Thi s word solid is f requently use d by the unin

itiated i n p l ac e o f the di re c ti on to
.
run i n in to one
pa r ag raph ma tter whi ch has been wri tten i n sepa r a t e
pa r ag raphs a n d mi sund erst an din gs o f ten result fro m
,
198 A M AN UAL FO R W RI TE R S

thi s mi st aken us e o f the term S olid never m e ans.

any thing but the a bsenc e of le ad s between the lin es

8 T ab ular m atter
.

. Ta bles a re e xp ensi ve to set

.

up in an y event but they are frequently mad e m ore

,

exp ensive th an i s ne c ess ary through the w a n t of f ore

,

t hought o r through ignor an c e on the part o f t he author .

A t able should a lway s be so c ompi le d a s to t t he type

page of t he book I f it i s not conveni ent to set i t across
.

t he page i t can be set bro ad sid e th a t is w i th the
, ,

,

page turned s o tha t t he lon g sid es of the page a re mad e

the head and foot resp e c ti vely of the t a ble I f a s fre
, ,
.
,

quently h app ens a t able i s to o l arge to p ermi t o f bein g

,

set u p t o t the page in ei ther o f these two w ay s i t is ,

ne c ess ary to m ake of i t an in sert th a t is i t is set u p ,

,

and p rinte d on a l arger sheet an d when the book is ,

boun d the insert i s tipp ed in i e fa stene d in between
,

. .
,

the book pages an d f old e d to t the siz e of the book .

N o t only is thi s awkw ard ne c essi t a tin g un f oldin g

, ,

before t he t able can be examined but it is exp ensi ve ,

.

A li ttle care i n c ompi li ng the t able wi ll o f ten result in

m a terially re du cing its siz eei ther b y con densin g an d
c omb in ing sever al c olumn s or if ne cess ary mak ing
, , ,

two or m ore sepa ra te t ables out o f the m a teria l .

T he p ro cess of d etermini ng the s iz e of typ e i n wh ic h

a t a ble should be s et to make i t t the pag e in ei ther

o f t he man ers d es cribe d i s term e d ca stin g u p from
n ,

the fac t th a t c onsid er able ca lcul a ti on is nee d e d to a llow

for the rules , le ad s c olumns of gures a n d the

, ,

ne cess ary spac e on e ac h sid e .

 TYPO GRAPHI CAL PR A C T I C E S AN D TE RMS 199

A t a ble should h a ve a main he ad c ons istin g,

of its
num ber b y wh ic h it i s know n an d ref erre d to in the
,

tex t : TABLE IX followe d by a subhead c onsi stin g

,

,

of a bri ef exp lan a tion of the p urp ose o f the t able (af ter
the or d er o f a ch ap ter ti tle) . T he he ading s o f the

c olum ns in the t a ble a re kn own a s box he ad s whi le -
,

the lef t h an d or rst c olu mn up on whi c h the re main der

-

o f the t a ble is usu a lly d ep en dent is known as the stub

,
.

In the ca se o f f ootnotes to t ables i t is better to us e

,

I
'

sym bols ,
r a ther th an num er als as re f eren c e
,

gures (see p . S in c e the t a ble i tself usu ally

consi sts l a rgely of gures a referen c e gure even when
, ,

sup eri or
p l ac ed a bove the line) tend s to co n
,

fusi on which the use o f s ymbols w ill a void .

 C HAPTE R X II

MI S C ELLAN EO US IN FO RM AT IO N
1 . S ee ki nga publi s her An author who h a s to seek
.

a publi sher for hi s work shoul d end e a vor to ex er ci se

som e di s crimi n a ti on a nd j udgm ent in the sele c ti on o f t he
ho use to which he submi t s his c opy A religi ous work .

should not be submi tte d to a house w hose m ain business

is the p ublica ti on o f novels T hi s apparently obvi ous
.

fac t would if observed i n p r ac tic e s a ve a goo d d e a l o f

, ,

di s app oi ntment I nd ee d m any rep ut a ble p ubli shers

.
,

d e cli ne p erfe c tly meri tori ous books be cause no t available

f or t heir sp e cial l ine of business I n other word s a rm
.
,

engage d in publi shing ed u ca ti on a l works woul d a lm os t

certa inly d ecline a novel a lthough i n the h an d s o f som e
,

other p ubli sher the book might sell through sever a l edi
tions an d p rove highly su ccessful .

T he m anus crip t should be acco mpani e d by a let t er

containin g a con ci se st a tem en t o f t he s co p e of the w ork ,

t he n a ture o f the p resent a ti on an d the c on c lusi ons ,

re ache d Authors shoul d bewa re o f i n corp or a ting i n

.

su ch letter an y a rgument i n favor of the acce p t anc e o f

the work The publi shing house wi ll d e cid e f or i tsel f as
.

to the meri ts of the m a teria l .

2 Publication An au t hor e i ther may p ub li sh a

. .

book hi m sel f or arra nge wi th a publi sher to d o so

, .

The advant age o f the l a tter c ourse li es in the fac t th a t

2 00
 MI S C ELLAN EO US IN FO R M ATI ON 20 1

the boo k w ill bea r on i ts ti tle page the imp rin t o f the -

publi shin g rm which a t on c e ten d s to give i t a stand

,

in g an d fur ther in the fac t tha t the exp eri en c e and

,
"

faci li ti es o f a publi shi n g rm insure m ore or les s o f a

m arket f or the book a result whic h the au thor b y hi s
, ,

o wn ef f orts can obt ain onl y a t gre a t exp ense T he

,
.

arr angem ents op en to an author f or who m a book is

p ubli s he d by a rm o f publi shers are v a rious : (1 ) the
publi sher buy s the manus crip t outright f rom the author ,

pay s a ll exp enses o f p ublica ti on an d takes a ll the ,

p ro ts ; (2 ) the author pay s all exp ens e o f p rin tin g ,

adverti sin g et c i n which ca se the publi sher accounts

,
.
,

to him f or all c opi es sol d retai nin g a c ommi ssion on ,

the p ro c ee d s of s ales ; (3) the e xp ense is divid e d between

the author an d the publi sher to the ex tent o f the ,

author payi ng a ll the cost o f p rintin g bin ding etc but , , .

,

ret aining the copyright in hi s o wn n am e and re c eiving ,

a royalty f or hi s c opy right an d a f ur ther roy a lty f or the

use o f hi s p lates (see p of whi ch he ret ains the
.

ownership ; (4) the publis her pay s all exp enses takin g ,

the copy right in hi s own n am e and paying a roy alty on ,

e ach copy sol d The am ount of the roya lty va ri es

.

gre a tly o f c ou rse the char ac ter o f the work the rep u
, , ,

tatio n o f the a u thor a n d va ri ous other c onsid er a ti ons

,

enteri ng i nto the question I t is usu a lly on a p er c ent

.

age b a si s however an d thi s may be ca lcul a te d o n the

, ,

li st p ric e o r retai l p ric e o r on the gross o r the net
, ,

re c eip ts from the s ales E ach ca se d ep end s on i ts own

.

ci rcu m stanc es The roy alty p lan in o n e o r other of i ts

.
,
20 2 A M AN UAL FO R W RIT E R S

f orm s is p erh ap s the m ost usu al a n d i s gener ally the ,

m ost s a ti sfac tory to both pa rti es A ny or a ll of the .

d et ai ls m enti oned may o f c ourse be var i e d by c ontr ac t

, , ,

an d no a ttemp t is mad e here to give m ore th an a m ere

outline of the a rr angem ents which an author m ay m ake
in any gi ven ca se .

Wh a tever t he b a si s o f the c ontr ac t between the

author and publi sher i t is a wi se p lan to obtai n f rom the
,

publi sher an es t ima t e o f the number of pag es whic h

the book wi ll m ake Thi s wi ll serve a s a conveni ent

.

che ck on the publi sher ; on the other h and it ten d s to ,

give the author a cle arer i d e a o f the typ og r ap hica l tre a t

m ent th a t is p ro p ose d . F requently it i s desi r able th a t
s pe cim en pages be set u p i n or der to settle di fcult
questions o f arr an gem en t o r minor questi ons o f the
,

ch a r ac ter o f ty p e to be use d T he author wi ll then .

cle a rly un d erstan d the siz es o f typ e p lanne d f or t he

vari ous pa rts o f t he work and a t thi s st age he wi ll be
,

f ree to exp ress hi s p ref erenc es thus avoidin g di s app oi nt

,

m ent o r exp ensi ve c h an g es when the work i s set u p

, .

T he rights of tr ansl a ti on an d d r ama tiza tion a re of ,

c ourse a subj ec t f or agreem ent between author a nd

,

publi sher I n the a bsen c e o f an y agreem ent to the

.

c ontr ary the l aw vests t hese rights i n the owner of the

,

c opyright (see pp 2 0 5
.

O ne of the d et ai ls of p ublica ti on is the p repa ra ti on

o f a ci r cul a r d es c r ip t i ve o f t he book be a ring the n am e ,

of the publi sher o f the book and sen t o ut by him to the

,

tr ad e a nd to individu a ls A g re a t d e a l d ep en d s on the
.
 MI S C ELLAN EO US IN FO R M AT ION 20 3

careful p repa r a ti on o f su c h a ci r cul ar I t must avo id .

m ere bom b a stic p r ai se o f the book I t must app e a l to

.

the p rosp e c tive re ad er o f the book by p oin tin g ou t the

f e a tures whic h should c o mm en d the work to the re ad er ;
a nd when i t c overs a subj e c t or eld on whi c h other
books h a ve a lre ady been wri tten i t should bri ey show
,
.

the rela ti on whic h the work be a rs to those a lre ady on

the ma rket and to the subj e c t in genera l Whi le the
,
.

author may not p ossess the te chnical kn ack of wordi n g

s uch a ci r c ul a r i n i ts ni she d f orm it is o f ten o f very
,

gre a t ad vant ag e th a t he furni sh hi s pub li sher to bo il ,

d own rem o d el an d otherwi se adap t to p r ac tica l use the

, , ,

ma teria l o f which p resuma bly the author h a s a better

, ,

knowle dge th an the p ubli sher .

The ex tent to which an d the manner in which the book

sh a ll be ad verti se d i s of course the subj e c t of a rr angem ent .

.
3 P aper . An imm ense v ari ety o f pap er is a vai l a ble
-

f or bookmak in g When an unusually n e or exp ensi ve

.

pap er is d esir able i t is best to c onsult the p rinti ng house

,

or publi sher I n ca ses i n whic h the a uthor pa y s fo r a

.

c ert ai n nu m ber o f c o pies o f his book a s p e cimen o f the

,

pap er agree d u p on shoul d be a tt ac he d to the c ontr ac t

t o a void mi sun d erst an din g .

O ne thi ng t o be borne in min d by the author i s th a t

when hi s book in clu d es i llustr a ti ons o f any c h ar ac ter
other th an zin c et chi ngs (line d r awin gs) the y cannot
be p ri nted on a rough surfac e and if the te x t
,

, ma tter o f
the book is to be p rinte d on rou gh sto ck i llustra ti ons ,

w ill be inserts (see pp 1 5 2 1 8 2

.
,
204 A M AN UAL FO R WR ITE R S

4 Bin din g
.
Avai lable
b indin gs are of an inni te
va ri ety and a re best sele c ted i n consultati on w i th the
,

p ri nting or publi shin g house A book m ay be boun d in

(1 ) pap er of an y thi ckness u p to car d bo a r d ; (2 ) pap er

bo a rd s
,

usu ally str awbo ard s wi th a pap er c overin g

pa sted on such a s is f req uently used f or s choolbooks ;
,

(3) bu ck r am a co arse c otton or li nen s tiened wi th

,

g lue ; cloth of whi ch there is a wid e v ari et y of qu ali

,

ti es ; (5) ro an mad e f rom sheep skin ; (6) calf the cus

, ,

to mary b in di n g f or l aw book s ; (7) russia a s m oo th , ,

o d orous calf le a ther c onsid ere d p roo f against mold and

-
,

inse c ts ; (8) m oro cc o mad e f rom go a tskin ; (9 ) pa r ch

,

m ent ; (1 0) vellum .

The ch ar ac ter of the b in din g the c olor o f i t the , ,

style o f typ e used on the c over shoul d a ll be t aken in to

acc ount an d shoul d be a r som e rel a ti on to the charac ter
o f the book A work on buria l c ustom s f or inst an c e
.
, ,

woul d be i n app rop ria tely bound in a bright re d The .

author shoul d i n every ca se avai l hi m self of the advi c e

which exp eri en c e an d un d erst an din g o f the condi ti ons
en able the p ublis her to gi ve Poor j udgm ent on the.

p art o f a n inexp eri en c ed author wi ll som et im es be f oun d

to be a subtle cause for a book s l ack o f su cc ess .

