INTRODUCTION AND RELATED

STUDIES
Alcoholism is a condition in which the drinker has serious problems. It
causes damage to the individual and society. Alcoholism is defined as an
excessive drinker whose dependence on alcohol is so strong that is interferes
with the performance of socially appropriate behaviour. Some alcoholics do
not want to be designated as alcoholic rather they prefer to be called as
problem drinker or chemical abuser. Alcohol is a depressant which affects
the higher brain function, empowering judgement and other rational processes
and lowering self control. Motor in coordination soon becomes apparent after
heavy drink and his sense of discrimination of cold, plain and other discomfort
are dulled. Typically he experiences a sense of warmth, expansiveness and
well-being. In such a mood unpleasant realities are screened out and the
drinker's feeling of self esteem and adequacy arise. Drinker enters a state of
pleasant word of unreality in which worries are temporarily left behind. When
alcohol content of blood reaches. I percent, the individual is considered to be
intoxicated. Speech and vision are impaired and thought processes are
confused. When the blood alcohol reaches .5 percent, the neural balances is
upset and the individual is dead.
The effects of alcohol varies with the individual and his personality, his
physical condition, the amount of food in his drinking. Thy build up tolerance
for the drug. Motor and intellectual abilities decline but many persons maintain
adequate control over their behaviour. There is tendency toward increased
sexual stimulation but simultaneously it lowers sexual performance.
Shakespeare wrote in Macbeth, alcohol provokes and un-provkes. It
provokes the desire but it takes away the performance.
Alcohol is high caloric drug. One peg of whiskey provides 1200 calories
which is approximately half the calories requirement for a day, thus reduces
the drinker's appetite for food. The excessive drinker suffers from malnutrition.
The alcoholic assumes less responsibility, loses pride, neglects his family,
becomes touchy and irritable and is unable to maintain employment. His
general health is weakened.
Virtually all Psycho active drugs react on the body in some unwanted
ways that are considered adverse side effects. It is well known that heroin,
cocaine, cannabis and Lyseric Acid Diethylamide (LSD) are drugs. But it is
amazing how many people do not understand that alcohol is a drug too and a
powerful one. The most obvious difference between alcohol and the other
drugs just mentioned is that alcohol is legal, where as the others are not. But,
misuse of alcohol causes many times more damage in the society than all
these illegal drugs put together. There is a great deal of concern at present
about heroin abuse, especially among youth people, but it should not obscure
the fact that the number of deaths per year caused by heroin pales into
insignificance when compare to the number of deaths due to excessive
drinking.
It is worth noting that alcohol is a brain depressant drug. This means
that it dulls the working of the brain and is the same type of drug as the
barbiturates which were once used as sleeping pills.
Every aspect of alcoholism presents difficulties to scientist who seek to
understand the condition or to help its victims. There is even disagreement
over the definition of alcoholism. The definition used by Alcoholics
Anonymous (AA) an organization of, alcoholics who desire to 'stay sober' may
be accepted here. The AA definition of alcoholism is simple and to the point.
Alcoholics are people who are "powerless over alcohol" and who, as a result
of drinking have found that lives have "become unmanageable. What ever the
definition of alcoholism may be it appears to be a multi factorial Polygenic
disorder (Schuckit, 1985). It has become one of the most serious health
problems in modern society. The disability involves severe social, physical and
psychiatric complications (Knot, 1985). Hence it is essential to understand
different aspects associated with problem of alcoholism. They are discussed
here as under noted :
Problems Due to Alcoholism
Alcohol may add further problems to an already troubled personality.
The three Psychoses most commonly associated with the prolonged overuse
of alcohol are delirium tremors, alcoholic hallucinations and Korsakoff's
Psychoses. Alcoholics typically suffer damage to their self image; their self-
respect becomes impaired. This reaction is particularly severe the "coming
after" when alcoholics often suffer the "hangover of remorse". They may be
particularly distressed because all the events of the previous evening may be
"blacked out". They perhaps can't remember where they were, what they did,
how they got home. They may wonder if they ran someone down with their car
or did some other terrible thing. Painful as the physical symptoms of the
hangover are, many alcoholics assert that the "hangover of remorse" is more
painful. They often reach quickly for the first drink of the morning.
Drinking becomes an obsession, and the thought of drinking is always
with alcoholics. They can't imagine that life is possible without alcohol. The
main problems associated with alcohol are :
1. Economic Problems : The economic facts of lifethe necessity to
earn a living and to budget what is earned for necessitiesmake the lives of
many alcoholics unmanageable. The bills pile up and the children are without
proper food and clothing. Life is bleak for alcoholics and family members alike.
Add to these woes medical expenses, since many alcoholics may require
frequent trips to a hospital or nursing home to "dry out". And alcoholics are
always in danger of losing their jobs. They lose time from work during drunken
sprees or because drinking has left them too sick to work. It they do go to
work productivity may be poor; they may be inefficient and make mistakes.
Most employers have only limited tolerance for such employees, and sooner
or later they are fired.
2. Social Problems : Alcoholics often find the social aspects of their
lives unmanageable. Economic difficulties may drop them several rungs on
the social ladder. Friends, relatives, and family may simply "give up" on them
because of their ways. Alcoholism frequently leads to broken homes.
Alcoholics are seen staggering on the streets or making fools of themselves at
social gatherings. They may be arrested again and again.
3. Health and safety problems : There are also a number of health
problems associated with the injudicious use of alcohol and with the poor
nutrition that commonly exists among confirmed alcoholics. Here are some of
the more important problems.
Among the fatal or potentially fatal conditions are delirium terminus,
cirrhosis of the liver, and occasionally, the drinking of so much alcohol that the
breathing apparatus is paralysed and death occurs. This sometimes happens
during "drinking contests" or when braggarts wish to show how much liquor
they can "hold". In cold weather, alcoholics without proper shelter are
susceptible to freezing to death. This can happen when alcoholics are
exposed to the cold for a long period of time while they are insensible, partly
because alcohol dilates the capillaries and the loss of heat from the skin is
rapid.
Misconceptions About Alcoholism : We are familiar with the
extensive folklore of drinking, which contributes largely, though often
incorrectly, to public understanding of alcoholism.
Amount Consumed : Up to a point, the amount of alcohol people
consume is not necessarily a good indication of whether or not they are
alcoholics. What is important is the effect the drinking has So called "heavy
drinkers'' may not find their lives unmanageable, at least for a time. Others
may consume relatively small amounts of alcohol with the most disastrous
results. Their lives may become unmanageable economically, socially, or
physicallyor in all these ways.
Time of Day : According to some people, the time of day in which
drinking occurs is significant. If people take the first drink before noon, some
say, or before five o'clock, they are alcoholics. Nonsense! In some cultures
where wine or beer is drunk with meals, there is little alcoholism. Some people
drink a small amount of alcohol every day, even at breakfast, without apparent
ill effect. Some doctors even prescribe small amounts of alcohol with each
meal for people having problems with blood circulation. On the other hand,
people who never take a drink "before the sun goes down'' may be alcoholics.
Social Versus Solitary Drinking : According to some, whether people
drink alone or in company is a crucial consideration in deciding whether they
are alcoholics. Supposedly, solitary drinkers are alcoholics while social
drinkers are not. This is an over generalization. Alcoholics may do much
solitary drinkingthe morning drink'', for example, is hardly a social event
but they also may do a lot of "social drinking'' at bars, at parties, or after work
with drinking cronies. On the other hand, there are many solitary drinkers who
are not alcoholicssingle people for example, who may have a drink or two
before dinner or before bedtime.
Type of Beverage
Some think the type of alcoholic beverage people drink determines
whether or not they are alcoholics. Commonly, drinkers of hard liquor (Wiskey,
Vodka, gin, rum, brandy, for example) or of wine may be regarded as
alcoholics, while beer drinkers may not be so considered. But the question is
not what people drink, when they drink, or whether they drink alone or with
others. The yardsticks are, as the AA (Alcoholics Anonymous) definition states
: Are the drinkers powerless over alcohol? As a result of drinking, are their
lives unmanageable?
Causes of Alcoholism : It is still unclear why certain people become
alcoholic and develop a tolerance for alcohol, while other do not (River, 1986;
Gallant, 1987). Some evidence suggests a genetic cause, the chances of
becoming alcoholics are considerably higher if alcoholics are present in earlier
generation, implying that some people are genetically susceptible to
alcoholism. On the other hand not all alcoholics have close relatives hand, not
all alcoholics have close relatives who are alcoholics, in these cases,
environmental stressor are suspected of playing a larger role (Holden, 1985;
Kolata, 1987).
Thus, alcoholism is a multi factorial caused phenomena. These factors
may be grouped as under noted.
Psychological Factors : Few doubt that alcoholism is an expression of
troubled personality, but this common impression is too general to have much
practical use. Since no personality is completely trouble-free, so far as we
know, we cannot say that certain personality factors make people immune to
alcoholism. The only certain knowledge we have is that the only way people
can be sure they will not become alcoholics is to drink no alcohol! Alcohol is
the only ingredient so far identifiedthere are sure to be othersthat we
know to be essential to the making of an alcoholic.
It is possible that an alcoholic starts with a personality different from that of
people who can drink moderately. Indeed, many alcoholics say, ``I was an
alcoholic before I took my first drink". However, psychologists have not yet
been able to identify any such ``different'' personality. Many alcoholics seem
to be immature, dependent people. They tend to be self-entered and
demanding. They have little tolerance for frustration, for ``putting up with''
anxiety, tension, worry, and other unpleasant feelings. But, as we know too
well, countless people with these characteristics are not alcoholics.
Samuel Johnson tells us that ``In the bottle, discontent seeks for comfort,
cowardice for courage, and bashfulness for confidence.'' His observation
explains, perhaps, why many people drink. It may explain also why alcoholics
drink, but it does not explain why they drink to the very point of their own
destruction.
Cultural factors : Culture is clearly a factor in alcoholism. In some
cultures there is a high rate of alcoholism. In other cultures the rate is quite
low. Studies show that when groups migrate from one culture to another and
begin to take on more and more of the ways of the new cultureperhaps over
several generationsthe rate of alcoholism in that group will change to the
rate found in the new culture. This has been the case with may groups of
American immigrants and other places or the world.
The ratio of male to female alcoholics also varies from culture to culture. In
the United States, the current ratio of male to female alcoholics is reported to
be 5 to 1 but there is evidence that the number of female alcoholics is on the
increase. In India the female alcoholics are very few but it is on increase.
Effects of Alcohol : Alcohol has a physical effect on several parts of
the human bodyincluding the brain, the liver, the stomach, the intestine, and
the kidneys. Abuse of alcohol may lead to poor nutrition and vitamin
deficiencies, both of which cause deterioration of physical health.
Psychological effects can also be expected. People usually experience
decreased inhibition, an alteration in their perception of self and of others, and
some degree of loss of judgment. It is commonly believed that alcohol is a
stimulant. It is not; Alcohol depresses the function of the higher brain centres.
Normally these centres inhibit certain behaviours and keep behaviour within
the bounds expected by society. When such restraints are weakened, people
behave as tough they had been stimulated.
Decreased Inhibition : Decreased inhibition may contribute to
behaviours that people otherwise would not tolerate. Moral principles may be
compromised when alcohol relaxes behavioural values by removing restraints.
People who wish to violate standards that they feel forced to, adhere to, may
use alcohol to help them to break these bonds. They can then blame alcohol
rather than themselves for their lapses. Sexual inhibitions may be the first to
go. The superego, which is our control mechanism, "dissolves'' in alcohol.
Alteration of Perception : Along with decreased behavioural restraints
comes an alteration of perception, both of the self and others. The self-image
of drinking people is temporarily enhanced. They may gain self-confidence
and may tell others they are ``feeling good''. Social discomfort and other
inadequacies may seem to disappear. Shy people become outgoing people.
People feel they are bright and witty, though others may observe that they are
making fools of themselves.
The change in their perception of others usually causes drinkers to
experience other people as more friendly. It is the combination of improved
self-perception and improved perception of others that makes alcohol a
``social lubricant''. However, in some people the effects of alcohol can be quite
the opposite, and they can become deeply depressed. People who tend to be
suspicious may, when drinking, perceive others as being hostile.
Impaired Judgment : The impairment of function of the higher brain
centres leads to some degree of loss of judgment. In their overestimation of
themselves, drinkers may attempt to do things that they would normally know
to be unwise or beyond them. Thus, after drinking, people may engage in
destruction of property or turning in false fire alarms. Every municipal judge is
all too familiar with such pranks.
As is well known, alcohol has a tendency to loosen the tongues of many
people. They talk about matters that ordinarily they would not discuss. What
they say when the tongue is lubricated by alcohol is likely to be true. But it
may be the sort of truth that people otherwise would rather conceal from
others. Thus the time-honoured Latin expression in vino varieties in wine there
is truth.
Loss of judgment is particularly likely to be distrust when people drive after
drinking. They may obviously be in no condition to drive, but they feel entirely
competent. Flouting objective knowledge about drinking and driving, some
people delude themselves into believing that after drinking they can drive
better than ever. Most who try quickly prove that they cannotsometimes with
fatal consequences.
In controlled laboratory studies, psychologists have demonstrated that
alcohol increases reaction time. It takes people longer to react to warnings,
lights, sounds, and movements. This fact obviously has important implications
for operating motor vehicles. Drinking drivers are slower in applying the
brakes and in reacting to danger. This slow reaction in combination with
decreased judgmentwhich often results in driving at unsafe speeds
explains why drinking drivers so frequently have accidents.
Effects : Mild to Severe
 Small amounts of alcohol typically cause a glowing feeling, a sense of well
being and sedation, though some people show rather severe effects as a
result of even one drink. With large quantitiesthe quantity will vary from
person to personpeople increasingly lose their appreciation of reality. The
world seems strange to them and they cannot adequately understand what is
happening. Their thoughts become confused and good mental work is
impossible. Speech becomes thick and reveals the confused state of thinking.
The ability to coordinate the muscles decreases, and the people may stagger
or fall. Even the sense of vision is disturbed.
When the concentration of alcohol in the blood reaches 50, most people
will pass out (Many people will lose consciousness at a far lower degree of
concentration). If people manage to drink enough alcohol to reach a
concentration significantly beyond, 60, they are very likely to die.
Alcoholism and Personality Change : Some of the effects of alcohol
are temporary - that is, they occur only when the person is under the influence
of alcohol. Other effects are long term. The personality itself may undergo
changes.
The approach to alcoholism
People who habitually consume large amounts of alcohol may be
drifting toward alcoholism. They may find themselves undergoing a change in
personality, though this does not necessarily happen. Some heavy drinkers
drink large amounts indefinitely without ever becoming powerless over alcohol
or finding that their lives have become unmanageable. The same is true for
so-called alcohol - dependent people. Such people stop short of the ruination
of alcoholism, but in the course of long continued use seemingly find it
necessary to drink alcohol in order to cope with the daily stresses of life.
It usually takes a number of years for drinkers to undergo sufficient
personality change to put them in the category of alcoholics. Some say this
process takes place over a period of about 15 years. Certain individuals may
become alcoholic in a shorter period of time, while some become alcoholic
only after 20 or more years of drinking. Some people claim that they became
alcoholics with their very first drink, meaning that they drank to the point of
intoxication and continued to drink uncontrollably ever after. Young people,
increasingly, are becoming alcoholics in rather short periods of time.
Many psychologists believe that alcoholism involves a permanent
personality change. Once people become alcoholics they can never be
``cured.'' However, many abstain-stop drinking entirely, following the goal of
Alcoholics Anonymous. But it is difficult, if not impossible, for them to drink
moderately. Taking one drink is likely to set off a chain reaction. This has been
the experience of countless alcoholics, who after a period of sobriety, perhaps
as long as 15 or 20 years ``slip'' and return to drinking. Their honest intention
had been to take `Just one'' drink. But one drink leads to two, and two to
three, to the point of disaster. We recall the Japanese proverb.
First the man takes a drink
Then the drink takes a drink
Then the drink takes the man
Recently a few psychologists have rejected this commonly held view -
that there is no complete cure for alcoholism. They believe that an alcoholic
can learn to drink moderately. But many alcoholics have learned through bitter
experience that for them'' one drink is too many and a hundred not enough''.
Many alcoholics will tell you, truthfully, that it was not the last drink that got
them drunk but the first.
Progressive Deterioration
The personalities of alcoholics undergo a progressive deterioration.
Their entire lives may revolve around alcohol and drinking. Drinkers becomes
sensitive about their drinking. Soon after first starting to drink they probably
bragged about how much they could "hold''. Later they minimize how much
they consume and rationalize the "reasons'' for drinking. In fact, they
knowingly lie about they drinking and perhaps hide bottles in strange places.
As drinking continues they neglect their appearance, their family, their work.
They become irritable and "touchy''.
Drinkers on the way to alcoholism start to have "blackouts''. This is not
the same as "passing out'' or falling asleep, but rather waking up in the
morning to find that the mind is completely blank beyond a certain time the
previous evening. This phenomenon is also called "pulling blanks''. People
find themselves consistently drinking more than they had intended. They
intend to have "one or two'' drinks only to find themselves thoroughly
inebriated.
Next, usually comes "the morning drink'' or "eye-opener'' to get started'',
It will "cure'' the "shakes'', depression and feelings of remorse. People may
say. "I need some hair from the dog that bit me.'' Soon after the start of
morning drinking may come a preference for drinking alone. People are no
longer interested in the sociability of drinking with others. All they care about
now is alcohol. Additionally, they may prefer solitary drinking because when
drinking their perceptions of others change to the point where they become
suspicious and hostile, even paranoid. They may even start fights with total
strangers.
Next they may go on "benders'', "sprees'', or drinking bouts lasting
several days, and sometimes longer. People begin to drink ``compulsively''
with the sole purpose of getting as drunk as possible. They may neglect family
and friends and probably eat little or nothing. Hospitalization may be
necessary following such episodes.
Deep remorse sets in, but with it resentment. The fault for drinking is
projected onto others. Alcoholics come to believe that their drinking is justified
and that the fault is not their. No body understands them, they feel. This
appraisal of the situation sends them, self-righteously, back to the bottle,
Psychological and physical deterioration continue.
Somewhere along this unhappy chain of events, drinkers may start to
feel they cannot continue such a life. What they have given up and may
perhaps have to give in the future - including life - may be a higher price than
they are willing to pay for the drinking habit. When they feel they cannot go on
with the alcoholic way of life, they are said to have "hit bottom''. At this point
they may be willing to accept help.
The most astonishing and recent trend is the use of alcohol/drug by
youth. Its most horrible aspect is that in spite of all preventive, punitive and
persuasive efforts of the different governmental and non-governmental
agencies, this epidemic is increasing day-by-day involving nearly all segments
of the society. In its present devastating form, it appears to be more deadly
than the nuclear and chemical war. Thus the menace of alcohol/drug abuse in
its present form is really a challenge for all of us.
Alcoholic behaviour/drug taking behaviour is as old as the society itself.
Alcohol/Drug use has been prevalent in all societies all over the world in either
as a cultural trait social customs, religious practices, status symbol or as a
part of belief system. Their use as a tranquillizer, as medium of group
solidarity, as an aid for intensifying concentration, and as a aid for spiritualism
are well known to the social scientists.
The earliest reference to the use of drugs in India as found in the
Rigveda which dates back to around 2000 B.C. The intoxicating drug
identified as Soma Rosa was taken during ceremonial occasions. In the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata there are references to another
intoxicating drink know as Madhu. Thus the use of psycho active drug is not
new in India but their abuse is a recent phenomenon. The alarming turn in the
drug abuse has been witnessed in India during 1970s (Alum, 1989).
Freud (1958) observed that drugs enable people to slip away from the
oppression of reality and find a refuge in a world where painful feelings do not
enter. In some specific region it is a part of cultural identity. For example, in
Uttar Pradesh specially in Mathura and Varanasi the use of Bhang is a mark
of cultural and religious identity. There relate Bhang is a mark of cultural and
religious identity. They relate Bhang with Lord Siva and Lord Krishna. It
may be true that all Shaivites do not take it but Shiva worship has come to be
by and large accomplished through the intake of Bhang and Dhatura by the
devotes.
Similarly in most of the tribal communities the local indigenous brew
constitutes part and parcel of their food habit. Drinking is also acceptable in
religious and cultural functions. The worships of the Goddess Kali take wine.
They also offer wine to the Goddes. Ganja and Sulfa are still considered a
medium of sacred trance by the Indian Sadhus and Sanyasis. The aloofness
from the wordily illusions (Maya) and attainment of unison with the Almighty
are customarily attained by taking Ganja and Bhang.
Drugs that act on the central nervous system are called Psycho-active
or psycho tropic to indicate that they affect mental process. At least 500 drugs
are now known to have important psycho-active or psycho tropic to indicate
that they affect mental process. At least 500 drugs are now known to have
important psycho-pharmacological effects (Millar, 1977). Some of the drugs
are given because they increase activity or slow it down other drugs, more
specific in their action, reduce anxiety, combat depression, relax muscles and
prevent fatigue. Drugs that act on the central nervous system are called
psycho active or psycho tropic to indicate that they affect mental processes,
alter behaviours, perception, sensation and feelings. In other words, a drug is
a chemical substance that effects the nervous system when introduced into
the body. It releases what is already in the mind. It brings in nothing new. A
drug that is prescribed by a medical practitioner (doctor) for a specific
therapeutic or prophylactic purposes has a favourable connotation. But the
word drug also includes such things as cigarettes and other forms of tobacco,
alcoholic beverages, analgesics, sedatives, opiates, hallucinogens and
depressant. These appear in such forms as coffee, tea, soft drinks, papillose,
dexedrine, no-doz., glue, cough syrup, paint thinner, nutmeg, oregano,
marijuana, heroin, morphine, LSD etc.
 The term dependence was introduced by a committee of the World
Health Organisation (W.H.O), which described it as a site of physical reliance
following administration of drug on a periodic or continuous basis. It means
that the individual is not healthy or well when he is deprived of the drug. Such
terms as addict, addicting, addictive drug dependence, drug abuse, drug
habituation etc. are frequently used. The term addiction is defined as a
dependence on a substance or practice which is beyond control. It is very
difficult to find out a definition which is comprehensive enough to cover all
aspects of drug abuse. However, the definition of drug addiction enunciated
by WHO may be accepted as an operational definition here. Accordingly, a
state of periodic or chronic intoxication, detrimental to the individual and the
society, produced by the repeated consumption of alcohol, drug, natural or
synthetic, may be termed as alcohol or drug addiction. Drugs or alcohol
change our experience of ourselves and of the world. They do so by speeding
up, slowing down or disrupting and confusing the normal functioning of brain.
Drugs or alcohol do not add anything to the user that was not there before, but
by altering brain activity it releases what is already in the mind. It is like a key
that can open door to our subconscious (Honowitz, 1976).
The term alcohol or drug abuse in all encompassing terms should be
used in appropriate context. For some people, drug abuse means only opiate
addiction, for others, the use of so called so drugs, beverages come under the
category. For others, any substance that has abused potential including
alcohol would come under the category of drug abuse. A World Health
Organization (WHO) report defines alcohol/drug abuse as persistent or
sporadic excessive drug use inconsistent with or unrelated to acceptable
medical practice. This definition looks as beverages/drug abuse from medical
point of view and says that persistent non-medical point of view and non-
medical use of alcohol/drug abuse.
Beverages/Drugs can be very helpful when we take them in right
fraudulency, right quaintly and at the right time and place. We use
alcohol/drugs for a health reason to relieve pain, discomfort and to cure
chronic diseases, but the abuse starts when we start misusing the prescribed
dose to feel up or to escape from realities, then it becomes abuse and slowly
develops dependence or addiction. Drug or alcohol addiction are generally
considered sick people who need treatment care and share.
The characteristics of alcohol or drug addiction include an overpowering
desire or need to obtain it by any means a tendency to increase the dose, a
psychic or sometimes a physical dependence on the drug. It is important to
not there that drug include alcohol and tobacco also and note merely narcotics
and psycho tropic drugs etc. Mostly a drug abuser does everything that
he/she can to keep his/her drug habit a secret affair. One does not tell about
one's symptoms or painful feelings unless one is forced to do so.
Thus drug addiction is dependence on a substance or practice which is
beyond control. Drugs may be used in five different ways :
1. Proper useWhen a drug is prescribed by a physical for a medical
purpose.
2. Addictive useWhen a person develops a physiological or
psychological dependence upon the drug.
3. MisuseWhen a drug is used by mistake, when a child accidentally
ingests medication or an adult takes a tranquillizer thinking that it is a
relief provider. This would also include the situation in which one
unknowingly ingests hallucinogen that someone has put in a drink.
4. AbuseMisusing the prescribed dose to feel up, or to escape from
reality is drug abuse. Excessive use often leads to dependence.
5. Illegal useDespite prohibition if anybody takes alcohol or drugs in
against the law.
What leads to drug addiction is an extremely complex questions.
Various factors in one's life interact in such a way that they make the person
vulnerable to abuse of drugs. It is very difficult to clearly delineates them all.
Researchers have identified a few determinants but a large number of such
factors that are suggested in one study, failed to be confirmed in another.
Even more recently numerous theoretical models have been proposed
to explain the aetiology of abuse phenomenon. Some investigators (Cahalan,
Cision and Crossely, 1969) have delineated a number of demographic
variables, et. low socio-economic status, urban residence, broken homes,
marital status etc. are related to both the use and abuse of drugs.
Miler and Eisler (1976) discuss the problem in terms of availability of
drugs, the context in which it is used and the sanctions imposed in its abuse.
Within the category of psychological models in its abuse. Within the category
of psychological models various interpretations of aetiology of drug abuse are
available. According to psycho-dynamic model drug abuse results from (a)
unconscious tendencies, such as self destruction, latent homosexuality, or
fixation at the oral stage of development (b) need for power of and autonomy
and (c) hostility and dependency needs (Mc Cord and Mc Cord, 1960 Emrik,
1974).
Behavioural approaches on addiction have relied on a simple
conditioning (driver reduction) model derived from learning principles (Franks,
1970, Miller and Eisler, 1976). While others placed emphasis upon mixture of
psycho-dynamic and learning theory principles. Above all it is widely
recognised that individual psychological factors remain a critical element in
determining whether person will become addict or not. Anxiety producing
situation may serve as a cues for the abuser. In the context of psychological
factors it is imperative to note that (a) society showing infrequent or low
consumption of alcohol and psycho active drugs tends to take care of physical
and emotional needs of then infants and children, (b) use permissive rather
than punitive method of socialization, (c) exert relatively little socialization
pressure toward achievement and independence, (d) tolerate dependent
behaviour in adulthood, (e) engage in community eating, and (f) relate folk
tales to describe the world.
Of all the factors and models, the problem of parent-child relationship
adjustment and their influence on drug addiction have become a much more
important topic of research in the field of psychology. The child behaviour as
an area of investigation has assumed enormous importance for psychologists,
educationists, sociologists and other behavioural scientists. They have
realized that childhood experiences and adjustment from the main basis of
human development. All have realized that the adequate development of the
individual is essential. Of course, without proper development of the
individual, no society can progress. Clinical and experimental studies indicate
that personality is moulded by early experiences of the child. Several
psychologists (Rosen, 1956) hold that early experiences influence behaviour
and aspiration on children to a great extent. Most of these experiences cluster
round the relationship between the parent and the child and adjustment.
Emphasizing the importance of early years of life Mialarent (1971) writes :
Right from the birth, a child reacts first of all emotionally and then socially and
physically, his earliest experiences are likely to have profound traces in his
psychological make up.
Of course, the survival of the human child depends on his care by
others particularly by parents. Howard (1969) describes parents as one who
knows, his child's behaviour patterns and can read his actions, knows his
child's abilities and weaknesses, knows how to handle him at various stages
in his growth and threats his child with dignity and respects to which every
human being is entitled. Here it must be mentioned that there are wide
variations in the kind of care, nourishment, protection and training given to
these children by parents. These variations have profound repercussion on
the emotional and personality development of children.
In fact, the greatest need of the child is security which is provided by
parents. Children's dependence on their parents persists throughout the
childhood and even in late adolescent period in your Indian society.
Adolescence is conducive to emotional state. Adolescent has an exuberant
fund of energy. He wants to assert himself but is sometimes shy. Any
repression any where affects him adversely and he develops many defects in
his personality. His behaviour becomes rude and shocking. Ultimately, he
resorts to drinking and is driven to the drugs world.
During the last two decades much attention has been focused on
backgrounds of drug addicts, such as age, sex education, family, religion,
caste, soco-economic status, urban-rural etc. Despite all those efforts a little
impact has been seen to control the menace. Because of limited time and
resources it is not possible for the researcher to study all these variables.
However, SES.
Thus it goes without saying that alcoholism or drug addiction is a
complex phenomenon and is considered to be a multi disciplinary problem.
The present research project is an opportune endeavour to diagnose the
antecedents of alcoholism or drug addiction with a view to eradicating this
malady in the Indian socio-cultured milieu. In this context family pathology,
emotional instability, marital adjustment, depression of subjects seem to be
important variables in shaping the life of an individual. So, three variables
would be treated as the main independent variable in response to alcoholism.
Although this problem has drawn greater attention of western investigators it
has received very little attention of Indian social scientists. The present
research is an attempt to fill up this gap. Accordingly family pathology,
emotional stability, marital maladjustment, depression etc. were selected to
examine their influence on alcoholism.
Psychological Addiction and Physiological Addiction
Physical dependence refers to what is formerly called addiction. It is
characterized by (a) tolerance and (b) withdrawal.
Tolerance
Tolerance to a drug develops in an individual when the same dosage
produces decreased effects after repeated use. The tendency to take
progressively larger does of the drug in order to achieve the same effect is
known as tolerance. Two aspects of tolerance, i.e. cross tolerance and
reverse tolerance, need to mentioned here. Cross tolerance may occur
when the individual who develops tolerance to one drug also shown tolerance
to drugs whose effects are similar or related type. A heavy drinker, for
example, may not only show tolerance to alcohol but also to barbiturates,
tranquillizers and anaesthetics. Reverse tolerance may occur in the use of
some drugs, such as the psychedelic, the desired effect may be achieved
through the use of smaller does. In other words to put in singly, increase of
doses of alcohol or other drugs are required to achieve the effects originally
produced by lower doses.
Withdrawal
Withdrawal syndrome is a group of symptoms which occur on suddenly
stopping or reduction use of Psycho-active substance that has been taken
repeatedly, usually for a prolonged period of time and / or in high doses
(WHO). Tolerance and addiction are often confused. Addiction has several
meanings, all relating to increased dependence upon alcohol or drugs. At a
behavioural level, addiction means that the person takes it repeatedly and has
difficult in kicking off the habit. Physical addiction refers to the occurrence of
withdrawal effects when use of alcohol or drug is stopped. Alcohol,
barbiturates and narcotics can all produce physical dependence. When
substance is not available to the individual, the substantial and dangerous
physiological reaction of withdrawal is induced.