A book shoul d never be hurri e d through the bin d ery ,

an d no e ag erness on the pa rt o f the author to s ee hi s

ni shed work shoul d be a llowe d to interf ere wi th the

rip eni ng of the b in ding p ro c ess I f a book is rushe d.

through the b in di g st age i t c om es out green i e
n , ,

. .
,

li kely to w arp an d fad e in a short tim e A f ew day s o f .

 MI S C ELLANEO US IN FO RM AT ION 20 5

ex tr a t im e a llowe d to the bin d er will add mu c h to the

lif e an d app e ar a nc e o f the book .

T he te rm b ackbone is appli e d to the b ack of the

book i e th a t part which i s e xp ose d when the book

,
. .
,

stan d s on the shelf The b ac kbone usu ally be ars the

.

ti tle f ollowed by the author s n am e an d a t the foot

,

, , ,

the n am e o f t he p ubli sher O r in the ca se o f a thin .

,

book nothi n g may be p rinte d o n the b ackbone and the

, ,

ti tle wi th the author s n am e below i t may be p rinte d

,

,

on the c over O n bin ding s o f the gr ad e o f cloth an d

.

up w ard the stampin g or printing i s usu ally d one with

,

letters cu t in bra ss an d he a ted a t the t im e the stamp

ing is d one O r din a ry t yp e would give w ay un d er the
.

pressure ne cess ary .

5 W h a
.t m ay b e co ri
py g hte d The followin g li st
s p e cies the cl a sses o f works capable o f be in g co py
righte d and in dica tes the bl ank f orm ne cess a ry in e ach
case T hese f orm s can be obt ai ne d on applica ti on to
.

the R egi ster of C opyrights Wa shi ng ton D C , ,

. .

0 ) B o o ksprin t ed fro m ty p e o r fro m plat es made in the Uni ted

,

S tates fro m ty p e s et within the limit s o f the Unit ed S t ates :

(a) written by a citizen o r res id ent o f the Uni t ed S t at es (Fo rm
A ) ; (b) writt en by a citizen o f a fo reign co un try but prin t ed
I
,

in the Uni t ed S tat es (Fo rm A Fo reign ) ; (c) a new edi t io n

I

o f a b o o k by a cit iz en o r res iden t o f the Uni t ed S t at es (Fo rm

(d) the American editio n o f a bo o k in the Eng

N ew ,

lis h language o n which ad in terim co py right has previo us ly

b een s ecured (Fo rm A) by a fo reign autho r in a fo reign
lan guage (Fo rm A3) ; published ab ro ad in the E nglis h lan
guage (ad interim co py right ) (Fo rm A4) .
206 A M AN UAL FO R W RIT E R S

b) Peri odicals : (a) gle co n tribu t io n s to newspap ers o r j o urnals

s in

(Fo rm AS) ; o n e co mple t e issue o f s uch p erio dical (Fo rm

(c) several (future) issues und er o ne co py right (Fo rm B ) 2

.

6) Oral works : lectures sermo ns o r addres s es (Fo rm C )

, ,
.

d) Dramas : (a) publis hed dramatical co mp o s it io n s (Fo rm D ) "

(b) un publis hed dramatical co mpo s itio n s (Fo rm (c) pub

lis hed dramatico mus ical co mp o s it io n s (Fo rm D )
- 3 .

6 ) M ns ic: (a) publis hed mus ical co mp o s it io ns (F o rm

(b) unpublis hed mus ical co mpo s it io ns (Fo rm E ) 2
.

M aps : published maps (Fo rm F) .

3) Works of art: (a) pain t ings drawin gs s culp ture mo dels o r

, , ,

d es igns fo r a wo rk o f art (Fo rm G ) ; (b) repro ductio ns o f

wo rks o f art n o t a litho graph o r pho to engraving (Fo rm H)
,
-
.

h) Drawin g o r plas tic wo rk: o f a t echnical charact er as dis tin ,

guished fro m a wo rk o f art (Fo rm I) .

i) Pho tographs : (a) published fo r s ale (Fo rm (b) no t to b e

published (Fo rm J ) 2
.

j) P rin ts or pi ctori al illus trati on s : prin t ed p ictures co mplete in

themselves an d having artis tic quality (Fo rm K) .

Ari
exi s t i ng c opy right may be renewe d f or a term of
2 8 y e a rs on w orks origin a lly entere d fo r c o p y rig ht si n c e

July 1 1 88 1 (F orm
,
an d a n exi stin g r enew a l ter m
of 1 4 y e a rs may be ex ten d ed to 2 8 y e ars on works alre ady
renewe d und er the ol d l aw sin c e July 1 1 8 9 5 (F or m
6 H o w copyright is o btai n e d
,

. Appl ica ti on is made

.

to the R egi ster o f C opy rights C opy right Of c e of the

,

Li bra ry o f C on gress Wa shi n g ton D C settin g f orth :

, ,
. .
,

(1 ) the da te ; (2 ) the n ame an d add ress of the c lai man t ,

wi th the lega l n am e an d resid en c e o f the p erson or c om

pany i n whose n am e the regi str a ti on i s t o be mad e (no
p seu d onym o r c ti ti ous n am e may be gi ven) ; (3) the
 M ISCELLAN B O US IN FO RM AT ION 20 7

n am e o f the author or authors ; (4) the ti tle o f the

book ; 5 ) the nu mber o f volu mes (if the work c onsi sts
of m ore th an o n e an d if m ore th an one is d ep osi te d a t
the s am e tim e) ; (6) the ac tu a l da te o f p ublicati onthe
,

da te the book is p l ac e d o n s ale sol d or public ly di s

, ,

tri bute d ; (7 ) the n am e and p ost o i ce add ress o f the

-

p erson to whom the c ertica te o f c opyright is to b e

mai le d .
(8) A se par a te app lica ti on an d a separ a te
f ee of o n e d oll a r must be sent f or every work f or which
c opy right re gi str a ti on is d esi re d but sever a l volu m es o f
,

one work may be entered und er one app lica ti on and one
f ee (9 ) E ach app lica ti on must b e acc ompani e d by an
.

af davi t ex e cuted b y the p erson c laimin g c opy right o r

,

by hi s d uly authoriz e d ag ent or by the printer who h a s
p ri nte d the work sta ti ng tha t the t yp e settin g print
,

,

ing an d bi nding h ave been done wi thi n the Uni te d S t a tes

,
.

(1 0 ) T wo c opi es of the best e di tion of the work a re sent

wi th the app lica ti on an d are d ep osi te d in the c op yright
ofc e of the Li bra ry of C ongress T he fore goin g regul a
.

ti ons app ly to all works which may b e c opy righted (s ee

a bove se c,
which a re p ubli shed f or s a le
. .

In ca se c opyright is d esired o n ma tter not publi she d

f or s a le an app lica ti on is mad e acc ompani e d by a f ee
, ,

of one d oll ar an d by :
a) I n the ca se o f le c tures or other or a l add resses ,

o r of d r ama tic or m usica l c o mp os i ti ons one comp lete

,

manus crip t or typ ewri tten c opy of the w ork .

b) I n the ca se o f p hoto gr ap hs not i nten d e d f or

gener al ci r cul a ti on one photogr ap hic p rint
,
.
 20 8 A M AN UAL FOR W RITE R S

) In t he ca se of works of art (paint ing s d r awin g s

c , ,

sc ulp ture) or of d r awin gs or p l a stic works o f a s ci entic

,

or te chnical ch ar ac ter one photograp h or other id en ti

,

fyin g re p ro d u c tion o f the work .

There a re 2 3 different form s o f app lica tion for c op y

right and it would be a n undue en c ro ac hm ent on space
,

to rep ro du c e t hem here T he app rop ria te bl ank may

.

b e obtaine d b y app lica tion to t he R e gi ster o f C o py

rights Wa shi ng ton D C I n t he se c ti on a bove on
, ,
. .

Wha t M ay B e C opy righte d (s ec the d esign a ti on

.

o f the p ro p er f o rm is gi ven i n pa rentheses f ollowi n g the

enum era tion R eferenc e t o thi s li st will en able the

.

re ad er to make a request for the app ropria te bl ank

.

7 D u
. r ati on o f c o pyr i gh t A co py right c overs a
.

p erio d o f 2 8 y e a rs and ma y be renewe d fo r a further

p erio d o f 2 8 y e a rs (see p .

8 Dramatization an d tran s lati on

. T he e xc lusive
.

right o f d rama tiz a ti on and tr ansl a t ion o f an y c opy

righte d m a tter is by law veste d in the authors a nd
their a ssigns (see p

9 . In te rn a ti on al c o r
py gi ht F ore ign authors may
obt ain c o pyright i n the Un i te d S ta tes on the s ame
term s as n a tive authors e xc e p t th a t t he fee is d oub le d
, ,

p rovided th a t the author i s a ci tiz en or sub j e c t o f a

n a tion whic h p ermi ts to ci tizens o f the Uni te d S t a tes
c o pyr ight p rivi le ges o n subs t antially the s am e term s a s
t hose p res c ribe d i n the Uni te d S t a tes I n ca ses o f .

doubt app lica tio n fo r in format ion shoul d b e made to

,

the R e gi s t er o f C o py rights .
 MI S C ELLANEO US IN FORMAT ION 2 09

10 . N o ti ce of ever y c o p yrighte d
co pyright O n

work a notic e must app e a r statin g the fac t o f co py right

a n d gi vin g the da te (ye ar) an d the n am e o f the pro
prieto r o f the c o p y right T he l aw requ ires th a t in ca se
.

o fbooks thi s not ic e s h a ll be e i ther o n the t i tle page o r o n -

the b ac k o f the ti tle page (see ch ap viii p -

In .
,
.

the ca se o f map s p hoto grap hs works o f art pic tor ial

, , ,

i llustr a ti ons et c thi s must app e a r o n some access i ble
,
.
,

p ortion the margin b ack p ermanent b as e or , ,

p e dest a l o r , the subst a n c e on whic h su c h c o pi es

sh all b e m ounte d

What i s infringemen t
.

11 . The question o f wh a t
c onsti tutes i nfrin ge m ent in a ny given ca se i s usu ally one
fo r the c ourts to d e cid e the intent the e x tent a n d the
, , ,

questi on o f inj ury o r damage bein g elem ents o f the

ques ti on A ny m ere. c olor able alter a ti on o f the

c opyrighte d ma tter will not serve to avoid liab i l i ty for

in fri ngem ent T he l anguage o f pa rt o f the c opy righ t
.

l aw on thi s subj e c t makes o f any o f the followi ng an ac t

o f i n f rin gem ent : in the ca se o f a book : p ri nti n g p ub ,

lishin g d rama tizin g tr ansl a tin g importin g or e xp os in g

, , , ,

for s ale ; i n the ca se o fmap s ch a rts d rama tic or musica l

, ,

c omp osi tions p rints c uts engr avin gs p hoto graphs

, , , , ,

c hrom os and works o f a r t : engr avin g etchi ng worki ng

, , , ,

c opyin g p rintin g p ubli shi ng d r ama tizi ng tr ansl a ting

, , , , ,

imp orti n g or e xp osi ng for s ale E xp resse d i n un techn i

,
.

cal l an gu age in fri ngem ent may b e des cribe d a s c opyi ng

, ,

i n whole or i n par t the c op yrighte d work o f a nother

, ,

wi th intent to evad e the l a w And thi s applies not .

,
2 10 A M AN UAL FO R WRIT E R S

only to the comp lete work but to any part o f itj ust
,

ho w l a rge o r ho w sm a ll a p orti on h a s never y et been

d ened wi th any s a ti s fac tory exac tness There fore not
.

even a p oem from a copyrighte d book o f poetry may be

p ri nte d wi thout the lic ense of the c o pyright owner ; a nd
thi s i s t rue o f a ny thin g other than the bri e fest quota
tion I t ca n there fore be rega r de d as the well settled
.
~

rule tha t if a ny c onsiderable pa ss age o f a c op yrighte d

work is to b e m ade us e o f i n a n ew w ork the c onsent o f
,

the own er o f the c o py right m ust rst be obtaine d in

every ca se .

The p enalties for i nfringe ment are numerous and ,

va ry wi th the char ac ter o f the work inf rin ge d u pon an d

the n a ture and ex tent o f the i nfringement E num era ti on
.

o f t hem ca n h a r d ly b e c onsid ere d as o f m u c h m om ent

i n a work o f thi s ch a rac ter F o r sp ecic informa tion

.

t he re ader is re ferre d to the R evi sed S t a tutes of the

Un i te d S ta tes (C opy right Law o f
 IN DEX
Re f n ere ces are to pag es .

va i u w d a d ph a t at d un d Pit fall in Di ti n (pp 44 6 5 ) a

T he ro s or s n r s es re e er

s c o

.
-
re

t li t d in th Ind x
no s e T h w d th m lv a a an g d alphab ti ally a d a y
e e . e or s e se es re rr e e c , n n

w d d i d may b f un d by a f n t th li t m
or es re xp d iti u l y than b y th
e o re ere ce o e s o re e e o s e

un d ab o ut m th d f a
ro f n t th Ind x t e o o re ere ce o e e rs .