Withdrawal symptoms and increased tolerance are signs that a real
physical need has developed and that there are actual altercations in the body
physiology. In some cases brain impairment occurs.
Addicts manifesting withdrawal symptoms from a drug become so
agitated, depressed or otherwise miserable that they can think of nothing but
getting their next dose. Restlessness, depression, irritability followed by
vomiting, diarrhoea, cramps, pain, severe headaches may begin in
withdrawal. In case of alcohol dependence, withdrawal symptoms may include
tremors (the shakes), delirium, convulsions and hallucinations.
Psychological dependence refers to a need that develops through
learning. People who habitually use a drug to relieve anxiety may become
dependent on it even though no physical need develops. For example,
smoking marijuana does not appear to build up tolerance for the drug and the
withdrawal symptoms are minimal. Nevertheless, a person who learns to use
marijuana when faced with stressful situations will find the habit difficult to
break. For some drugs, psychological dependence appears more prominently
than physical dependence as more and more substance is consumed. Thus
the term psychological dependence refers to the fact that drug withdrawal
produces psychological discomfort, mainly anxiety, as opposed to the real
physical illness in physical addiction.
Alcohol and the Young Person
Since drinking typically starts in the youthful years, if not in childhood, it
is proper to focus attention on this period of life. Young people must make
many important decisions that may have far-reaching effects on their present
and future. Whether to drink or not, and whether to associate with groups that
emphasize drinking, are decisions of this sort.
All young people who find themselves needing to make a decision about
drinking should attempt to reach this decision on rational grounds with as full a
knowledge of the facts as is feasible. They owe it to themselves to be honest
with themselves. They should be familiar with their motivation with respect to
this problem. They should be able to recognize the snares that may involve
them in behaviours contrary to their basic motivation.
Motivation for Drinking
We do not adequately know the reasons why some drink to excess.
Drinkers typically report experiencing a warm glow, a sense of well-being, and
relaxation. Their sensibilities, perceptions dulled their inhibitions are reduced,
they may experience emotional stimulation, and they may find it easier to
socialize. We do not know, however whether these are the "real'' reasons that
people drink. Following are some of the reasons why people in general may
drink, but we often do not know why a particular person drinks. It is difficult to
understand, for example, why a persons who gains only misery from drinking
eagerly seeks to obtain more and more alcohol.
Drinking often is used as a means of seeking social acceptance. Most
teenagers have a strong need to conform to the peer group. It is easy to
rationalize drinking by invoking the magic words "everybody doing it''. The fact
is that everybody is not doing it, whether it is drinking or any other behaviour
that involves difficult decisions that responsible people must make for
themselves. In some instances people may even gain in stature by not
conforming. We may also question the psychological wholesomeness of any
group that seeks to force members to surrender their individuality and
independence. People who go counter to the expectations of society often
seek to involve others in such behaviours so as to lessen their own sense of
guilt.
Drinking may be the means by which many young people seek to
express adolescent rebellion. There is great appeal in the idea of partaking of
the forbidden. Drinking, therefore, may particularly appeal to some young
people whose parents strongly disapprove of drinking. This is less likely to
occur when parental opposition to alcohol is reasonable rather than emotional.
To be of any value to young people, information about drinking should
be "real''. It should be factual, rather than emotional, and it should include the
socially beneficial effects of the controlled use of alcohol as well as the
dangers of abuse. Such is the conclusion of Drs. John Davies and Barrie
Stacey, who have researched the problem. They found that rigid adult
attitudes toward drinking tend to give young people the idea of using alcohol
as a rebellious device. They found evidence that young people who learn to
drink in secret, with rebellion as the motive, may turn out to be heavier
drinkers than those exposed to alcohol in a relaxed way in the home. They
also found that scare tactics do not prevent young people or alcoholics from
drinking.
Drinking is commonly used in an attempt to enhance the self-image and
to improve the public image. Recent research suggests that it is the
experiencing of one's sex-identity that alcohol enhances, with men tending to
feel more masculine and women more feminine, however they may
understand these qualities. Some young people, and immature older people,
use drinking as a means of "showing off''. Drinking may make young people
feel like "big shots''. Many young people feel that drinking will make them
more grown up, more sophisticated. Of course, such ready-made perceptions
can be traced to some extent to our commercialized culture. Advertisers try to
persuade us that alcohol makes life better and more pleasurable. We are told
that drinking promotes fun, relaxation, sociability, and hospitality.
The movies and TV join the advertisers in glorifying alcohol. Urban
sophisticates, men and women of breeding and social position, go to cocktail
parties or have champagne for breakfast. Movies and TV also suggest that
alcohol is a means of dealing with personal problems. Do not people under
tension or in difficult circumstances typically turn to drink? The message that
many of us get it that drinking is appropriate in a crisis, or even when we are
faced with any difficulty problem. The danger is that smaller and smaller
problems soon require this means of coping with them.
 All these factors -- and others -- need to be considered by young people
in developing attitudes to drink.
An individual Matter
Young people should also be aware that alcohol affects people
differently. Many people can drink moderately, without apparent ill effects.
They "can take it or leave it alone''. They never develop a "need'' for alcohol.
Others, once they start to drink, cannot be moderate and cannot escape
ill effects. The danger signals are usually apparent when drinking affects
beginners in extreme ways. Those who become dizzy, depressed, sleepy, or
antisocial should take warning. So, too, should people who lose emotional
control and develop an attitude of "I don't care''. And those who become highly
resentful and defensive if their drinking or their drink-influenced behaviours
are criticized may also be headed for problems with alcohol.
Alcoholism to day is a perennial and pervasive problem that countries
all over the world face. Its increased incidence among the youth is result of
Psychological immatureness due to which they are unable to meet the
challenges of made on carminative world and resort to alcoholism as an
escape mechanism.
The most powerful influence is the degree to which parents modes use
drugs. When parents make free use of alcohol, tranquillizers and other legal
drugs their children are likely to sample drugs themselves (Smart and Fejer,
1972). Parenting as a privilege or responsibility of preparing the child for
society largely depends on men's and women's degree of investment and
happens to be more consequential for the development of socialization
practices and views of their children (Veeness, 1973; Green and Goldbery,
1989).
Parent child relationship shall be deemed as a central factor in the
social uplift of the individual because they provide love and security to them.
Roleship of mothering is largely associated with congenial development of
personality as compared with the roleship of fathering. Love and affection of
mothering is positively related to calm, happy and co-operative behaviour
(Bagely and Schaefer, 1960); better control (Stunnett and Walters, 1974) and
may also symbolized as emotional support, interpersonal sensitivity and help
(Farren and Ramsay, 1977), Jessore and Jessore (1974) have found that
conventional and traditional behaviour of mothers promotes problem like
chemical dependence.
 Hogan, Makin, Conway and Fox (1970) reported that college students
marijuana users as compared to non uses were self confident, socially poised,
adventuresome, skilled in interpersonal relations and had high achievement
motivation. Also with the qualities like greater implicitly, narcissism,
irresponsibility, nonconformity, hostility to rules and convention and high
pleasure seeking. Non users in the study were more abiding, responsible,
inflexible and conventional.
Hinckley et al.(1970) studied drug abusers who came for psychiatric
help. He found that drug use was high in psychotic and personality disorder
group while it was low in psycho neurotic individuals. The drug user tend to be
nonconformists, antisocial and harbouring anger. Mc Grath (1970) found that
drug user to be introverted, quiet, passive and submissive and lack masculine
identification. 24% of them were psycho neurotic. Backett and Lodge (1971),
in a study found that out of 34 sample studied 20 male heroin addicts had
overt childhood neurosis, manifest anxiety reaction and depression appear to
dominate in neurotic addicts. Grossaman, Goldstein and Eisenman (1971)
wrote that many reported characteristic of marijuana users seem to be
indicative of the creative personality (unconventional, socially poised,
custhetic, adventuresome, non-conforming flexible) while the non users are
similar to the authoritarian individual (conventional, inflexible, responsible,
narrow interests.) Cappel (1972) in a survey in New York studied the
personality traits of users and non users. The users were found to be more
introverted. The survey indicated clear cut personality differences among
users and non users. Das Gupta et. al(1972) on the basis of direct data,
estimated that 13.3 percent of the population around Varanasi used cannabis.
And users and non users differed in personality characteristics. Dayal (1972)
in a jourmatic survey sample of 5000 Delhi university students found that 5
percent were drug-users and 95 percent were non-users, and they differed in
many characteristics. Dube (1972) reported after a study of all the students of
a particular university that 5 percent of the students of that university reported
to be regular cannabis users, while 50 percent of males and 8 percent of
female students were said to have used it at least once. The user an non
users were different on measured personality factors. In another study,
Grassman, Goldstein and Eisenman (1972) found that marijuana use was
found to be partially correlated with creativity and adventuresome and
negatively correlated with authoritarianism although the later symptoms did
not reach significance.
 A study was conducted among the 100 student of Delhi University by
DSSW (1972). The result showed that 1/4 of the respondents were first
introduced to drug when they were in school. 60 percent of students had
taken drugs for more than two years and 70 percent of the respondents
belongs to 21-23 age groups have been regular drug abuser for 2 to 3 years
even in the age of group of 17-19 years. It was observed that 1/3 of the
respondents have been taking drugs more than 2-3 years. The groups were
observed different in social and Psychological conditions.
Verma (1972) observed cannabis psychosis in 3.2 percent of 39,001
patients admitted to mental hospitals over 10 years period. Sethi and
Manchanda (1972) analysed 2000 private and psychiatric hospitals and found
that only 1.00 percent of the private cases and 0.6 percent of hospital cases
had been diagnosed as drug dependent. Agarwal (1973) in a survey of
Psychiatric mobility among students found only one carmabis addict. Smart
and Fejer (1973) and Wells and Stacey (1976) found that cannabis users
have higher rates of neuroticism. Beaubrun and knight (1973) did a study on
30 chronic marihuana and 30 control users in Jamaica. No significant
differences were found as regards neuroticism and extraversion Fish and well
(1974) found that users of drugs scored slightly higher on neuroticism.
Cockett, 1971; Kosniver et al. 1973 also found some what similar results. Fish
(1974) studied cannabis users and non users. He found no differences on
extraversion. Fish and Wells (1974) and cocktt (1971) found no association
between personality factors and drug use.
Gasset et al, (1974) studied 3 groups of 34 members in methadone
maintenance programme. He found no significant differences in
extraversion/introversion or neuroticism. Long term use demonstrated fewer
neurotic failures. Chitnis (1974) in a survey found that 80.3% of students
covered by the study said they have never tried drugs. However, number of
those who tried them 19.7 percent matched the percentage quoted for
American colleges around 1967. One of the most relieving findings is that the
use of drug is largely confined to marijuana which is non-addictive and
relatively less harmful as many as 72 out of 1235 students have not even tried
anything. Kandel and Fouts (1975) have surveyed high school students to
determine how they progress from use of one psycho active drug to another.
Hamberg, et al. (1975) has plotted the age at which a group of California
students first used certain drugs. By the age of 18 years, 70 percent of all the
students had at least tried marijuana or hashish, almost 100 percent had tried
tobacco, coffee or tea, wine or beer and had liquor. In his studies Jessor
(1975) showed that those students who were more likely to use drugs were
those with rebellions and deviance prone pattern of behaviour.
These students are characterized as having a lower value on
achievement and greater value on independence, greater social criticism,
more tolerance of deviance and less religiosity, less parental control and
support, greater friends influence and more deviant behaviour, less church
attendance, lower school achievement. The non-users tend to represent the
opposite pattern, a pattern of relative conventionality or conformity (Jessore,
1975). Lindesmith (1976) found the following characteristics of addicts in
general or certain types of subjects as narcissist tendencies, dependence,
aggressiveness, neuroticism, extroversion, self-centredness and lack of
morality.
Mehdiratta (1976) studied long term users of Cannabis and found that
users scored higher on neuroticism as compared to control group. Malhotra et
al. 1977 and Holland 1977 in case of alcoholics found similar results. Mohan
and Arora (1976) in a study among college students in Delhi found that
alcohol and tobacco were abused by 70 percent, cannabis 8 percent,
tranquillizers 6 percent, amphetamines 4 percent and barbiturates 2 percent.
These subjects were different in extraversion and neuroticism scores.
Information were obtained from seven universities in different parts of
the country where prevalence surveys were conducted using comparable
methodology under a programme sponsored by Department of Social welfare
(1976). At all the Universities the drug most commonly used were socially
acceptable ones i.e. alcohol, tobacco and pain killers. Prevalence rates for
alcohol used ranged from 15.1 percent of the student population in Bimbay to
9.0 percent in Hyderabad. For tobacco use varried from 15.2 percent in
Madras to 6.3 percent in Hyderabad and or pain killers from 20.9 percent in
Delhi to 1.2 percent in Madras. The prevalence rate of cannabis use was
highest in Varanasi (10.9) percent and ranged elsewhere between 0.4 percent
and 1.5 percent. The use of L.S.D. and Cocaine was negligible at all places.
By and large, majority of the students had not taken any drug, even socially
acceptable such as tobacco, alcohol and pain killers. When these drug are
excluded from consideration the rate of non-user increase to 90-96 percent.
Drugs in the cities are used in mainly by the middle and upper middle classes
and young people from rich families. Gossop and Roy (1976) as a result of
many studies suggest that drug dependence may be closely related to hostility
and aggression.
 Burks and Eichberg (1972), Scholar, White and Cohen (1972), and
Cockett and Marks (1969) Who studied groups of offenders and found them to
be more hostile than non users. Malhotra and Murphy (1977) on the basis of
16 PF, TAT and MPQ on 10 drug addicts, 10 psychiatric patients and 10
normal aged 18 to 20 years old males found that addicted group scored
significantly higher on psychopathic states and they also showed more
neurotic traits and anti-social behaviour.
In a study in 1977 done at the instance of Narcotic Commissioner of
India (1978) 93.3 students of University of Agricultural/ Sciences (Bangalore)
were tested to determine the incidence of drug and alcohol usage. The results
indicated that 35 percent used alcohol and 177 used drugs of the 177 drug
users 50 percent tried Ganja and 45 percent tried grass, about 27 percent
used dexadrine and mandrax, 24 percent opium. It seems from the above
studies that use of drugs like cocaine and Heroine or L.S.D among students is
not much in India. There is no need for alarm and anxiety for parents and
administration but the high percentage of alcohol and tobacco and to some
extent cannabis is somewhat disturbing. The use of amphetamines and
sedatives also seem to on the increase.
Verma, Ghosh and Wing (1977) in a study of drug abuse amongst
students in Delhi found that 95 percent of the sample studied were mostly in
the age group of 19 to 23.7 years and come from joint families. Cutter (1977)
studied 98 males in a study of power motive found that frequency of
intoxication showed decrease in non-authoritarian subjects.
Gosspo (1978) found that addicts have elevated scores on neuroticism
but on extraversion addicts have been found to score rather lower that
controls. Backmen (1978) made a comparative study of alcoholic women and
non-alcoholic. The alcoholic women were lower on self-esteem coupled with
their high neuroticism, anxiety alienation, anxiety presenting a picture of such
women as maladjusted and dissatisfied. Rao, Sukumar and Neelam (1978)
found that at the time of first consultation the age was 21-25 years. 80 percent
started addiction before the age at 30 years. Sethi and manchanda (1978)
found in one study of drug abuse in male students that majority of abusers
were between 21-25 years of age group and lower rate was obtained for those
up to 20 years. Michael (1978) studied the emergency admission to Jackson
memorial Hospital for acute drug reaction. 71.5 percent of subjects were
under 25 years of age. Thus drug addiction is most prevalent among
adolescents. Trivedi and Sethi (1978) found a higher prevalence of drug
abuse among psychotic as compared to neurotics. Chopra (1979) reported
extroversion as one of the prominent personality trait of drug abusers. Thus
abusers were markedly more extraverted than non-users. Sethi et al. (1970) in
a study of college students found that multiple drug abusers showed greater
extroverted tendencies than tobacco users only. Shanmugam (1979) in a
study of 212 drug abusers and 212 non-abusers found that drug abusers were
found higher on extraversion and neuroticism. Singh and Jindal (1980) in a
study of drug in medical campus and faculty members found that rate of drug
use was 78.9% and the commonest drug used were alcohol and tranquillisers
followed by sedatives, stimulants, tobacco and cannabis.
Muttagi (1979) did a study in Bombay (among students). The study was
conducted in four interrelated phases over a period of time between 1976-
78.4151 students were selected. The results indicate that over 58 percent of
the sample had never tried drugs. A higher proportion were females (66%)
while 54 percent were males, of the 42 percent abusers, 15 percent took
tobacco/ alcohol or both and 7 percent took at least one other drug along with
alcohol/ tobacco. Of the 42 percent of abusers nearly 34 percent were found
abusing socially acceptable drug I.e. alcohol, tobacco and pain killers. Thus
only 8 percent respondents appeared to have tried hard drugs. Alcohol was
highly favoured 23%, pain killers 15. 32% tobacco 13.35% and cannabis
2.46%. The other hard drugs together accounted for 6% (Tranquilizer 1.76%'
barbiturates 1.54% , amphetamine 1.23%, opium 0.87%, L.S.D 0. 34%
Pethidine 0.22 and cocaine 0.12%). While alcohol and tobacco was rather
high among males, pain killers was most popular drug with females. While
cannabis was the most popular hard drug, almost 83% had discontinued it.
Abuse of hard drugs was generally rare as past abusers outnumbered current
abusers of pethidine and cocaine. An overwhelming majority 92% in Bombay
had never tried any hard drug. Only 8.34 percent appeared to have tried hard
drugs. It means only 8% abuse hard drugs. Verma, Aggarwal, Deng (1980)
studied the interrelationship between drug use, authoritarianism, anionic and
alienation. They found that drug users were not authoritarian or alienated from
society. Drug use can thus be viewed in terms of manifestation of identification
with society that such correlation was very small and insignificant in case of
males may indicate that drug use is independent on assimilation in the social
values in cases. On the other hand, it seems that in case of females a strong
identification with the social norms and higher authoritarianism would have
provided the aggressive drive. Steer and Kotzker (1980) administered the EPI
to 107 men and 43 women before methadone maintenance and again after
treatment. Both men and women reported decrease in levels of neuroticism,
anxiety and fatigue. Crawford, Washington and Malvin (1980) found that
addicts are likely to come from broken homes, disturbed family relationship
between parents and child and lack of interval cohesion.
Berzin (1971) found that drug abusers are mal adaptive. Schimitz
(1971), however had contradictory results. He found that drug abusers are
more socially socialized. Rao and Vasudevan (1980) in a study of drug addicts
found that 53 were well adjusted in their marital as well as occupational
sphere while 56 showed poor adjustment, 5 showed good marital adjustment
and poor occupational adjustment. Ebie and Pela (1981) studied some
aspects of drug use among students in Benin city (Nigeria). They found that
67% were judged as introverts and 32.4% as extroverts on the basis of
personality questionnaires. Rustogi et al. (1981) in a study on 252 persons
(152 drug abusers and 100 non-users) using MMPI scale found that
extraversion scores were associated with drug abuse. The dimension of
extraversion has been associated with activity, sociability, risk taking
behaviour and impassivity. All these characteristics seemed to contribute to
drug abusing behaviour and participation in a drug taking behaviour. The
linkage between introversion and drugs has engaged the attention of
researchers for long. Many research findings indicate that extroverts suffered
from "stimulus Hunges" and consequently indulged significantly more in
smoking than with introverts.
Chakraborty et. al. (1981) studied drug abuse among the newly
admitted students of Medical colleges in Calcutta. Earlier studies on medical
students in Calcutta revealed that 3.2% were regular users of dependence
producing drugs. It was also observed that drug abuse was more among
senior students than juniors. These findings prompted to find out the
prevalence rate of drug abuse among students (557 males and 148 females)
and out of 557 males 9.7% used habit forming drugs regularly and 1.4% used
them casually. No female used the drugs.
According to a report of Ministry of social welfare (1981) a study was
done in Ajmer district of Rajasthan. The study found that the principal drugs
used were tobacco, alcohol, opium and cannabis. A substantial-segments of
population were abusing analygesica. No use of drugs like heroin, morphine
and mind altering was reported. Pain killers were used by 58.0% tobacco by
44.6% alcohol by 24.7% opium by 10.4% cannabis by 4% and tranquillisers
by 0.1%.
 Among males tobacco was most used drug (34.3%) followed by pain
killers (55.5%) and alcohol (36.1%) opium by 12.8% and cannabis by 7.2%
and very few used tranquillizers. About 6% male respondents reported self-
expressed craving and inability to do without alcohol. Similarly craving was
expressed for opium by 3.9%, pain killers 1.9%, cannabis 1.2% and nearby
2/3 of the respondents (63.8%) reported dependence on tobacco (MSW,
1981).
Among women, the most commonly used drug were pain killers 61.4%,
tobacco 15.0%, alcohol 13.4% and opium 8%, cannabis and tranquillizers
were used by 18 and 3 respondents respectively. In women the self
expressed craving for tobacco was highest 12.1%, followed by pain killers
22% and less than 1% for the rest of drugs (MSW, 1981). Drug abuse exists
in most age groups. The habit is predominant among the able bodied young
and middle aged workers of all types. Lack of proper medical facilities in
villages in India has been responsible for the villagers taking to opium and the
like for relief of ailments; especially bowl complaint have recourse to opiates.
Many individuals get to know narcotic drugs through personal interests,
association and group pressures and find in them a sensation of pleasure and
well being. Elic and Pala (1981) studied some aspects of drug use students in
Nigeria. They found that 25 percent of students started using drugs before
age of 15 years and 8.8% started using drugs after age of 10 years.
Personality disorganization was obvious in them.
Bucher and Uhoa (1984) reported profound imbalance in personality of
drug dependent persons. Chundkaapura, Sen and Puri (1987) concluded on
the basis of their studies that there is a significance relationship between
personality characteristics and alcoholism. Alcoholics differ significantly from
non-alcoholics in personality characteristics. A typical personality
characteristics of alcoholics have been found to be indicative of neuroticism,
introversion and high anxiety. Kapur (1985) reported that drug dependence is
more prevalent among urban resident and specially of big cities. Cherek,
Kelley & Stienberg (1985) examined the effects of varying doses of
dextroamphetamine (DAM) on aggression. Data from 12 males indicated non-
aggressive responses in must Ss. Many Ss showed decreased aggressive
response to near or below placabo levels following the administration of the
highest DAM dose.
According to Lester & Rossa (1986), the personality of alcoholics
differed significantly and varied with type of alcohol consumed for males and
females. Sahni (1992) examined the relationship between criminality and
heroin addiction in 100 male heroin addicts (aged 20-40 years) and 100
matched controls, selected from different addiction centres of North India.
Heroin addicts had committed a large number of crimes (murder, physical
assault, suicide, homosexuality, eve-teasing, adultery, and theft) and most of
those crimes were directly related to the purchase of drugs. Chronic heroin
addiction seems to be an integral part of the national crime problem.
Similarly Callan and Jackson (1986) found adolescent children of
recovered alcoholic father to rate their families very similarly to children of
non-alcoholics in terms of happiness, congeniality and interest in each other
and significantly higher than children of drinking alcoholics. Taken together,
such findings suggest that the environmental impact of drug addiction is of a
current dynamic nature, rather than reflecting fixed and irreversible effects on
the child's level of functioning.
Neeliyasa, Nagaladshmi and Roy (1988) analysis revealed that
alcoholic individuals showed significantly high psychopathic state and low self-
esteem as compared to the normal. Singh (1988) on the basis of studies
made on adjustment of habitual and non-habitual alcoholic college students
observed that habitual alcoholic were poor on home, health, social and
emotional adjustment in comparison to non-habitual alcoholics. Further he
reported that habitual alcoholics were also poor in total adjustment in
comparison to non-habitual.
Chhabra and Sen (1988) found weak ego development tendencies, high
hostility and aggressive needs, a preoccupation with 'smack', low morals and
significant conflict in social domain. The subjects predominantly, wore found to
be conceptualized the environment around them as hostile, dominating, and
coercive. They found that the majority of the addicted subjects (64%)
were from socially backward and economically deprived classes of the
society. They were generally from large families. Singh (1989) on the basis of
studied made on rickshaw pullers of Bihar found significant difference in
personality characteristics of alcoholics and non-alcoholics.
Similarly several studies have been reported in the area of adjustment
and drug abuse. But conflicting and inconsistent results have been obtained in
most of the cases. Drug addicts are poorly adjusted in different areas of life
situation. They are generally hostile, immature in emotional behaviour,
dependent and narcissistic.
 Singh (1991) in a study of students of Bihar reported drug dependent
students to be more reserved and less intelligent. Shukla and Arora (1992)
explored the need patterns of drug addicts, criminals and normal subjects.
Thripathy's Personal Preference Schedule was administered to 40 drug
addicts, 40 criminals and 40 normal Ss with an equal number in each category
drawn from high and low SES groups. Among the 15 variables measured by
the schedule, drug addicts scored higher on need for difference and lower on
need for dominance in comparison to criminals and normal. On the remaining
13 variables, no inter group difference was observed. Mathur et al. (1992)
studied a sample of 91 cases of addiction and 76 cases of non-users to
examine differences in their adjustment pattern in relation to their age, income
and educational levels. The ANOVA of average adjustment scores in home,
health, social, emotional and educational areas revealed maladjustment in
almost all the spheres among addicts compared to non-addicts. A proper
understanding of the personality correlates of addicts is considered essential
for lasting cure and rehabilitation.
Kapoor, Sinhal and Saksena (1992) examined socio-economic factors
responsible for drug addiction. They emphasized that drug addiction could be
effectively dealt with by adopting comprehensive drug treatment, using
psychotherapy, yoga and meditation and pooling resources from various
quarters for renegotiating drug addicts into society. Prasad (1992) has
observed in his study that the young persons of the middle class who have to
bear the stresses and strains of the competitive society full of scarcity in the
third world, become easy pray to drugs as it is the easiest way for escape
from hazard realities of life.
Similarly several other investigators (Mirin et al. 1971; Walters, 1972;
WHO, 1973; Lombillow and Hair, 1972; Banerjee, 1963; Chitnis, 1974; Dube,
1972; Varma et al. 1977; Mohan and Arora, 1976; Kalra, 1995), have
observed a prevalence of drug abuse among student population. Tobacco
abuse was the highest followed by alcohol, tranquillizers, amphetamine,
opium and barbiturates.
Personality theory states that drug addicts do manifest certain
personality traits which distinguish them from non-drug addicts (Gilbert &
Lombardi, 1967; Hakimian & Garshon, 1968; Craig, 1979; Gersick, Grandy,
Sexton and Lyons, 1981). There is no single personality type associated with
drug use. People try drugs for a variety of seasons curiosity or the desire to
experience a new state of consciousness, escape from physical or mental
pain, relief from boredom. The one personality trait that is predictive of drug
usage is social conformity. People who score high on various tests of social
conformity are less apt to use drugs than those who score low. The
nonconformist may be a longer who feels no involvement with other people
or with social groups or member of a subculture that encourages drug usage.
Researches in 1980s have shown the link between drug misuse and
deprivation. This is not to suggest that this is simple link and people from all
social groups do not use drugs. However, the most severe problems of drug
abuse are concentrated in the areas of high socio-economic, deprivation and
unemployment. Arneja (1992) analysed some personality and psychosocial
variables of drug users and non-abusers using five psychosocial tests, such
as : (1) 16 PF, (2) Raven's progressive matrices, (3) Frustration test, (4) Self
esteem Inventory and (5) Religiosity Scale. The two groups differed
significantly on 18 variables out of 28 tested. Suman (1993) did not find
significant differences between drug addiction of rural and urban
backgrounds. However, rural students were found to be more used to Khaini
and Bhang than the urban students. Saxena, Sen & Srivastava (1993)
explored the theoretical roots of aetiology, prevention and treatment of drug
dependence to initiate research in the area of recovery and relapse of drug
dependence. Drug dependent persons must learn that relapse begins long
before drug use occurs, they must anticipate high risk situations and develop
alternate coping strategies to manage the stress of daily living. Recovery can
be achieved by a change in attitude and behaviour of the drug dependent
person. Relapse of the drug dependent must be viewed as a learning process
rather than as a guilt provoking disaster.
Sen and Pande (1993) studied drug peddlers with respect to some
psychological dimensions, such as outlook towards their own peddling
activities, their orientation towards life in general, the level of social awareness
and their aims and expectations in life. Data indicated that : (a) Most of drug
peddlers has a positive attitude towards their peddling activities, (b) They
lacked self confidence and had a strong pessimistic attitude towards life, (c)
They lacked realization of their own contribution to the problem of drug abuse
menace, (d) They showed a tendency to be more influenced by immediate
positive returns of any action and (e) They manifested a high degree of
impulsivity, strong materialistic orientation and fear of future.
Bhardwaj (1996) investigated the perception of 100 chemical dependent
and non-dependent towards mothering. Perceptions of chemical dependent
were associated with greater rejection, carelessness, negligence and lenient
standards as compared to non-dependent. Whereas perceptions of chemical
non-dependent were associated with strong realism as against utopian
expectations, severe disciplines against total freedom and realistic role
expectations of chemical dependent. In a study Bhardwaj and Chauhan
(1996) found marital adjustment of drug abusers quite low as compared to
normal subjects. All the addicts were found to be critical and have avoidance
for their father, mother and spouses. 25 percent of them attributed their
problems to their fathers; 55 percent felt their father-mother and wives
responsible for the onset of their problems. Drug addicts reported that their
fathers were invariable authoritarian, inconsiderate over strict and punitive.
Mothers were perceived as inconsistent, un involved and punitive. Wives were
perceived as unreasonable and harsh toward their husbands.
Peele (1985) found psychological, social and cultural factors to be
associated with drug addiction. Social theorists (Josephson and Caroll, 1974)
stressed on social and demographical variables and correlated with drug
abuse but ignored interpersonal factors. Mukherjee and Nayer (1998) in a
study 30 drug addicts (Multiple drug users) and 30 non-addicts match for age,
family income and educational level were compared in the area of personality.
Cattel's 16 PF Questionnaire form B was used. Findings show addicts to have
lower intelligence, more trusting, self sufficiency, undisciplined and relaxed as
compared to non-addicts.
Sandhu and Gunthy (1998) in an correlation study of personality traits
and emotional stability of alcoholics-40 alcoholics and 40 non-alcoholics,
secondary pass male of age between 25-30 from lower middle class families
served as subjects. They concluded that alcoholics create a different
personality easily vulnerable to anxiety, insecurity, lacking close emotional-ties
which tends to rationalize preference for uncontrolled drinking and makes one
excessively emotional. Its damages are almost invisible.