A
and

an ,

ho w di erentiated, 7 2 . a, a, wh n u d a ligatu 7 e se s re, 2 .

af (n g ativ p ti l
-

e mp nd e ar c e) , co ou s

A ft lau
er mma u d b f

-
c 8s es , co se e o re , 10
Wi th 8 3
.

, .
Ag his t ri al lin gui ti g l i al
es : o c s c, eo o c
Abb viati n di tiat d f m api t alizat i n f 9 5 ; t b p ll ut
, ,
_

re o s: eren e ro co n c o o o e s e e o
t a ti n 7 5 ; in lit a y f n 7 8 ;
, ,

r c o s, er r re ere ces , 74
f a ad mi d
o c e 76; f bo k
c f e ees , o o s o Ag m nt f ubj t a d p di at 7
ree e o s ec n re c e, 2
th Bi bl a d t Ap ypha 7 7 ; f ,
e e n e oc r o

f
3 0
C mpany B th
, .

o
f l t ical valu
a d
,

a d

ro ers ,

n

n ,

Alg b aic na titi l tt d ignating

e r n es , e ers es .

76; o 7 8 79 ;
e ec r es , o
t b i d
f m f add
or s o 7 6; f nam f ress o es o
Allian
o e 7
p liti al apitalizati n f
eiz e , 12 .

tat a d Unit d Stat p

s es n in e es o sses s o s,
n am f 9 3
ces , o c , c o o

f Sai t f titl fh n
es o
76 ;
, .

75 ;
a d
o
p t 7 6 ; f titl f publi a
n . o es o o or
A lt ati n d n d 8 ; t b av id d
er o s: e e 1 0 o e o e
a dan g
n res ec o es o c ,

ti n fv i n f th Bi bl 7 7 ;
,
s u 8 ero s, 1 0
; s , 102 o ers o s o e e,
.
o
f w ig ht a d m a u 7 8 ; ul es f M t ug b m lau mma us ed b f
g
o e s n e s res , r o r, o c s es , co e o re,
10

Ab t a t id a apitalized wh n 89
s r c e s, c , e , .
Am ba ad f m in l tt t 45
ss o r, or s e er o, 1 .

A ad mic d g
c e abb viati n e rees : f 76; re o o A mbiguity in th in itiv 3 4 ; da g : e n e, n er
apit alizat i n f 8 8 f in mp un d nt n
,

c o o o co 4 ; f o se e ces , 1 o
p n un 7
, . ,

A nt tenti n f in f ign w d
cce s , re o o o re or s
Anal gy u f 4
ro o s, 2 .

in p at d i nt Eng l i h 4
,
o se o 1
co r o r o s 12 , , .

e ,

An d wh n abb viat d 7 6 ; mmau d

.

A tiv
c ptivity 8
e rece , .
:
b f wh n 7 8
e re e
10
, co se

A t ju idi al apitalizati n f 9 6
c s, r c , c o o , .

Ant
e o re ,

mpo und with 83

e~
e , 10 ,

s
dd f m f t b p ll d ut
ress : or s o o e s e e o
Anti mp un d with 83
co , .

wh n 7 3 7 6 ; t b abb viat d wh n
,
co o s ,
e
.

e o re e e
7 6 ; titl in di t t b apitaliz d
,

es
,

rec o e c
,

e A ntith ti al lau int du d by t

e c c s e, ro ce
"
no
"

nv l p 34 44 E
. ,

88 ; on e e o es , 1 , 1 . 1 10 .

Addr titl
esses , f p in ipal w d in es o r c or s A poc ypha lk t fabb viati n f 7 7
r , o re o s o r, .

apitali d 9 8
, ,

t b o e c z e , .
Ap t ph ul f u f 7 3 4
o s ro e: r es or se o 2, 1 1 -
1
Adj tiv apitalizati n f in titles f
ec es : c o o o t f m plu al f num al
o or 4; t r o er
,

s, 11 o

publi ati n 9 8 ; mp und 8 ; p p

c o s, co o 1 ro er, f mp or iv 7 ; t in di at mis
o ss ess e, 2 o c e o

apit alizati n
c f 87 ; mi i n f
o o o
,

ss o o i n f l tt
s o ogu 3; u
e of ers o r res 11 se
in nt a ti n 7 5
, ,

mma b tw n ; ad v b m
,
co e ee 1 10 er s rese co r c o s, .

bling 3 8 ; with pulativ v b 3 6

, co
,

e er s , . A pp iti nal lau

os h w pun tuated
o c s es , o c ,

A dmini trativ b di apitalizati n f

s e o es , c o o 1 10 .

nam f 9 es o , 2. A h bi h p f m in l tt t 48
rc s o , or s e er o, 1 .

A dv bial clau h w pun tuat d

er ses , o c e , 1 10 . A h d a n f m in l tt t 48
rc e co , or s e er o, 1 .

Adv b apitalizati n i in titl f

er s : c o o es o A ti l d nite f m f wh n t t
r c e: e or o e no o
ub li ati n nding b u d b f
, .
"
9 8;
c o s, ly t e in no e se tce o re e
p
-

t t b t ated a pa t f ti tl e
yph at d Wi th adj tiv
.
,
_

en e a ec es or r 7 6; no o e re s r o
t pl ic1 8 ; n gativ
es , 38 ;
1 mb ing e e, rese f p ri dical
o 9 8 ; in d n t
e o f m f s, e i e or o
adj tiv pa at d by mma b f h l ng u u n e ad
,

ec3 8; es , se r e co s, e o re o e o c n
wh n 8 ; with pulativ v b 3 6
e , 10 co e er s , .
H
o ne,

7 2 ; us e o f the , 2 9 .

2 13
2 14 A M AN UAL FOR WR IT E R S
A ti l apitalizati n
r c es c o of p in ipal w d
r c or s B uilding pitalizati n f nam f 9 5
s , ca o o es o
in ti tl f 9 8 , .

es o , .
But lau
mma u d b f
-
c 8
s es , co se e o re , 1 0
A ti lati n inn
.

"
r cu o , er,

43 .
By mp un d with1 8

co o s 1. 2
A ti ti h l n am pitaliz d
.
,

r s c sc o o s , es o f, ca e , 90 .

As lau -
mma u d b f
c 8
s es , co se e o re , 1 0 . Cabin t m mb f f m in l tt t
e , e er o , or s e er o

A f ll w impli d by a l n wh n

s o o s,

e co o e 45
1 .

4 10
, ,

Capitalizati n d n d 86 ; f adj tiv o : e e o ec es

a d n un d ignati g g g aphi al
.
,

A t n mical t m
s ro o apital izati n f er s: c o o
n
gi n 9 4 ; f adj tiv n un a d
o s es n eo r c

mg ul f
,
re o o ec es , o s,
. .
s, n
ta l
1 00
; i 7 i Ciz , r es o r, 1 2 .

p n u u d t d ignat th Sup m
ro o ns se o es e e re e

Ba k b n d n d 5 ; h w tamp d
c
B ing a y m m b f th T inity
e or n e er o e r
f a t n mi al n am
o e, e e , 20 o s e ,
,

87 ; o s ro
; f o c es , 100 o
5 20 .

B a ta d titl S Half titl b k f th Bi bl a d th a d

oo s o e e n o er s cre
s r e . ee -
e .
b k 89 ; f hu h wh n 9 ; f
oo s, o

c rc

e 1 o

( b f hun d d t b pith t u d a ub titut f p p

, ,

B C e o re re s o e e e s se s s s es or ro er
p at d with 9 nam x d t a nam
. . .

re e e 11 af es or 87 ; f e o e o
ivil a d milita y titl 88 ; f fath
, .

,
mma u d b f

co se e o re , c n r es , o ers
10 a d n f m wh n 9 ; f t

re o r ers e 2 o rs
w d aft a l n wh n 97 ; f t
,

B ginning in mp iti n 7
e , co os o , 1 .
or
w d f ll wing Wh a a d R
er co o

, e ,

o

rs

Bi mp u d with 83 co o n s , .
so
or
lv d 9 7 ; i t w d in ti n
e
o

o
o rs
ere s
or
n
sec o
e
s
Bibl bo k f abb viati n f 7 7 ; num ati n 9 7 ; f t w d
,

e: o s o re o s o r, fa
o n e er o o rs or
apital izati n f nam 89 ; ti tl fa it d p h 9 6; f i t m
, ,

c f o o es o r, es o c e s eec o ener c er s
f b k apit aliz d 8 9 ; f mi g pa t f g g ap i al nam
,

o f t b oo s o o e c e or n r o eo r c es
v i n f abb viati n f 7 7 ; f g n i t m f p li ti al
, ,

ers o s o re o s o r, 9 3; o e er c er s or o c
apitaliz d 9 d vi i n 9 f g g a hi al d ig na
,

t b o e c e 0. i s o s, 2 o eo r c es
ti n a d nam 9 4 ; mi llan u
,

Bi bli al b k abb eviati ns f 7 7 ;

c : oo s, r o or
o s
t m 9 ; f nam a d pith t f
n es , o s ce eo s

b k n am f apital izati n f 8 9 ;
oo s es o c o o
er s,
p pl a a d t i b 88 ; f n am
0 o es n e e s o

pa abl nam f api talizati n f 9 ;

, ,
eo es , r ces , n r es , o es
r
mi llan u t m api tal izati n f
es , es o , c o o , 0
f th Bi bl a d
or th a d b k
e e n o er s cre oo s
f n am f b ib li al pa abl
s ce eo s er s, c o o ,

i
,
89 ; o 9 ; es o c r es 0
f nam f ivi h liday a
9 0.

Bill l gi lativ apitalizati n f 9 6

s, e s e, c o o , .
o
l ia ti al fa t a d f a t day
c es s
es
c 95; f
o
s
c
n
c
e s
o s
s,
n ec
o
Bindin g f ld d h t h wn auth : o e s ee s s o or nam f nv nti n es o ng a d
co e o s, co resses . n
bf 86 ;
e o re, ugg ti n n ning
1 s es
.

o s co cer xp iti n
e os
9 ; f n am fo d ad
s, 1 o es o cree s n
4 ; va i t i
,
20 f 4 re es o , 20 .
n f i n f faith 9 ; f nam f
co es s o s o 1 o es o
p h 9 5 ; f n am f imp tant
,

Bi l gi al t m apital izati n f
o o c er; s, c o o 1 00 e oc s, o es o or
ital iz d wh n 7 ic e e 12
,
v nt 9 5 ; f nam f l gi lativ
e e s, o es o e s e,
, ,
j udi i a y a d admini t ativ b d i
.

Bi h p f m in l tt t 48
s o , or s e er o , 1 .

9 ; 2 f nam
c
f m n a ti
o
r
d ad
, n
es o o
s r
s c
e
o r ers
o es ,
n
Bla k fa h w in di at d 5 8 ; wh n
c -
ce: o c e 1 e th i m m b 9 ; f n am f phil
e r e ers , 1 o es o o
u d
,

58
se , 1 .
phi al lit a y a d a ti ti h l
so c er r n r s c sc oo s ,
a d th i ad h nt 9 ; f nam f, ,

B k f Ap ypha abb viati n f

oo s: o oc r re o s o r, n er ere s 0 o es o
p liti al allian f n am
,

f Bi bl abb viat i n
,

77 ; o f 77; e, re o s o r, o tc 3; f ces , e c o es o
p liti al pa ti 9 ; nam f r li
.
,

titl ul f apitalizati n f 9 8
es , r es or c o o o c r es , 0 0 es o e
g u d n minati n t 9 ; f
, .

B tanical t m apitalizati n f
o ; er s: c o o 1 00
io
nam f p i
s e o
in b tani al
o s or s ec s , 0 o

itali w d wh n
, es t o s ec es , e c o c
g l gical l gi al a d pal t
.
, ,
c 7 e , e , 12 .

eo o z o o c n eo n o
B u g i d n d 88
o r eo s ,

e e , 1 .
l gi al matt
o c ; f n am
,

f er, 10 0
,

o es o

B a k t di t ui h d f m p
r c es : a th s
'

s e ro ren e th ug hfa pa k q ua bl k
o ro res , r s, s res , oc s ,
ul
ses , 1 2 0
; u f ; with
r es or se o 121 22 buil di g t 9 5 ; f n am f t ati
n s, e c o es o re es .
a t l aw b ill t 9 6 ; f N atu
.
,

d p f li 4s
,

ro o o s, 1 c s, s, s e c o re
a d ab t a t i a wh n p ni d
-
.
.
,

B ak in nt n u f da h t indi
re se e ces , se o s o
89 ;
n
f n am
s r c
f ll w d by a num al
e s, e erso e ,

at
o es o o e er
f num b d liti al divi i n 9 ,
c 7 e, 1 1
9 6;
.

o ere o c
p 9 6; f d a
s o s

B vi d n d 88
re er,

e e , 1 . f O
o

a d

n l o or in
,
s

B ad id d n d 9 8
ro s e,

e e 1 d ignatin g i n f C ng
es
.

nam s ess o s o o ress , es

f gim nt Egyptian dyn a ti
, .

B th ro mp und with 8
er,

co o s , 1 .

9 ;
o
2
re
f ganizati n a d in tituti n
o
e
or
t s,
.

o s n
s
s
es , e c
o
.

s,
,

B the a pa t f m nam h w
ro rs ,

s r o r e, o 9 ; 1 f pa ti l in F n h G man
o r c es re c er
t at d 7 6
re e , . a d Dut h n am
n 88 ; f p in ipal
c es , o
,

r c
,
 INDEX 2 15

w rd in English titl f ubliceti

o s es o o ns ,
iinn a series o f two members when : 07 ;
f pro per n un a adj ctiv b
, ,

9 8; o es o s n e a sen es .o i three o r mo re mem ers

b
,

87 ; f ferenoep t parts o f a s peci

o re o c when used , 1 07 ; used efo re ,
w k 9 6 ; o f ti tle f a ci nt manu
or s o n e 108 ; used e ore co bf
un ctio ns , when
pt o f t i tl f ho nor a d
,

scri s, es o n 1 08 , 1 09 ; o i tted efo re

rather,m
res pect o f v rs i n a d editi n f e o s n o s o 1 09 ; o mi tted betw adj tival een ec
th B i bl ea n ; u d b etw
,

e 9 ; f ules fo r 86 ;
e, 0 r so o r , phrases , n o parti ipial
se een c

; us d bef

ul f 8 7 100 phrases ,

r es o r, -
. n o fe in o re o

Capi tal ho w in dicat d 5 reductio n

_

s: e 1 c nnecti o n
o w th iide p iti
res or n ce, os on,

f t l we case h w t d 58 ; mitt d betw

,

o o o r o ie 1 title. : 12; o nsecu

e een co
v 3 ; u d b tw
. ,
rul f us e f 8 7
es or o ~
1oo
ti e pages , 11 m th se e een on

Caps S Capitals
, .

and ear, 1 3 y se n 3 u d betwee pa

ren

theti
. ee .
ca b
l , adver ial, o r apposi ti o ns l clauses ,
C a dinal f ms in l tter t 4 7
r or e o, 1 . us ed to s et o direct uo ta q
m b
,

Ca d u o f 13 S al Ind x
r s, se , . ee so e .
ti o ns and
claus es
axims , 1 1 2 ; used etween
endi ng in prepos i ti o ns ,
Ca f p nouns 2 7
s e, o ro , .
used to mdicate an o missio n, I ra;
In ;

Centigrad abbreviati n f 7 8 e, o o r, . used to separate identical or similar

C ntu i num bers f t be s pell d ut
e r es , o , o e o ,
wo rds , n o ; us ed to separate two num
b
ers , r rr; used to separate pro per
74
Chapt titles o f: pri cipal wo rd in nouns r rr
; rules fo r use o f, ray r3 ;
-

ers ,
apit alized 9 8 ; t be put in
n s ,
placed mai de o tatxon ma r s , : 13 ;
.

k
t ob
q u tat i n m ark
e
.
c

5 s, 1 1
, o
used with a da when, n o g .

Ch mi al symbo ls h w t at d
o .

Co n mercial rms , ho w to treat names o f,
e c , o re e , 10 1 - 2 .

7 g
C h i tia n ames t b p ll d out 73
rs n o e s e e , . u
y
Compan , when to be a reviated, 7 6 bb
Chu h when capitalize d 9
.

Co mparatives , 3 0
rc , , 1 .

Chu h fathers wh apitalis ed 9

.

" "
rc , en c , 2 .

Complementar clauses , use o f das h yes

C i ula preparati n f descriptiv f
rc r, o o e o with, : 1 8
b k
, .

oo , 202 .
Co mpo nent elements , o miss io n o f. in
Ci l a d military titl t be capitaliz d co mpo und wo rds , 8 4
g
n es , o e , .

Co mpo sitio n , de n ed,

Clau lative exc iv u e o f 29
ses , re , es s e s , .
Co mpositio n , details of, s o
mpo unds wi th 83
.

C o co , .

Composito r, dened, : 5 1

Co ll tiv n uns 3 6
.

ec e o . .
Co m o und : ad ectives , name s , h j
ow
Co l aft salute ph a at beginning g
in exe d, r64 6 5 ; sen tences , dangers o i ,
wh n s;
-
on : er r se -

fl tt 3 8 ; betw b
gr ; su j ects , 3 0 S ee als o o mpo un d C
_

o e ers e 1 een
plac f publi ati n a d publis h
.

mg
_
e o c o n er s
nam 5 ; af t r s alutat y phra e f a
.

s peak
e, 1 0
pa at two clau e
e or s o
Co mpo unding : de n ed. So ; general rules
5 : to
er, 1 0
th wi e in d p nd nt whi h are in
se r e s s,
fo r, 80- 8 lis t o f unclassi ed wo rds
o
a sing l
er
nten
s e e e , c
85 ; of rac tio nal nu e s,
r m b oi
. 4; t
e se
g ammatically ompl te fro m
epa at a ce, 10 o s r e
no uns co mb ined in a n o j ectiveb ti o n ,
clau s e,
it illu t ation o ampli atio n
r c e ,
80 ; o f two o r mo re no uns co m ined in b
s
t int duce a f m
s r
al tat men t li t
94 ; r c , 1
j
an ad ecti al sense v bf
e o re a pro per
po m
e s
o f two o r mo re wo rds
o ro or s
ext a t q uo tat n 4 ; d n i ti n
, ,
' no un
r c
a d i llu t atio n
or
u d
io , 10 e o
bined into o ne ad ecti e j v
ecedmg a
n f u
b tw n hapte a d v in set: tu al
104 ;
s r o s e, se
no un, of v
ari o us wo r g
pre xe s,

r f
e
n
ee
1
c
pla d utsi e f
r n e rs e
ce o
r
o
etc , 8 1- 8 5 ; o f er a
. v b
l no uns en di ng in
e ere ces , 0
ing" united with a prepo s i tio n , s r ;
q u tation mar 5 ; f llo wed b y
-

co mpo nen t element common to two o r

o 10 o
cap tal wh n 9 7 t imply a s fo llo w

o s,
1 4; t
0
i
im
;fo in ta
,

o
e ,

1 4: to

r s nce,

0
imply am 4

n 10 .

C mma d ni tion a d illu tratio ns f

o : e n s o
C f i n f faith apitalizati n f
u se , 7; mitt d b tw n tw adj
10 o e e ee o
_

ec
on ess o s
nam f 9
o , c o o

ti va wh n 1 1 ; mi tt d after sig na
'

s, e 0 o e
es o , 1 .

tu 3 ; us ed a
re, 1 1 ft alutat ry ph
,

ra er s o se C ngr
o apitalizati n
ess : f n am c f o o es o
in ocial l tters 1 3 ; u d after di git
s e se s h u f 9 ; f sio f 9 ; nam
o ses o 2 o ses ns o 2 es
t api tali ed wh n 8 9
, ,

in d ating thous an wh 3 ; o m tt d
,
f m me s f

ic , en , 1 1 i e o e r o , no c z , e , .
 2 16 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S
f
Co ngres sman , o rms in letter to , 1 4 6 16r; d, rd, nd , th, o mitted with 7 4,
v
.
,

to b e o mitted in letter
Co ngresses , names o f, to b e capitaliz ed, o r 1 3 0 , 13 7 ; ne er
use o f co mma to sepa
.

writing , 1 30 ; rate
j
Co n unctio ns : 40 ; us e o f co m a with, time di is i o n s , v r1 3 .

1 08 , 1 0 9 u
Daug hter, co mpo unds with, 8 1
.

b
Co nnectio ns , etween paragraphs , 2 0 .
.

De : rules fo r treatment o f, in indexing ,

1

v
Co nnecti e particles , us e o f co mma wi th, when to be capitaliz ed , 88

1 64 ; .

: 09 .

y
Co nsi s tenc o f s t le , r5 6 5 7 y Deal er co mp o un ds with, 8 2
, .

f
.

f
Co ns ul, orms in letter to , 1 4 7 .
Dean , o rms in letter to , 1 48 .

b
Co ntents ta le o f, pos itio n o f, rss ; what Decad es , re erences to , to b e spelled f o ut,

it sho uld co ntam, 1 5 3 ; when prepared , 74

: 53 .
Deco ratio n s , capitaliz atio n o fnames o f, 88 .

Co ntractio ns : dieren tiated f m

ro abbre Dedicatio n, o f oo , po s itio n o f, 1 5 3 b k
v f by a
.

iaticus , s ; no t o llo wed

75 ; use 0 apos tro phe in , 7 5

De n itio n o ftechnical terms , rs r, r 5 7 .
.

Degres m mic : abbreviatio n f

zatig
v e 0 7 6;
entio ns , n ames o f, c apita
,
Co n liz ed , gr .
capitali n o f, 88
,

Co n v ers atio n : as training, 4; v ers us

Demi co mpo un ds with, 83
.

Den o mination s , religio us , capitaliz atio n o f

Co pula: the, 3 5 ; predicate with the 3 6
n ames o f, 9 0
, .

v v b
Co pulati e er s : ad ec ti es with, 3 6 j v D epartmen ts , go ernmental, capit
.

v
v b
ad er s with, 3 6 .
,

ti o n o f n ames o f, 9 2
" "
y
Co p : de ned , : 5 1 ; co rrectio ns no t to
v v
Deri ati es : rules fo r spelling , 66 6 8 ;
.

f
be trans erred to , in pro o reading 1 7 8 ; f En glis h, o f scien ti c mes
7
to be written o n o ne s ide o f s heet o n l
,

y ,
iz ed , 1 0 0
na , no t capi tal
S ee also M anus cript, hin ts o n the
.
1 59 .

preparati o n o f, etc .
Details o f co mpo sitio n , 20.

Co py right: co ndi tio ns of, 2 0 7 ; duratio n v

De elo pment, co nditio ns o fintellectual, 8 .

0f
f
2 08 ;
o rms necess ar
dramatiz ati o n rig hts , 20 8 ;
20 6 ; y
ho w and where
Diagrams letters re erring to , italiciz ed
, f
1 27 .
ro cured , 20 o w o tain ed, 2 0 6
'

h b Dictio n : 22; f
pit alls in , 44 65
-

ringemen t o 2 0 9 ; in tern atio n al, 2 0 8 ;

.

no tice o f, where to appear, 1 5 3 , 2 0 9 ;

Digraphs . S ee Ligature .

ren ewa l o f, 206 ; trans latio n rights , 2 0 8 ; Do cto r o fDivin i t , yf or ms in letter to , : 49

what may be co p ri ghted, 20 5 , 20 7 ; y Do cumen ts , titles o f: capitali z atio n o f
.

when to ta e place, : 8 6 k .

pri nci pal wo rds in , 9 8 ; to be

.

italiciz ed,
Co rrelati es , 4o v . i 2s .

Creeds . capitaliz atio n o fnames o f 9 1 . b

Do u le n egati es , 3 8 v .

Dramatiz atio n , rig hts o f, 2 0 2 , 2 08 .

Cuts . See Illus tratio ns .

-
f
Dro p olio , de n ed, : 84 ; us e o f rac et b k
Wi th, 1 84
Cz ar, when capitaliz ed, 88
.

r amo (duo decimo ) de ned :

9 5 ; no t to be
b bb v
, ,

Danish titles of pu licatio ns , c apitaliz a treated as a re iatio n , ro r .

tio n o f, 99 Dl tch n ames capitaliz ing o f Van in , 1

s
.

Das h: de ni tio n
and illus tratio n o f use o f,
use o f, at end o f wo rd o r phras e
bf
D ynas ties , Eg p tian, y capitaliz atio n of
implied e o re each o f succeeding para na mes o f , 92 .

gra us ed fo r emphas is , r1 8 ;
wit references o llo wing uo tatio n , f q Eccles ias tical ins ti tutio n, head o f, fo r ms
use o f with o ther
n o;
, punctuatio n , in letter to , : 49 .

ra o; preceding a s ummari z ing clause , Educ atio nal ins titutio ns and o rganiz a
: 18 ; used to deno te rea , s to p , o r b k ti ons , cap i taliz ati o n o f names o f, o r
_

transiti o n rr7 us ed afte r sideheads ,

' .