Gunthey and Jain (1998) conducted studies on college students (40
drug users and 40 non-drug users) of age between 18-25 years. They
reported drug users to be hostile, emotionally unstable and lack self
confidence. Sham and Singh (1999) on the basis of studies conducted on 180
users cannabis and 180 non-users of cannabis belonging to culture of Kashi
falling in the age range of 25 to 50 years found that users were higher on all
the twelve dimensions of personality viz Truthful, non-violists, continent, use
avaricious, Restrained from theft, pure, complacent, Diligent, studious, Theist,
more intelligent and patent than users.
Kanta and Singh (1999) conducted a study of find out the effect of long
term use of cannabis on the intelligence of man. The study was conducted on
100 long term users of cannabis falling in the age range of 30 to 40 years.
Findings of the study revealed that the long term use of cannabis affects the
intelligence of man because his reasoning, thinking and perceiving ability
were found impaired. Hallucination of light and hearing also occurred in users.
Mitra and Mudhopadhyaya (2000) in a comparative study of drug addicts and
normal on Psychological factors found level of depression and social anxiety
higher among addicts while they were lower on social approval motive than
normal. Singh (2000) on the basis of studies made on 150 drug dependent
student and 150 non-users found that drug dependent were poor in
intellectual ability, self concept and academic motivation. Singh and
Vijayalakshmi (2001) on the basis of studies made on 100 drug dependent
and 100 normal students found drug dependent students higher on hostility
and conflict over hostility and lower on feeling of guilt over hostility as
compared to normal.
The Problem of Adjustment in Our Daily Life
The problem of adjustment in a vital problem of the modern world. This
problem is a matter of such a widespread concern that books, magazines,
scientific journals etc., dealing with adjustment problems are appearing more
and more. It is common knowledge that the present century is marked by
widespread inability and anxiety. Today we are facing a more complex world
which taxes our adjustive of harmony with the environment. The present
century is characterized by psychological disorder and disturbed interpersonal
relationship. Modern life seems to produce maladjusted individuals at a faster
rate. Kaplan (1959) observes: ".....mental disorders are today the number one
public health problem of the nation. They affect more people and more
families than any other single disorder and evidence indicates that
maladjusted individuals are being produced at a faster rate than facilities to
take care of them can be provided".
The problem of adjustment, being faced by our adolescents, needs
serious consideration. It has been rightly estimated that 18th century was
characterized by enlightenment, the 19th century by progress and
development whereas the 20th century is characterized by anxiety and
conflict. The mechanical and busy life has exposed the individuals to a greater
stress affecting their adjustive capacity. The internal as well as external
demands have been multiplied to which an individual seeks satisfaction. The
21st century which will bring a computer age is bound to make human beings
behave like a machine demanding excessive concentration and speedy
reaction. This would naturally pose a greater threat to the individual's Ego
and adjustive mechanisms and consequently his mental health.
Mental illness, alcoholism., juvenile delinquency, drug addiction, suicides,
broken marriage and crimes have become so common that the prevention of
serious maladjustment is essential, not only for the individual, but college level
suffer from irritability, worries, disturbed interpersonal relationship,
resentments towards authority, worries over health and so on, which are
indicative of the lack of optimum state of adjustment. So mental illness is not
confined to people admitted in institutions ; it also reaches into the home, into
the school and it can be found among college students and teachers. Thus, it
is a common knowledge for the behavioural scientists in general that the
problem of adjustment is of immense importance for all of us and they feel
that student must be helped in developing good emotional, social, health,
home, and other, types of adjustment besides the intellectual development. If
there is something wrong with any aspect of adjustment of the pupil, he
cannot benefit from college education in spite of his best efforts. So, early
detection of maladjustment will help the students in achieving maximum
satisfaction. It is wrong to assume that a persistently maladjusted individual is
intrinsically incapable of adjustment. The mere fact that an individual has build
a group of habits and attitudes which clash with most social environments
does not mean that he cannot be placed in another environment with resultant
success or that he cannot gain new habits or attitudes. Rahter by detecting his
maladjustment, and providing proper counselling and guidance, the individual
can build up new habits and attitudes, and develop adequate behaviour
patterns to carry him satisfactorily through the journey of life. Lehner ad Kube
(1955) in their preface to " The dynamics of personal adjustment", have well
emphasized the importance of adequate behaviour patterns in leading a
happier life by mentioning, "We would not expect to cross the desert in a boat
or the ocean in an automobile, but many of us fail to realize that it is just as
unrealistic to expect inadequate behaviour patterns to carry us satisfactory
through the journey of life".
Concept of Adjustment
 The term adjustment has been explained in various ways. The
biologists thought of adjustment in terms of adaptation. In The origin of
Species he theorised that only the organisms which are most equipped to
adopt to the dangers of physical environment would survive and this was
called as The survival of the fittest. But in modern times the term adaptation
has been replaced by adjustment which now stands for psychological survival
in which the psychologists are more interested, i.e. the subject or their interest
is individual's adjustment to social or interpersonal pressure and not only
adaptation to physical world (Lazarus, 1978). The process of adjustment is
more complex than simple biological adaptation which is comparatively a
simple process. Therefore, an adaptive behaviour is not identical to an
adjustive behaviour. These two types of behaviour have been differentiated on
the basis of tension-reductions and its future consequences. (Kaplan, 1965)
has remarked that people may persist for years in adaptive behaviour which
brings immediate rewards but does not contribute to long term satisfaction.
They have little tolerance for emotional stress and use any available means to
secure relief. The adjusted person, on the other hand, is capable of delaying
immediate relief from anxiety in favours of behaviour patterns which
comparatively lead to more constructive and lasting rewards.
Adjustment has also been defined in terms of normality by educationists
and statisticians. This approach to adjustment is based on statistical average
and not on value judgement. The explanation of adjustment in terms of
normality and that of maladjustment in terms of abnormality did not gain much
ground among the subsequent thinkers. It is argued that a person may belong
to satisfied average, but he may not be well adjusted. Disruptive behaviour is
statistically a normal behaviour of one time, but it does not mean that this
behaviour be considered as adjustive behaviour (Kisker, 1985). So it follows
that any behaviour which is statistically normal cannot be necessarily
considered as adjustive behaviour. However, if the norm has been derived
from the criteria of adequate behaviour or adjusted behaviour (Maslow and
Mittellmann, 1930), normality can serve as an index of adjustment.
Some people relate adjustment to conformity. A conformist who lives
according to the norms of the society is generally considered to be a well
adjusted person. On the other hand, an individual is considered to be
maladjusted or poorly adjusted if the deviates from immediate sociocultural
norms even if his deviated action may bring some change in the welfare of
society. There is an agreement among the psychologists and sociologists that
conformity may be regarded as one of the criteria of good adjustment but this
term, however, cannot be synonymous with adjustment.
It is only a form of adjustment; whether adjustment achieved by
conforming behaviour is good or bad depends upon the circumstances under
which it takes place. From a psychological point of view adjustment implies
not more conformity but a harmonious relationship between an individual and
the present society. Toregerson and Adams, 1954 have remarked that a
person can achieve adjustment either by adapting his behaviour to the
requirements of a situation or by changing the situation to meet his personality
needs. An individual who totally conforms and submerges himself in his group
norms and does not build his own internal strength and independent
individuality is trying to find easy means of safe existence and it is a play to
escape from freedom. Such a person miserably fails when they are put into a
competitive environment where there is demand upon his potentialities for
survival. On the other hand, a person who completely disengages himself
from his group norms becomes out of balance and his adjustment in his group
comes in danger (Fromm, 1941). Therefore, neither total subordination of
individuality to the group nor complete disengagement from society can be
helpful in adjustment. Rather a selective development of one's potentialities
along culturally approved lines can be considered as a necessary component
of adjustment (Hussain et al., 1996).
It can be concluded that definitions of good adjustments cannot be
restricted only to conforming behaviour. The mental hygienists take a more
subjective view of adjustment process and consider it to be the need for a
person adjusting to himself, understanding his strength and limitations, facing
reality and achieving harmony within himself. The mental hygienists give
emphasis on the achievement of self acceptance, freedom from internal
conflict, self-realisation and developing a unifying set of values which make
life purposeful and meaningful. Clinical physiologists consider an organised
behaviour to be adjustive behaviour and therefore freedom from fears,
obsessions, phobias, hostilities, complexes and other psychological
symptoms are the criteria against which adjustment can be evaluated.
Counselling psychologists who deal with persons suffering from some
psychological problems and maladjustment, endeavour to bridge the gap
between the individual's real self and ideal self. If means that maladjustment is
taken to be scheme between the individual's real self and the ideal self.
Personality psychologists have given a very comprehensive concept of
adjustment. Some of them have defined adjustment on the basis of self-
concept of the individual which should be in accord with reality. He may define
self-concept as the total psychological view that the individual has of himself
in relation to the environment or it is an organisation of self-meaning or ways
of seeing oneself. Maladjustment takes place when individual's psychological
view regarding himself is in discord with reality. A well adjusted person has
essentially positive attitude towards self and others and he has feelings of
dignity and integrity, worth and self-actualization (Combs & Syngg, 1959).
Another group of psychologists such as Asher et al. (1953) have
explained adjustment from a different angle and defined it in terms of separate
responses or acts, large units of behaviour in which several separate acts or
responses are joined or integrated and called it adjustment.
From the above discussion it is evident that the adjustment process is
multidimensional due to which behavioural scientists differ with one another in
emphasizing the important components of adjustment. Reviewing the
literature on the concept of adjustment the researcher concludes that the one
aspect of adjustment on which most psychologists agree to a large extent is
that adjustment can be defined in terms of achieving a balance between
internal demands and the requirements of the environment or between
internal psychological forces and external conditions of the individual and that
adjustment is a continuing process and not a condition (Coleman, 1960;
Gordon, 1963; Kaplan, 1965; 1991; Symonds, 1946). Obviously the process
of adjustment can be described on the basis of two factors (a) the individual
and his characteristics including needs, motives, competencies and skills and
(b) the demands of the external environment in which the persons live. There
is always a conflict between the forces cementing from those two factors
which call for adjustive process. That set of behaviour can be considered
adjustive behaviour which makes a stable balance between the forces
originating from these two factors and help the individual in attaining a
harmonious, stable and satisfying state.
According to Kisker, 1985, if the conflicts are solved to satisfy the
individual needs within the tenets approved by the society the individual is
considered adjusted. Besides, this adjustment also requires a harmonious
interrelationship within the individual of his various behavioural tendencies.
Coleman, (1960) states the process by which an organism attempts to meet
the demands placed upon it by its own nature and by its environment is called
adjustment.
 Smith, (1961) goes one step further and suggests that good adjustment
leads to general satisfaction of the persons as a whole rather than the
satisfaction of an intense drive at the expense of others.
Thus we find here that : (i) Adjustment is a process, (ii) By this process
the individual tries to bring a harmonious, stable and satisfying relationship
with his environment, i.e., by this process the individual alters his impulses
and responses to fit the demands of his environment, (iii) By this process the
individuals tries to satisfy his needs and desires in accordance with
environmental demands on the one hand, and his abilities and limitations on
the other, (iv) A good adjustment always aims at long-term satisfaction instead
of satisfying an immediate intense needs. (Hussain, 1996, p.11).
The researcher will like to point out that adjustment is a continuous
process and so it is difficult to draw a demarcation line between adjustment
and maladjustment, good adjustment and bad adjustment. The reason is that
the adjustive behaviour may very, with culture, situation, time, place and
individuals characteristics (Kaplan, 1965).
A comprehensive description of a healthy normal functioning and well
adjusted individual is provided in a list of criteria published by Masslow &
Mittellmann, (1951) namely, (i) Adequate feeling of security, (ii) Reasonable
degree of self-evaluation (insight), (iii) Realistic life goals, (iv) Effective contact
with reality, (v) Integration and consistency of personality, (vi) Ability to learn
from experience, (vii) Adequate spontaneity, (viii) Appropriate emotionality, (ix)
Ability to satisfy the requirements of group coupled with some degree of
emancipation from the group (as expressed in individuality) and (x) Adequate
but exaggerated bodily desires with the ability to gratify them in an approved
fashion.
On the basis of the above criteria it can be said that adjustment is the
outcome of the individual's efforts to deal with and meet his or her needs.
Further, it is the behaviour by which the individual attempts to deal with stress
and meet his or her needs, including efforts to maintain harmonious
relationship with environment.
Competing Terms with Adjustment : Here it seems essential to
explain the close terms with adjustment. They are as under
Adaptation and Adjustment : The concept of adjustment was
biological and originally it was termed adaptation. Darwin (1859) in " The
Origin of Species" maintained that only the organisms which are most fitted to
adapt to the hazards of the physical world could survive, and this was called
as "survival of the fittest". Darwin (1871) had pointed out instance in which the
skin, the proportions of the limbs, and the like are adapted to the mode of life
of given races in a particular climate. The type of adjustment with which
Biologists were concerned was nothing but physical adaptation.
The term adaptation has been replaced by 'adjustment' which now
stands for psychological survival in which psychologists are more interested,
ie., the subject of their interest is individual's adjustment to social or
interpersonal pressure and not only adaptation to physical world (Lazarus,
1961). The process of adjustment is more complex than simple biological
adaptation. In spite of similarities between these two ideas the complex
process of adjustment cannot be lifted into the simple concept of biological
adaptation. Human personalities and environments are very complex and they
cannot be explained only in terms of biological adaptation.
Adjustive behaviour has also been differentiated from adaptive
behaviour on the basis of 'tension-reduction' and its future consequences.
Adaptive behaviour is concerned with the immediate reduction of tension,
whereas adjustive behaviour is the result of long-term satisfaction achieved.
Kaplan (1965) remark, "people may persist for years in adaptive behaviour
which brings immediate rewards but does not contribute to long-term
satisfaction. They have little tolerance for emotional stress and use any
available means to secure relief. The adjusted person, on the other hand, is
capable of delaying immediate relief of anxiety in favour of behaviour patterns
which build towards more constructive and lasting rewards".
Adjustment and Conformity : Generally people take good adjustment
to be passive conformity to the demands of the environment, i.e., a conformist
is generally considered to be a well adjusted person. On the other hand, the
individual is considered to be maladjusted or poorly adjusted if he deviates
from the immediate behaviour/norm even if his deviated action may bring
some change in the society which may lead to its welfare.
No, doubt, conformity may be regarded as one of the criteria of good
adjustment, but this term, however, cannot be synonymously used with
adjustment. It is only one form of adjustment :whether the adjustment the
adjustment achieved by conforming behaviour is good or bad depends on the
circumstances under which it takes place. Lehner and Kube (1955) have
clarified this distinction by giving an example of a person who conforms to the
wishes of his parents in deciding about pa particular job for him. But this
conformity takes places as he thinks that the wishes of his parents
correspond to his own wishes and abilities. Naturally, this conformity to the
wishes of his parents will lead to satisfaction. On the other hand, if he accepts
the decision of his parents in selecting a particular job under compulsion, as
he thinks that their desires do not correspond to his own desires and abilities,
the conformity here may bring dissatisfaction in him and may damage his self-
esteem. Thus conformity takes places in both the circumstances, but in one
case the quality of adjustment is good whereas in other it is poor. "....To a
psychologist, however, adjustment implies not mere conformity but a
harmonious relationship between the individual and his present environment.
A person can achieve adjustment either by adapting his behaviour to the
requirements of a situation or by changing the situation to meet his personality
needs" (Torgerson and Adams, 1954).
Conformity or subordination of the individual to a group may be
considered as an escape from adjustment. A totally conforming individual in
his attempt for becoming exactly likes others submerges himself in that group
and does not build his own internal strength. But such a person can survive
only in those types of environments which can provide a steady and safe
existence; the miserable fail when they are put in a competitive environment.
One another extreme, persons who completely disengage themselves from
society can be equally out of balance with their environment (fromm, 1941).
Thus neither total subordination of individuality to the group, nor total
disengagement from society can be helpful in adjustment. Rather a selective
development of one's potentialities along culturally appropriate lines can be
considered as a necessary component of adjustment. It follows that the
definition of good adjustment cannot be restricted to conforming behaviour.
Adjustment and Normality : The concept of good adjustment is also
generally described in terms of normality. The term normal means conformity
to a particular norm or standard which is generally a statistical average and
which is not concerned with value judgment. So, any deviation from the
established norm is taken to be a sign of abnormality and ultimately a sign of
maladjustment.
But the explanation of adjustment in terms of normality, and that of
maladjustment in terms of abnormality, does not seem proper. A person who is
normal, as evaluated against statistical criterion, may not always be well
adjusted. For example, if it has been found statistically that the average boy
starts masturbation by the age of 15 years, then the practice of masturbation
may be considered to be normal. But it is evident that this is not a sign of
healthy adjustment. In the same way, if it has been found that to quarrel with
one's wife is a statistically normal behaviour in a certain culture (Seconders,
1965), quarrelsome behaviour should be considered as well adjusted
behaviour. Evidently, this is not to be accepted. Any behaviour which is normal
statistically, cannot, therefore, be necessarily taken to be also adjusted
behaviour; its moral, or clinical aspects are also to be considered . However, if
the norm is derived from the criteria of adequate behaviour, and not only from
what most of the people are, or do, normality can be taken as good
adjustment.
Nature of Adjustment : The word adjustment has been described in
many ways be different psychologists, biologists, mental hygienists and other
behavioural scientists. As already discussed, biologists take adjustment in
terms of adaptation to the physical world. Some explain adjustment in terms of
conformity to the environmental demands, some say that a normal or
statistically average man is an adjusted man. Conflicting views are there
because mostly no two behavioural scientists agree upon a common
definition of adjustment. A scientific definition of adjustment ought to be
objective, precise and clear cut. Different arise because in a concept like this
evaluative attitudes have their say. Generally, it has been argued that the
concept of adjustment is a mere fiction, as people have always failed in giving
a standard definition of adjustment, partly because of its many meanings, and
partly because the criteria against which adjustment could be evaluated are
not well defined ; further, the boundaries between adjustment and
maladjustment are never watertight.
The mental hygienists take a more personal view of the adjustment
process and consider it is to be the need for a person's adjusting to himself,
understanding his strength and limitations, facing reality and achieving a
harmony within himself (Kaplan, 1965). They give emphasis on the
achievement of self-acceptance, freedom from internal significant
components of these two types of estimations have been referred to as
motivating stimuli which are perceived as uncomfortable or distressing. The
individual's behaviour is directed toward the reduction of such stimuli, facing
external and internal realities (Sappenfield, 1961).
Smith (1961) goes one step further and suggests that good adjustment
leads to general satisfaction of the whole person rather than the satisfaction of
an intense drive at the expense of others. Besides this, a well adjusted person
always considers his long interest and not simply the satisfaction of one
intense drive. This type of adjustment is both realistic and satisfying.
At this point of discussion it seems proper to evaluate maladaptive
reactions in its own form. The individual who have developed unhealthy
reaction patterns find it difficult to adjust effectively either with the internal or
external demands. Their behaviour becomes disturbing to themselves and to
the society both. The neurotics, psychotic, and psychopaths, however, all
have attempt at making an adjustment with the internal or external demands,
but they have not considered their unhealthy impact on their personality and
society. It is also remarked that abnormal have their own adjustment patterns
and have developed some symptoms which help them in avoiding more
dangerous and anxiety-provoking situations. A person, for examples, may
develop compulsive hand-washing just to minimise the threat of guilt and
punishment. The hand- washing may be symbolic of washing the sin. Another
person may develop selective blindness just to avoid the threatening presence
of a particular person. In this way if we examine the cases of abnormality we
may find that abnormal also attempt consciously or unconsciously at making
adjustment to some demands. However, their adjustive behaviour patterns are
not smooth, constructive and reality-oriented, rather they are referred to
maladaptive reactions. Maladaptive reactions may appear when ever the
individual find the situation beyond his control and existing mobilizing capacity.
He may be threatened by his incompetency in handling the situation
effectively arising out of biological, sociocultural and psychologically stresses.
Sometimes the individual may adjust under severe stress for example, a
student studying in his room may pay excessive attention and make
concentration due to noise produced by a loudspeaker. In the same way
coolies at the platform develop habit of sleeping even when there is a noise.
Such types of adjustment are referred to as negative adjustment as they are
not smooth and easy-going. In short, every individual attempts at making
adjustment to minimize frustration, and conflicts resulting from internal and
external demands. However, the difference lies in the quality of adjustive
behaviour patterns.
The above-mentioned different approaches to the concept of adjustment
can be simply analysed in the following ways :
(a) Adjustment is a process.
(b) By this process the individual tries to bring harmonious, stable
and satisfying relationship with his environment, i.e., by this process the
individual alters his impulses and responses to fit the demands of his
environment.
(c) By this process the individual tries to satisfy his needs and desires
in accordance with environmental demands on the one hand, and his abilities
and limitations on the other.
(d) A good adjustment always aims at long-term satisfaction instead
of satisfying and immediate intense need.
while studying adjustment, one should, therefore, be more interested in
the ways in which people respond to the demands and stresses of their
environment as well as to the satisfaction of their needs and desires in
accordance with such temporary and long-range environmental demands.
Sound and Poor Adjustment : Another important issue is that of
describing who are well adjusted and who are poorly adjusted persons ; or,
when does a person make healthy adjustment? It will not be a simple matter
of classifying individual as adjusted and maladjusted. Adjustment is
considered to involve a continuous variable, so the evaluation of individual's
in terms of this variable cannot be limited to two extremes. Moreover
,psychologists, or for that matter even other persons, fail to prove scientific
and objective criteria of healthy adjustment, or, contrarily, unhealthy
adjustments. The reason for this has been enumerated. We know that
standards of adjustive behaviour may vary with time, place, culture,
circumstances and the characteristics of the individual. There is no single life
style which is best for all people ; there are many life styles of varying forms
(Kaplan, 1956).
An individual may be called adjusted at one time but he may be
maladjusted at another time in the same social complex. He may be adjusted
to one aspect of life and not to another, for example, he may be emotionally
adjusted but socially maladjusted. Criteria against which adjustment is
evaluated either as good or bad are provided by a particular cultural context,
based on its value systems. And this value system naturally differs from one
culture to another, or from one generation to another. Some of the indices of
good adjustment at present might become a sign of maladjustment in the
future, as for example, in a few societies psychotic-hallucinations were
identified as supernatural and God-gifted, whereas number of other societies
considered psychotic persons as possessed by the devil and wanted to
destroy them (Lazarus, 1961). Even today psychotic are considered to be
extremely maladjusted persons.
 The difficulty is enhanced when it is observed that adjustment is relative
in character and it should be judged in terms of how well an individual
changes to cope with the demands that he encounters, and naturally this
capacity varies with the developmental levels of human personality. Thus, it is
better to judge adjustment in terms of a person's ability to meet problems
appropriate to his level of development (Anderson, 1949). It is of common
observation that even a well adjusted person finds it difficult on some
occasions to handle a situation which is beyond the scope of his adjustability.
To sum up, it is difficult to have a yardstick or norm against which
adjustment can be evaluated mainly because of the following reasons:
(a) The value system of one's culture differs from another.
(b) Even in the same culture value systems change from time to time.
(c) Adjustment is to be evaluated considering an individual's
developmental level.
(d) Adjustment involves a continuous variable.
In view of the above discussion it seems rather difficult to evaluate
adjustment as being good or bad. Nevertheless, we can take into
consideration the overall characteristics of a well adjusted person and derive
some general criteria constituting the basic core of adjustment. These criteria
may be summarized as follows :
(i) A well adjusted person establishes a harmonious, stable and
satisfying relationship with the environment. He meets his needs and fulfils his
desires with the resources available in the environment form the view point of
his own welfare and that of others. He has realistic self-perception, and
appraises his own abilities as well as limitations realistically.
(ii) He has control on impulses, thoughts, habits, emotions and
behaviour in terms of self-imposed principles or of demands made by the
society. He enjoys a mental life, which is free from depressions, intense fears,
acute anxiety, hostility, sense of guilt, insecurity and disruption of thought etc.,
to a great extent.
In short, it can be said that his behaviour is not disturbing to himself and
to the people around him. A maladjusted person behaves in a way which is
severely disturbing to himself and/or to the other members of the society.
Individual Differences in Adjustment : It has been observed that
differences exist between individuals in their adjustment to old age. Those
who make healthy adjustment in the later years, keep approximately busy to
construct the work that is satisfying to them and allow them to retain and
enhance their self-esteem. Some have arranged to shorten hours of work and
reduce heavy responsibility to adjust their physical condition. In general the
older employees who make the necessary adjustment are regarded as quite
good by their employers. The individual roles more suitable to these decades
of life is preparing for better adjustment in later years.
Simons (1943) who studied the relationship between middle aged adults
and their ageing parents among a sample of clients Jewish family agency on
the west coast found that social problems of the aged parents were a sources
of considerable distress and threat to the adult children. The most effective
'solution' was to include the parents in a social or family affairs but such an
arrangement was barely welcome on consistent and prolonged basis. The
parent's distress whether explicit by direct demands or implicit by complaints
of loneliness angered the respondents more than any other problem
presented by he parents. It can be gathered that peak of the human
developments lies in the attainment of social maturity. However, the ability to
reciprocally function in a complex social milieu is not only in indication of
social maturity but is also associated with happy disposition. It is an important
aspect of adjustment.
The indifferences among elderly people has been noticed. Those who
are normally adjusted don't feel themselves diminished and keep themselves
busy. Continuation of activities and attitudes of middle years into old age is
conducive to happiness and successful ageing. The other engaged
themselves is a psychological and social withdrawal and it shows their poor
adjustment.
Adjustment and Mental Health
At present the need for screening the students at college and school
levels having some behaviour problems has been intensified because of the
complicated sociocultural setup and taxing demands of the environment which
affects their mental health. The present study was undertaken basically to
study adjustment patterns of students in context of some personal factors like
Ego-strength and Anxiety. This problem was taken up for investigation
because the researcher felt the necessity of such studies in India and
especially in Bihar
While reviewing literature on mental health it is gathered that very few
attempts have been made on mental health in context of adjustment which
significantly contributes toward maintaining a health mental life. The author, in
collaboration with khan, R, (1989) while conducting studies on adjustment in
context of various components, realized that if a person is capable of making
healthy adjustment in tune with personal and environmental demands he can
protect his mental health from being further deteriorated even in highly taxing
and thwarting situations. A good adjustment can prevent many problems.
However, this is to be noted that adjustment must be realistic and healthy,
otherwise it may adversely affect the mental health. This has been remarked
that even abnormal have their own mode of adjustment. Freud also
emphasized on the economy of symptoms which minimizes the intensity of
basic threatening anxiety. Various Ego-defences have been also suggested to
cope with such situations which are extremely stressful. In the present
research the investigators have taken three important factors related to mental
health of a men, with special emphasis on adjustment as the key concept.
While measuring adjustment the investigators analysed home, health,
social, and emotional adjustment beside over all adjustment. The concept of
adjustment was derived from various sources, However, the views of
Hussain, (1985) were especially considered. Adjustment was defined in terms
of process which helps in making a compromise between individual's own
needs and the demands of the environment. A better adjusted person was
considered to be guided by long term satisfaction of the needs and maintain a
harmonious and satisfying relationship with his environment. He is free, to a
greater extent, from disabling symptoms and knows his assets and limitations.
The views of mental hygienists were also considered who consider
adjustment to by the need for a person adjusting to his strength and
weaknesses facing reality (Kaplan, 1965). They emphasize self acceptance
very much. The concept of anxiety was taken as alien power which lay hold of
an individual and yet one cannot tear oneself away nor has the will to do so,
for one fears but what one fears one desires. Anxiety is indicative of absence
of adequate measure within the organism to meet the threatening and
overwhelming situation and intra psychic event. It exerts its influence on
different aspects of human behaviour. If anxiety is within the limits it serves as
a drive but the moment its level is increased it causes inhibition and affects
adjustment. The concept of ego-strength was considered in the light of the
views of Freud (1937), Hartman, Krish (1946), Bellak (1978) and Berren
(1963). It has integrative, organising and self-regulative functions. Hence, its
impact on adjustment appears to be significant.
Adjustment and Creativity
 The author in collaboration with Sharan, P. (1985) conducted a study to
examine the effect of adjustment on creativity. Thought this fact was also not
completely denied that poor adjustment always does not hinder the
development of creativity, as some maladjusted individuals have been also
found to exhibit creative behaviours. While planning the study the investigator
mainly concentrated on the conceptual framework developed by him
(Hussain, S. 1985) with regard to adjustment. However, some other views
were also incorporated (Kaplan, 1965 ; Bogers, C.R., 1961 ; Guilford, J.P.
1950 ; Hudson, L.1965 ; Kogan, N. 1974 ; Mednick, S. A. 1962 ; Torrance,
E.P. 1965 ; Vernon, P.E. 1964 and Lazarus, R.S. 1978). According to Hussain,
S. (1985) adjustment can be regarded as a process which the individual tries
his best to maintain a harmonious, stable and satisfying relationship with his
environment. In the process of adjustment and individual attempts at
satisfying his needs in the light of environmental pressures as well as his own
abilities and limitations. A healthy adjustment aims at long terms satisfaction,
instead of satisfying an immediate need. Beside other components the
adjusted person develops a personality which is free to a greater extent from
depression, intense fear, morbid anxieties, hostile tendencies, insecurity and
disruption of thought. A well adjusted person has selective awareness,
personal integration, self esteem and a desire for improvement. He does not
develop unproductive anxiety. These various aspects of human adjustment
motivated the present investigator to study adjustment in relation to creativity
as they are needed for taking up any creative endeavour.
As far as the concept of creativity is concerned, it is to be noted that it is
a process which is goal directed either in context of personal benefit or that of
the group. The activity culminates in producing some thing novel or different.
Creativity may be taken in the form of controlled imagination that results in the
achievement of some kind. Guilford (1968) has considered creativity having
components like originality, deviation and uniqueness. Creativity has been
further described as divergent thinking which includes fluency, flexibility,
originality, elaboration and also evaluating abilities.
In the light of the conceptual analysis of adjustment and creativity, the
present investigator conceptualized that a better adjusted person would
exhibit a higher level or creativity. He realized the fact that the existing
empirical findings with regard to the relationship between adjustment and
creativity are not in one direction and present some controversies. This very
realization provided the base for taking up the present investigation on student
population in Bihar.
Approval-Seeking Behaviour and Adjustment
The present study conducted by the author aims to investigate into the
relationship between approval-seeking behaviour and adjustment of the
individual as reported by him. The measurement of adjustment is of much
significance in these days of growing tension and complexities.
That behaviour may be considered to be adjustive which makes a
harmony between the individual and environmental demands and thus helps
the individual in achieving a harmonious, stable, and satisfying relationship
with his environment. A well adjusted person fulfils his needs and wants,
desires and wishes with the resources available in the surroundings from the
viewpoint of his own welfare and that of others.