: 1 8 ; us e in p a

c e o f to ,

l
co nn ecting
-
y
8 po int t pe, illus tratio n o f, 1 8 8 .

two wo rds o r num ers , : 1 9 b . E lec t, co mpo unds with, 8 2 .

Date: hundreds repeated ,when 1 1 9 ; o f Electrical alues , v s tandard a bb eviati r o ns

b f v b
.

pu li cati ons, o llo win g o lume num ers , o f. 7 8 7 9 -

 IN DEX 217

Electro t pes : ad antage y descri ed , v b Fath er co mpo un ds with, 8 x; when

b
a

1 9 4; n um er o f i pressi o ns ro m, 1 9 4 ; m f capitaliz ed , 9 2.

patchi ng and cutting fo r alteratio ns in Figu (illu t ati ) i t xt l tt

res s r o ns n e e ers
f g t 7 S al Illu t at
, ,
19 5 .
re erri n o , 12 . ee so s r i on s .

r r- po in t y
t pe , illus tratio n o f, 1 89 .
Fi w iti g 5
ne r n , .

Ellips is : in s peech and writing, rules Fi m am f mm ial abb via

r s, n es o co erc : re
fo r use o f, 1 2 2 ; to be treate as part ti f 7 6 ; apitali ati
on o , fp c z on o , r .

quo tatio n , : 2 2 ; use o f, to in di cate s p i t typ

of -
o n illu t ati f 88 e, s r on o :
mis sio n , 1 2 2 , .

Emo tio nal li e, 1 1 f

.

F u i mp iti 6 7
oc s , n co os on, 1 , 1 .

Emphasis : in the in the

.

s ent i ce ,
F ld mbi ati with 8
o ,

co n o ns , 2 .

paragraph, 2 1 : use o f das hfo r, : 1 7 ; us e

21 ;
F li d d 9 5
o o,

e ne , : .

o f exclamatio n po in t f o r , 1 03 ; us e o f
italic fo r, : 2 3 ; us e o f lac k ace fo r, b
f
F optn o tes :
in co :
exa
60 ;
mple o f, r6 1
; ho w placed
o rder o f material in , 1 6 1 ;
1 58 to ta les , r9 9 .

End , the, in co mpo s itio n , 1 9 Fo r, when italiciz ed, 1 2 6 , 1 9 7

8

. .

nglis h: e ui alen t o f o rei q v

g n wo rd o r f F o rei n
g in s titutio ns and o rgani z atio ns ,
hras e to be no ted , r1 5 ; ti tles o f pub capi taliz ati o n o f na mes o f, gr .

icatio ns to e c apitali z ed , 9 8 ; to be
italiciz ed, 1 2 5
F i
o re gn Eng lis h e ui a
la l ent, to
uages : q v
.
be uo te q u s ; lis t o f wo rds ado pted
En umeratio ns , to be s pelled o ut, when, 7 3 . into Englis h ro m, 1 2 4 ; titles of pu li f b
mes , to catio ns in , ho w capitaliz ed, 9 8 , 9 9 ;
pithets , wh en us ed as pro per n a
be capi taliz ed, 8 7 , 88 f
wo rds ro m, when italiciz ed, 1 2 3 .

by a
.

y implied
4 "
F o r ins tance, co lo n , when ,
po chs , his to rical, linguis tic, literar , and
geo lo gi cal, to b e capi tali z ed , 9 5 .

q
E uipment, intellectual, 7 .
F m d d 95
I
or ,

e ne , 1 .

Errata: fo r an d read to be italiciz ed in lis t

H
F mat f b k ( 4t 8v
or
1
o oo s
U
o
I, u
o,
N

t t b t at d a ab at
'

o f, 1 2 6 , 1 7 ; ho w in di cated, 1 9 6 ; rules no o e re e s reVi i o n , ro r

9
.

fo r prepari n g lis t o f, r9 7 .
F t t b p ll d t 7 5
or , o e s e e ou , .

y
Ess a s , titles o f: principal wo rds in , to F a ti
r c fhyph i 84
o n s , use o en n, .

be capi taliz e d, 9 8 ; to be i taliciz e d, 1 2 5 .

F h th pa ti l i wh a itali
renc : e r c es n, en c z ed ,
Es timate, o f pages in a o o k , 2 0 2 b .
88 ; in in dexing, : 64 ; titles 0 pu lica b
Etc : use o f co mma e o re , 1 08 ; treated bf tio ns , us e o f capitals in , 9 8 ; use o f
q
.

as part o f uo tati o n , when , : 1 6 . lig atures a, (z in , 7 2 .

eu f
o rm o f in de n ite article e o re , bf (I
F urther

an d

fa thr er,
n
ho w differen
72 .
tiated , 7 r .

E v en ts , impo rtant, capitaliz atio n o fn a mes

o f. 95 .
(l
y
Galle , de ned , 1 7 6 .

Ex co mpo unds with, 8 2 .

General, co mpo unds
H
o f, 82 .

Exclamatio n po in t: rule s fo r us e o f, 1 0 3 ; Geo graphical n ames , capitaliz atio n o f,

placed i ns i de uo tatio n mark s , when , q 93, 94
1 03
G eo lo gical terrn s , capitaliz atio n
.

o f, 95,
Experience as so urce o f materials , 1 0.
mo ; i tali ciz ing o f, 1 2 7
I

b ack
.

Explan atio n , e ts used fo r, when ,

r r2 1
Geo metri cal matter italiciz ing in 127
v
, , .

Expleti es , 31 .
German names with umlaut in d o i,
b
, ,

Expo s itio ns , capitaliz atio n o fnames o f,

_

9 1 . 1 65 ; titles of pu licatio ns , capi

Expres sio n , 1 9 .
tio n o f, 9 9 .

Gerun d, the, 3 5 .

F .
, . us e o f, 78 . v
Gi en n ames S ec Chris tian names . .

Fa ce ,

de n ed , : 87 . Go d, co mpo un ds with, 8 2

.

Fah h it abb viati f

ren e , re on o r, 78 . v
Go ernmen tal departments , capitaliz a
Fa th a d fu thr er

n

r er,

ho w di er
'
tio n o f names o f, 9 2 .

en tiated , 7i . v
Go erno r, o rms in letter to , : 46f .
 2 18 A M AN UAL FOR WRIT ER S
bb v
Grain , a re iatio n fo r, 7 8 . In
7
co mpo unds with, 8 3 .

bb v
Grain , a re iatio n fo r, 7 8 . Inde nite p ro no un s , 29 .

Grammatic al no tes , 2 5 Index: ba s ed o n p age nu m b ers o r s ectio n

b
.

Great, co mpo un ds with, 8 1
nu m ers , 1 5 4 ; co mpo und na mes ho w ,

lis ted , 1 64 ; rm n ames , ho w lis ted ,

.

h (s o un ded ) , f or m of inde nite article 1 64 ; card s , use o f, 1 6 2 ; cro s s re er -

f
bf e o re, 72 .
ences , im o t tan t, 1 63 ;
1 66 ;
dis criminatio n ,
mec an ical wo rk , ho w clo n e, 1 6 2 ;
Hair s pacing 1 5 8
-

, .

n ames b e inn ing with M , M c , M ac ,

Hal

f
co mpo unds with 8 2 i
St , Ste , o w li s ted , 1 6 4 ; n ames wi th

, , . . .

f
Hal title (s ho rt title) what it is
-
, , 152; p re xes , ho w lis ted , 1 6 4 ; n ames with
umlaut, ho w lis ted , 1 6 5 ; page pro o s f

where placed , 1 5 2 5 3 , 1 9 0
-

f
-

urn is hed autho r fo r mak ing o f, 1 8 5 ;

.

His to rical : epo chs , ca pitaliz atio n of

rules fo r ma k ing , 1 6 2 6 5 ; S ee and S ee
n ames o f, 9 5 ; even ts , capita liz atio n o f als o , itali ciz ed 1 2 6 ; treatment o f pre
n ames o f, 9 5 ; terms o f s pecial s igni~

,

xes an d particles , with pro per n o uns ,

c an ce ,
93 1 63 65
.

y
.

Ho lida s , capitali z atio n fn ames

o o f, 95 .

q
In direc t ues tio n , punctuatio n o f, 4 2 , 1 03 .

Ho no r, titles o f capitaliz atio n o f, 88 , .

In dus trial o rgan iz atio n s an d in s titutio n s ,

Ho rs e po wer a re iatio n fo r 7 8 , 7 9
-
, bb v , .
capitaliz ati o n o f n ames o f, 9 1 .

y
H phen : ho w indicated o n co p 1 60 ; y , Inn iti v e: the, 3 3 ; am igui t b yi n the, 3 4 .

wh en us ed, 85 .
In fa r co mpo un ds with 83
Hyph

, .

enated
wo rds , lis t o f, 8 5
mpo und ed
u
ing in , 3 5 ; when
.
-
: no un s co
Hyph en atin g : rul es fo r, 80 8 5 ; reso rte d 80
m
.

to , to in d icate a pre x o r s u z as a
particle o r s lla le , n o t co mplete in y b In ner articulatio n , 43 .

itsel , 8 5 f
S ec o mpo un di n g
. C . In sert, de n ed , 1 5 2 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 3 .

Ins ertio ns in co p y S ee M an us crip t, hints

b
.

Ideas : a s tract, capitaliz e d when pers o ni on preparati o n o f, etc

b .

ed , 8 re elli o n o f, 1 7 ; s acri ce o f,
1 5 ; s e eeti o n o f, 1 5 .
Ins titutio n s , capitaliz atio n o f na mes of
91

mma with
.

claus es , us e o f c o

Ii 10 8
v l pm
-
, .

In tellectual de e o en t, co n ditio ns o f

Il co mpo un ds with 8 3 ,
,
8
.

Illus tratio ns : character o f, depen den t o n

p aper o f oo k , 1 68 ; b
drawings an d Intellectual q
e uipmen t, 7 .

pho to graphs fo r, 1 5 5 ; gen era l s ugges In ter co mpo un ds with, 83 .

tio ns co ncerni ng , 1 7 4 ;
1 8 2 ; legen ds f
i n serts , 1 5 2 ,
o r , 1 5 5 , 1 8 2 ; le tters re
In terpo latio n s , us e b
o f rack ets fo r , 121 .

ferring to par ts o f, italiczi ed , 1 2 7 ; lis t In terpretatio n s f

o f li e, 1 1 .

o f, where pla c ed , 1 5 4 ; po s itio n o f, to b e In terro gatio n po in t : placed in s ide uo ta q

indicated o n pro o , 1 8 2 83 ;

text f -
ti o n mark s , when , 1 0 4 ; us e o f 1 0 3 ;
ario us k in ds v
. ,

gu re s , 1 5 2 , 1 69 , 1 8 2 ; used Wi th das h, 1 20 .

o f, i 68 7 s ; when to b e dec ided o n , 1 5 4 ;

~ u
In tra mpo un ds with 83
f
hal to ne : descri ed , 1 7 1 co p fo r, ho w
-
b y v
co , .

to b e repared , 1 7 2 ; co lo red s u ects in , bj In erted o rder o f s en tence , 4r .

172; itho graphy : des cri ed , 1 6 9 ; pro b -

is e an d
H
-
iz e, lis ts of wo rds s pelled
cess o f, 1 6 5 ; pho to graphs an d drawmgs Wi th, 7 0
v b
.

fo r, r 5 ; pho to gra ure: des cri ed , 1 7 1 ;

co p y
o r, ho w to b e prepared , 1 7 1 ; pho
Italian pu li catio ns , titles b o f, capitaliz a
ti o n o f, 9 8
to litho graphy : des cri ed, n o ; co p fo r, b y .

ho w to be prepared , 1 7 o ; wax eng rav Italic : fo r as tro no mic al n ames , 1 2 8 ; fo r

b
ing : des cri ed , 1 73 ; co p fo r, ho w to b e y letters des ign ating alg e raic uan tities , b q
p repared , 1 7 4 ; z mc and co pper etching geo metrical lines , etc , 1 2 7 ; fo r letters
b f
. .

descri ed , 1 7 3 ; co py fo r, ho w to b e pre re errin g to parts o f illus tratio n s , 1 2 7 ;

pared , 1 7 3 . fo r n ames o f gen eraand species , 1 2 7 ; fo r

Im co mpo un ds with, 83 .
in itial wo rd R es olved 1 2 8 ; fo r names o f .

plan ets , co nstellatio ns , an d s tars , 1 2 7 ;

Imperati ve, the, 3 3 .
y b
fo r s m o ls in dicating s u divis io ns , 1 2 6 ; b
Imprint, de n itio n o f, 1 5 2 , 1 5 3 , 20 1 . fo r titles o r po s itio ns after s ig natures .
 IN DEX 2 19

1 26 ; fo r titles o f o o ks an d o ther b Po pe, : 4 7 ; Pres ident o f the Un ited

wo rk s , 1 2 5 ; fo r wo rds S ee and S ee also State s , 1 45 ; pries t, 1 49 : secretar o f y
-
f
in cro s s re erences in indexing , 1 26 ; fo r s tate , 1 4 6 ; s enato r, 1 4 6 ; un i ers it , v y
wo rds for and read in lis ts o f errata, res iden t o f a, 1 4 7 ; icar gen eral, 1 49 v -

f
.