Approval Motive and Adjustment
The study of approval motive is in continuation to the studies made in
respect of social desirability variable affecting the respondents responses on
a personality test. The subject tries to endorse those items which represent
him desirable and try to distort those responses which present an undesirable
picture of him. Originally the concept of social desirability was introduced by
Edwards (1953, 1957) who maintained that responses to Personality inventory
are frequently determined by an individual's desire to place himself in a
favourable manner. A number of studies have been conducted on response
distortion because of social desirability/undesirability of the personality test
items. Since the original works of Edwards (1953) extensive efforts have
been made to investigate the relationship between the social desirability of the
personality test items and the probability of their being acknowledged by
subjects in self-description. However, this question was put, what kinds of
motives then compel subjects to endorse culturally accepted statements?
Crowne and Marlowe (1960, 1964) answer this question. They have extended
the concept of social desirability in their concept of "need for approval" and
proposed and alternative model of Edwards' conception of social desirability
which is free from psychopathological effect. They said that our initial
interpretation of socially desirable responding on the personality scale is that
people conform to social stereotypes of what is good to acknowledge
concerning oneself in order to achieve approval from others. People differ in
strength of their need to be thought well of by others. For those whose need is
higher, it is assumed that approval satisfaction are attained by engaging in
behaviours which are culturally sanctioned and approved and by avoiding
those responses which are not. This formulation appeared to account fairly
well, theoretically, for test-taking behaviour, that is, it is simply not considered
desirable in the contemporary social melieu to indicate on a test that one is
anxious, frustrated, unhappy and disturbed by strange thoughts and impulses,
for these explanations fully describe the nature of approval seeking motive.
These concepts have been developed on the basis of a social desirability
scale constructed by Crowne and Marlowe (1964) which is a measure of the
need for approval or approval motive. This scale is known as personal
reaction inventory.
The approval motive, is defined by the concept of need potential.
Marlowe and Crowne (1964) say that their analysis makes clear that both
generalized expectancies (freedom of movement) and need value are
involved in dependence on the favourable evaluations of others and in
avoidance of self-criticism. From the concept of needs and generalized
expectancies derives the desire for social support, self protection, and
avoidance of failure that we have labelled the approval motive. The goals or
needs of the approval-dependent person would appear to include social
recognition and status, protection and dependency and love and affection.
It seems reasonable to assume that for the high need for approval an
individual has learned that conformity, submission, and the normative
anchoring of behaviour entail the risks of social rejection and threats to self
esteem. His self justification and attempt to validate to his own self-worth
seem to represent defensive efforts to cope with anticipated failures.
The conceptualization underlying present study is that high approval
seekers will try to display better adjustment in different areas as well as overall
adjustment, as a healthy adjustment is also a criterion against which a
person's personality is judged and evaluated. The society enforces a
behaviour which is desirable. Cognitive Differentiation, Sex Variance and
Urban - Rural Environment as Factors in Adjustment :
The author, in collaboration with Sulaiman, M. (1994) conducted a study
on adjustment in context of intelligence, cognitive style and also examined
whether male and female and urban and rural population differ in terms of
their adjustment. The study was undertaken under the assumption that
adjustment will be positively affected by the higher level of intelligence and
field independence. Further, it was hypothesized that male subjects would be
better adjusted as compared to their female counterparts because of their
role. Still further, it was assumed that urban-based respondents of students
population would be better adjusted as compared to their rural counterparts
because of available resources and educational opportunity. The assumptions
were made in the light of some related studies and rationale.
The present problem was taken for study as the researchers felt that
appraisal of student's adjustment in different walks of life is an intense need of
the present time. The students at higher school and college levels are facing
various problematic situations which demand a better mobilization of energy
and healthy mode of attack. If these problems of adjustment are not tackled
with, they may interfere their academic achievement and health living in
general. The college students because of their adolescence and transition
period face various challenges which require effective adjustment patterns.
They have to adjust with their physical, educational, and sociocultural
demands. Hence, adjustment at college level becomes the crux of educational
programme in a democratic country like India.
Adjustment is affected by multiple factors but the present researchers
concentrated on a few variables mentioned above. The early detection of the
antecedents of adjustment/ maladjustment will enable the teachers,
guardians, administrators and counsellors in helping the students in making a
healthy adjustment. Intelligence was taken in the form of a global capacity
which helps in rational thinking, effective adjustment and purposeful act. The
cognitive style was considered in the present study as conceived by Witkin,
H.A. (1964), who studied field dependence and independence. Field
dependent are found to be passive and have poor impulse control and in
differentiated self-concept as compared to field independents. Some of the
studies have supported that persons who are field dependent change
themselves in varied context. The perceptual style influences the way a
person perceives himself and others as well as the physical objects. Thus, it
was presumed that individual's adjustment will be determined by his cognitive
style. The present study was conducted on Hindi speaking population of Bihar
(N=120 male and 120 female college going students).
Old Age and Adjustment Problems
The problem of old aged people always been considered to be of much
significance. However, the advances in the area of behavioural science and
increasing industrialization have intensified the need for the study of problems
relating to old-age. The childhood, adolescence and adulthood all have their
own problems arising out of various demands and stressful situations. The
problems of old aged persons may have some common boundaries but the
way they see problems faced by them may differ from person to person. The
same situation may not carry equal intensity of threats and stress to all the
old persons. Reactions to threats depend upon the person's perception of
himself and that of the stressful situations and taxing demands. Still further,
the tolerance developed within the person may also play a major role while he
is exposed to unhealthy life situations. This is our common observation that
the tolerance capacity is decreased because of degenerating nerve cells or
lack of proper functioning of nervous system as well as accumulation of
frustrations and helplessness. It has been rightly remarked that a person's
attitude towards old age is determined by the experiences, successes and
failures which have been accumulated during early years of life. In other
words, his early deposits determine his present attitude toward the growing
problems. Some of the general problems which are encountered by the old
aged persons and tax their adjustive capacity and happiness are examined
from multiple angles in a psychological perspective.
The fear of old age is stressful, which mainly grows out of the two
sources. First the thought that old age may bring poverty, and secondly, by the
most common sources, false and cruel teachings of the past which have been
well mixed with. Ageing is a major life change which is a psychological step or
transition that alters ones relation to the world about him and demands new
responses.
In the basis fear of old age man has two very sound reasons-one for his
apprehension growing out of his distrust of his fellow man who may seize
whatever worldly goods he may possess and the other arising from the terrible
pictures in his mind of the world beyond.
The possibility of ill health which is more common as people grow older
is also a contributing cause of this common fear of old age as no man
cherishes the thought of diminishing sex attraction. Another contribution of a
course of the fear of old age is the possibility of loss of freedom and
independence and also the loss of both physical and economic freedom. The
common symptoms of the fear of old age are the tendency to show down and
develop and inferiority complex at the age of mental maturity around the age
of forty, falsely believing one's self to be slipping because of age.
Little bites of death of the well being or the ill being or the elderly id the
ultimate algebraic sum of manifold factors-health, economic, social,
psychologists, family, philosophical and spiritual amongst many others.
Shakespeare's Hamlet remarked-'when sorrow come they come not single
but on battalion's. How true indeed it is for the old people, they are saddled
with burdens devitalised by losses and nearer to death. Thirty per cent of the
elderly persons have mental health problems and nearly at eighty five parents
have bodily change. Multiple deprivations crowd the evening of their lives. The
loss may be of the spouse, of children, friends or the use of a limb, of health,
status, self-esteem, mental faculty or income.
"The above noted psychological factors of fear and little bites of death in
ageing and the other losses which occur in the old age, clearly present the
problem of adjustment.
The mature individual has responsibility for his choices and makes his
decision, rather than uncritical accepting those of others. If the idea of
established authority seems inadequate, he turns the experiments and
reasons for a more valid solution.
The problems in later year of life and after retirement are typical in
nature. The major responsibilities bring their own adjustment problems.
Recently there has been numerous publications on the problems of later
maturity and some suggestions to causes and remedies. The causes revolve
around the roles assigned to older person in our culture, reaction of the
individual to his own, physical and mental changes, particularly those that
intensify the problem of age rather than reduce it .
Another problem relates to retirement from the active life or even an
apprehension of being isolated from engagements either in service, business,
farming or other means of livelihood because of decaying energy and
advance age. This is most serious in the, case of those persons who had
been enjoying power in government services or private sectors. In such
conditions the old aged persons may develop a sense of isolation and
extreme passivity which may adversely affect their satisfying experiences.
They may develop anxiety over their excessive dependency upon other for
maintenance and support. In the mean time if they suffer from physical
disability they have to be much more dependent upon the other family
members. In such circumstances the feeling of excessive dependency may be
torturing to them and specially when they are neglected by the family
members. The Sense of being neglected makes them feel that they are
alienated and are living at the mercy of others. This sense of alienation is
further enhanced when they find themselves incapable of making healthy
interaction with the society at large. It has been also observed that the
increasing sense of isolation is aggravated when the old people want to pass
time in the company of youngsters who do not like to waste their time in their
company. The younger people may not like their company because they start
preaching and narrating their past experiences and deeds which may not
appeal to them.
The problem relating to financial insecurity and dependence upon other
family members is also vital. This is more applicable in the case of those old
persons who have not saved some part of their earnings in their past.
One major psychological problem during old age is that the physical
strength may not support the desires and motives of a man. He may like to do
many things which he did earlier but at present because of decaying general
health he may not do. So there is a lesser coordination between his desire
and action. He may like to play certain game but cannot. In some extreme
cases old people want to write letters to their relatives but their hands shake,
they want to run but physical condition does not permit. The growing physical
disabilities, limitations and various diseases prove to be an obstacle to the
satisfaction of motives.
The chronic illness may be source of strain and stress. Physical
degeneration becomes a threat to the older person. If the person is suffering
from prolonged illness he may not be properly cared and nursed which in turn
make him worried, irritating, aggressive and fault finding. The sense of being
neglected is generally intensified because of person's own attitude towards
other. The prospect of death is another source of tension. It becomes more
intense when the old person get information about the death of their friends
and relatives. The prospect of death is more dangerous than the death itself. It
has been reported that persons who are sitting near a dying person feel more
threatened and afraid of the death than the dying person himself. However,
some psychologists are of the opinion that older people have fewer hopes and
expectations and, hence, may not be highly disrupted by the fear of death.
The stress of life and the death is associated with the philosophy of life and
the richness or dareness, disappointment and bitterness of early life.
Some Recent Indian Studies Related to Adjustment
Anjum and Rani (2001) found that non-tribal subjects were better
adjusted than their tribal counterparts. Supriya (2003) examined the effect of
working and non-working dimension and SES on adjustment patterns of
women respondent and reported that working dimension and high SES are
conductive to adjustment. Kumar et. al. (2005) attempted to compare the
advantaged and disadvantaged groups of respondents in terms of level of
anxiety and patterns of adjustment and reported that deprived respondents
were found having high level of anxiety and poor adjustment patterns than
their counterparts. Kumar (2005) examined the effect of aggression on level of
anxiety of female students and reported that anxiety is attributed by
aggression.
Kumar et. al. (2007) examined the effect of deprivation on anxiety and
adjustment of 200 advantaged and disadvantaged respondents equal in
number and found that advantaged group excelled over disadvantaged group
in respect of anxiety and adjustment. Sonam (2007) examined the et al. of
parental style on achievement motivation and adjustment of children and
reported that democratic parental style is conducive to achievement
motivation and adjustment. Bharti (2008) Conducted an experimental study on
120 respondents to examine the effect of ego-strength and adjustment on
reminiscence of the respondents. He reported that the respondents belonging
to low ego-strength group and low adjustment group showed superiority in
respect of reminiscence score.
Manoj (2008) examined the effect of deprivation on anxiety and
adjustment of 240 advantaged and disadvantaged respondents and reported
that advantaged group excelled over their counterparts in respect of anxiety
and adjustment. Sonam (2008) examined 100 Hiv infected person with 100
normal in terms of anxiety depression and adjustment and reported that
infected persons were more prone to anxiety and depression with poor
adjustment than their counterparts belonging to normal group. Sanjita (2008)
compared 100 mentally retarded and 100 normal in respect of cognitive style
adjustment and dependence proneness and reported that mentally retarded
children are more field dependence more adjusted and more dependently
prone than their counterparts of normal respondents. Dinesh (2008) examined
the effect of anxiety, aggression and adjustment on domestic violence of the
respondents and reported that domestic violence is significantly influenced by
aggression, anxiety and adjustment. Tauvab (2008) examined the effect of
SES on creativity and adjustment and reported that SES and adjustment are
highly conducive to creativity. Kumari Indu (2008) attempted to examine the
significant difference in adjustment and anxiety between advantaged and
disadvantaged groups and reported that advantaged groups were reported
with better adjustment and longer anxiety.
 Madhuri (2008) examined the effect of adjustment and creativity on
perceptual defence of 160 male postgraduate respondents and found that
perceptual defence was negatively correlated to both adjustment and
creativity. Agrawal (2008) examined the effect of anxiety and adjustment on
reminiscence and found that more reminiscence was observed in the
respondents of low anxiety and high adjustment groups. Bharash (2008)
compared 300 tribal and non-tribal respondents in respect of patterns of
adjustment and reported that non-tribal over superior than tribal in respect of
patterns of adjustment. Sonam (2009) Investigated the effect of culture on
conservatism and adjustment and reported that(i) non-tribal were having
better adjustment, (ii) tribal were found more conservative, (iii) a significant
negative correlation was found between adjustment and conservatism. Sinha
and Tiwary (2009) Compared 80 deprived and 80 non-deprived respondents
in respect of self-concept, ego-strength and adjustment. The results revealed
that deprivation is significantly and negatively correlated to self-concept ego-
strength and adjustment. It was further concluded that self-concept is
significantly and positively correlated to ego-strength and adjustment.
Vinita (2009) examined the effect of working dimension and SES on
adjustment patterns and reported that working dimension and high SES
attributed adjustment. Poonam (2009) examined the effect of mental
retardation on self concept, anxiety and adjustment and reported that mentally
retarded children possess poor self-concept, less anxiety and poor
adjustment. Anamika (2009) examined the effect of working dimension on self-
concept, ego-strength and adjustment and found that working dimension
attributed ego-strength, self-concept and adjustment. Patel (2009) examined
the effect of anxiety and adjustment on RI and found that RI is a function of
anxiety and adjustment. Ajay (2009) conducted a cross cultural study to
examine the effect of cultural affiliation on adjustment and reported that non-
tribal respondents excelled over tribal respondents in almost every dimension.
Shiv Prakash (2009) examined the effect of sectional affiliation on
conservatism and adjustment and reported that community affiliation has
significant effect on conservatism and adjustment. Farhat (2008) examined
the effect of modernisation and reported that privileged and unprivileged
groups differ significantly form one another in respect of modernity and
adjustment. High and low modernity groups differ significantly in respect of
adjustment.
 Kumar (2008) Examined the effect of ego-strength, anxiety and
adjustment on creativity of the respondents and reported that higher level of
ego-strength, anxiety and adjustment were conducive to creativity. Feroz
(2008) examined the adjustment patterns of working non-working women and
reported that working women excelled over their counterparts in terms of
adjustment due to more social freedom and self sufficiency of working women.
Tasneem (2008) examined the effect of psychological well being on family
adjustment and found that teachers group were most satisfied group them
doctors and clerks. Sonam (2008) Examined the effect of aggression on
patterns of adjustment and effect of dependence poorness and conservatism
on aggression of the respondents and reported that non aggressive group of
respondents showed superiority in terms of adjustment, aggressive groups
were found superior over their counterparts in respect of dependence
proneness and conservatism. Dinesh (2008) Examined the effect of anxiety,
adjustment, depression, ego-strength and aggression on domestic violence of
the respondents and found that psychological factors under study were
influenced by domestic violence.
Jalaluddin (2008) examined the effect of sex on emotional maturity and
adjustment in adolescent boys and girls and reported that males were having
better emotional maturity and adjustment. Suman (2008) Examined the effect
of cognitive style anxiety and adjustment on personal space of the
respondents and reported that field independence group, low anxiety group
and high adjustment group maintained smaller personal space. Alok (2008)
examined the effect of locus of context on scholastic achievement and
adjustment and reported that internal locus of control induces adjustment and
academic achievement positively and external locus of control interferes with
scholastic achievement and adjustment. Sangita (2008) examined the effect
of certain motivational correlates and adjustment on reminiscence and found
that the variables under taken are conducive to adjustment. Ahmad (2008)
examined adjustment neuroticism and indoor air pollution and found
statistically significant. Nawendu (2008) examined the effect of working
dimension and SES on adjustment and found statistically significant. Anita
(2007) examined adjustment in relation to parental style and social support
and reported that high social support and democratic parental style were
conductive to healthy adjustment.
Agrawal (2007) Made a cross cultural study to examine the effect of
cultural affiliation on adjustment and conservatism and reported tribal excelled
in conservatism whereas non-tribal excelled in adjustment. Further a
significant negative correlation was reported between adjustment and
conservatism. Poonam (2007) Attempted to investigation into the effect of
community on adjustment and conservatism and found that the Hindu
respondents were having sound adjustment whereas the Muslims were
having higher degree of conservatism. If was further ascertained that
conservatism and adjustment were significant and negatively correlated.
Khanam and Ahmad (2004 - 05) conducted study on 200 respondents to
examine the effect of SES, level of education on adjustment and found that
high SES and high educational level respondents excelled over low SES and
educational level of respondents.
Singh (2004 - 05) examined the effect of self concept self disclosure on
adjustment and found that high self concept, high self-disclosure respondents
excelled in terms of adjustment over their counterparts belonging to low self-
concept and low self-disclosure group. Sarika (2004 - 05) examined the effect
of dependence proneness and ego-strength on adjustment and found that
high D P group and high ego-strength group of respondents showed high level
of adjustment and a positive correlation was found between ego-strength and
D.P. Kusum (2004 - 05) examined the effect of success and failure on
adjustment and reported that successfully superior in their social, emotional
and educational adjustment in comparison to unsuccessful respondents.
Bhavesh (2008) compared tribal and non-tribal in terms of adjustment
and reported that non-tribal excelled in terms of adjustment over their
counterparts belonging to tribal respondent counterparts. Vineta (2008)
examined the effect of working dimension on adjustment patterns and found
that working women were having high adjustment. Sangita (2008) Compared
mentally retarded with normal in terms of cognitive style, adjustment and
dependence proneness and reported that mentally reported respondents were
found having more field dependent, more adjusted and more independently
prone than normal. Indu (2008) examined the effect of deprivation on anxiety
and adjustment and reported that deprived respondents were found with poor
adjustment and high level of anxiety.
Suman (2008) compared HIV influenced respondents with normal in
terms of depression anxiety and adjustment and found that HIV infected
respondents excelled in terms of anxiety and depression but normal excelled
in adjustment. Dinesh (2008) examined the effect of aggression anxiety and
adjustment on domestic violence and reported that domestic violence in
significantly influenced by aggression, anxiety and adjustment. Dinesh (2008)
examined the effect of ego-strength anxiety and adjustment on RI and found
that RI is attributed by ego-strength, anxiety and adjustment. Bharti (2008)
Conducted an experimental study on 120 respondents to examine the effect
of ego-strength and adjustment on reminiscence of the respondents. He
reported that the respondents belonging to low ego-strength group and low
adjustment group showed superiority in respect of reminiscence score.
Tauvab (2008) examined the effect of SES on creativity and adjustment
and reported that SES and adjustment are highly conducive to creative
thinking. Manoj (2008) examined the effect of deprivation on adjustment and
anxiety and the results showed that the advantaged group excelled over
disadvantaged group in respect of anxiety and adjustment. Kirti (2008)
examined the effect of aggression, anxiety and adjustment on mental health of
the respondents and found that mental health is positively correlated to
adjustment but negatively with aggression as well as anxiety. Madhawi (2008)
examined the relationship of perceptual defence with adjustment and
creativity and found that perceptual defence is negatively correlated to both
adjustment and creativity.
Agrawal (2008) examined the effect of anxiety and adjustment on
reminiscence and reported that reminiscence is attribute by low anxiety and
high adjustment. Ajay (2008) examined the effect of SES, anxiety on
adjustment and reported that high SES and low anxiety were altributed to
healthy adjustment. Khanam and Ahmad (2007) compared type A and type
B respondents in terms of health adjustment aggression and reported that
both the types of respondents differed significantly in respect of adjustment
and type of persons were found more aggressive than type B persons.
Kumar and Singh (2007) Examined the effect of cognitive style on anxiety and
adjustment and reported that cognitive style of working women influence
anxiety and adjustment.
Pragya (2007) examined the effect of aggression, anxiety and
adjustment and reported that alienation is positively related to aggression and
anxiety but negatively related to adjustment. Dinesh (2007) examined the
relationship between focus of control with domestic violence as well as
adjustment and reported that internal locus of control had interfering effect to
domestic violence and hence healthy adjustment. Vandana (2007) examined
the effect of intelligence, adjustment and conservatism on depression and
reported that depression is significantly influenced by intelligence, adjustment
and conservatism.
 Sanjay (2007) examined the effect of size of the family, type of the
family and social support on adjustment and found that small family, nuclear
family and high social support are conducive to healthy adjustment. Kumar
and Singh (2006) examined the effect of aggression on adjustment and found
that non-aggressive adolescents excelled in overall adjustment. Nutan (2008)
Examined the effect of parent child relationship on adjustment and aggression
and found that child non-belonging to democratic parental style were found
better adjusted. The respondence of authoritarian parental style were found
aggressive. The aggression and adjustment were negatively correlated.
Pragya (2007) examined the effect of level of aspiration and adjustment on
reminiscence and reported that level of aspiration and adjustment are
conducive to reminiscence.
Dinesh et. al. (2007) compared deprived and non-deprived group and
reported that non-deprived group excelled in respect of anxiety and
adjustment. Supriya (2005) examined the relationship of motivational
variables undertaken in the study with adjustment and reported that a
moderate positive correlation existed between adjustment and each of the
variables such as need achievement, level of aspiration risk-taking behaviour.
Farhat (2006) examined the effect of mothers employment of their children's
adjustment and reported that (i) children of working and non-working mother
did not differ in respect of home, health, emotional adjustment (ii) they differ in
respect of social adjustment. Vijaya Lakshmi (2006) compared the Husbands
of working and non-working wives in terms of adjustment and reported that
both the compared groups differed statistically and significantly in the areas of
social emotional and occupational adjustments but they did not differ in
respect of health and home adjustment.
Shyam Kishore (2007) examined the effect of decisiveness, ego-
strength and adjustment on depression and reported that stronger is the
decisiveness, ego-strength and adjustment less likely to be the victim of
depression. Mridula et al (2007) Attempted to evaluate the patterns of
adjustment, dependence proneness, ego-strength and need for achievement
respectively. They reported that working women excelled almost every
dimensions under reference. Singh and Singh (2008) examined the effect of
family environment and school climate on school adjustment of adolescents in
relation to their family and school environment and reported that family
environment and school climate contribute significantly to development of
school adjustment among students.
 Bharti (2008) examined the effect of deprivation on aggression anxiety
and adjustment to reported that advantaged group of respondent excelled in
adjustment where as deprived group of respondent excelled in anxiety and
adjustment. Dhanajay (2009) examined the effect of cultural affiliation on
adjustment and conservatism and reported that non-tribal respondents
showed better adjustment and lesser conservatism as compared to their tribal
counterparts. Kiran Prabha (2009) examined the effect of Mother's
employment on various dimensions of adjustment and reported that the
children of working and non-working mothers did not differ significantly and
statistically in home, health, emotional and overall adjustment. However, they
differed significantly in social adjustment.
Kumar and Singh (2009) examined the effect of some socio-familial
factors on adjustment and r reported that the respondents belonging to joint
family, large family and low social support respectively in terms of adjustment.
Suman (2009) examined the effect of working and non-working dimensions on
adjustment dependence proneness, ego-strength and need achievement and
reported that working women excelled in almost every dimensional areas
under taken in the present study. Dinesh (2009) examined about some
antecedent factors of domestic violence including anxiety and adjustment and
reported that domestic violence is a function of anxiety, adjustment
depression, cultural affiliation and working and non-working dimension.
Paswan and Kumar (2008) examined the effect of urban rural
inhabitation of adjustment of primary school adjustment and reported that both
the groups differed significantly in respect of various dimensions of
adjustment. Teuevab (2009) examined the effect of depression, aggression
anxiety, adjustment on mental health and reported that mental health is
positively correlated to adjustment but negatively correlated to anxiety,
aggression, and depression. Panjiyar et. al. (1999) examined the role of social
class and SES on adjustment and reported that social class and SES
significantly effect various pattern of adjustment.
Chetna (1999) examined the effect of community, cast and SES on
adjustment and reported that Hindu women. High caste women and high SES
women were found superior to their counterparts. Sanjay Kant (2000)
examined stuttering as related to personality and adjustment and found it as
significant. Hussain and Jabin (2002) examined the effect of maternal
employment on adjustment, ego-strength and anxiety of children and reported
that adjustment, ego-strength of children of working and non-working mother
did not differ significantly. However the difference in anxiety was found
statistically significant.
Laiju (2002) examined the relationship of job satisfaction with certain
various and dimensions of adjustment and reported that job satisfaction and
adjustment are positively correlated. Mohan Raj and Latha (2005) investigated
the relationship among family environment, the home adjustment and
academic achievement and reported that family environment appeared to
influence home adjustment as well as academic performance. Thomas and
Narayanan (2006) attempted to examine the effect of some psycho-social
factors such as age, SES, stress, male adjustment, personality etc. on
premenstrual distress and reported that there was a strong psycho-social
basis for the various premenstrual distress. Jain (2009) examined the
predictive ability of organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) and emotional
intelligence reported that OCB was found to be more powerful predictor of
organizationally relevant criterion variables in Indian work context. Alam
(2009) examined the influence of need efficiency on adjustment and reported
that need deficiency on adjustment and reported that need deficiency
influenced health adjustment.
Prasad, N. K.(2010) conducted study on 100 deprived and 100 non-
deprived undergraduate students of the colleges located in Patna town. The
purpose of the study was to examine the effect of socio-economic deprivation
on adjustment and conservatism. Three hypotheses were formulated : (1) The
deprived and non-deprived respondents would differ significantly in terms of
adjustments patterns. (2) The deprived and non-deprived respondents would
differ significantly in terms of conservatism. (3) There would be significant
correlation between adjustment and conservatism. Hindi Adaptation of Bell's
Adjustment Inventory by Mohsin & Shamshad and Mohsin's Conservatism
Scale were used for measuring adjustment and conservatism of the
respondents. Scales along with PDS were employed t-test and r-test were
employed for analysis of the obtained data. In the light of the results all the
three hypotheses were confirmed. Non-deprived respondents showed better
adjustment and lesser conservatism as compared to their deprived
counterparts. Conservatism and adjustment were found negatively correlated.
Sinha, N. (2010) conducted study on 40 traditional entrepreneurs and
40 non-traditional entrepreneurs of Patna town. The purpose of the study was
to examine the effect of need structure on the vocational choice of the women
respondents. The need for achievement, level of aspiration, risk-taking and
security/insecurity dimensions of need structure were under taken in the study.
For the purpose it was hypothesized that-non-traditional women
entrepreneurs would differ significantly from their traditional women
counterpart in terms of need for achievement, level of aspiration, risk taking,
and security/insecurity respectively. For the purpose Mukherjee's SCT,
Singh's Level of Aspiration Scale, Chaubey's Non-Risk taking Scale, Singh's
Hindi Version of Maslow's Security/Insecurity Scales were employed to
measure need for achievement, level of aspiration, risk taking and
security/insecurity of entrepreneurs under reference. Besides, a PDS was
employed to get other necessary informations relating to the respondents. The
data were obtained as per the directions of the manuals and analysed using t-
test. The results confirmed the hypothesis. It was concluded that : (i) Non-
traditional entrepreneurs excelled their traditional entrepreneur counterparts in
terms of the dimensions of need structure undertaken in the study.
Hossain (2010) conducted study on 100 respondents to examine the
effect of cognitive style and intelligence on their adjustment. They were
selected in such a way that 50 each belong to FI, FD, high intelligence and
low intelligence groups respectively. They were divided into groups using
median values based on data obtained on the Witkin's EFT, Mohsin's
Intelligence Scale. They were compared in terms of scores obtained on
Mohsin's and Shamshad Hindi Version of Adjustment Inventory using t-ratio.
The results revealed that respondents belonging to field independence group
and high intelligence group excelled over their counterparts.
Ahmad (2010) attempted to examined the relationship among
achievement motivation, intelligence, socioeconomic status and academic
performance among male and female students. It is evident from results than
significant difference was obtained between academic performance of high
and low achievement motivation, high and low intelligence and high SES and
low SES adolescents.
Singh & Ranjan (2010) examined the effect of SES and modernity on
achievement motivation. The sample consisted of 200 distant mode learner
selected from NOU, town. It was hypothesized that there would be significant
effect of SES and modernity on achievement motivation. For the purpose
Singh's Modernity Scale, Bhardwaj's SES Scale, Mukherjee's Achievement
Motivation Scale along with a PDS were employed on the respondents to
measure modernity, SES, achievement motivation and to get the other
necessary information about the respondents. The obtained data were
analysed using t-test. The obtained results confirmed both the hypotheses. It
was concluded that high SES and high modernity groups of respondents
excelled over their counterparts in respect of achievement motivation.
Suman, S. (2010) conducted study aiming at to find the adjustment
problems of aged persons belonging to both rural and urban families. The
study was conducted on a sample of 100 aged persons (60-65 yrs.) belonging
to rural (50) and urban (50) areas of Gaya district in Bihar. Mohsin-Shamshad
Adaptation of Bell's Adjustment Inventory was administered on the sample in
field setting. Results indicated that rural aged persons had more health,
social, home and emotional adjustment problems than the rural aged persons.
The two groups also differed with respect to their general adjustment
problems.
Faiz, A. (2010) conducted study with an eye to trace out the effects of
religiosity and residential area on home, health and emotional adjustment of
college students Religiosity Scale developed and standardized by Bhushan
(1990) and Mohsin-Shamshad Adaptation of Bell Adjustment Inventory
(modified from 1987) were administered on 100 rural and 100 urban male
students undergoing study in undergraduate classes of rural and urban
constituent colleges of Siwan and Gopalganj districts under Jai Prakash
University, Chapra. The results indicated that rural subjects are significantly
higher on religiosity and lower on adjustment in the areas of home, health and
emotional than urban subjects. Religiosity is a positive correlate of adjustment
in the area of home, health and emotional.
Brave & Brave (2010) conducted a empirical study. In the present study
an attempt has been made to compare the adjustment level of professional
and nonprofessional college students. For that purpose 120 college students
have been randomly selected from the 6 colleges of professional and
nonprofessional courses from Jalna (M.S.) city. All the students have been
given a psychological test of adjustment. After completion of the test it is
concluded that male students are more adjustment than female students in
the area of nonprofessionals courses. While female students are more
adjusted than male students in the area of professional courses. It may be
concluded that apart from the courses which has considered in the study.