1 26 ; fo r wo rds an d phras es to be us ines s letters : ho w ramed , 1 3 6

emphas iz ed, 1 2 3 ; fo r wo rds an d phra s es y
s tatio n er , 1 3 7 ; heading , 1 7 ; no ter
f f 3
_

ro m o reign lan gua ges , 1 2 3 , 1 2 4, 1 2 5 ; min atio ns to dates , 1 3 7 ; a dress , 1 3 7

ho w indicated 1 2 3 , 1 5 8 ; no t us ed in s alutato r phra y
s e, 1 3 8 ; text, 1 3 8 ; co m
bb
,

i lio graphical lis ts , when , 1 2 6 ; us e plimen tary clo s e, 1 3 9 ; signature, 1 4o

o f, 1 23
v en elo pe , 1 40 ; e xamples o f, 1 40 4 2 -

f
. .

o rmal letters : de n ed 1 4 2 ; heading,

y
,

1 42 ; addres s , 1 42 ; s alutato r p hras e ,

J o urnals . S ee Perio dicals .

1 43 ; text, 1 43 ; co mplimentar clo se y

J udge, fo rms in letter to 1 4 7
y
J udiciar bo dies capitaliz atio n
,
.

o f n ames
v
1 44 ; si
g n ature, 1 44 ;
examples o f, 1 49 5 0
en elo pe , 1 44
v
f
.

pri ate o r s oc ial letters : ho w ramed

,

o f, 9 2 .

to be written with pen an d ink

Juridical acts , laws , bill s, capitali
z atio n
1 30 ;
13 1 ; heading , r3 2 ; addres s , 1 3 2 ; s alu
o f, 96 tato ry phras e, 1 3 3 ; text, 1 3 3 ; co mpli
.

y
mentar clo s e , 1 33 ; s ign ature, r3 4
Kais er when capitaliz ed 8 8
,
"
, .
s ign ature o fwo men , 1 3 4 ; en elo pe , 1 3 4 ; v
Kno wledge, special, 1 5 .
s tamp , ho w pla ced , 1 3 5 ; example o f,
13 5 .

La, rules fo r indexing , 1 64 .

1
Lieuten an t ,
H
co mpo un ds with 8 2 , .

Lans to n S ee M o n o t pe
. y .

Li fe,

co mpo unds with 8 2 ,
.

'

Latin : 1 ature a: an d (2 , no t us ed in , 7 2 ; Li f e: emo tio n al 11; in terpretatio n o f, 1 1 .

b
,
_

titles 0 pu li catio ns , capi tals i n , 9 8 Lig ature, a, us e of

:2 72
.

j
, , .

Laws , uridical, capitaliz atio n o f n ames , l

Lik e , as su x, 82 .

o f, 9 6

Le ,

.

fo r ind exi ng , 1 64
rules
Lin guis tic perio ds : a bb viatire o ns fo r, 102 ;
capita liz atio n o f, 9 5

Leaded matter, de n ed , 1 9 7

.
Lino t pe y described 19 2 ;
mpo s mo n
,

Leads , de ned , 1 9 7 . co o n, 1 9 2 93 .

Lectures , titles o f: capitaliz atio n o f, 9 8 ; y

Literar references z a reviatio ns in , 7 6 bb
to b e ro man uo ted , 1 1 5 q
-
. 7 8 ; names o f perio ds and epochs , when
.

Legend ,

de ned , 1 5 2 , 1 8 2 S ec als o .
ca ita li z ed , 9 5
g
list o f phras es and
ab reviati o ns used i n, 1 2 5
Illus tratio n s
.

y
.

b
Legislative o dies , capitaliz atio n o fnames Lit rar scho o ls , capitaliz atio n o f n ames
0f 9 2
0 e9 0.

f Lo ng primer, de ned, 1 88
U
Letters : in text o r le en ds re erring to .

i llus trati o n s , i talici e

z 1 27 ; re erences
'

f u
Lo wer c as e, ho w indicated , 1 58; mean
to pa r ti cular, i ta li ciz ed, r2 7 .
ing and o ri gin o fwo rd, 1 5 7 .

Letter writing : classed as (1 ) pri ate o r

-
v u
-
ly , ad er s v b ending in , no t to be co m
soc ia l , (2 ) us iness , (3 ) o rmal, 1 3 0 ; b f po un ded , 8 1
v
.

c o nsecuti e pa ges to b e us ed , 1 3 0 ; date

no t to b e o mitted , 1 3 0 ; gen eral rules
fo r 1 2 9 ; ho w o lded , 1 3 0 ; margin no t to f M agaz in es S ee Perio dicals . .

k
,

be written in , 1 3 0 ; o s tscripts , to b e
"
M a er " co mpo unds with 8 2
v
.
, ,

es f
a o ided , 1 3 0 , 1 3 1
vy ideas to ano ther, 1 2 9
o r, 1 2 9 - 5 0 ; to
M ak e up S ee Page pro o
-
.
-
f .

-
co n e
io rms fo r n ame an d ad dress , s alutatio n ,
.

bb v
M an us cript a re iatio n fo r 9 9 , 1 0 2 , , .

c o mplimentar clo se, and en elo pe : y v M anusc ript, hin ts o n the preparatio n o f
b b bla k fa b ld fa
,

am as s ad o r, 1 46 ; arch is ho p, 1 48 ; for p i t r n er: c -

ce or o -
ce ,
arc hdeaco n , 1 48 ; isho 1 48 ; c a in et, b b h w i di at d 8; ap h w i di n
5 a d mi l
o n c e 1 c s, o
b
,

mem er o f, 1 45 ; c ar in al i 48 ; co n cat d e57; 1 co o n n se co o n ,

py y
. ,

gres s man , 1 46 ; c o ns ul, r4 7 ; dean 1 48 ; a i ma k i

c re n 6 ; r n o n co 1 o co
v y d d 5 ;
, , ,

Do c to r o f Di i ni t , I 4O3 eccles ias tical e ne ti t p i t

1 1 w ee o ns o r n er, o
v 59 ; f t t
,

institutio n , head o f, 1 49 ; go erno r; w itt

r en , 1 di ti f o o no es , rec o ns o r,
r46 ; udge . I 4 7 :j ma o r. 1 47 ; the y 1 60- 6 1 ; hyphen ho w indicated , , 1 6o ;
2 20 A M ANUAL F OR WR IT E R S
in dex, directio ns fo r, 1 6 2 6 5 ; ins ertio n s familia app ied to p r ticu ar pers o ns ,
r,
l a l
y
in co p , 1 5 9 ; italic , ho w in d icated , 1 5 8 ; to be capi taliz ed , 88 ; i n dexmg o f, 1 6 3
o rder o f material o f, 1 5 2 ; perio d, ho w 6 5 ; pro per, to be capi taliz ed , 8 7
q
.

indicated , 1 60 ; uo ted matter, ho w to

treat, 1 5 9 ; reductio n o f capital letter to

N ature, pers o ni ed , c apitaliz atio n o f, 8 9 .

N egative p articles ia il

"
ho w in dicated , 1 5 8 ; un
lo wer c a s e
co mpo un ds Wi th, 8 3

im
,
s mall caps , ho w in d icated , 1 5 7 5 8 ; an d a .

f
s pecial o rms o f s pellin g , cap italiz atio n ,

N egati v
do u le , 3 8
es , b .

etc , 1 5 9 ; s pell o ut, ho w directio n is N ewspapers , titles o f: article no t to b e

y
.

in dicated 1 60 ; s t le,

what it is , an d treated as part o f, 9 9 ; c api taliz ati o n o f
v v b
,

what it in o l es , 1 5 5 ; ta les , ho w to
pri nci p al wo rd s i n , 9 8 ; to b e i tali ciz ed ,
repare f o r prin ter, 1 9 8 ; i4 s an d n s ,
g o w mark ed , 1 5 9 ; co p to be wri tten y . 125 .

N ew T es tamen t o o k s , lis t o f a re ia b bb v
o n o ne s ide o f s heet o n l , 1 5 9 y .

tio ns fo r, 7 7 .

M an us cripts , titles o f, c apitaliz atio n o f,

y
9 po in t t pe, illus trated , 1 89
-
.

99
M as ter, co mpo un ds with, 8 2 .
b y
N o ilit , c apitaliz atio n o f titles o f, 88 .

co mpo un ds with, 83

No n
M aterials , experien ce as so urce o f 10
.

,

.

M ac M c rules fo r in d exin g
N o n pareil, de n ed , 1 8 8 .

1 63
, , ,

co mma placed bf e o re in an ti

y f
M a o r o rms in letter to , 1 4 6 thetical clauses , 1 3 4 .

N o tes , m etho d o f tak ing , 1 3

.
,

M eas ure, de n ed , 1 5 1 1 8 9 9 2 , .
.

liz atio n o f, in titles , 9 8 ;

M easuremen t a reviatio n o f s m , bb y b o ls o f,
o uns : c ap ita
co llec ti e , 2 6 ; v
co m in atio n o f, in o h b
78 y
j ective relatio n to e"ach o ther , h phen
.

M eas ures metric ho w des ign ated 7 8

, , , .
ated , 8 0 ; in in g 3 5 ; to des ig n ate
-
,

M edical terms : capitaliz atio n o f 100 ; no t Supreme Being, capitaliz ed , 8 7 ; fo l

italiciz ed , 1 2 7
,

lo wed by
n umeral , to b e capitaliz ed , 9 6 ;
v b
.

M ergen thaler S ec Lino t pe y pro p er, to b e c apitaliz ed , 8 7 ; er al, 3 5 .

b v
. .

M etho d o f tak in g no tes 1 3 um ered

po litical di is io ns , n ames o f,
to b e c ap i tali z e d , 9 3
.
,

y b
M etric s m o ls ho w to treat 7 8 , 1 0 1 10 2 , , , .

N um ers : b b
egin nin g a s en tence, to be
.

y
M etric s s tem, a re iatio n s fo r 7 8 bb v ,
.
s p elled o ut, 7 ; co n s ecuti e treatmen t
3 v
y
M ilitar titles capitaliz atio n o f 88 , , .
o f, 1 1 3 , 1 1 9 ; i n co n n ected gro ups , ho w
treated , 7 3 ; ro un d , treatment o f, 7 3 ;

M inio n , de n ed, 1 88 .

d igits repres en ting tho us an ds re uire a q

M is cellaneo us terms c apital iz atio n o f 9 0 co mma, 1 1 3 ; us e o f das h in co nnecting
v
, , .

c o n s ecuti e , 1 1 9
M lle ho w treated , 7 6 .

b
.
,
N um er o f multiples , 2 7
M me ho w treated 7 6
.

N umerals , R o man , tak e

, , .

M o di ers po s itio n o f 4 2 , , .
no perio d, 10 2 .

M o nas tic o rders c apitaliz atio n o f n ames

Oh : capitaliz atio n o f, 9 6 ;

0 an d
,

o f, 9 1 .

y um f wh i g ff
ho w di eren tiated , 7 1 ; when o llo wed f
M o ne , s s o , en n ures , 73 .
by
co mma, when n o t, 5 8 , 7 2 , 1 0 3 , 1 1 2
yp d d 9 ; mp
.

M o no t e: e ne , 1 2 co o s itio n o n , v
8vo (o cta o ) , de ned, 1 9 5 ; no t to b e
19 2 .
treated as a re i ati o n , 1 0 1 bb v .

M o n ths , na mes o f, when to be spelled o ut, O bj ect, s ha m, 32 .

7 4~

a, when used as ligature, 7 2

M o ther co mpo unds with, 8 1
.

,

M o tto es , princ ipal wo rds in capitaliz e d ,

.

Of, co mma us ed e o re, when ,

bf 112 .

when c apitaliz ed , 8 8 , 89
,
O cers , titles o f,
98
.
.