Overall female students are more adjusted than male students.
Kumar, S. (2010) conducted study on 128 undergraduate respondents
selected from the colleges of Patna town. The main purpose was to examine
the effect of aggression and anxiety on depression of the respondents. It was
hypothesized that : (i) there would be significant impact of aggression and
anxiety on adolescent's adjustment. For the purpose Singh's Aggression
Scale, Sinha's Manifest Anxiety Scale, Mohsin Shamsad's Bell's Adjustment
Inventory (Hindi) were employed to measure aggression, anxiety and
adjustment of the respondents. Besides these a PDS was employed to get
necessary information. The data were obtained as per direction of the manual.
The obtained data were treated using t-ratio. The results uphold the
hypothesis. It was concluded that lower level of aggression and anxiety are
conducive to adjustment.
Kumar, D. (2010) conducted study on a sample of 100 normal children
and 100 mentally retarded children. Normal and mentally retarded children
were identified on the basis of the scores obtained on Mohsin General
Intelligence Test. The study intended to compare the two groups of children in
terms of their personality characteristics, especially cognitive style, anxiety
and conservatism. It was hypothesized that mentally retarded children as
compared to their mentally normal counterparts would be found more field
dependent, less anxious and less conservative. Anxiety was measured with
the help of Sinha Manifest Anxiety Scale. Conservatism was measured using
Mohsin C-Scale and Cognitive style was measured using Witkin's Embedded
Figure Test. Besides these a PDS was used. The obtained data were
analysed using t-test. The results thus obtained confirmed all the three
hypotheses. It was concluded that mentally retarded children are more field
dependent, less anxious and less conservative as compared to their normal
counterparts.
Ahmad, F. (2010) conducted study to determine the significance of
difference in the academic performance of male and female adolescents with
reference to High and Low Levels of Achievement Motivation, intelligence and
socio economics status. Results reveal that sex variable was found as an
important determiner of academic performance.
Kumar, B. (2010) conducted study on a sample of 64 normal children
and 64 mentally retarded children. Normal and mentally retarded children
were identified on the basis of the scores obtained on Mohsin General
Intelligence Test. The study intended to compare the two groups of children in
terms of anxiety, aggression and adjustment. It was hypothesized that (i)
There would be significant effect of mental retardation on anxiety of the
respondents. (ii) Mentally retarded children would differ significantly from
normal respondents in terms of aggression, (iii) Mentally retarded children and
normal children would differ significantly in terms of adjustment. Anxiety,
aggression and adjustment were measured using Sinha's Manifest Anxiety
Scale, Singh's Manifest Aggression Scale and Mohsin and Shamshad Bell's
Adjustment Inventory (Hindi Adaptation). The obtained data were analysed
using t-test. The results, thus obtained confirmed all the three hypotheses. It
was reported that mentally retarded children were found having low anxiety,
aggression and poor adjustment as compared to their children belonging to
normal groups of respondent.
Choudhary, J. (2010) conducted study on a sample of 160 male
undergraduate students of colleges with a view to verifying four hypotheses:
(i) High ego strength group of the respondents would be found field
independent, while low ego strength group would be found field dependent. (ii)
High decisiveness group of the respondents would be found field
independent, while low decisiveness group would be found field dependent.
(iii) High dependence proneness group of the respondents would differ
significantly from low dependence proneness group in terms of cognitive style.
(iv) High emotional stability group of the respondents would differ significantly
from low emotional stability group in terms of cognitive style. Singh's
Differential Personality Scale and Sinha D.P. Scale were used for measuring
personality traits under reference. Witkin's Embedded Figure Test was used
for measuring cognitive styles in terms of field dependence and field
independence. The obtained data were analysed, using t-test. The results
obtained confirmed all the four hypotheses leading to four conclusions: (i)
High ego strength respondents were found field independent but low ego
strength respondents were found field dependent. (ii) High decisiveness
respondents were found field independent but low decisiveness respondents
were found field dependent. (iii) High dependence proneness respondents
were found field dependent but low dependence proneness respondents were
found field independent. (iv) High emotionally stable respondents were found
field independent but low emotionally stable respondents were found field
dependent.
Kumari, N. (2010) conducted study on an incidental-cum purposive
sample of 200 undergraduate respondents of Patna town. The purpose of the
study was to see the effect of mental health and achievement motivation on
adjustment. It was hypothesized that : (i) there would be significant effect of
mental health on respondent's adjustment. (ii) there would be significant
effect of achievement motivation on respondent's adjustment. For the purpose
Mental Health Battery by Arun Kumar Singh & Alpana Sen Gupta, Mukherjee's
Sentence Completion Test and Mohsin's Shamsad's Hindi Adaptation of Bell's
Adjustment Inventory were administrated to measure mental health,
achievement motivation, and adjustment of the respondents respectively.
Besides these a PDS was used to get the other necessary informations
relating to the respondents. The data were analysed using t-test. The obtained
results confirmed both the hypotheses. It was concluded that high mental
health and high achievement motivation are conducive to adjustment.
Priya, A. (2010) examined the impact of physical disadvantage on
development of personal values of the respondents. The personal values
under investigation were religious value, aesthetic value, hedonistic value and
health value. For the purpose a sample of 128 (64 normal and 64 physically
handicapped) were selected based on incidental-cum-purpossive sampling
technique. Physically handicapped respondents were selected from the
hospitals, clinics and normal respondents were their attendants/relatives etc.
For the purpose four hypotheses were formulated for empirical verification.
The values under investigation were measured using PVQ by Sherry &
Verma. The findings reveal that no significant differences were found between
the respondents of the two groups in terms of religious value and hedonistic
value. Physical handicapped respondents were found superior in terms of
aesthetic value whereas normal respondents were found superior in terms of
health value.
Singh, R. P. (2010) compared 100 television viewers and a group of 100
television non-viewers in terms of their personal problems and adjustment.
Problems and adjustments were measured using Verma's problem inventory
and Mohsin's and Shamshad's Hindi Adaptation of Bell's Adjustment Inventory
Respectively. The purpose was to ascertain if viewing television has any
significant effect on personal problems and adjustment of the respondents.
Two hypotheses were formulated : (i) television viewers would differ
significantly from television-non viewers in terms of personal problems and (ii)
television viewers would excel over the television non-viewers in terms of
adjustment. The data obtained were treated statistically using chi-square test.
Both the hypotheses were confirmed. It was concluded that in the viewing TV
has significant role in influencing personal problems adjustments.
Kumar & Rashmi (2010) examined the effect of Social freedom, social
support and adjustment on domestic violence of the respondents. For the
purpose 64 working and 64 non-working women were selected from Patna
Town. The respondents were administered Kumar's Domestic Violence Scale,
Bhushan'n women's Social Freedom Scale. Asthana's and Verma's Social
support Scale, Mohsin's and Shamshad's Hindi Adaptation of Bell's
Adjustment Inventory to measure domestic violence, Social support and
adjustment of the respondents were divided into high & low social freedom,
social support and adjustment groups respondents. The data were obtained
as per the directions of the manuals of the scales concerned. The obtained
data were treated using t-test. The results confirmed the formulated
hypotheses. It was concluded that -(i) Domestic violence is influenced by the
socio- psychological correlates under study, (ii) Working and non-working
dimensions conducive to domestic violence.
Choudhary, J. (2010) conducted study on 80 school boys and 80
schools girls of Chapta town. The main purpose of the study was to examine
the effect of locus of control on academic achievement and adjustment of the
respondents. For the purpose it was hypothesized that: (i) there would be
significant correlation between locus of control and academic achievement (ii)
there would be significant correlation between locus of control and
adjustment. Locus of control was measured using Hasnain's and Joshi's
Rotters locus of Control Scale. The patterns of Adjustment was measured
using Mohsin Shamshad Bell's Adjustment Inventory (Hindi Adaptation). The
academic Achievement was measured on the basis of academic records of
the last two successive examinations of the respondents. Scatter diagram
method of correlation was employed for the analysis of the obtained data. In
the light of the results a significant and positive correlation was found between
endogenous locus of control and academic achievement but insignificant
correlation was reported between endogenous locus of control and overall
adjustment of the respondents. Similarly, insignificant correction was also
between exogamous locus of control and overall adjustment of the
respondents. Thus both the hypotheses were partly retained. In the light of the
results it was concluded that endogenous locus of control is conducive to
academic achievement on the one hand and adjustment pattern on the other
whereas exogamous locus of control hinders both in cases of academic
achievement and overall adjustment.
Singh, G. N. (2010) conducted study on an incidental - purposive
sample of 160 undergraduate respondents of Patna Town. The purpose of the
study was to examine the effect of deprivation on children's achievement
motivation, level of aspiration and adjustment. It was hypothesized that: (i)
Deprivation would have significant effect on need for achievement and level of
aspiration of respondents. (ii) High deprived respondents would have poor
adjustment than low deprived respondents. For the purpose Mishra's
&Tripathi's Deprivation Scale, Mukherjee's Sentence Completion Test, Singh;
Aspiration Scale, and Mohsin Shamshad Bell's Adjustment Inventory were
used to measure the deprivation, need for achievement, level of aspiration
and adjustment of the respondents respectively. Besides these, a PDS was
used to get the other necessary information relating to the respondents. The
scales along with PDS were employed and data were obtained. The obtained
data were analysed using t-test. The obtained result confirmed all the
hypotheses. IT was concluded that achievement motivation, level of aspiration
and adjustment are interfered by deprivation.
Asreen, F. S. (2010) examined the adjustment patterns of 100 working
and 100 non-working women in terms of home adjustment, social adjustment,
emotional adjustment and health adjustment. The obtained data were
statistical analysed, using t-ratio separately for each dimension of adjustment.
In the light of the obtained results the working women excelled their non-
working counterpart in social adjustment, health adjustment as well as
emotional adjustment. On the other hand non- working women excelled their
working counterparts in terms of home adjustment. Better adjustment of
working women was interpreted in terms of social freedom, better socio-
economic condition and mental flexibility. On the other hand better home
adjustment of non- working women was interpreted in terms more opportunity
to look after home affairs such as husband relationship, child rearing and the
like.
Singh, R. K. (2010) conducted study on 64 tribal children and 64 non-
tribal children intending to examine the effect of cultural affiliation on
motivational components namely achievement motive, aspirations level and
risk-taking. Three hypotheses were formulated: (a) Non- Tribal children would
excel their Tribal counterparts in achievement motive. (b) Non-Tribal children
would be found superior to their tribal counterparts in their aspirational level.
(c) Tribal children will differ significantly from their non-tribal counterparts in
terms of risk-taking. For empirical verification of hypotheses an empirical
study was conducted on 64 Tribal children and 64 non-Tribal children.
Mukherjee Sentence Completion Test, Singh's Aspirational Scale and
Chaubey's Non-risk taking were used for measuring all the three motivational
components respectively. The obtained data were analysed statistically using
t-test. The obtained results confirmed all the three hypotheses. The results
were interpreted in terms of enriched environment and deprived environment
of non-Tribal children and Tribal children respectively.
Kumar, D. (2010) examined the effect of SES, social support, ego-
strength and adjustment on domestic violence of the respondents. For the
purpose 100 working and 100 non-working women were selected from Patna
Town. The respondents were administered Kumar's Domestic Violence Scale,
Bhardwarj SES, Asthana's and Varma's Social Support Scale, Mohsin's and
Shamshad's Hindi Adaptation of Bell's Adjustment Inventory to measure
domestic violence, SES, social support and adjustment of the respondents
respectively. Besides, a PDS was used to get other necessary information
relating to the respondents. Using median value respondents were divided
into high &low domestic violence group. The data were obtained as were
treated using t-test. The results confirmed both the formulated hypotheses. It
was concluded that-(i) Domestic violence is influenced by socio-familial
correlates under reference including adjustment, (ii) working and working
dimensions are conducive to domestic violence.
Asraf, S. & Kumar, K. (2010) conducted study on 100 girls and 100 boys
belonging to high schools of Gaya town. The purpose was to examine the
effect of SES over need achievement and depression of the respondents.
SES, need achievement and depression were measured using Bharadwaj's
SES Scale, Mukherjee's SCT and Jamuar's Manifest Depression Inventory
respectively. Scatter diagram method of correlation was used for the analysis
of the obtained data. In the light of their results a significant and positive
correlation was found between SES and need achievement but a significant
negative correctional was found between SES and depression of the
respondents. In the light of the results it was concluded that SES attributes
need achievement but, wakes the depression.
Singh, N. (2010) conducted study on 100 non tribal and 100 tribal
selected from Hazarribagh to examine the effect of cultural affiliation on
aggression, anxiety and adjustment of the respondents. Incidental-cum-
purposive sampling technique was used for the purpose. It was hypothesized
that: (i) there would be significant effect of cultural affiliation on aggression, of
the respondents. (ii) there would be significant effect of cultural affiliation on
anxiety of the respondents and (iii) there would be significant effect of cultural
affiliation on adjustment of the respondents. For the purpose Manifest
Aggression Scale by Singh, Manifest Anxiety Scale by Sinha and Adjustment
Inventory by Sinha and Singh were used to measure aggression, anxiety and
adjustment of the respondents respectively. Besides these, a PDS was used
to collect necessary information relating to the respondents. The Scales along
with PDS were employed on the respondents and data were obtained as per
manuals. The obtained data were analysed using t-ratio. The result confirmed
the formulated hypotheses. It was concluded that non-tribal excelled over
tribal counterparts in terms of aggression, anxiety and adjustments.
Jamuar, A. (2010) conducted study on 100 under graduate students to
examine the effect of SES and social support on the perceptual defence of the
respondents. It was hypothesized that (i) the respondents belonging to high
SES would show significantly less perceptually defence than their
counterparts, (ii) The respondents belonging to high social support would
show significantly less perceptual defence than their counterparts. SES, social
support were measured using scales by Bhardwaj as well as Asthana and
Verma respectively. Nonsense trigram experiment was conducted on the
respondents individually and perceptual defence scores were obtained in
terms of mill seconds. Respondents belonging to high SES and high social
support groups showed less perceptual defence.
Kumari et. al. (2010) conducted study on an incidental-cum-purposive
sample of 200 undergraduate tribal and non-tribal respondents of Deoghar
Town equal in number. The purpose of the study was to see the effect of on
children's achievement motivation and adjustment. It was hypothesized that
(ii) cultural affiliation would have significant effect on children's level of
aspiration, need achievement and adjustment. For the purpose Singh's
Aspiration Scale Mukherjee's Sentence Completion Test and Hindi Adaptation
of Bell's Adjustment Inventory by Mohsin & Shamshad were used to identify
the level of aspiration, need for achievement and adjustment of the
respondents respectively. Besides these, a PDS was used to get the other
necessary information relating to the respondents. The obtained data were
analysed using t-test. The obtained results confirmed the hypothesis. It was
concluded that cultural affiliation significantly influence the psychological
factors under reference.
Ashraf, S. & Kumar, K. (2010) conducted study on 120 male
Postgraduate students to examine the effect of anxiety and conservatism on
the reminiscence of the respondents. It was hypothesized that : (i) the high
anxiety group of respondents would show significantly less reminiscence than
low anxiety group of respondents, (ii) the liberal group of respondents would
show significantly more reminiscence than their conservative group of
respondents. The anxiety and conservatism were measured using Sinha's
Manifest Anxiety Scale and Mohsin's C-Scale respectively. Besides these, a
PDS was used. Nonsense trigram experiment was conducted on the
respondent individually and reminiscence scores were obtained in terms of
the items recalled over passage of time. Respondents of low anxiety group
and liberal group showed superiority over their counterparts in respect of
reminiscence scores.
Singh, S. N. (2010) conducted study on 100 socioeconomics deprived
and 100 non-deprived respondents of Rohtas town. The purpose of the study
was to examine the effect of socio-economic deprivation on need for
achievement, level of aspiration, risk-taking and sense of security of the
respondents. For the purpose it was hypothesised that socioeconomic
deprivation would have significant effect on variables under reference. For the
purpose, Mishra's and Tripathi's Socioeconomic Deprivation Scale, Chaubey's
Non-Risk Taking Scale, Mukherjee's SCT, Singh's Level of Aspiration Scale
and Singh's Hindi version of Maslow's Security/Insecurity Scales were
employed to measure socioeconomic deprivation, risk taking, need for
achievement, level of aspiration and sense of security of respondents.
Besides these, a PDS was employed to get other necessary informations
relating to the respondents. The data were obtained as per the directions of
the manuals concerned and analysed using t-test. The results confirmed the
hypothesis.
Kumar, D. (2010) conducted study on 100 working and 100 non-working
women of Patna town. One purpose was to examine the relationship of
domestic violence with emotional intelligence and adjustment. Another
purpose was to examine the effect of working and non-working dimension on
domestic violence of the respondents. For the purpose it was hypothesized
that : (i) there would be a significant correlation of domestic violence with
emotional intelligence and adjustment irrespective of working and non-working
dimensions, (ii) there would be a significant effect of working and non-working
dimensions on domestic violence of the respondents. Emotional intelligence
was measured using Mangal's Emotional Intelligence Inventory, domestic
violence was measured using Kumar's Domestic Violence Scale, adjustment
was measured using Hindi Adaptation of Bell's Adjustment Inventory by
Mohsin Shamshad. Besides a PDS was used to get the other necessary
informations relating to the respondents. The scales were employed and data
were recorded as per the directions of the manuals concerned. The data were
treated using Scatter diagram method of correlation and t-test. In the light of
results both the hypotheses were retained. It is concluded that low emotional
intelligence and poor adjustment group of respondents are more prone to
domestic violence.
Khanam, M. (2010) conducted study on 80 urban and 80 rural students
to examine the impact of inhabitation on some prominent need structure such
as achievement motive, aspirational level and risk-taking. For measuring their
three dependent variables Mukherjee's Sentence Completion Test, Singh's
Aspirational Scale and Chaubey's Non-Risk-taking Scale respectively were
used besides, these PDS. The obtained data were analysed with the help of
chi-square test. The findings indicated superiority of urban children over their
rural counterparts in the need structure under reference. These findings were
interpreted in terms of more stimulating environment of urban children.
Kumar, D. (2010) undertook the study to see the effect of anxiety,
adjustment, depression, aggression and ego-strength on domestic violence of
the respondents. It was hypothesized that : (i) there would be significant effect
of anxiety, adjustment, ego-strength, depression and aggression on domestic
violence of the respondents, (ii) there would be significant difference between
working and non-working women in terms of domestic violence. For the
purpose 200 respondents selected from Patna town. The respondents were
administer Kumar's Domestic Violence Scale, Sinha's Anxiety Scale, Mohsin's
and Shamshad's Adjustment Inventory. Hasan's Ego-strength Scale, Jamuar's
MDI and Singh's Aggression Scale to measure domestic violence, anxiety,
adjustment, ego-strength, depression and aggression of the respondents
respectively. Besides these a PDS was used to get other necessary
informations relating to the respondents. Using median cuts respondents were
divided into groups in respect of anxiety, adjustment, ego-strength, depression
and aggression respectively. The groups were administered DVS and the
obtained data were treated using t-test. The results confirmed the formulated
hypotheses. It was concluded that : (i) Psychological factors under study
influenced the domestic violence, (ii) Non-working and working dimensions
are conducive to domestic violence.
Pathak, K. (2010) conducted study on 120 male and 120 female
undergraduates to examine the relationship of self concept and ego-strength
with locus of control. It was hypothesized that : (i) there would be significant
positive correlation of self-concept and ego-strength with internal locus of
control both in case of males and females, (ii) there would be significant
negative correlation that of self-concept and ego-strength with external locus
of control both in case of males and females. Locus of control, self-concept
and ego-strength were measured using Hasnain's Locus of Control Scale,
Mohsin's Self-concept Scale and Hasan's Ego-strength Scale respectively.
The data were analysed using t-test. The results uphold the hypotheses. It
was concluded that self-concept, ego-strength and locus of control are
significantly correlated.
Kumari, K. (2010) conducted study on 200 respondents belonging to
high schools of Patna town. The purpose was to examine the effect of locus of
control on need achievement and total adjustment of the respondents. Locus
of control was measured using Hasnain's and Joshi's Rotters Locus of Control
Scale, adjustment was measured using Mohsin Shamshad Bell's Adjustment
Inventory (Hindi Adaptation). The need achievement was measured using
Mukherjee Need Achievement Scale. Scatter diagram method of correlation
was used for the analysis of the obtained data. In the light of the results a
significant and positive correlation was sound between internal locus of
control and need achievement and also between internal locus of control and
overall adjustment of the respondents. Similarly a significant and negative
correlation was reported between external locus of control and need
achievement and also between external locus of control and overall
adjustment of the respondents. In the light of the results it was concluded that
internal locus of control is conducive to need achievement on the one hand
and adjustment on the other whereas external locus of control interferes with
both in cases of need achievement and over all adjustment.
Kumari, S. (2010) conducted study on 200 respondents belonging to
Deoghar town. They were selected using incidental-cum-purposive sampling
technique. The main purpose was to examine the effect of cognitive style,
dependence proneness and anxiety on the depression of the respondents. It
was hypothesized that - there would be significant effect of cognitive style,
dependence proneness and anxiety on the depression of the respondents.
For the purpose, Witkin's EFT, Sinha's DP Scale and Sinha's Manifest Anxiety
Scale were employed on the respondents Besides these, a PDS was
employed. The data were obtained as per their manuals. The obtained data
were treated using t-test. The results confirmed the hypothesis. It was
concluded that field independent mode of cognitive style, low dependence
proneness and high anxiety are more prone to depression.
Poonam (2010) conducted study on 200 undergraduate respondents of
Patna based on incidental-cum-purposive sampling technique. The purpose
was to examine the influence of ego-strength, dependence proneness and
social support on alienation of the respondents. It was hypothesized that (i)
there would be significant effect of ego-strength, dependence proneness and
social support on alienation of the respondents, (ii) There would be significant
positive relationship among ego-strength, dependence proneness and social
support of the respondents. Alienation, ego-strength, dependence proneness
and social support were measured using Dean's Alienation Scale by Singh,
Sinha's D.P. Scale, Hasan's Ego-strength Scale and Asthana's and Verma's
Social Support Scale respectively. Besides these, a Personal Data Sheet was
used to get other necessary information about the respondents. The Scales
along with PDS were employed on the respondents and data were recorded
as per the direction of the manuals concerned. The data were analyse using t-
test. The results confirmed both the hypotheses. It was concluded that higher
is ego-strength dependence proneness and social support higher is the
degree of alienation. The ego-strength DP and social support are significantly
related.
Mishra, R. K. (2010) conducted study on 100 postgraduate students of
Patna to examine the effect of need for achievement and adjustment on the
reminiscence of the respondents. It was hypothesized that : (i) the high need
for achievement group of respondents would show significantly more
reminiscence than low need for achievement group of respondents, (ii) the
high adjustment group of respondents would show significantly more
reminiscence that their low adjustment group of respondents. The need for
achievement and adjustment were measured using Mukherjee's Need for
achievement Scale and Mohsin Shamshad Bell's Adjustment Inventory
respectively. Nonsense trigram experiment was conducted on the respondent
individually and reminiscence scores were obtained in terms of the items
recalled over passage of time. Respondents of high need for achievement
group and high adjustment group showed superiority over their counterparts in
respect of reminiscence scores. It was concluded that need for achievement
and adjustment are conducive to reminiscence.
Pragati (2012) compared a group of 64 television viewers and a group
of 64 television non-viewers in terms of their personal problems and
adjustment. Problems and adjustments were measured using Verma's YPI
and Bell's Adjustment Inventory by Mohsin and Shamshad. Two hypotheses
were formulated : (i) It is likely that T.V. viewing would have significant effect
on problems of respondents. (ii) It is likely that T.V. viewing would have
significant influence on adjustment of respondents. The Scales along with
PDS were administered and data were obtained and treated statistically using
chi- square test. Both the hypotheses were confirmed. It was concluded that
viewing TV has significant influence on personal problems and adjustments.
Mishra, R. K. (2012) examined the effect of level of aspiration on mental
health and adjustment among 150 undergraduates of Patna town. It was
hypothesized that : (i) there would be significant effect of level of aspiration on
children's mental health, There would be significant effect of level of aspiration
on children's adjustment (ii) For the purpose Singh and Sen Gupta's Mental
Health Battery, Dwivedis of level & Aspiration Scale and Mohsin's Shamsad's
Hindi Adaptation of Bell's Adjustment Inventory were used to measure mental
health, level of aspiration, and adjustment of the respondents respectively.
Besides these, a PDS was used to get the other necessary informations
relating to the respondents. The data were analysed using t-test. The obtained
results confirmed both the hypotheses. It was concluded that high level &
aspiration is conducive to both mental health & adjustment.
Rani Asha (2011) conducted study on 200 respondents selected from
Patna town. The main purpose was to examine the effect of social support,
religiosity and SES on the depression of the respondents. For the purpose it
was hypothesized that : (i) respondents with high social support would be
found with less amount of depression as compared to their low social support
counterpart of respondents, (ii) their would be significant effect of religiosity on
depression of the respondents, (iii) high SES respondents would be found
with more depression that then their counterparts, for the purpose Social
Support Scale by Asthana and Verma , Religiosity Scale by Prasad and Singh,
SES Scale by Bhardwaj, Manifest Depression Inventory by Jamuar were used
to measure social support, religiosity, SES and depression of the respondents.
Besides these, a PDS prepared by the researcher was used to get other
necessary information about the respondents. The data were obtained as per
the directions of the annuals. It was concluded that depression is significantly
influenced by social support, religiosity and SES.
Suman S. (2011) examined the influence of working and non-working
dimension on adjustment, ego-strength and self-disclosure among 100
working and 100 non-working women. Three hypotheses were formulated for
empirical verification such as : (i) the working women and non-working women
would differ significantly from one another in terms of adjustment. (ii) the
working women would differ from their non-working counterparts in respect of
ego strength. (iii) the working women would have more self-disclosure than
their non-working counterparts. The study was conducted on 100 women
working in governmental and non-governmental offices. Similarly the study
was conducted on 100 women who were simply housewives. Adjustment, ego
strength and self-disclosure of the 200 women were measured using Mohsin
Shamshad Hindi Adaptation of Bell's Adjustment Inventory Hasan's Ego-
strength Scale and De and Singh's Self- disclosure Scale. The obtained data
were treated using t-test. The obtained results confirmed all the hypotheses. It
was concluded that the working women excelled over their non-working
counterparts in terms of adjustment, ego-strength and self-disclosure .
Singh (2011) conducted study on 100 tribal and 100 non-tribal
undergraduate students of the colleges located in Ranchi. The purpose of the
study was to examine the effect of cultural affiliation on anxiety adjustment
and conservatism. Tribal and non-tribal would differ significantly from one
another in terms of anxiety adjustment and conservatism. There would be
significant correlation among anxiety adjustment and conservatism. Bells
Adjustment Inventory by Mohsin and Shamshad (1985) was used for
measuring adjustment of the respondents. Conservatism of the respondents
were measured using Mohsin Conservatism scale and Sinhas Manifest
Anxiety scale respectively. T-test and r-test were employed for analysis for the
data. In the light of the results all the hypotheses were confirmed. Non-tribal
respondents showed better adjustment high anxiety and lesser conservatism
as compared to their Tribal counterparts. Conservatism and adjustment were
found negatively correlated but anxiety and conservatism were found
significantly positively correlated.
Kumar et al. (2011) conducted study on 180 post graduate subjects of
Patna . The main objective was to examine the effect of self-concept , anxiety
and adjustment on R.I. For the purpose it was hypothesized that (i)
respondents high on self-concept Scale would show less amount of R.I., than
those low on the same scale (ii) respondents high on Anxiety Scale would
show more RI than their counterparts. (iii) respondents high on Adjustment
Scale would show less RI than their counterparts. Self-concept, Anxiety,
Adjustment were measured using Mohsin's Self-concept Scale, Sinha's
Manifest Anxiety Scale and Mohsin Shamshad's Bell's Adjustment Inventory
(Hindi Adaptation) respectively. The scales along with PDS were employed
and the data were obtained as per direction of the manuals. t-test was used
for analysis of the data. The result confirmed the hypotheses. It was
concluded that RI is significantly influenced by the variables under reference.
 Kumari, R. (2011) the impact of maternal employment of adolescent girl
children of the rural background on adjustment of female students. For the
study, 50 adolescent girl children of the employed mothers and 50 adolescent
girl children of the unemployed mothers were taken from Madhubani District
and compared on their adjustment pattern by using Mohsin-Shamshad
Adjustment Inventory. The comparison of the two groups revealed significant
difference in adjustment pattern. The children of unemployed mother excelled
over their counterpart children respondent of employed mother.
Singh, M. (2011) conducted study on 180 Post graduate respondents
belonging to Patna The main objective was to examine the effect of ego-
strength, anxiety and adjustment on R.I. For the purpose it was hypothesized
that (i) It is likely the respondents high on Ego-strength Scale would show less
amount of R.I. than those low on the same. Scale (ii) It is likely the
respondents high on Anxiety Scale would show more RI than their
counterparts. (iii) It is likely that high on Adjustment Scale would show less RI
than their counterparts. Ego-Strength, Anxiety, Adjustment were measured
using Hassans Ego-strength, Sinha Manifest Anxiety Scale and Mohsin
Shamshads. Bells Adjustment Inventory (Hindi Adaptation) respectively. The
scales along with PDS were employed and the data were obtain ad per
direction of the manuals. It test was used for analysis of the data. The results
confirmed the hypothesis. It was conducted that RI is attributed by the
variables under reference.
Kumari, S. (2011) conducted study on 100 working and 100 non-working
of Patna. The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of working
dimensions on emotional maturity and adjustment. Another purpose of the
study was to examine the relationship between emotional maturity and
adjustment in general. Three hypothesis were formulated. Firstly, it was
hypothesized that the working females will excel their non-working
counterparts in emotional maturity. Secondly, it was hypothesized that the
working females will be found superior to their female counterparts in over all
adjustment. Thirdly, there will be positive correlation between emotional
maturity and adjustment irrespective of working dimensions. Emotional
maturity and over all adjustment were measured by using Singh & Bhargava
Emotional Maturity Scale and Mohsin & Shamshad Adjustment Adaptation of
Bell's Adjustment Inventory. The obtained data were analysed using t-test and
r-test. In the light of the results obtained on the basis of both the statistical
tests all the three hypotheses were strongly confirmed. Thus the findings led
to conclude that the working females have more emotional maturity and better
overall adjustment than their non-working counterparts.
 Mahton R. K. (2011) examined the difference in the aggression, anxiety
and adjustment of the 100 advantage and 100 disadvantage respondents. For
the purpose Singh's Manifest Aggression Inventory Sinha Anxiety Scale and
were used to Singh & Sinha's Adjustment Inventory measure the aggression
level of anxiety and adjustment of the respondents respectively. Besides, a
personal data sheet was used to get the necessary information relating to the
respondents. The advantage group of respondents were reported to have low
aggression and anxiety and better adjustment patterns as compared to their
counterparts. The findings up hold the hypotheses.
Nilam (2011) examined the effect of social support on creativity. The
sample consisting of high social support group (N=100) and low social support
group (N=100) of respondents was used. Three hypotheses were formulated
that (i) high social support group would excel the low social support group in
terms of verbal creativity, (ii) high social support group would excel the low
social support group in terms of nonverbal creativity (iii) social support and
creativity would be found positively correlated. Creativity and social support
were measured with the help of Baquer Mehdi Test of Creative Thinking and
Asthana and Verma's Social Support Scale respectively. Both t-ratio and
product moment correlation tests were used for the analysis of the obtained
results. In the light of the results all the three hypotheses were strongly
confirmed. It was concluded that social support is highly conducive to creative
thinking.
Rashmi (2011) conducted her study on 200 undergraduate respondents
belonging to Distance Education of Patna town. They were selected on the
basis of incidental-cum-purposive sampling technique. The objective of the
study was to examine the effect of inhabitation, parental involvement,
parental education and SES on need for achievement and level of aspiration
of the respondents belonging to Distance Mode of Education. It was
hypothesized that-(i) there would be significant effect of urban-rural
inhabitation on need for achievement and level of aspiration of respondents.
(ii) there would be significant effect of parental involvement on the need for
achievement and level of aspiration of the respondents, (iii) there would be
significant effect of parental education on need for achievement and level of
aspiration of the respondents, (iv) SES would have significant effect on need
for achievement and level of aspiration of the respondents. For the purpose
Mukherjee's Need for Achievement Scale, Singh's Level of Aspiration Scale,
Akhtar's Parental Involvement Scale, Bhardwaj's SES Scale were used to
measure need for achievement, level of aspiration, parental involvement and
SES of distant learners. Besides a PDS was used to get other necessary
informations. The Scale were employed and data were obtained as per
manual of the scale. The obtained data were treated using t-test. The results
confirmed all the formulated hypotheses. It was concluded that inhabitation,
parental involvement, parental education and SES are conducive to
Motivational correlates under reference.
Kumari, R. (2011) conducted her study on 160 respondents to examine
the effect of cognitive style and inhabitation on their adjustment. They were
selected in such a way that 80 each belong to FI, FD, urban and rural groups
respectively. They were divided into groups using median values based on
data obtained on the Witkin's EFT and PDS respecting. They were compared
in terms of scores obtained on Mohsin's and Shamshad Hindi Version of
Adjustment Inventory using t-ratio. The result revealed that respondents
belonging to field independence group and urban group excelled over their
counterparts. In terms of adjustment patterns.
Self-Concept
Another important component of the present endeavour is self-concept.
The term Self-concept has been viewed from different angles. Chaplin
(1975) defined self-concept as the individual's evaluation of himself; the
appraisal of the self by the individual himself. Reber et al. (2009) defined self-
concept as one's concept of oneself in as complete and through a description
as the possible for the give. Cooley (1864-1929) viewed it as looking glass of
self. For Sullivan (1953) the self-concept developed from reflected appraisals
or significant others in the child's life. The approved or disapproved actions,
tendencies, thoughts are organised within the framework of the good me and
bad me. Eysenck (1975) has come forward with the view that each person
develops a self theory that includes his self attributions, the cognitive
categories and scheme by which he describes himself, his inferred inner self
(attitudes and values), and his moral self. By body self, Eysenck means the
individuals, groups and symbols he identifies with. The inferred inner self
refers to all aspects of the individual's personality, which includes his
cognition, abilities, traits, wishes, fears and other motivational and emotional
dispositions. The moral self contains the self evaluative reactions of the
individual including an overall appraisal of himself as a worthwhile human
being. The moral self develops because of the need to obtain approval and to
avoid disapproval. In order to fit into a society, he must be taught to take into
account the wishes and reactions of others. The parents, as the carries of the
culture, have the task of redefining what is good and what is bad, so that child
will fell that he is right when his behaviour conforms to the socially accepted
norms and that he is wrong when it does not. In case of violation of the social
norm, parents withhold love and appreciation. In this way, the child learns that
good means what the parents approve of and bad means what they
disapprove of. Further, good instrumental in getting love and praise and bad is
instrumental in getting punishment. Gradually, the internalizes the parent's
values and can correct himself. He has become his own evaluator, feeling
pleased with himself when he behaves according to his internalized
standards, and guilty and unworthy of love when he violates those standards.
Thus, he has developed a moral self which appears to him to have an identify
of its own.
Mead (1934) expanded upon Cooley's concept of the looking glass self.
The observed that the self-concept arises primarily in social interaction as an
out growth of the individuals's concern about how others react to him. She
pointed out that communication and role playing are the two important factors
in the development of self concept. Symbolic communication conveys the
feelings others have about an individual, who then tires to adapt himself
accordingly. Also, he learns to adopt the roles of others and to perceive
himself as others do. He develops multiple perspectives about himself both as
an actor or agent, and as an object that others perceive and evaluate.
Eventually he is able to integrate these multiple perspectives and views
himself from the angle of the Generalised other would respond to certain
actions, he acquires a source of internal regulation that serves to guide and
stabilise this behaviour in the absence of external pressures.
Fitts and Hamner (1959) have proposed a model in which they used the
term self awareness, being primarily a process that regulates the direction and
intensity of thought, feelings and actions. Accordingly self-awareness is
composed of four discrete states : (i) self focused attention, (ii) self evaluation,
(iii) effective reactions, and (iv) motivated discrepancy reduction. Very briefly
attention can be focused in one of two directions, inward on the self or
outward on the external environment. Self focused attention is hypothesized
to induce an evaluation of the present self in terms of the individual's ideal self
image. Recognition of a real ideal discrepancy is hypothesised to an effective
reaction positive or negative depending on the direction of the discrepancy.
Upon recognizing that one's ideal exceed. One's present self and
experiencing a negative reaction, the individual is postulated to be motivated
to reduce the degree of negative effect by either, (a) working to reduce the
real ideal discrepancy, (b) avoiding the self awareness.
 Kaur (1983) defined the relation between self and behaviour in terms of
a regulatory process of self evaluation and in addition specifies a boundary
condition on this process in terms of a regulatory process of self evaluation
and in addition specifies a boundary condition on this process in terms of self
focused attention. Many psychologists proposed an encoding theory of self
awareness in which the defining features of self awareness do not exist in
terms of self focused attention and the operation of a particular kind of self
evaluation process, but rather exist in terms of the individual's organisation of
the social environment prior to focal attention and comparison processes.
Specifically, they proposed that self awareness corresponds to the encoding
of information in terms of its relevance or the self and as such directly entrails
a greater responsibility to the self relevant aspect of the environment.
Stationary level of encoding may be a consequence of the nature of the
assigned task, the specific instructions or the presence of self symbolic
modes. Dispassionately it may represent either a general preparation on the
part of the individual or a by product of more elaborate cognitive structures
corresponding to relationships between the self and the environment.
The self rejecting person, on the other hand, is one who basically, or in
important ways, is not comfortable with himself as he is or realistically might
he. He tends to blame himself. He may have a low respect for worth or low
regard for his right to be himself. He is not satisfied with his achievements,
even if his achievements are impressive, his is unable to give himself credit
for what he is and has a driving need to over react himself. Another sign of
self rejection person is that he feels quality when no one would blame. He
may show it by being rather rigid and unbending and lacking in spontaneity.
He may act on the principle that he has no light no think and choose until he
has given a go ahead signal from others.
The other form of concept is self evaluation. It is the individual's sense
of personal identify and his reality assumptions about himself. The individual
makes an assessment of his assets and liabilities. These assets and liabilities
are the important factors in his feelings of self worth.
As a child comes to achieve a clear sense of self identify he begins to
evaluate himself as superior or inferior worthy or unworthy, adequate or
inadequate. Whether these feelings about shelf are positive or negative
depends upon the child's experience most particularly, upon his relationships
with other people. During the early years of his development the child
measures his adequacy according to the behaviours of his parents and other
important people in his life. If the child is evaluated as inadequate through
their works and behaviours, he has to accept that evaluation as true. If one
the other he is essentially a good by his self evaluation will probably be
positive.
The child who grows up starts thinking of himself as inferior to other
children or as unworthy of his family because he cannot live up to their high
expectations. He will need many experiences of success and acceptance
before he begins to evaluate himself in generally positive terms. If he meets
any small failure in his life, he will interpret it in terms of an addition to his
inadequacy. On the other hand the child who grow up feeling adequate and
secure, can take his failure in the realistically accepted manner to his personal
short coming. He will not alter his basic self picture. However, the self
evaluation of a child is affected by one's social successes and failure, only
when the child learns the social meaning and significance of success and
failure. He learns that people regard success positively and failure negatively.
Children come to know that if they fail, others will think badly of them.
Likewise, their success is instrumental in gaining praise and appreciation from
others. Thus we see that the self evaluation of an individual has an important
place in the sphere of his life.
The self can best be understood by relating it to the surrounding
environment, just as in any percept the figure must be seen against a
background. In many cases the quality of the individual how be perceives
himself can best be inferred from how he perceives his environment. The
conceited individual perceives himself as being superior to others in one,
many or all respects. All the philosophies of egoism, and many others as well,
stress the demand for self differentiation in human nature. The self esteem is
the important factor in directing the development of personality. When an adult
undertakes to perform a task he generally places his goal at a level not so far
above his abilities that he will suffer embarrassment and humiliation if he fails.
It is likewise known that younger children ordinarily prefer to repeat
tasks in which they have already succeeded, unlike older children and adults
to who prefer to work on talks as yet uncompleted. Feeling that will be
humiliated if they fail to accomplish their goal, older persons perseveres which
younger children avoid humiliation by demonstrating over and over gaining
their success on a low level of accomplishment and leave difficult tasks
uncompleted with no sings of embarrassment. The older person battles
against outer reality to retain his self esteem, the young child in his world of
pleasure prefers to hold his earlier and assured successes.
Another similar construct discussed by the psychologists is the ideal self
concept or the persons ideal self. It has been referred to as moral self by
Epstein (1973) and is the image we have ourselves as we could be, ought to
be, or would like to be. It is a general characterisation of a person to be
somewhat unhappy with his actual self and so he has an image of the type of
parson he would like to be, a type that would be more satisfying and glorifying.
Thus, the ideal self is the individual's imaginative construction of the kind of
person he or she wants or ought to be. The ideal self is known in both
aspirations and identifications. The concept in either case has been found
useful in studying the development of character and personality. To the
Freudianism the origin of the ego ideal or ideal self is a result of identification
with individuals that the child loves, admires or fears. It is a process of
identification through which the child takes on the attributes of such persons.
The social psychologists, on the other hand, regard the ideal self as a term for
the roles or aspirations that continuously effect the individual's life.
Sometimes, ideal self creates anxiety and fear in child's life. It may happen
that the parents encourage the child to identify with them in large segments of
life and punish him for behaving completely in terms of such identifications.
The child may be expected to be group up and responsible in most things like
the parents, but he may be punished if he also uses bad language or smokes
like the parents. This produce confusion in the child's ego ideal or ideal self,
and creates a situation in which the child fears to behave in accordance with
the interjected standards and performance has acquired. According to Freud
(1930) the ego ideals of the children are disturbed by parental criticisms and
prohibitions. Then both prohibitions and ideals make up the super ego.
Sullivan (1953) feels that the mother's displeasure or pleasure affects
the child and generates anxiety or euphoria in the child. Hence, anxiety and
euphoria serve as negative and positive reinforces and the child wants to
behave in the ways which are associated with escape or avoidance of anxiety.
Again, giving and withholding of expressions of love and appreciation are
source of reinforcement in learning the ideal self concept. Thus, all these
studies seem to bear out the traditionalistic of philosophers : The deepest
principle of human nature is the desire to be appreciated, self-defence is
nature oldest law. By whatever name we call the ruling tyrant self is all in all.
The centring of each life upon its own sense of integrity and self importance is
everywhere recognised. In psychology Freud's concept of narcissism has
found a prominent place. McDoughall found at the heart of every personality
the central sentiment of self regard, playing the most powerful all pervasive
role in the higher life of man.
A glance at various theories of the self concept proposed by different
psychologists makes it clear that the self is something which has to be
developed. Indeed, most theorists assumed that the self is not present in any
form at birth. It starts developing as the child begins to participate more
actively in social life. The self image merges from an interaction of
physiological and sociological factors. The role of the family situation, parental
care and protection, parental love, affection and evaluation are exceedingly
important for the development of a child's self concept. The child's self
concept arises out of the satisfaction of his physiological needs and out of his
need to belong and find a place in society. All of his traits physical mantel,
social, intellectual, moral and personal and their unique inter relationship go
on interacting to give him, his view of the world and his view of himself. These
traits also interact with the significant others and this interaction provides the
basic for the development of his self concept. Empirical evidences do suggest
that the direct parental love, care and protection as well as parental modelling
are important for the developing self concept of an individual.
Studies Related To Self-Concept
Dorn et al. (1968) showed that higher anxiety levels were associated
with lower self concept scores on a moral ethical measures, higher self-
criticism scores on a measures of stressful life changes. In addition to the
study of adjustment in relation to self concept the investigators also had taken
some other personality traits to see their impact on individual's adjustment.
Psychologists have discovered different types of personality based not on
bodily characteristics but on psychological characteristics.
Evans (1991) examined the degree of conceptual similarity between the
self image scales, derived from the Giessem Test G.T. and constructed on the
basis of psychoanalytical and socio-psychological theory and personality
dimensions of psychoticism (N), extraversion (E) and neuroticism (N) from
the Eysenck Personality Questionnaires. Analysis revealed that two major self
descriptive factors emerged from the G.T. sub-scale labelled Social desirability
were intimately related to dominance and self control, underlying mood, social
impotency and submissiveness were related to neuroticism. Extraversion was
associated with positive affect reflected in elevated scores on the Dominance
Permeability and Social Potency Scale.
 White (1988) proposed a model for the relationship of self and ego
regarding both development and on going mental activity. The model
proposes that the emerging self and ego and their coordinate structures
together in infants interact with their worlds. Developments in self and ego and
in the representational and dynamic aspects of the mind generally, are two
aspects of the same process, the activation of the two dynamic schemes in
relation to an object. Ekta et. al. (1999), examined the relationship of
academic stress with self-concept, achievement motivation, I.Q. and attitudes
towards school and reported that no significant relationship was reported
except with I. Q. Srivastava and Laxhmi (2000), examined the effect of self-
concept and sex roles among single and married women and reported that
insignificant correlation was found between self-concept and sex roles.
Rafique et. al. (2000), examined the effect of gender, caste and self-
concept on need achievement and reported that females, high caste
respondents and high self-concept respondents were found having high need
achievement than their counterparts. Bimala (2000), examined the effect of
community affiliation self-concept, ego-strength and need achievement and
reported that Hindus were found superior in respect of self-concept, ego-
strength and need achievement. Saxena, B. (2000) aimed at examining the
effect of community affiliations self-concept, ego strength and need
achievement of college students belonging to Hindu Community (N = 50) and
Muslim Community (N = 50). The findings of the study revealed that the
Muslim is showed better self concept than their Hindu counterparts. The
finding has ben interpreted in terms of religiosity and primary socialization.
Srivastava and Lakshmi (2000) conducted their study on a sample of 440
educated woman (220) single and 220 married. The investigation aimed at
studying self-concept (SC), and sex role (SN) type among the respondents.
The findings led them to conclude that (i) the single woman showed poor self-
concept as compared to the married women, (ii) the sing woman showed
more feminine and less masculine traits than the married women and (iii) no
significant relationship was found between self-concept and sex role.
Khan and Miya (2000) conducted their study on 400 school-going
adolescents (age range : 1417 yrs.) to examine the relationship of anxiety
with self-concept of academic ability and academic motivation. The findings
revealed significant negative association of anxiety with self-concept. Rahul
(2008), examined the effect of self-concept, self-disclosure on perceptual
defence of the respondents and reported that perceptual defence was less
likely to be found in low self-concept and low self-disclosure group of
respondents. Nowendu (2008), examined the effect of intelligence self-
concept and academic achievement on adjustment of school going
respondents and reported that adjustment was significantly and positively
related to intelligence, self-concept and academic achievement.
Durganand (2008), examined the effect of ego-strength and self-concept
on alienation and reported that weak ego-strength and poor self-concept
intensified alienation. Tarannum (2008), examined the effect of working
dimension on intelligence, self-concept and self-disclosure and found that
intelligence was not conducive for working dimension but high self-concept
and high self-disclosure were highly conducive for making a women as
working. Rekha (2008), examined the self-concept in employed and
unemployed educated women and reported that self-concept in employed
educated women was more than unemployed educated women.
Shiv Lal Yadav (2008), attempted to examine the effect of social
disadvantage over self-concept, self-disclosure and conservatism and
reported that socially disadvantaged group excelled in conservatism whereas
non-deprived group excelled in self-concept and self-disclosure.
Bharti (2008), examined the effect of cultural affiliation, SES, attitudinal
modernity and locus of control on cognitive differentiation and found that
respondents belonging to non-tribal culture, high SES, high modernity and
internal locus of control were more psychologically differentiated than their
counterparts. Pratima (2009), compared advantaged and disadvantaged
respondents in terms of dependence proneness, ego-strength and self-
concept and reported that socially disadvantaged children were dependently
prone having low ego-strength and low self-concept. Tauvab (2009),
examined the effect of locus of control and self-concept on stress and
reported that locus of control and self-concept both significantly influenced the
arousal of stress and a positive significant correlation exist between ILC and
self-concept but a significant negative correlation exist between ELC and self-
concept.
Roy (2009), examined correlates of agricultural farmer's self-efficacy
and reported that self-efficacy was related to multiple crop fruit production
significantly. Bharti (2009), examined the effect of self-concept and self-
disclosure on alienation and reported that respondents having low self-
concept and self-disclosures were found high on alienation. Suman (2009),
examined the effect of self-concept on RI and reported that low self-concept
attributed RI. Bhavesh (2009), conducted a cross-cultural study to examine
the difference in self-concept and self-disclosure and reported that non-tribal
excelled over tribal respondents in respect of self-concept and self-disclosure.
Further a significant correlation was reported between self-concept and self-
disclosure of non-tribal respondents.
Sinha and Tiwary (2009), compared 80 deprived and 80 non-deprived
respondents in respect of self-concept, ego-strength and adjustment. The
results revealed that deprivation was significantly and negatively correlated to
self-concept, ego-strength and adjustment. It was further concluded that self-
concept was significantly and positively correlated to ego-strength and
adjustment. Singh et. al. (2009), examined the effect of type of the family and
gender on self-efficacy and well being of adolescents and found a significant
effect of type of the family and gender on self-efficacy. The interaction
between type of the family and gender was also found significant however,
neither type of the family nor gender and significant effect on measure of well
being.
Dinesh (2009), examined the effect of depression, self-concept and
locus of control on domestic violence of the respondents and reported that
domestic violence is significantly influenced by depression, self-concept and
locus of control. Jaweed, Q.S. and Waghmore, S.B. (2007), examined the
effect of self-concept and found that sex and cultural affiliation influenced
significantly the various dimensions of self-concept. Ojha and Verma (2004-
05), examined the effect of widow hood on self-concept and reported that
widow and non-widow differed significantly.
Singh (2004 - 05), examined the effect of self-concept self disclosure on
adjustment and found that high self-concept, high self-disclosure respondents
excelled in terms of adjustment over their counterparts belonging to low self-
concept and low self-disclosure group. Prita (2004-2005), examined the effect
of social disadvantage on children's self-concept and self-disclosure and
found that socially advantaged group was found superior to disadvantaged
group in terms of self-concept and self-disclosure. Hasan, B. (2006),
examined empirically that whether or not self-concept, occupational aspiration
and gender work independently or in interaction with each other are capable
of generating variance in carrier multiply in case of Hindi speaking Indian
adolescents studying in class X. All the three independent variables were
found to be potential enough in generating variance in carrier multiply. Barring
few exceptions, the first order interactions were not found significant, but
second order interactions were found almost significant.
Kumar and Lal (2006), examined the role of self-efficacy and gender
differences among the adolescents as revealed by intelligence tests.. The
results revealed a significant effect of self-efficacy and gender among
adolescents. No interaction was found in self-efficacy and gender. Zinta
(2006), examined the effect of inhabitation on performance among the high
and low self-efficacy of students of Shimla, Himachal Pradesh (India),. A
significant effect of inhabitation and gender was reported. Durganand (2008),
examined the effect of deprivation on self-concept and self-disclosure of the
respondents. It was found that respondents belonging to deprived group were
found having poor self-concept and self-disclosure.
Kumar and Kumari, (2008), examined the relationship between
domestic violence with self-concept and self-disclosure and reported that
domestic violence was attributed by self-concept, self-disclosure and working
and non working dimension. Ajay (2008), examined the effect of self-concept
and self-disclosure on RI and reported that RI is attributed by self-concept and
self-disclosure. Sanjay (2007), examined the effect of self-concept and self-
disclosure on alienation and reported that high groups of self-concept and
self-disclosure excelled in respect of alienation. Sonam (2007), examined the
effect of self-concept self-disclosure and ego-strength on mental health and
reported that high self-concept high self-disclosure and high ego-strength
were conducive to mental health.
Kumar and Patel (2008), examined the effect of self-concept and self-
disclosure on stress and reported that persons high low self-concept and self-
disclosure were more victim to stress and at the same time self-concept and
self-disclosure could be enhanced by stress management. Paresh et. al.,
(2008), examined the effect of socio-cultural deprivation on self-concept and
educational aspiration of scheduled caste students and reported that socio
cultural deprivation (residence), significantly influenced the self-concept and
educational aspiration. Further self-concept and educational aspiration was
positively correlated. Hussain, A (2006), conducted study to compare
physically challenged adolescents in respect of self-concept and reported that
self-concept was higher in males than females.
Sonam (2007), examined the effect of parental style on achievement
motivation and adjustment and reported that respondents belonging to
democratic parental style were reported as having high achievement motive
and healthy adjustment. Alok et. al,. (2007), examined the relationship
between self-concept and locus of control and reported that there existed
positive correlation between ILC and self-concept but a negative correlation
existed between ELC and self-concept.
Singh and Das (2005), examined the relationship between intelligence
and various dimensions of self-concept and reported that intelligence was
correlated positively and significantly with physical, temperamental,
educational and intellectual dimensions of self-concept.
Sudhanshu (2004), examined the effect of self-concept and self-
disclosure on Reminiscence and found that high self-concept self-disclosure
group scored higher on reminiscence and a positive correlation existed
between self-concept and self-disclosure. Hussain (2007), examined the effect
of self-concept and self-disclosure on reminiscence and found that low self-
concept group and low self-disclosure group excelled over their counterparts
in respect of reminiscence score. Pragya (2008), examined the relationship
between self-concept and self-disclosure of the respondents with locus of
control and reported that self-concept, self-disclosure and locus of control
were significantly correlated. Sanjay (2009), examined the effect of socio-
cultural deprivation and inhabitation on self-concept of the respondents and
reported that socio-cultural deprivation and inhabitation had significant effect
on self-concept. Mistry (2008), examined the relationships of self-concept with
sex of higher secondary students of class XII and found that there existed a
significant relationship between self-concept and sex.
Ego-Strength
Ego-strength is another constituent of the present study, attempt was
made to examine the relationship between social freedom of the working
and non-working women in the context of ego strength. So, it was felt
desirable to introduce the concept and nature of ego strength and to mention
some ralevant empirical studies. The term ego was used by Freud to
denote a conscious portion of our feelings and cognitions which serve as a
mediator between our conscious and reality. It is a perceptual organisation
which regulates our behaviour in day to day life situation. The term has
achieved wide psychological usage, however, meaning a persons feeling
about opinion of himself. The terms such as self-image, or ego are used as
some what interchangeably having negligible differences in their meanings.
William James (1890) was the first to formulate the concept of self which
was intelligible to psychologists. According to him self is sum total of what a
person perceives to be his traits, characteristics, abilities, aspiration and
affiliation for others. Later on, he formulated the concept of ego, which he
explained in terms of ones sense of personal identity. As used in
contemporary psychology, the self has two meanings, firstly, a group of
psychological processes regulating behaviour of an individual; and secondly, a
persons perception of himself. Some psychologists have looked at self
and ego as two separate entities, but a number of psychologists have
used the terms self and ego interchangeably.
It was Allport (1937) who again brought the concept of self in the
fore-front of the volume of personality. But as the human psychology is
becoming more and more scientific, the concept has so many substitute
terms one of which is ego.
The ego is a product of an interaction between socio-physical and
psychological system of an infant. As a result of this interplay between
himself and environment, the infant starts developing a self concept. This
self is how he perceives himself and his environment in relation to himself. In
the course of this interaction, if he makes successful adjustments, this
success inspires self considence in him. He then develops within himself a
strong will, intergrated self-concept, or ego. If one the other hand he meets
frequent failures, he perceives himself to be inferior, inadequate or helpless
person.
Symonds (1951) postualated six criteria of ego-strength, which are the
indicators of the relative strength of the ego in dealing with the internal or
external equilibrium. These are : (i) tolerance of external threat, (ii) dealing
with guilt feelings, (iii) capacity for affective repression, (iv) balance of rigidity
and flexibility, (e) planning and control, and (vi) self-esteem.
The evaluation of these criteria indicates that all of them are derived
from the basic process of personality development. If he deals successfully
with the situation, he acquires confidence, adequacy, and develops a strong
ego. Unfavourable early experiences may predispose a child to fail in
adjusting himself to the realistic contemporary situation such sequence, if
continued for sometime, would certainly result in ego weakness.
Conceptualization of the ego strength, on the basis of the criteria
corresponds to some of the definitions given by few psychologists, which
need some elaboration here. A person having self esteem has been
conceptualized as liking or valuing himself, as well as seeing himself as
competent in dealing with the world he perceives. The low self esteems
person is seen disliking, devaluing himself and in general, perceives himself
as not competent to deal effectively with his environment (Gordon, 1963). Ego
strength has been viewed and analysed from different approaches, but in all
these approaches, there are suggestions that the strong ego (or self) is one
which view the environment realistically, evaluate inner impulses correctly, and
deal constructively.
Several attempts have been made to measure the degree of ego-
strength or self-esteem by different psychologists in their own ways. Barron
(1963) selected some of the questions from MMPI and made a set of
Questionnaire to measure what he called ego-strength. This measure is called
Barron's Ego-Strength Scale. This scale measures three components of
ego-strength namely, freedom from worry, self-confidence, and tolerance.
Erikson (1963) derived to insure of ego-strength from Forsohach Blot. He
defined ego-strength as the individual's capacity for appraising the reasonable
limits in his interpretations and perceptions of the environment. Pointing to a
certain area on a Rorschach blot, he would ask, could this be a .....?
Answers, which were accepted by a majority of a normal group were scored
as reasonable. If the subject accepted many unreasonable suggestions, he
was considered to show ego weakness. Thematic Apperception Test is also
considered a measure of ego-strength, which is based on the kind of heroes,
described in the imaginative productions, such as possession of desirable
qualities, adequacy of performance ability to control the environment and
having own impulses etc.
Cattel (1965) considers a few components of ego-strength, such as
absence of emotional infantilism, excessive worries, anxiety and depression,
unrealistic thinking, and inaccurate perception. Gough (1948) suggested the
use of adjective check list, but Hilgard (1949) disapproved this technique of
asking the person to say what he thinks of himself. Because of the fact,
unconscious factors may distant the conscious picture of ones self, it is batter
to use indirect method such as, the protective techniques, clinical interviews
etc.Derivative of the above indirect method is a sort techniques which
Stevenson (1958) includes two types of technique namely, self sort and ideal
sort. In the self sort some cards with statements are given to the subjects,
and he is asked to arrange the cards in order of preference of his agreement
with the statement written on each card. In ideal sort he is asked to arrange
the cards in order of the consideration of an ideal person to be. Assessment of
the individual is made from the responses he gives.
Studies Related to Ego-Strength
 Attempts have been made by different psychologists to find out the
correlates of ego-strength, on the basis of which it may be suggested that
the person, with weak ego-strength, is likely to be conforming, dependence
prone, to be fatalist, passive, weak in decision making, of low self -confi-
dence and of weak self-concept, the evidence for such inferences are
detailed below. Horney (1932) demonstrated the high self-esteem person to
conform to a greater extent than the low self-esteem person. They postuated
further that the low self-esteem person was susceptible to social influence. In
another study Mirrian (1989) reported maximum influencibility at a lower self
esteem level in the conformity situation. Krech, Crutchfield and Ballachey in
Individual in Society mentioned that conformists are clearly lower in ego
-strength. Asch (1952) reported in his study that individual with high self-
esteem yielded less often to pressure from a majority, Since high ego-
strength person does not conform to great extent, and rely on their own
resources seems to be internally controlled, whereas low ego-strength
person is susceptible to others resources, is externally controlled. In a study,
Gordon (1963) reported that the low self-esteem subjects tended to score
towards external of the I.E. Scale of Rotter et al. (1962). The finding is
supported by another study of Jane Loevinger (1976) in which it was
suggested that high self-esteem subjects were optimists whereas low self-
esteem subjects were pessimists. On the above line of thinking it may be
argusd that a person, who has weak ego-strength and low level of self-
confidence, would always seek support and approval from others.
Experimental and clinical researches on this issue suggest that low self-
esteem subjects tend to be more dependent on others than high self-esteem
subjects.
A study by Newman (1977) showed negative relationship between ego-
strength and the degree of dependent behaviour in Nursery School Children.
Taking in consideration all these findings, it is inferred that determining
influence of the self-evaluation on human behaviour has been demonstrated
experimentally by a host of psychologists. Evans (1979) in a series of
experiments has shown how behaviour undergoes change in relation to self-
concept. Feedback of success and failure were even after the performance
of each trial and on the basis of the amount of performance done by the
subject, relative strength of ego or self was observed and was found that
more strongly the person changed his self-perception in the previous task
manipulation, the more his performance also changed in the direction of self-
perception.. If subject enhanced his self-evaluation with success feedback, it
also enhanced subsequent performance, and negative evaluation lowered
down the performance.