M o un t to be s pelled o ut, 7 5 .
Oi ces , names o f, when capitaliz ed , 88 , 8 9 ,
,

v
M o emen t, in co mpo s itio n 1 6 , 1 8 , .
9 2

Old T es tamen t
.

b k oo s, bb viati
lis t o fa re o ns
M ultiples , n um er o f, in co mpo sitio n b , 27 .
fo r, 7 7 .

Omiss io n : o f gu i umb f

N amel y , implied

a co lo n , when , 1 0 4 by .
letters in wo rds ,
res
n
n
i di at d b y apc
n
e
ers , or o
os
N ames : Chris tian, to be s pelled o ut, 7 3 . tro phe, 7 5 , 1 1 3 ; o f p i d aft R ma
er o er o n
 IN DEX 22 1

nu merals , 10 2 o f s t, nd , rd , (1 ,
in dates , Parties , po litical, capitaliz atio n o f n ames
7 4 , 1 3 0 , 1 37 ; o f s u ect, 3 1 ; o f wo rd o r bj 0i 9 0
by b
.

wo rds i ndicated co mma, 1 1 2 ; rack

Paus e, us e o fda
s h to in dicate,
y
ets , to s uppl , 1 2 1 ; ellips is , to ind icate , H
Pearl,

de ned , 1 88 .
117 .

122
b
.

Once , fo rm o f in de n ite article bf e o re

Peo ples , races , an d tri es , capitaliz atio n
o f n ames an d e pithets fo r 8 8 .

72
gu
.

One,

f o rm o fin de n ite article bf e o re , 72 .
Per cen t : to be express ed in
do es n o t tak e a peri o d, 1 0 1
res , 73 ;

Order: o fsen ten ce, in v erted , 4 1 ; o fto pics ,

Perio d : ho w in dicated o n co p , 1 60 ;
.

y
17
within parenthes is , when , 1 0 2 ; o mitted
.

Orders (deco ratio ns ) , capitaliz atio n of f bb v

a ter a re iatio ns fo r ling uis tic epo chs ,
mes o f, 88
na .
f
etc , 1 0 2 ; a ter ini tials o f titles o f pu li b
f f
.

Orders , mo nas tic , c apitali

z atio n o f n ames catio ns , 102 ; a ter M S, 1 0 2 ; a ter
o f,
91 rs t element in h phen ated a re i
a y bb v
f bb
.

tio n s , 7 9 ; use o f, a ter a reviatio n s ,

Ordin als , when capitaliz ed , 9 2 .

101 ; at end o f declarati e s en tence , v

Organ iz atio n , in co mpo s itio n , 16 .
1 0 2 ; placed ins ide o f uo tatio n mark s q
Organiz atio n s , capitaliz atio n o f na mes o f, 1 0 2 ; rules f o r us e o f, 1 0 1 3 .

91 .
Perio dicals , titles o f: capitaliz atio n o f,

Over, co mpo unds with, 8 4 .

9 8 ; de n i te a _

rti cle n o t treated as part

.

o f, 9 9 ; to b e i tali ciz ed , 1 2 5
mber o f wo rds in the
.

Page, nu , 190 .

Pers o nicatio ns , c apitaliz atio n o f, 89

f
.

Page pro o s: alteratio ns in , to be n arde d

Philo so phic al s cho o ls , c apitali atio n of
-

agai n s t,
de ned , 1 8 5 ; uty of
n ames o f, 9 0
z

co nnec ti o n with, 1 8 5
.

autho r in
Paleo nto lo gical terms , capitaliz atio n
.

Phrases : ad j ecti a with, val us e o f co m

v b
,
o f,
1 1 1 ; ad er ia l, 1 1 0 ; appo s itio nal, 1 1 0 ;
1 00 ; italiciz ed , when , 1 2 7 .
j
co n un c tio n al, 1 0 8 ; paren thetical, 1 10 ,
Pamphlets titles o f: to be capitaliz ed , 9 8 ; 1 1 7 , 1 20 , 1 2 1 ; read made, 2 3 ; repe y -

to b e italici z ed , 1 2 5 . titio n o f, 4 3 .

Pa er: cho ice o f, le t to pu lis her, 20 3 ; f b Phras in g , parallelis m o f, 43 .

epends on illus trati o n s , 20 3 S ee

Pica, de ned , 1 8 7 , 1 89

.
.

Illus tratio ns
Papers , titles o f: to be capitaliz ed , 9 8
.

f
Pit alls in d ictio n , 44 6 5 .

to be put i n uo tati o n mark s , 1 1 5 q .

.
Planning, 1 4, 1 7 .

Para les b bb
i lical n ames o r titles o f, to be Plates , des cri bd e , 19 3 95 .

c apitaliz ed , 9 0 . y
Pla s, titles o f: capitaliz atio n o f, 9 8; to
Paragraph"the, 20 , co nnectio ns b e be i taliciz e d , 1 2 5 .

tween , 2 0 ; emphas i s in the , 2 1 Plurals : 26 27; f or matio n o f, 1 14 ; of

y
.

Parallelis m o f phras ing, 43 abb viat re

,
io n sin li terar f
re erences ,
.

h w f m d
o or e , 78: o f arti cial n o un
Paren t,

co mpo unds with 8 1 , .
co in ages , ho w o rmed , 1 1 4 f
f b
.

Paren thes es : rack ets ,

dis tinguis hed ro m Po ems : c apitaliz ation o f titles o f,
98;
1 2 0 ; rules fo r us e o f, 1 20 2 1 ; us e o f,
fo r paren thetical claus es , 1 2 1 ; with
when italiciz ed , 1 2 5 ; when in q uo tatio n
mark s

gures o r letters indicating s u di isio n s , b v H
Po in t,

, 115

de
.

ned , 1 8 7 .
1 2 0.

Parenthetical claus es : us e o f co mmas in ,

Po in t s ytm s e ,
) 1
de ned , 1 8 7 .

1 10 ; o f das hes , 1 1 7 ; o f paren thes es , Po li tical : capitaliz atio n o f n ames of

1 21 . alli ances , 9 3 ; o f di i s i o n s , 9 2 , 9 3 ; v .

of
Parks , capitaliz atio n o f n am es o f, 9 5
_

.
o rga ni z ati o ns , 9 1 ; o f parti es , 9 0 .

Participial phras es , us e o f co mma with, Po pe, f o rms in letter to , 147 .

1 10
.

Po pe, when capitaliz ed, 88

mis s io n
.

Participle : o o r retentio n of H
to b e spelled o ut, 7 5

nal e in o rig in al wo rd , 68 , 17 1
Po rt, .

bf
.

co mma us ed
H
F
I)
Po s itio n : e o re o f, in
Particles in rench, German , an d Dutch
o f mo d i ers ,
_

co nnecti o n Wi th, 112; 42

na mes : capi taliz ati o n o f, 8 8 ; ho w
.

in dexed, 1 64 ; redundant, 3 4 . Po sses si v e cas e, ho w f or med , 72, 1 13 .

222 A M AN UAL F OR WR ITER S
Pos sessives , 2 6 . Qua tity xp i f 7
n , e res s o ns o , 2 .

Po st co mpo unds with, 8 3 . Quan

mp u d with 8
i t.

co o n s , 2 .

Po stscript, to be avo ided , i 3 a 4t (q a t ) d d

o u r o
95; t t b e ne 1 no o e
t at d a abb v at
, ,
.

re e i on, 10 1
co mpo unds with, 8 3
s re i
Pre .

Qua i mp u d with 84
.

bj

Predicate : agree ment o f s u ect and, 2 7 , s . co o n s . .

3 0 ; with the co pula, 3 6 . Qu y i di at d by i t gati po i t

er , n c e n erro on n ,

f
Pre ace, po si tio n o f, 1 5 3 .
3 10 .

Qu ti i di t pu t ati f 4 3

Pre xes , when h phenated , 83 , 84 y .
es o n, n

Qu ti ma k S I t gati p i t
rec , nc u on o 2, 10

Prelimin ar pages , 1 5 2

y .
es on

Qu tati ma k p iti f l with

r . ee n e rro on o n .

o on r s: os on o co on
Prepos itions , 3 9 ,

o f co mma, o f elli s is ,
.

1 05 ; 1 13 ;
p 122;
v
Presiden t o fun i ers it , o rms in letter to , yf of exclam atio n po mt, 1 03 ;
.

of mterro ga
1 47 .

President o f the United States , for ms in

tio n
co lo n
po in t, 1 04 ; o f peri o d,
fo r us e o f, 1 1 4 1 7 ;
1 06; rules

1 0 2 ; o fsemi

letter to , 1 45 .
use o fdo u le and smgle 1 1 6 1 7 b , .

President,

when capitaliz e d , 88 .
Q f
uo tatio n s : ro m dieren t autho rs , o llo w f
ing each o ther, ho w treated , 1 1 4 ; o f
Pries t, f or ms in letter to , 1 48 .

pass ages ro m a f
n autho r in his o wn
Printi ng es ta bli hm
s en ts , terms in use in , wo rds 1 1 4 ; set in reduced t pe, when ,
, y
1 5 1. 1 59

Pro ceedings (o f o f: capi

ta liz ati o n o f, 9 8 ; to be i taliciz ed, 1 2 5 R aces , tri es , and peo ples , b cap italiz atio n
o f names o f, 88
.

Pro no uns : ambiguit o f, 2 7 ; capitaliz a y

R ailro ad an d R ailwa , to be s pelled

.

tion of, in ti tles , 9 8 ; cap italiz atio n o f

refem ng to Dei t , 8 7 ; erro rs in

y
o ut, 7 5
Re
.

co mpo un ds with, 83
it is me In, 2 8 ;
.

to case o f, 2 8 ' .

who and W c m in tercha

d 28 ; Read, when italiciz ed, 1 26 .

than who m, 2 8 ;

an d which, an d R eading , 9
who , "
28 ;

us

a ter 28 ; f vy
.

v
inde ni te, 2 9 R ecepti it , acti e, 8 .

Pro o f : den ed , 1 7o ; ho w to be mar k ed ,
R ecto , de n ed , 1 83 .

revis ed ,
_

177;

pag e-pro o R ead y mad
- e phrases , 23 .

d ed , 1 8 5 ;alterati o ns
t, 1 8 5 ; d ut of author in co nnec
to b e guarded Re b lli
e o n o f ideas, 1 7 .

ti o n with, 1 8 5 as Proo re ading

. f R edun dant particles , 3 9 .

f
.

R e ormer, when capitaliz

f
Proo reading : co py hplder, duties o f, 1 7 6 ;

ed , 92 .

de ned , 1 7 6 ; queries , ho w to be treated , R egiments , capitaliz atio n o fna mes o f, 92

.

1 8 1 ; trans po si tio n , ho w in dicated , 1 7 9 ;

R egions or parts o f the wo rld, capitaliz a
changes, ho w to be made, 1 7 7 7 8 ; ti o n o f names o f,
correcti ons no t o be made on co p ,
t y R elatio ns o f to pics , 1 8 .
94 .

k
1 7 8 ; mar s us ed in , 1 7 9
v v
.

R elati e claus es , excess i e us e o f, 2 9

Pro per name s , c a ita liz atio n o f, 8 7 ; .

v
po ss ess i e o f, ho w o rmed, 7 2 . R eligio us : deno minatio ns , capitaliz atio n
Pro per no uns : capitaliz atio n o f, 87 , 9 4 .
o f names o f, 9 0 ; o fo rgan iz atio ns , 9 1 .

Pro po rtio ns o f to pics , 1 8 R epetitio n o f wo rds o r phras es , 43 .

mma bf
.

R es idence , used
b

co o f, in
Pu lication: de n ed , 200 ; terms o n which
e o re
co nnecti o n Wi th, 1 1 2
a omplis hcd, 201 ; when takes place,
.

gg
1 R es o lutio n s : the wo rds

Wh ereas ,

an d
Publi ati mitted after initials

v
R es o l ed to be ca italiz ed , 9

the
c
used o r ti les
f t
o ns : perio d o
ti tles o f, ca italiz e d,
1 02 ;
wo rd R es o l ed to e italiciz e , v g d 1 28 .

9 8; i tali ciz e 12 5 ; ti tles 0 to be when used with the , 7 6 , 1 48

s pelled o ut, wh en , 7 5 . 49 ; when Wi tho ut, 7 6 .

b
Pu lisher: cho ice o f, in s u mitting manu b v
R e ised pro o , 1 7 7 f .

scri pt, 200 . R evisio n o fwo rk , 2 4 .

Punctuatio n : o f indirect ues tio n , 4 2 , q R o man nu merals , o missio n o fperio d after ,

1 03 ; rules fo r, 10 1 22 -
. t0 2
 IN DEX 223

y
R o man t p e, de n ed , 1 3 7 . Sho rt title S ee Hal title
. f -
.

R un in , de n ed , 1 9 7 Sideheads : de ned,
lac k ace t pe in , b -
f y
f
.

o f, r83 8 4 ;

-

rec to

R unning heads : de ned , : 83 ;
an(

p pv
re aratio n
erso ,

1 5 8 ; us e o fda s h a ter, : 1 8

Signatures to letters : o miss io n o f co mma

.

de ned , : 83 . f
a ter, i s 4 ; o f perio d , 1 3 4 .

R unn ing o v
er ,

1 78 .
"
Since claus es , co mma us ed e o re, 1 08
-
bf .

-
y
6 po int t pe , illus trated , : 88 .

s,when added to o rm po ss ess i e, 7 2 f v . Sis ter, co mpo un ds with, 8 1

.

b
Sa red o o ks , capitaliz atio n o f names o f,
(l
Slug de ned, : 9 3


g9
.
,

.
Small c aps : de ned , 1 5 7 ; ho w indicated

Sacri ce o fideas , 1 5 . 15 7.

Saint, when to be a reviated, 7 6 bb . Small pica, de ned ,

: 88 .

Salutato ry phras e : in so cial letters , : 3 3 ; So cial o rganiz atio n s , capitaliz atio n of

in bus mess letters , r3 8 ; in o rmal f names o f,
letters , : 43 ; s peci al o rms o f, rgs 49 f i
-
.
y
So lar s s tem, capitaliz atio n o f na mes of
Sample pages S ee Specimen page s
. . b
o di es o f, 1 00 .

v
Scandina ian titles o f pu licatio ns , ho w b (I
,
9
So lid de ned , : 7 ; term o ten mis us ed

f
capi taliz ed , 9 8 . fo r direc tio n to run in , 1 9 7 .

Scho o ls , philo s ophical, literar , and y H

s
o meo ne

and

s o me o ne,

di eren ff
artis tic, capitali z atio n o f n ames o f, 9 0 . tin ted , 7 0 .

m
Scien ti c ter s : when capitaliz ed , t o o ;
So metimes and
U
so me times ,

di er ff
when i tali ciz ed, 1 2 7 2 8 . enti ated , 7 o .

Scripture ass a es : names o f oo ks o f b Spa is h titles o f pu licatio ns , capitaliz ed , b

b
Bi le, w en a breVi ated, 7 7 ; punctua 9 g
tio n o f, : 0 5 .
Special k no wledg e 15
y f
, .

Sec retar o f s tate, o rms in letter to , 1 46 .

Special trainin g nec ess ar y , 3 .

Sects , religio us , capitaliz atio n o fnames o f, Species n scientic na mes o f: capitaliz ed ,

u
90 i oo ; i tali ciz e d, 127 28 .

See and S ee also , when italic iz ed , 1 4 6 v k

Specimen pages , set up in ad ance o fwo r
.

Selectio n o fideas , 1 5 mpo s i ti o n

'
.
o u co , 20 2 .

f
Sel , co mpo unds with, 8 2 .
Spelled o ut, dates , names , num ers , time , b
Semi co mpo un ds with, 8 3 . ti tles , wo rds , when , 7 3 7 5 -
.

Semico lo n : markin g di is io n o f s entence , v Spellin i a a, :2 when used as lig ature , 7 2 ;

q bg
.

: 0 6 ; po s itio n with uo tatio n marks , r0 6 ; do u ng o f nal co ns o nant in termi

rules fo r use o f, 1 0 6 ; to separate items n atio n o i deri ati es , 6 7 ; k added v v
in en umeratio ns , : 0 6 to termin atio n o f wo rds endin g in c, -

f v v
.

f
Sen ato r, o rms in letter to , I 46 in o rming deri ati es when , 66 lis t '

o rm o i, 69 ; v f
,

o f wo rds with appro ed
.

Sentence, the, 2 1
Sentences : co mpo und , dangers o f, 4 1 ;
.
rules fo r,
rules fo r a reviating ,
7 5 7 9 ; rules o r co mpo unding , 80 8 5
bb

v
i n erted o rde r o f, 4 1 . rules fo r s pelling de ri ati es , 6 6 6 8 v v
termin atio n o f s ilent e, when retained
q
Se uen ceo f tens es ,
f
i o rming deri ati es, 6 7 r; termin a
n v v
-

Serial titles , to be uo ted , u s q .

tio n y changed to 4 in arming deri a
-
'

v
Sermo ns , titles o f, to be uo ted , u 5 q . tives , when , 68 ; termin atio ns vis e an d
Set,

s et up ,

de ned , ho w dis tinguis hed in prac tice , 0 ;
terminatio n s "s i o n an d ho w c is {
- y
7 po int t pe, illustrated , 1 8 8 .
tinguis hed in prac tice, 68

.

r6 mo (se xdecimo ) : de ned , 1 9 5 ; no t to be q

S uares , capitaliz atio n o f names o f, 9 5
treated as a re i ati o n , ro x bb v .

indexing o f n ames with, : 63

.

.

Shall and will, 3 6
tes an d United States po sses s io n s
.

Sta
S ham o bj ec t, 32 .
bb v
lis t o f a re i ati o ns fo r, 7 6 ; n ames
-

Sham s ubj ect, o fgro ups o f, to b e c api taliz ed, 9 4 .

Ships , na mes o f , to b e qu t d o e , : 16 . y b
Statio ner , us ines s , 1 3 7 .
224 A M AN UAL F OR WR IT ER S
Stereoty es : v
ad antage o f, 19 4; de Titles : ac ademic , a re iated , 89 ; ci il. bb v v
scrib e : 9 4; nu mber o f i mpres si o ns
_

militar y
and religio us , when capi tal
f m
,

ro , : 94 . iz e d, 88 ; to be spelled o ut, when , 7 3 ;

Stub ned, :
e xceptio ns , 76

, de 99 .
.

St ley
M anuscript hints the
T itles (o f ho no r and res pect) : to be
.
S ee , on
capi taliz ed
.

when 8 8 to be s pelled '

prepar o f, etc.
atio n
7 6 ; a bre i ated, when , b v
, .
.

o i t, when , 7 3
i
,

Sub co mpo un ds with, 8 3 .

7
b v
Su di is io ns : letters used to in dicate, to Titles p u licatio n s )
(o f capita liz at o nb . i
o r ca i tali z ing in Eng lis ,
be italiciz ed , 1 2 6 ; o f titlis , to be put o f, 9 8 ; rules f p h
in qu tat o io ns , n 5 F
Latin , re nc h, Itali an, Span ish Sc andi
v h
.

n a ian , German, Danis h, Dutc ,

Su bj ect: cho ice o f, 1 2 : limi tatio n o f, re .

when to be italic iz ed , 1 2 5 ; when to

Su bj ect o f sen tence: co mpo un d , 3 0 ; an d q uo ted , 1 1 4 1 5 ; o f a ddress es , u s : o f
-

predicate, agreemen t o f, 27, agree

30 ; articles , u s ; o f o o s , 1 2 5 ; of chap b k
ment of co pula with, o miss i o n o f, y
.

ters , u s ; o f c cles o f po ems , 1 2 5 ; o f

3 1 ; sham, 3 1 .
divis io n s o f o o s , : 1 5 ; of do cuments , b k
bj
Su uncti v e, the, 3 3 . 1 25 : o f ess a s , : 2 5 ; o f lectures , u s , y
o f news papers , : 2 5 ; o f pamph lets , 1 2 5 ;
Sultan , when capitaliz ed, 8 8
of
.

o f peri o di cals : 2 5 ;
.

o f papers , 1 1 5 ;
Sumi i ariz ing clauses , us e o f das hes in ,
g y
pla s , 1 2 5 ; o f poems , 1 2 5 0 proceed
'

i ngs o i mo ieties
u
_ .

0 seri es , u s ;
Super co mpo unds with, 8 3 . o f tracts , 1 2 5 ; o treatis es , 1 2 5 i .

Superlati es , 3 0 v . T o as ts : capitaliz atio n o f, 9 8; to be

Supra, co mpo unds with, 84

qu t d o e , u s .

T day k
.

to mo rro w,

to nig ht ta

Supreme Being, capitaliz atio n o f no uns o e

hyph
,

j v
ad ec ti es , and pro no uns fo r, 8 7 .
no en , 7 o , 84 .

y b
S m o ls , treatmen t o f: chemical, ro e ; To pics : o rder
relatio ns o f,
o f, 1 7 ;
1 8.
pro po rtio ns o f, 18 ;

metri c, 7 8 meas urement, 7 8 ; what, to '

use i n ta es , : 9 9 bl . T rainin g : .
co n
v ers atio n as , 4 ; special, 3;
un co n s cio us , 2 .

b
T a les : b o x heads , de n ed ,

ho w to
-

T rans itio n in sentence, use o f dash to
r
p pe are f o r prin ter 1 8
9 ; cas tin u
g p i n di cate , rr7
f y b
, , .

19 8; o o tno tes to , 1 9 9 ; s m o ls in , 1 9 9
T ranslatio n , rights o f, 20 2 , 208
.

Technical practices , 1 5 7 T reaties , capitaliz atio n o f names o f, 9 6

.

y
.

ro po int t pe, illustrated , 1 8 9

mpo unds with, 83
-
u
T ri
.

co
f
.

T ens es : use o f, 3 2 ; co ntaminated o rms ,

3 2 ; se uence o f, 3 2 q T ri b es , races , an d peo ples , capitaliz atio n
o f n ames o f, 88
.

b
.

T erms in us e in prin ting es ta lis hmen ts ,

yC
Trin it , hris tian , capitaliz atio n of names
rs r.
o f mem ers o f, 8 7 b

T ext g ure,-


de ned, : 5 2 , 1 8 2 .

n -
po i t typ
n illus trated , r89 e,
.

used with Ho n , R ev

T he, when
7 6 . hi s so
-
. .
, etc .
,
b dy
o o f, explained , : 8 1 ; names o f
eren t siz es o f, a nd illustratio ns , 1 88
'
o

3 2 mo : de ned , r9 5 ; no t to b e treated as 89 .

abbrevmti o n , ro r .
y
T pe setting machines , o i - 9 3
-

f
.

Tho ro ug hares : capitaliz ati o n o f names

o f, 9 5 ; n um ers o f, to b e s pelled o ut, 7 4b y
T pe meas uremen t, ho w to ma k e, 1 89 -
oi .

T yp
meas ure o f rs r
.

e- page , 1 89 - 9 2
Tho us an ds , use o f co mma a ter dig its f T yp e siz es in co mmo n use 1 89
, , .

indicating , : 1 3 , .

Typ
.

T ime, to be s pelled o ut, when , 7 4 .

o graphical prac tices and terms , r8 7
99
T ime with
.

indicatio ns : punctuated
co lo n , 7 4 , m s ; s pelled o ut, when , 7 4 f m o f inde bf
.
u (lo ng ) or nite article e o re,

,

T ip, de ned, : 9 8 S ee Illimtratio ns . .

72 .

T itle, co m a used e o re o f,

m

in co n bf Ultra co mpo unds with, 84 , .

necti o n Wi th, : 1 2 .
Umlaut, indexing o f German names with,
T itle page, what it s ho uld co ntain , 1 5 3
-
. 1 65 S ee In dex . .
 IN DE X 225

Un co mpo unds with, 83 . Vo ca bulary , 22 .

Un co n scio us training, 2 .

Vo n,

ho w to treat, 7 3 , 88 , m 4 .

Under co mpo unds with, 84

United States when spelled o ut, 7 4

.

W ight
e and meas ures , me tric : ho w
s
, .
designated , 7 8 ; to be s pelled o ut when , ,

Upper case, ho w indicated, : 5 7 ; mean .

73

ing an d o rigin o f word, : 5 7 .

When clauses co mma used before : 08
-

v
.
, ,

Us age: 2 2 ; io latio ns of, : 5 .

Wli ereaWc laus es co mma us ed be fo re
-
, ,

s
I c
(
VM 9
: capitaliz ed , 88 ; ho w indexed , co mma us ed bf e o re, r0 8 .

1 04

b
.

Will
and

s hall,
26 .

Ver al n o uns , 85 .

Words nu mber o f, to y
t pe page,
-
190;
Ver b s: capitaliz atio n o f, in titles , 9 8 ;
,

repeti tio n o f,
_

43
v
.

co pulati e, 36 .
W itr
'

ne, 5 ; a cra t an d an art f 3:

Vers io ns o f Bi bl e, abbr viati ns f
e o o r, 77 . and t nk 6 ; cra t c an be learned,
' '

f r;

Vers o , de ned, : 83 .
can be taug t, r .

Vicar general, o rms in letter to ,

-
f : 49 .
Z oo lo gical terms , capitaliz atio n o f, ro e ;

Vice co mpo unds with. 8 2 . itali ciz ed , when , : 27 .