Harmon (1957) conducted a study to observe the effect of
experimentally induced feedback of success and failure on self-evaluation,
and found that feedback given, produced substantial changes in self-
evaluation, subjects showed greater positive changes in performance
following success feedback and showed negative changes following failure
feedback. It is also observed that the degree of change in self-evaluation,
was highly correlated with the magnitude of performance change. There are
many examples of such feedback of success and failure which has been
used to mobilise the ego-strength in expected direction. This may be termed
as false feedback technique. Usually level of aspiration experiment has been
chosen to induce false feedback of success and failure experiences. Any trial,
which the subjects performance equals or exceeds his level of aspiration, is
though to generate a feeling of success and a high level is likely to be
stated for the next trial. Feeling of failure is though to occur when
performance is below the level of aspiration, and a lower level is likely on the
next trial (Herlock, 1978).
French (1953) showed that subjects raised their level of aspiration after
success experience and lower down their level of aspiration after failure
experience, But there were few exception reactions also. In few cases level
of aspiration showed moderate rise and fall in failure and success
conditions respectively. Nisbatt and Gordon (1967) found that failure exper-
iences lowered down subjects momentary self esteem whereas success
raised their momentary self-esteem.
In an another study, Pearson 1960) manipulated self-esteem by instruc-
ting the subject that he had done exceedingly well (high self- esteem) or
rather poorly (low self-esteem). A twenty item self-evaluation scale was
used as a check on the experimental manipulation, and it was found that
those, induced high self-esteem, were found high in self-esteem, and those,
induced low self-esteem, were found low in self-esteem in the scale also.
Birney, et. al. (1970) conducted a study to see the effect of failure on simple
motor task, and it was observed that, self-evaluation moved in a manner
consistent with the experiences of positive and negative reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement raised the self-evaluation by + .7 and negative
reinforcement lowered it by .08. Frank (1935) demonstrated experimentally
by inducing success and failure experiences on a level of aspiration task,
that the subject performed best undpr success feedback and did worst under
failure. These experimental findings clearly indicated that reinforcement of
success and failure plays an important role in developing a weak or strong
evaluation of ones ego, which in turn, is responsible for so many negative or
positive response dispositions. But there are so many experimental evidences
which did not correspondent to the above notion. One cannot deny the theory
of individual difference. An experience of success may have an enhancing
effect on self or ego for one person, while for another it may lead to inaction.
Barker, Dembof and Lewin(1941) found decrement in the
constructiveness of play in children followed by frustration. Rogers et. al.
(1966) also found that partial positive reinforcement enhanced the
performance in a better way than continuously reinforced situation. Some of
these subjects decreased their performance after positive feedback. The
effectiveness of such feedback has been inconsistent from one study to
another, many factors can account for differential effect of evaluative
feedback, for the least of which may be the reinforcement history of the
subject. according to Reuben (1966), an individuals past history of social
reinforcement influences his present receptivity to social reinforcement.
Barron (1963) attempted to investigate the effect of ego-strength on
anger and hostility, scores of 60 male undergraduates on tests of ego-
strength, anger, and hostility indicated that low ego-strength was associated
with getting angry easily, responding to othors in a hostile manner and
showing hostile attitudes. Whether the ego will be strong or weak depends
on the type of life experience it encounters. Obviously, encouraging
experience will help the individual to build strong ego and conversely
continuous experience to tragic situation will hinder ego development, we
may judge the ego strength of a person from the stand point of his ability and
capacity of meeting the task. The degree of intensity of anxiety, conflict and
proper tackling of impulses depend on the ego-strength of the Individual. One
must have relative adequacy that he is aware of both internal drives and
external drives and able adequately to integrate conflicting internal drives In
behaviour. Appropriateness of behaviour, directness of impulse expression,
competence of performing the task adequately, degree and kind of
relatedness etc. are also dependent on ego-strength of a person. Barron
(1963) found that people having high scores on ego-stiength were effective
and independent people with easy command over their own resources. They
were intelligent, stable and somewhat original, and they made their presence
felt In society. Those scoring low on ego-strength were found to be confused,
unadaptive, rigid, submissive, stereotyped and unoriginal.
Roddin (1976) compared Eastern and western depth psychology
theories in regard to ego-differentiation from the unconscious, eastern
psychologists like Freud and Jung maintained that the ego should be
differentiated from the conscious for normal psychological development.
Eastern thinkers such as Buddhist scholars diagreed and asserted that ego-
differentiation was the basis of all the conflicts. They maintained that the
undlfferentiated state of being allowed for the development of a complete
and harmonious personality. Milgram (1977) studied male and female inmates
at coeducational federate correctional institution which aimed at determining
changes in ego-strength of white and non-white subjects. Results indicated
that whites had higher ego-strength than the non-whites at the time of initial
incarceration and at discharge. Results were discussed in terms of women
developing a sense of extreme cases even may precipitate and predispose a
person to some behaviour disposes. As a result of it, higher degree of
alienation results in occupying the rear seats. Respondents of higher ego-
strength occupied the front seats.
Havinghurst (1964) found that infants who were securely attached with
parents during infancy were more competent in social situations when they
wore two-and one half to three years of age. Clearly, the child who is
allowed to form an intiituite bond with another adult has a head start on
establishing lasting and meaningful social attachments. After some time
havinghurst (1964) looked again at the same question. Only this time, they
focussed on the distinction between attachment (defined as the relationship
between infant and caresiver) and dependency (defined as the reliance of
child on an adult for nurturance, attention or assistance). Children were
classified as avoldant, resident or secure at twelve to eighteen months and
then observed in pre-school. The results showed that the secure kinds were
more independent of their teachers and sought attention in a positive way.
The other two groups seemed to seek lots of guidance and attention from
the teacher.
Attachment in the human baby is unquestionably more complex than
attachment. In other animals, although there are some similarities. First, in all
species studied so far, attachment takes place at about the time the young
becomes mobile. Human infants become attached to their parents at about
four to seven months and learn to creep at about seven to nine months. But
there is some evidence of the fact that soon after birth mothers and their
infants establish a sort of dialogue between each other (Hartman, 1955,
1958). Human seem to remain attached longer since they need to learn
more about their social world. The human babies are the most immature of
any mammal at birth. They need care giving longer, leaving them open to
more socialization than others.
Vijaya Laxhmi (1999), compared males and females in terms of various
personality traits such as decisiveness responsibility, emotional-stability,
masculinity, friendliness, ego-strength and curiosity and found that males
excelled over females in terms of decisiveness, emotional stability, masculinity
friendliness and ego strength respectively whereas females excelled over
males in terms of responsibilities and curiosity. Himbala (2003), examined the
effect of SES on self concept and ego-strength of 200 undergraduate
respondents and reported that SES is correlated positively and significantly
with both self concept and ego strength respectively. Rizwana (2004),
attempted to examine the effect of conservatism on religiosity, ego-strength
and life satisfaction. The conservative group excelled in respect of religiosity,
ego-strength and life satisfaction. Yadav et al (2007), conducted a
correlational study among executives and non-executives to compare
themselves in respect of occupational stress, marital stress and ego-strength
respectively and reported that executives and non-executives differed
significantly in respect of occupational stress. Occupational stress was found
negatively related to martial adjustment and ego-strength among both
executives and non-executives. It was also found that marital adjustment and
ego-strength were positively related to each other in executives and non-
executives.
Kumar, P. (2006), conducted study on 100 deprived and 100-non
deprived respondents to compare them in respect of self-concept, ego-
strength and dependence proneness respectively and reported that(i) social
deprivation was adversely related to self-concept, ego-strength and
dependence proneness, (ii) there existed a positive and significant correlation
among self-concept, ego-strength and dependence proneness respectively.
Mishra and Tauvab (1997) conducted their study to investigated into
conservatism in relation to ego-strength and dependence proneness. The
findings revealed that : (i) the high ego-strength subjects showed significantly
more conservatism than the weak ego subjects, (ii) the high dependence
proneness subjects showed more conservatism than the low dependence
proneness subjects, and (iii) a negative correlation was found between ego
strength and dependence proneness.
Sarika (2004- 05), examined the effect of dependence proneness and
ego-strength on adjustment and found that high D P group and high ego-
strength group of respondents showed high level of adjustment and a positive
correlation was found between ego-strength and D.P. Sonam (2007),
examined the effect of self-concept, self-disclosure and ego-strength on
mental health and reported that high self-concept, high self-disclosure and
high ego-strength were conducive to mental health. Prita (2006), conducted
her study on 100 working women and 100 non-working women. The purpose
was to compare working and non-working women in respect of dependence
proneness and ego-strength respectively. The results revealed that working
women were superior in respect of ego-strength and non-working women
were superior in respect of dependence proneness respectively.
Kumar, A. (2007), conducted study on 100 tribal and 100 non-tribal to
examine the effect of cultural affiliation on self concept, ego-strength and self-
disclosure of tribal and non tribal respondents. The purpose was also to
examine the relationship among personality traits understudy. The results
revealed that cultural affiliation has significant effect on self-concept, ego-
strength and self-disclosure. The personality correlates were found inter-
correlated. Kumar, D. (2007), conducted study on 100 working and 100 non-
working women to examine the effect of self-concept, ego-strength and self-
disclosure on domestic violence of the respondents. Another purpose was to
examine the effect of working-non-working dimension on domestic violence of
the respondents. The variables under study were found conductive to
domestic violence.
Mishra (2008), attempted to examine the effect of parental deprivation
on need achievement and ego-strength on 200 respondents and reported that
both the groups differed significantly in respect of need achievement and ego-
strength. Non-deprived group excelled over deprived group in terms of need
achievement and ego-strength. Javed (2008), compared sportsman and non-
sportsman in respect of ego-strength and reported significance difference
between two groups in respect of the strength of their ego.
Chaudhary (2008), conducted an empirical study to examine the effect
of ego-strength, self-concept on alienation and reported that ego-strength and
self-concept had significant effect on alienation. He further reported that ego-
strength and self-concept were positively correlated. Rakesh (2008),
conducted study on 200 respondents of distance mode learners and
examined the effect of personality correlates such as self-concept, ego-
strength and dependence proneness on scholastic achievement of the
respondents and reported that(i) high self concept, high ego-strength and
low dependence proneness were conducive to scholastic achievement and (ii)
self-concept correlated positively with high ego-strength but negatively
correlated with dependence proneness.
Anita (2009), examined the effect of ego-strength and self-disclosure on
perceptual defence of 160 female respondent and reported that perceptual
defence is significantly influenced by ego-strength, self-disclosure and it is
negatively correlated with both ego-strength and self-disclosure.
Sinha and Tiwary (2009), compared 80 deprived and 80 non-deprived
respondents in respect of self-concept, ego-strength and adjustment. The
results revealed that deprivation was significantly and negatively correlated to
self-concept, ego-strength and adjustment. It was further concluded that self-
concept was significantly and positively correlated to ego-strength and
adjustment. Prasad, N. (2009), conducted a cross sectional study to examine
the effect of sectional affiliation on self-disclosure, self-concept and ego-
strength. It was reported that sectional affiliation had significant effect on self-
disclosure, self-concept and ego-strength. Hindu respondents excelled over
their counterparts in respect of self-disclosure, self-concept and ego-strength
respectively.
Anita (2009), compared 200 respondents in respect of the effect of
conservatism on religiosity, ego-strength and life satisfaction. She reported
that conservative groups showed superiority in religiosity where as liberal
groups showed superiority in ego-strength and life-satisfaction. Anamika
(2009), conducted study on working and non-working women to ascertain the
differences in respect of ego-strength, self-concept and adjustment. It was
reported that working women were found superior than non-working women in
respect of the ego-strength. Kumar, K and Singh, V. (2009), conducted study
on 150 respondents to examine the effect of ego-strength and modernity on
personal space of the respondents. It was concluded that personal space is a
function of ego-strength and modernity. Low ego-strength and high modernity
groups were found larger personal space than their counterparts.
Ranjan (2007), conducted a cross cultural study on 100 tribal and 100
non-tribal to examine the effect of cultural affiliation on self-concept, ego-
strength and dependence proneness and reported that(i) cultural affiliation
had significant effect on self-concept ego-strength and dependence
proneness. (ii) there existed a significant positive correlation between self-
concept and ego-strength but a significant negative correlation existed
between self-concept and dependence proneness. Kumar and Singh (2007),
conducted study on 160 P.G. student of Patna University to examine the effect
of cognitive differentiation and ego-strength on level of stress. They reported
that cognitive differentiation and ego-strength were conducive to stress. The
field independent respondents and high-ego-strength groups of respondents
were found less likely to be the victim of stress. Alok (2008), made a study on
100 male and 100 female respondents to examine the relationship between
ego-strength and locus of control and reported a significant positive
correlation between ego-strength and internal locus of control and a significant
negative correlation between ego-strength and external locus of control.
Bharti (2008), conducted an experimental study on 120 respondents to
examine the effect of ego-strength and adjustment on reminiscence of the
respondents. He reported that the respondents belonging to low ego-strength
group and low adjustment group showed superiority in respect of
reminiscence score. Prita Lal (2008), attempted to examine the effect of
working non-working dimension on dependence proneness and ego-strength
of the respondents and reported that working women excelled over non-
working women in respect of dependence proneness and ego-strength.
Nawendu (2008), attempted to examine the effect of community on ego-
strength, DP and anxiety of the respondents and reported that Muslims
excelled over their Hindu counterparts in respect of ego-strength, dependence
proneness but Hindu respondents excelled over their Muslim counterpart
respondents in respect of anxiety. Khan (2007), conducted study on 200
respondents to examine the effect of self-concept, self-disclosure, ego-
strength and anxiety over need structure dimensions of the respondents. It
was found that personality traits under reference influenced need for
achievement and level of aspiration.
Hussain (2007), attempted to examine the effect of ego-strength and
dependence proneness on alienation by conducting study on 200
respondents, He reported that low ego-strength group and high dependence
proneness group were found with higher degree of alienation. Khanam et al
(2008), attempted to examine the association of permissive restrictive,
protecting-neglecting and loving rejecting parental attitudes with ego-strength
of respondents. The finding revealed significant and positive relationship
between permissive-restrictive parental attitudes and ego-strength. The other
two dimensions of parental attitudes were found to be independent of ego-
strength.
Hussain and Jabin (2002), examined the effect of maternal employment
on adjustment, ego-strength and anxiety of children and reported that children
of working and non-working mother did not differ significantly. However the
difference in anxiety was found statistically in terms of adjustment and ego-
strength significant. Enayatullah et al (2006), conducted study on 80 males
and 80 females to investigate, into the difference among cognitive style, ego-
strength and gender. They reported that males and females differ significantly
in respect of cognitive style and ego-strength.
Hussain (2006), attempted to examine the effect of ego-strength and
attitudinal modernity on alienation. The results revealed that low ego-strength
group and low modernity group of respondents showed more alienation than
their counterparts belonging to high groups. Shyam Kishore (2007), examined
the effect of decisiveness, ego-strength and adjustment on depression and
reported that stronger is the decisiveness, ego-strength and adjustment less
likely to be the victim of depression. Mridula et al (2007), attempted to
evaluate the patterns of adjustment, dependence proneness, ego-strength
and need for achievement respectively. They reported that working women
excelled almost every dimensions under reference.
Suman (2009), examined the effect of working and non-working
dimensions on adjustment dependence progress, ego-strength and need
achievement and reported that working women excelled in almost every
dimensional areas under taken in the present study. Mahtab (2009), examined
the effect of some psycho-social factors on depression and reported that
depression is attributed by psycho-social factors including ego-strength,
cognitive style and conservatism.
Prasad (2009), examined the effect of cultural affiliation on self-concept,
ego-strength and dependence proneness and reported that non-tribal excelled
over tribal in terms of ego-strength, self-concept but tribal excelled in
dependence proneness. Bharti (2009), examined the effect of cognitive style,
self-concept, ego-strength and anxiety on personal space and reported that
longer personal space was reported in the respondents belonging to field
dependent group, low self-concept group, low ego-strength group and high
anxiety group respectively.
 Nagendra (2009), conducted a cross sectional study to make a
comparison in terms of self-concept, self-disclosure and ego-strength and
reported that Hindu respondents excelled in respect of personality variables
undertaken over Muslim counterparts. Anamika (2009), examined the effect of
working dimension on self-concept, ego-strength and adjustment and found
that working dimension attributed ego-strength, self-concept and adjustment.
Nagendra (2009), conducted cross sectional study to make a comparison in
terms of self concept, self-disclosure and ego-strength among Hindu and
Mislim respondents and reported that Hindu respondents excelled over
Muslim counterparts in respect of personality variables undertaken in the
present study.
Pratima (2009), compared advantaged and disadvantaged respondents
in terms of dependence proneness, ego-strength and self-concept and
reported that socially disadvantaged children were dependently prone having
low ego-strength and low self-concept respectively. Ramendra (2008),
examined the effect of socio-economic deprivation on self-concept, ego-
strength and dependence proneness and reported that personality correlates
undertaken, significantly influenced by deprivation. Santwana (2008),
examined the impact of perceived parental behaviour on the development of
self concept and ego strength of female respondents and reported that
perceived parental behaviour was positively related to self concept and ego-
strength.
Durganand (2008), examined the effect of ego-strength and self-concept
on alienation and reported that weak ego-strength and poor self concept
intensified alienation. Dinesh (2008), examined the effect of anxiety,
adjustment, depression, ego-strength and aggression on domestic violence of
the respondents and found that psychological factors under study were
influenced by domestic violence. Rakesh (2008), compared distant learners
with regular students in terms of self-concept ego-strength and dependence
proneness and found that high self concept, high ego strength and low
dependence proneness were conducive to scholastic achievement of distant
learners.
Personality Traits
Decisiveness refers to persons ability to take quick decision in
controversial issues, to decide priorities and attend accordingly, to take clear
cut stand over the given issues, etc. Responsibility is defined in terms of a
number of behavioural syndromes such as finishing a task in time, meeting
people on appointed time, going some where according to fixed schedule,
attending meeting in time, etc. Emotional Stability refers to traits that have
well control over one's emotion, talks confidently with others, considers
ailments in their proper perspecture, faces comments and criticisms
realistically. Masculinity refers to persons ability to do dangerous and risky
work, his ability to handle challenges from others and face them boldly,
accepting a job in police or military, taking interest in mountaineering, fighting
etc. Heterogeneity refers to persons having such trait have normal sex
relationship with opposite sex, do not feel shy among members of opposite
sex and take active participation in working with members of opposite sex.
Curiosity refers to the trait that tend to explore the details of objects or things
which are relatively new, tend to reach the destination in time, tend to know
the contents of talks of others or reaction of others toward oneself, etc.
Dominance refers to that trait which tend to dictate over others for their duty,
tend to be the leader of the group, tend to settle controversy between
rivals, tend to undertake the supervision of a difficult and complex task..
Studies Related to Personality Traits
Pastey and Vijaya Laxmi (2006), examined the effect of emotional
maturity on stress and self-confidence of adolescents and reported that
adolescent boys tend to had significantly higher stress than girls. Jain (2009),
examined the predictive ability of organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB),
and emotional intelligence and reported that OCB was found to be more
powerful predictor of organizationally relevant criterion variables in Indian
work context. Joshi et. al. (2009), examined the relationship of perceived
emotional intelligence and marital adjustment and reported that over and
above personality dimensions and social desirability played a mediating role.
Results showed that cohesion and overall marital adjustment were related to
all the sub-scales and over all emotional intelligence.
Srivastava and Mukhopadhaya (2009), investigated the levels of
alienation and emotional intelligence of adolescents with internalizing
symptoms. The results indicated that the affected group was significantly
alienated and emotionally immature in awareness and management
compared to their comparative normal group. Mohammad et. al. (2009),
examined the effect of emotional intelligence and occupational stress on
mental and physical health. The results showed that emotional intelligence
and job burnout were explained 43.9% of mental health and 13.5% variance
and physical health.
Tarannum, and Khatoon (2009), attempted to study certain demographic
variables as determinants of self-esteem and emotional stability of visually
challenged and reported that gender, age, class, family system, inhabitation
were the factors determining self esteem and emotional stability. Kulshreshtha
and Sen (2006), investigated the subjective well being in relation to emotional
intelligence and locus of control among executives and reported that
emotional intelligence as well as locus of control had significant correlation
with subjective well being. Tung and Dhillon (2006), examined the effect of
gender differences and family environment correlates on emotional autonomy
amongst males and females of middle and late adolescents. The results
showed significant differences in males and females on the de-idealization
dimension of emotional autonomy with females capable of de-idealization the
parents at an early age than males. Females report more cohesive
environment and find higher moral religious emphasis in the family. Positive
correlations were reported with conflict and control in relation to emotional
autonomy dimensions. For males the issues of cohesion were not as
pervasive as in the females.
Gayan, C. (2006), explored the role of predictive variance of emotional
competencies, personality variables and job attitudes in job performance. The
results revealed that each of the seven variables contributed significantly in
the prediction of job performance. Awadhesh (2007), made an empirical study
on 144 respondents to examine the effect of conservatism, ego-strength, self-
concept on alienation and reported that liberal respondents, high ego-strength
group of respondents and high self-concept groups of respondents all showed
superiority over their counterparts in respect of alienation.
Shyam Kishore (2007), examined the effect of decisiveness, ego-
strength and adjustment on depression and reported that stronger was the
decisiveness, ego-strength and adjustment less likely to be the victim of
depression. Parul et. al. (2003), explored the relationship between emotional
intelligence and job success among IT professionals in a company and
reported that a significant differences existed among three groups in respect
of emotional intelligence.
Vijaya Laxhmi (1999), compared males and females in terms of various
personality traits such as decisiveness responsibility, emotional stability,
masculinity, friendliness ego-strength and curiosity and found that males
excelled over females in terms of decisiveness, emotional stability,
masculinity, friendliness and ego-strength respectively whereas, females
excelled over males in terms of responsibility and curiosity. Alam (2005),
examined 100 male and female respondents equal in number in terms of
emotional stability and reported that males were found more emotionally
stable than females. Sharma, S. (2006), investigated purports to find out the
efficacy at emotional stability on the study habits of visually disabled students
and found that children with high emotional stability had better study habits
than their counterparts with low emotional stability.
Singh and Mishra (2008), compared physically handicapped and normal
groups in respect of emotional intelligence and reported a significance
difference among them in respect of emotional intelligence. Dinesh (2008),
examined the effect of anxiety, aggression and adjustment on domestic
violence of the respondents and reported that domestic violence was
significantly influenced by aggression, anxiety and adjustment. Bhavesh
(2009), conducted a cross-sectional study to compare boys and girls in terms
of emotional maturity and reported that female showed superiority over male
counterparts in respect of emotional maturity.
Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure is seen as a useful strategy for sharing information with
others. By sharing information, we become more intimate with other people
and our interpersonal relationship is strengthened. Read about self-disclosure
and them complete the interactive activity and take a short quiz to test your
understanding of the concept. Self-disclosure is not simply providing
information to another person. Instead, scholars define self-disclosure as
sharing information with others that they would not normally know or discover.
Self-disclosure involves risk and vulnerability on the part of the person sharing
the information. A useful way of viewing self-disclosure is the Johari Window
18. The Johari Window is a way of showing how much information you know
about yourself and how much others know about you. The window contains
four panes, as shown below.
Known to self Unknown to self
Known to others Open Pane Blind Pane
Known to self and others blind to self,
Hidden Pane seen by others
Unknown to others open to self, hidden from Unknown Pane
others unknown to self
and others
 The Open Pane includes information such as hair colour, occupation,
and physical appearance. The Bind Pane includes information that others can
see in you, but you cannot see in your self. You might think you are poor
leader, but others think you exhibit strong leadership skills. The Hidden Pane
contains information you wish to keep private, such as dreams or ambitions.
The Unknown Pane includes everything that you and others do not know
about yourself. You may have hidden talents, for example, that you have not
explored. Through self-disclosure, we open and close panes so that we may
become more intimate with others.
Self-disclosure performs several functions. It is a way of gaining
information about another person. We want to be able to predict the thoughts
and actions of people we know. Self-disclosure is one way to learn about how
another person thinks and feels. Once one person engages in self-disclosure,
it is implied that the other person will also disclose personal information. This
is known as the norm of reciprocity. Mutual disclosure deepens trust in the
relationship and helps both people understand each other more. You also
come to feel better about yourself and your relationship when the other person
accepts what you tell them.
While there are several advantages to self-disclosure, there are also
risks. One risk is that the person will not respond favourably to the
information. Self-disclosure does not automatically lead to favourable
impressions. Another risk is that the other person will gain power in the
relationship because of the information they possess. Finally, too much self-
disclosure or self-disclosure that comes too early in a relationship can
damage the relationship. Thus, while self-disclosure is useful, it can also be
damaging to a relationship.
Self-disclosure is also viewed as a process in which an individual
purposefully communicates information about himself or herself. Partially, this
activity can be related to the assumed importance of self-disclosure to mental
health. A clean understanding of the effect of self-disclosure is very useful for
all in every day life. People are more attracted to others whose self-disclosure
is similar to their own level of disclosure and that this attraction has an effect
on the other's disclosure. That the subjects would discuss was found to be
positively related to their characteristic level of disclosure and their attraction
toward the persons to whom they disclose themselves. Thus self disclosure
may be an enduring trait. It is influenced by interpersonal liking which is
determined by a variable or variables other than altitude similarity. Perhaps
the strongest finding in the clinical study of self-disclosure is that individuals
are willing to disclose more about themselves to others whom they like than to
others whom they dislike or regard with indifference. Based on the relationship
between self-disclosure and liking (self-concept) it seems reasonable to
expect variables that affect interpersonal liking and also influence self-
disclosure variable that has been unequivocally shown to influence
interpersonal liking is attitude similarity (Hamacheck, 1994; Hatcher, et al.
1993; Haustan, 1984).
According to Byrne et al. (1970) interpersonal attraction is directly
related to the degree of attitude similarity between two people. Goal directed
person discloses himself to the goal object person/person. Its self disclosure
may be consciously or unconsciously influenced motivate person discloses
purposefully and in daily routine people disclose unconsciously.
Horney (1932) has remarked that more the individual ignores his real
feelings, wishes and wants, more alienated he is from the real self. This
estrangement and alienation from one's real self is at the roof of the neuritic
personality of our time. Thus self disclosure, i.e. letting another person know
that you think, feel or want is the most direct means by which an individual
can make himself known to another person and it is a must for healthy mental
personality (Reber et al., 2001). If self-disclosure is one of the means by
which healthy personality is both achieved and maintained Beutler (1978)
says that such activities as psychotherapy, counselling teaching and nursing
all will fail more or less without the knowledge of disclosure of the client. Just
as thermometers, there is a device to disclose information about the physical
state of they body, self-disclosure reveals the conscious nature of the self.
They defined self-disclosure as the process of making that self know to other
person. They have written extensively on the topic of self-disclosure by which
he means one's readiness to be open and to share one's self with others.
Murrey (1938) listed and discussed the need for enviously as one of the
basic needs in his personality theory. It has been found that for normal
persons and (defensiveness) scales of the MMPI appears to be related to
personality needs to remain cool, aloof, and wary and to a general reluctance
to reveal one self.
The importance of self-disclosure was first underlined by Lewin (1936)
when he described his impression of important personality difference between
German and American national character types.
Studies Related to Self-Disclosure
Mehta et. al. (1986) administered the Jourard's self-disclosure
questionnaire and the relationship questionnaire to 14 male and 51 female
undergraduates. Each S was requested to use his close set personal friend as
the target person. Results indicate that, in general there is a positive
relationship between maladjustment and extent of self-disclosure. Further,
man seem able to discriminate quite well among their closest friends so that
when these friends provide high conditions, high self-disclosure is related to
positive adjustment, but when their closest friends provide low levels of
empathy, warmth, and genuineness, then high self-disclosure is related to
maladjustment.
Bhatnagar et. al., (1986) studied the relationship between the therapist,
self-disclosure, mental health, and helpfulness as perceived by group
members and found that a member's perception of the group leader is a
function of the member's own level of self-disclosure and mental health. Data
were collected from 6 university encounter groups by using ranks for group
member variables and rating scales for perceptions of group leaders.
Precipitation of group leader's self-disclosure, mental health, and helpfulness
were all positively correlated. No differences occurred in the perceptions of
group leaders as a result of the members ranked levels of self-disclosure and
mental health.
Strong (1978) hypothesised that physical and body contact exercises
within an encounter group selling will reduce barriers between people and
increases their self-disclosure. 27 undergraduates completed the self-
disclosure questionnaire and the Eysenck Personality Inventor. 18 Ss listened
to tapes which instructed them in various exercises, Ss listened to the tapes
but did not participate. Results support the hypothesis.
Carkhutt (1969) administered Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale
and Jourard's Self-Disclosure Scale to 80 college students to test the
hypothesis that externally oriented Ss would tend to disclose less information
about themselves to their parents and to male and female friends than
internals, regardless of the intimacy levels of the information being revealed.
In addition, an attempt was made to replicate the finding of earlier studies
which indicate that females tend to disclose more self-information than males
and that Ss disclose the least amount of information to their fathers compared
to the other target groups. Data analysis yielded support for all three
predictions.
Arora et. al., (1975) investigated the joint effects of situation (target's
physical attractiveness) and personality (need for approval) factors on self-
disclosure tendencies 96 female college students who had obtained either
low, moderate, or high scores on the Maslow Crowne Social Desirability Scale
were told that they would meet a physically attractive or unattractive male as
part of a study on the acquaintance process. After viewing a photo of the
bogus male partner, Ss wrote a self-description which would ostensibly be
shown to him. Results indicate that intimacy of self-disclosure was greater to
the attractive than unattractive target persons and that intimacy of self-
disclosure was inversely related to subject's need for approval. Implications of
the physical attractiveness effects on self disclosure for the process of
friendship formation are discussed. Collins et. al. (1994) estimated the impact
of intimacy and temporal orientation of helper self-disclosure on helping
process. The effect of physical contact exercises in marathon encounter
leader less groups, on dimensions of self-concept, self disclosure and
touching behaviours was estimated. Differential treatment effects and self-
disclosing behaviour were studied by Pattrick (1975) and self-actualization
and self-disclosure by Strong (1982). Forehand et. al., (1992) studied the
relationship between family self-disclosure adolescent adjustment, family
satisfaction, and family congruence. Gibbs et. al. (2006) estimated changes in
measured self-concept, self-disclosure and attitudes towards family life as a
result of the use of a socialization technique before and during psychotherapy,
Grune et al. (2006) measured the intensity of self-disclosure between
American and Japanese population. Peterson (1975) studied the effects of
self-disclosure on self-concept in a group of low income clients.
Various studies have been conducted even in Indian context. The
following are some important studies relating to self-disclosure and other
interacting variables :
Ojha (2000), investigated SC, ST with FC and BC in terms of self-
disclosure and machievellianism and reported that FC and BC were more self-
disclosing and Machiavellianism than SC and ST subjects. Kumar, A (2007),
conducted study on 100 tribal and 100 non-tribal to examine the effect of
cultural affiliation on self-concept, ego-strength and self-disclosure of tribal
and non tribal respondents. The purpose was also to examine the
relationships among personality traits understudy. The results revealed that
cultural affiliation has significant effect on self-concept ego-strength and self-
disclosure. The personality correlates are inter-correlated. Tarannum (2008),
examined the effect of working dimension on intelligence, self-concept and
self-disclosure and found that intelligence was not conducive for working
dimension but high self-concept and high self-disclosure were highly
conducive for making a women as working.
 Shiv Lal Yadav (2008), attempted to examine the effect of social
disadvantage over self-concept, self-disclosure and conservatism and
reported that socially disadvantaged group excelled in conservatism whereas
non-deprived group excelled in self-concept and self-disclosure.
Pragya (2008), examined the relationship between self-concept and
self-disclosure of the respondents with locus of control and reported that self-
concept, self-disclosure and locus of control were significantly correlated.

OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES
This chapter is dealing with objectives and hypotheses. There are
eleven objectives followed by eleven related hypotheses to be tested and
verified empirically they are as under :
Objectives
1. The first objective of the present study is to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. In other
sense the objective is to examine whether or not alcoholism on the part
of parents interfere with the adjustment of their children.
2. The first objective of the present study is to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of self-concept trait of
personality. In other sense the objective is to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of self-concept trait of personality in their children.
3. The first objective of the present study is to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of ego-strength trait of
personality. In other sense the objective is to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of ego-strength trait of personality in their children.
4. The first objective of the present study is to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of curiosity trait of
personality. In other sense the objective is to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of curiosity trait of personality in their children.
5. The first objective of the present study is to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of decisiveness trait of
personality. In other sense the objective is to examine whether or not
 alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of decisiveness trait of personality in their children.
6. The first objective of the present study is to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of emotional stability trait of
personality. In other sense the objective is to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of emotional stability trait of personality in their children.
7. The first objective of the present study is to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of heterosexuality trait of
personality. In other sense the objective is to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of heterosexuality trait of personality in their children.
8. The first objective of the present study is to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of responsibility trait of
personality. In other sense the objective is to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of responsibility trait of personality in their children.
9. The first objective of the present study is to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of dominance trait of
personality. In other sense the objective is to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of dominance trait of personality in their children.
10. The first objective of the present study is to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of self-disclosure trait of
personality. In other sense the objective is to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of self-disclosure trait of personality in their children.
11. The last objective of the present study is to inculcate relationship
among the variables under study.
Hypotheses : Concept & Characteristics
Hypothesis is an important step involved in the research process.
Before the actual conduction of the research work the researcher has to
formulate certain hypotheses based on the findings of the previous
researches relevant to the research problem in hand. Then actual research
work is empirically done with a view to verifying those hypotheses. By
hypothesis is meant a hypothetical statement showing the relation between
two or more variables. Chaplin (1975) defined hypothesis as an assumption
which serves a tentative explanation. Looked at from another point of view, a
hypothesis may be considered as a question put to nature to be answered by
an experiment or series of observations. Similarly, Reber et al. (2009) defined
hypothesis as any statement, proposition or assumption that serves as a
tentative explanation of certain facts. Kerlinger (1986) defined hypothesis as
a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variable.
The researchers must also know the essential characteristics of a
scientific hypothesis or a good hypothesis. Mc Guigan (1960). Kerlinger
(1986) and many other psychologist have opined that :
1. A good hypotheses should be preferably parsimonious.
2. A good hypotheses should be quantifiable.
3. A good hypotheses must be liable to acceptance or rejection.
4. A good hypotheses should have large number of consequences.
5. A good hypotheses should be in the form of a conjectural statement.
6. A good hypotheses should be in the form of positive statement.
7. A good hypotheses should be in general agreement with other
hypothesis.
8. A good hypotheses must have logical simplicity.
9. A good hypotheses must be related to the researcher problem
directly or indirectly.
10. A good hypotheses must be testable and variable.
11. A good hypotheses must be capable of making some prediction.
12. A good hypotheses should be related to some established theory.
13. A good hypotheses should be in accordance with some available
method of study.
There are several sources of framing hypotheses of which the research
workers must be aware. The sources include personal experience of the
researcher, knowledge of previous researches. Research abstracts, research
journals, relevant books, conflicting results of the previous studies, experts
opinion and the like. According to convenience and the availability of the
materials the researcher can form hypothesis or hypotheses utilizing one or
more sources mentioned above.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were formulated for empirical verification
 1. It is likely that children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children counterpart of alcoholic parents in terms of patterns of
adjustment.
2. It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children of alcoholic parents in terms of self-concept.
3. It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children of alcoholic parents in terms of ego strength.
4. It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children of alcoholic parents in terms of curiosity.
5. It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children of alcoholic parents in terms of decisiveness.
6. It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children of alcoholic parents in terms of emotional stability.
7. It is likely that there would be significant difference of heterosexuality
between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
8. It is likely that there would be significant difference of responsibility
between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
9. It is likely that there would be significant difference of dominance
between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
10. It is likely that there would be significant difference of self-disclosure
between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
11. It is likely that there would be significant relationship among the IV
(personality variables and adjustment).
The next chapter is Methodology.

METHODOLOGY
This chapter includes sample and sampling techniques, samples used,
descriptions of research tools used, statistical devices used. The details are
given below :
Concept of Sample and Sampling Technique
Sample is a part of a population, which is studied so that the researcher
can make generalizations about the whole of the original population.
Samples can be gathered by means of several different procedurs, which
include cluster sampling and random sampling. Nearly all psychological
research is carried out on samples, because the size of populations, or some
other factors, make studying the whole impossible. Many statistical techniques
are concerned with indicating the reliability of a conclusion based on a
sample, but cannot identify whether the sample is typical of that population or
not. So a considerable amount of experimental methodology is concerned
with ensuring, as far as possible, that the samples involved in the study are
representative.
Types of Samples
There are different types of sample. They all have their respective
merits and limitations. Hence a sample appropriate to the nature of the
research problem has to be used by the researcher. In view of this
requirement it is desirable to have a critical look on the chief types of sample
given below:
1. Simple Random Sample : A simple random sample may be
defined as one in which each and every individual of the population has an
equal chance of being included in the sample and also the selection of one
individual is in no way dependent upon selection of another person. For
example, if we are to select a sample of 10 students from the ninth grade
consisting of 60 students, we can write the name of each of the 60 students
on separate slips of paper- all equal in size and colour-and fold them in a
similar way. Subsequently, they may be placed in a box and reshuffled
thoroughly. A blindfolded person then may be asked to pick up one slip. Here
the probability of each slip being selected is 1/60. Suppose that after selecting
the slip and noting the name written on the slip, he again returns it to the box.
In this case, the probability of the second slip being selected is again 1/60. But
if he does not return the first slip to the box, the probability of the second slip
becomes 1/59. Then an element of the population is returned to the
population after being selected, it is called sample with replacement and when
it is not returned, it is called sampling without replacement. Sampling with
replacement is wholly feasible except in certain situations where it is seldom
used. In such a situation, the repeated cases may be ignored as is done if a
table of random number is used in making a selection of cases.
2. Stratified Random Sample : In stratified random sampling the
population is, first divided into two or more strata, which may be based upon a
single criterion such as sex, yielding two stratamale and female, or upon a
combination of two or more criteria such as sex and education, yielding four
strata, namely, male undergraduates, male graduates, female undergraduates
and female graduates. These divided population are called supplications,
which are non-overlapping and together constitute the whole population.
Having divided the population into two or more strata, which are considered to
be homogeneous internally, a simple random sample of the desired numbers
is taken from each population stratum Thus in stratified random sampling the
stratification of population is the first requirement. There can be many reasons
for stratification in a population. The most important point in stratified random
sampling is the division of the population into homogeneous submits or
subversion. It is a known fact that when the population is homogeneous, a
small sample is required than when the population is heterogeneous.
3. Cluster Sample : Simple random sampling and the stratified
random sampling work satisfactorily when the samples to be chosen are small
and the number of population stratum is not large. When a larger sample is to
be taken from the population, having many different subdivisions, we adopt
another method of sampling called cluster or area sampling. In stratified
random sampling the population is categorised into groups of strata, which are
internally homogeneous whereas in cluster sampling the population is
considered as a collection of groups of clusters, which are internally
heterogeneous. In stratified random sampling the numbers of persons
constituting each sample stratum are randomly selected from each population
stratum whereas in cluster sampling clusters themselves are randomly
selected.
4. Quota Sample : A quota sample is a kind of non-probability
sample. It bears a close resemblance to the stratified random sample. The
only difference is that here individuals from each subgroup or stratum of the
population are drawn not at random. Thus, in quota sampling the population is
categorised into several strata and from each stratum a sample of the desired
size is selected (usually not at random). Attempt is made to keep the number
of individuals in each sample stratum proportional to the number of individuals
in each population stratum. Thus, if the population consists of 50% males and
50% females, during sampling the investigators are assigned these quota and
are asked to select the persons in a manner in which 50% may be males and
50% females. The selection is not random but according to the convenience
of the investigator. Like in stratified sampling, the disproportionate
representation in quota sampling sometimes becomes unavoidable specially
where the variables or traits being investigated are not clear cut.
 5. Incidental Sample : Accidental or incidental samples are another
kind of non-probability sample. The accidental sample is one which is taken
because it is easily and conveniently available to investigators. The students
in a class are an example of accidental samples because they are easily
available for the teachers or any investigator. Many researches in the fields of
psychology, sociology and education have been conducted on students who
are made conveniently available to the researchers. Results thus obtained
can be generalised with considerable risk.
6. Purposive Sample : Purposive sample, a kind of non-probability
sample, is one, which is based on the typicality of the cases to be included in
the sample. The investigator has some belief that the sample being taken is
typical of the population or is a very good representative of the population. A
purposive sample is also known as a judgment sample because the
investigator on the basis of his impression makes a judgment regarding the
concerned cases, which are thought to be typical of the population. For
studying attitudes towards any national issue.
Sampling Procedure
Sampling procedure is the procedure by which a sample is acquired.
Sampling procedures need to be carefully defined and reported so that it is
possible to judge whether the results from that sample can be generalized to
th population or to other samples. The commonest form is random
sampling in which members of a population are selected at random, wlith
each having had an equal chance of being chosen. In practice, truly random
sampling is difficult to achieve because of such influences as volunteer bias.
Further, disadvantage of this technique is that a random sample needs to be
quite large to ensure a close fit to the parent population. More sophisticated
forms such as stratified sampling are designed to represent the population
on all important aspects and so allow reliable conclusions to be drawn from a
smaller sample. Similarly non-probability sampling procedure includes
incidental sample, purposive sample and quota sample. In social sciences
generally; incidental-cum-purposive sampling procedure is employed. Hence
in view of the nature of the present research problem here also incidental
purposive sample was found suitable and as such it was used.
(a) Sample
The incidental-cum-purposive sample consisting of 300 children were
drawn out of which 150 children were belonging to alcoholic parents and
remaining 150 children were belonging to nonalcoholic parents. Alcoholic
parents were identified from various alcoholic de-addiction centres of Patna as
well as on the basis of personal contact and nonalcoholic parents were
selected from the same socio economic background so far as practicable. The
children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents were selected for data
collection. The children were belonging to 16-22 yrs. of age. They were both
attending/non-attending of the educational institutions.
(b) Design of the Study
The problem under investigation is a comparative as well as
correlational study examining the differences in adjustment and various
personality traits namely self-concept, ego-strength, curiosity, decisiveness,
emotional stability, heterosexuality, responsibility, dominance and self-
disclosure among the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents. Thus,
the dependent variables in the present study are alcoholic/nonalcoholic
behaviour of parents and personality traits including adjustment of their
children are independent variables. Since, in each pair of comparable group
there are separate and independent subjects, so a between group design
would be preferred.
(c) Research Tools used
1. A Personal Data Sheet
It was used to seek the necessary information about the respondents. It
was used to seek the socio familial background of the children respondent
including their parental status.
2. Bell's Adjustment Inventory (Hindi Adaptation)
For measuring adjustment of the respondents Mohsin- Shamshad Hindi
adaptation of Bell's Adjustment Inventory was used. After assessing the social
desirability of the items of Bell's Adjustment Inventory, various steps involved
in the test construction, were followed by Jahan, K. which were applied by
Hussain (1987). 126 items of the modified Hindi version of Bell's Adjustment
Inventory were analysed by adapting different techniques of item analysis,
number of items in Bell's Adjustment Inventory (English Version), Hindi
adaptation (Hussain, 1969) and in modified Hindi adaptation (Jehan, K. 1987)
are presented in column 1.2 and 3 respectively of table-3.1.
Table-3.1
Number of Total Items
Areas of Adjustment 1 2 3
(Present form)
Home 35 35 31
Health 35 31 29
Social 35 34 32
Emotional 35 35 32
Total 140 135 124
There response categories have been given for answering to each item.
Items concerning home, health, social and emotional adjustment have been
designated by latter d] [k] x] and ?k respectively.
Pearson's method of correlation was used to examine the inter
correlation of all the four dimensions of adjustment. It was found that the inter
correlation ranged form .361 to .572 and the average was .497. This showed
that Hindi version like its English version did not measure the areas of
adjustment independency, as there was overlapping among different areas of
adjustment. The average correlation coefficient has been found to be .447
which is quite near to .887 which was found by Hussain 1969. Thus, the
modified Hindi version of Bell Adjustment Inventory does not measure the
different dimensions of adjustments independently.
Reliability
Both the internal consistency and the temporal stability of the inventory
as determined by using old-even with Spearman. Brown Formula and test-
retest method for different dimensions of adjustment have been given below in
table no 3.2.
Table-3.2
Test-retest and odd-even reliabilities
Dimension Test-retest Odd-even
Home 0.851 0.826
Health 0.862 0.815
Social 0.805 0.844
Emotional 0.834 0.921
Validity
In the process of standardization of the modified Hindi Version of Bell's
Adjustment Inventory, its validity was also determined by applying concurrent
and construct and construct validity of the test by employing the following
methods :
 (a) By using contrasted groups of normal and neurotics, the
comparison was made on the basis of mean scores of the normal groups with
that off diagnosed neurotics in respect of specific areas of adjustment
separately as well as for the total adjustment. The findings suggested that
neurotic groups found to be poorly adjusted in respect of home, health, social,
emotional and overall adjustment as compared and overall adjustment as
compared to the so called normal groups.
(b) The validity of the adjustment inventory (modified Hindi version)
was ascertained by administering together with Hindi adoption of the
Eysenck's Maudsly personality Inventory (Jolota and Kappor, 1965) to
examine the relationship between adjustment particularly social emotional,
and neuroticism and extraversion. Certain assumptions and conceptualization
were made in respect of the relationship between these variables. A positive
correlation between scores on the Bell's Adjustment Inventory and scores on
MPI was presented indicating poor emotional adjustment of neurotics. Further,
a negative correlation was conceptualized between the scores on social
adjustment and extraversion indicating better social adjustment of extraverts.
The findings supported the conceptualization in respect of their home, healthy,
social emotional as well as total adjustment. Further, it was found that the
extroverts had better social and overall adjustment.
(c) The modified Hindi Version of Bell's Adjustment Inventory was
also validated against Corwne-Marllow SD Scale (Hindi version Prasad and
Sinha, 1980) which is a measure of self-approval and defensiveness. The
conceptualization underlying the validation was that high approval seekers
would try to display healthy home, social and emotional adjustment as well as
total adjustment as healthy adjustment is a criterion again which an
individual's personality is judged. The findings supported the conceptualization
as higher approval seekers exhibited better mode of adjustment in different
areas as well as total adjustment except health adjustment. Thus, on the
whole the findings, further enhanced the validity of the inventory.
(d) The modified Hindi version of Bell's Adjustment Inventory was
further validated against educational status of the respondent on the
assumption that the higher college education promotes better adjustment. The
college education not only provides a sequential content bearing but also
provides an atmosphere for increased social interaction and emotional
maturity. The college provides a free mixing environment which helps an
individual to make correct appraisal of himself. On the whole, the high validity
of the modified Hindi version of Beel's Adjustment Inventory (Jehan, K. 1985)
was ensured by adapting various procedures.
Norms
Percentile norms were developed separately for undergraduate male
female students of different educational levels and of rural and urban male
college students. The justification for developing separate norms for different
educational levels and for rural and urban samples was that significant
difference were found between these groups in respect of all the areas of
adjustment as well as the total adjustment.
Procedure For Administration
Instructions for answering the questions are given on the front cover of
the test booklet and the procedures for test administration are simple. The
testes are requested to go through instructions and do accordingly. The
Inventory has no time limit. However, it takes 35 to 40 minutes. The testes are
asked to fill in their name, date, class and make all other necessary entries.
They are asked not to read the question unless asked for. Before the test
begins it is to be ensured that the instructions have been understood by the
tastes. The Inventory can be used both as a group test and as an individual
test, as necessary.
Scoring
The Inventory is scored simply by counting the number of responses
marked in each area of adjustment. The responses to which the score is to be
given are mentioned in the Manual of the Inventory. High Score indicates poor
adjustment and low score indicates better adjustment. The term responses to
which the score is given are noted below in table-3.3
Table-3.3
Home Health Social Emotional
6 Yes 1 Yes 3 No 2 Yes
8" 20" 5" 4"
11" 22" 7" 9"
13" 24" 10" 14"
15" 26" 12" 17"
18" 30" 10Yes 25"
 21 No 53" 19" 32"
27 Yes 40" 23 No 37"
29" 44" 28" 39"
31" 47" 33" 42"
34" 51" 36" 45"
38" 55 Yes 41 No 49 Yes
43" 60" 46 Yes 54"
48" 63" 50" 57"
52 Yes 66 Yes 53No 61 Yes
56" 71" 58" 65"
59" 76" 62 No 68"
64" 81" 67 Yes 70"
69" 84" 73 No 72"
75" 87" 77" 74"
79" 91" 80 Yes 78"
83" 96" 85 No 82"
89" 99" 88 Yes 82"
94" 99" 90" 92"
98 Yes 110" 93 No 95"
100 No 114" 97" 103"
102" 119" 101 Yes 106"
105Yes 124" 107" 109"
108" 128" 113" 111"
112" 132" 117" 115"
116" 134" 122 No 111"
121" 125 Yes 120"
126" 130" 123"
129" 127"
133" 131"
3. Differential Personality Inventory
It was developed and standardized by Singh and Singh's (2005). This
scale is a heterogenous scale of personality which measures ten major
dimensions or traits of personality. The ten major dimensions with its
meaning in brief is presented below :
(i) Decisiveness : This trait refers to persons ability to take quick
decision in controversial issues, to decide priorities and attend accordingly,
to take clear cut stand over the given issues, etc.
(ii) Responsibility : It is defined in terms of a number of behavioural
syndromes such as finishing a task in time, meeting people on appointed
time, going some where according to fixed schedule, attending meeting in
time, etc.
(iii) Emotional Stability : Person having traits of emotional stability
has well control over one's emotion, talks confidently with others, considers
ailments in their proper perspecture, faces comments and criticisms
realistically.
(iv) Masculinity : This trait refers to persons ability to do dangerous
and risky work, his ability to handle challenges from others and face them
boldly, accepting a job in police or military, taking interest in mountaineering,
fighting etc.
(v) Friendliness : Persons possessing such trait develop deeper
acquaintance with people, often help other in time of trouble and show
proper love and affection to even juniors and unknowns.
(vi) Heterogeneity : Persons having such trait have normal sex
relationship with opposite sex, do not feel shy among members of
opposite sex and take active participation in working with members of
opposite sex.
(vii)Ego Strength : Persons having the trait of ego strength tend to
concentrate and attend to different activities at a time, have feelings of
adequacy and vitality, have adequate control over impulses and tend to show
high coordination between thoughts and actions.
(viii) Curiosity : Persons having the trait of curiosity tend to explore
the details of objects or things which are relatively new, tend to reach the
destination in time, tend to know the contents of talks of others or reaction of
others toward oneself, etc.
(ix) Dominance : Persons having the trait of dominance tend to dictate
over others for their duty, tend to be the leader of the group, tend to
settle controversy between rivals, tend to undertake the supervision of a
difficult and complex task.
(x) Self-concept : Persons having the trait of self-concept tend to have
better concept about themselves etc.
This personality inventory has all together 150 items. The number of
items in each of the ten dimensions of the scale along with internal
consistency co-efficients are given below :
Table - 3.04
Dimensions Number of items Internal consis-
tency coefficients
Decisiveness 15 .82
Responsibility 15 .84
Emotional stability 15 .89
Masculinity 15 .86
Friendliness 15 .90
Heterosexuality 15 .83
Ego-strength 15 .84
Curiosity 15 .83
Dominance 15 .85
Self-concept 15 .85
Total : 150
Each item in the test has two alternative answers -True and false. The
testee is required to read the item and decide whether the meaning of item is
true or false for him and accordingly encircle either true or false. The scoring
is done with the help of the scoring key; when a response of an item given by
the testee tallies with the response of the item given in scoring key, it is
given a score of one. In case the response given by the testee does not tally
with the response given in the scoring-key, a score of zero is awarded. In this
way all items are scored and finally, score points of all the items of the ten
dimensions are separately added to yield ten different total scores. In this way
every testee would earn ten separate total scores. Higher score on any
dimension indicates greater possessiveness of the concerned trait. Likewise,
lower score on any dimension indicates poor possessiveness of the
concerned trait.
Differential personality scale has both test-retest reliability and internal
consistency reliability. The test-retest reliability co-efficient ranges from .73 to .
86 which were high and significant indicating that the different dimensions of
the scale have sufficient temporal stability. Likewise, the internal consistency
reliability has been calculated by odd-even method as well as first half vs.
second half method. Differential personality scale has been validated against
a number of criterion. In doing so the scale yielded highly satisfactory validity.
The scale has been validated against the scores of Bells Adjustment
Inventory as adapted by Mohsin and Shamshad. The obtained correlation
coefficients between each of ten dimensions as well as five areas of Bells
Adjustment Inventory were negative which ranged from -.02 to -.037, some
of the values were significant at or beyond .30 level, some ware significant
at or beyond .01 level. It has also been validated against a number of
personal and biographical variables, of the chi-square values were significant
at or beyond .05 and .01 levels which, themselves provide evidence for high
validity of the scale.
Percentile norms have been developed for the test. The norms for this
scale has been developed on a sample of 1000. It included from arts,
Commerce, science, medical and engineering faculties of both sexes residing
in either rural or urban areas. Before constructing norms, t ratio's were
computed for each dimension with respect to the variables of geographical
distributions (rural and urban), sex (male and female) and educational
levels (undsrgraduate and postgraduate) to examine whether or not they differ
significantly. With respect to rural-urban variable ten t ratios (one for each of
the ten dimensions) and with respect to educational level another ten t ratio's
were computed. But, non of these ten t ratio's was found to be significant.
Similarly, with respect to sex variable, another ten t ratios were computed
with respect to three variables namely, responsibility, masculinity and
friendliness, significant sex differences were found. However with respect to
the remaining variables there were no significant differences.
4. Self-Disclosure Scale
De, B. and Singh self-disclosure Scale was used in this study for
measuring self-disclosure of the respondents. This inventory was developed
by De. B. and Singh, C.M, in 1985. The inventory provides a simple and
quantitative measure of self-disclosure. It consists of 84 items being
distributed among the three psychological dimensions, i.e. cognitive,
connotive and affective dimensions. Each positive item has three response
alternatives and is scored as 0, 1, 2 from lower to higher level and vice-versa
in negative item. Only 9 items are negative and they are 63, 73, 75, 78, 80,
81, 82 and 84. Each item is concerned with only one of the three dimensions.
The answering of this inventory is of the nature of a 3-point self-rating scale.
Subjects are instructed to put a tick mark (/) on one of the three answers
assigned on the right hand side of each of the items which he thinks true for
him. The total composite scores is simply the sum of the scores on all the 84 items,
ranging from 0 (zero) to 168. Each statement of the inventory is answered as definite,
indefinite and doubtful.
(c) Administrations of the Scales
First of all alcoholic parents were identified from different alcoholic de
addiction centres of Patna as well as from personal contacts of person known
to the researcher and his supervisor. Thereafter their children ward were
selected for collection of data. The children were of two types- attending/non-
attending of educational institutions. In case of non-attending the educational
institutions respondents were contacted for data collection as per their
convenience. In case of attending of educational institutions the children were
contacted at educational institutions through proper channel.
One day prior to the actual administration of the tests or scales a formal
permission for engaging the children of alcoholic parents was sought from the
authorities/parents or guardians of the institution. The date and time for the
purpose was fixed. The researcher reached the place in time and established
a rapport with the respondents by talking with them. When they were ready to
co-operate with him they were administered scales one by one. First of all
they were administered PDS and Bell's Adjustment Inventory and were asked
to complete them. The researcher was vigilant to help them in case of any
problem. When they were completed the assignments, the researcher collect
them, thanked them and asked to be ready for next session of data collection
as permitted by their authorities/parents or guardians. In the second session
SDPI and self-disclosure scale were administered to the same respondents.
In this way data were collected from among children belonging to alcoholic
parents (N = 150). Likewise data were collected from among the children of
nonalcoholic parents (N = 150). Finally, the researcher thanked the
respondents, their guardians, the authorities and left the place.
Data Analysis Plan
Keeping in view the nature of the obtained data it was decided to
analyse the data according to the following scheme :
1. Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
parents in terms of adjustment. (Results Table-4.01, 4.02 & 4.03).
2. Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
parents in terms of self-concept trait of personality. (Results Table-
4.04, 4.05, 4.06)
3. Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
parents in terms of ego-strength trait of personality. (Results
Table- 4.07, 4.08 & 4.09)
4. Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
parents in terms of curiosity trait of personality. (Results Table-
4.10, 4.11 & 4.12)
5. Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
parents in terms of decisiveness trait of personality. (Results
Table- 4.13, 4.14 & 4.15)
6. Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
parents in terms of emotional stability trait of personality. (Results
Table- 4.16, 4.17 & 4.18)
 7. Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
parents in terms of heterosexuality trait of personality. (Results
Table- 4.19, 4.20 & 4.21)
8. Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
parents in terms of responsibility trait of personality. (Results
Table- 4.22, 4.23 & 4.24)
9. Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
parents in terms of dominance trait of personality. (Results Table-
4.25, 4.26 & 4.27)
10. Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
parents in terms of self-disclosure trait of personality. (Results
Table-4.28, 4.29 & 4.30)
11. Correlational matrix showing relationship among variables under
study. (Results Table-4.31)
The next chapter is Results and Interpretations.

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS
This chapter is dealing with a comparison between children of alcoholic
and nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment and various personality traits
namely self-concept, ego-strength, curiosity, decisiveness, emotional stability,
heterosexuality, responsibility, dominance and self-disclosure. These variables
were treated as dependent variables and alcoholic/nonalcoholic behaviour of
parents were treated as independent variables. Here the effect of
alcoholic/nonalcoholic behaviours of parents (IV) have been examined on the
growth and development of their children personality traits under reference
including adjustment.
Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
groups of parents in terms of adjustment.
Hypothesis No. 1 : It is likely that children of nonalcoholic parents
would excel over the children counterpart of alcoholic parents in terms of
patterns of adjustment.
Verification
An attempt was made to compare the children of alcoholic and
nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. For the purpose Bell's
Adjustment Inventory (Hind Adaptation) by Mohsin and Shamshad were
administrated on them and scores on adjustment was made. Thereafter, the
obtained score were analysed using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r
respectively. The children respondents belonging to alcoholic parents were
considered as group-I and that of belonging to nonalcoholic parents were
considered as group-II. The results are as follow :
(a) Application of chi-square
Chi-square test was employed for the analysis and treatment of the data
obtained by the high and low adjustment group of respondents on Hindi
Adaptation of Bell's Adjustment Inventory by Mohsin and Shamshad. The
respondents falling at and above the median value were placed in low
adjustment group and the respondents falling below the median value were
placed in to high adjustment group. The percentages of the respondent
children of two groups were compared using chi-square test. The results thus
obtained have been recorded in table 4.01 given below :
Table - 4.01
Chi-square showing the significance of difference in percentages of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic groups of parents in terms of high and low
adjustment scores.
adjustment
Groups N Sound Poor 2 df p
I 150 25% (38) 75% (112)
39.11 1 <.01
II 150 69% (104) 31% (46)
From the results displayed by table 4.01 it is clear that there is a
significant influence of alcoholic behaviour of parents on their children'
adjustment. It is found that 69% (N = 104) children of nonalcoholic parents
and only 25% (N = 38) children of alcoholic parents showed sound
adjustment. On the other hand 31% (N = 46) of children of nonalcoholic
parents and more than 75% (N = 112) children of alcoholic parents manifested
poor adjustment. The chi-square showing the significance of differences
among the percentages was found significant beyond .01 level of confidence
(chi-square = 39.11 df = 1, p <.01). Thus, hypothesis no. 1 is retained. In the
second chapter of the present endeavour it was hypothesized that It is likely
that children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the children counterpart
of alcoholic parents in terms of patterns of adjustment, was fully retained. The
finding relating to adjustment might be interpreted on the ground that family
environment of the children belonging to alcoholic father is pathological. This
is because such parents are unable to behave properly even with the
members of their own family including their children. So, their primary
socialization get disturbed leading to maladjustment on the part of their ward.
(b) Application of t-test
To examine the significance of difference between the means on
adjustment scores by the two groups of children respondents, it was thought
proper to employ t-test keeping in view the size of the sample. The
respondents of the two groups were administered Hindi Adaptation of Bell's
Adjustment Inventory and their respective scores on adjustment variable was
determined using manual then t-test was employed to analyse the results
which is recorded in table 4.02 given below :
Table - 4.02
Mean, SD, SE and t-ratio showing the significance of difference
between the means of children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms
of their adjustment.
Groups N Mean SD SE t df P
I 150 88.49 8.21 0.67
9.61 298 < .01
II 150 79.26 8.47 0.69
It is evident from table 4.02 that the children of group-II ( = 79.26) has
scored significantly higher on adjustment than the children of group-I ( =
88.49). The comparison between two means has yielded a t-value of 9.61
which is significant beyond .01 level of confidence. The obtained t-value (t =
9.61; df = 298; p < .01) confirmed the hypothesis. The interpretation remained
the same.
(c) Application of Pearsonian r
To ascertain the relationship between alcoholic behaviour of parents
with adjustment of children, product moment coefficient of correlation was
computed. The results thus obtained has been recorded in table 4.03 given
below :
Table - 4.03
r - showing the relationship between adjustment and the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Variables N r df P
Alcoholic Parents Vs children' adjustment 150 0.401 148 <.01
 Nonalcoholic Parents Vs children' adjustment150 0.486 148 <.01
It is clear from results table - 4.03 that their is a significant negative
correlation between children of alcoholic parents and their adjustment (r =
0.401; df=148; P<.01) whereas there is a significant positive correlation
between children of alcoholic parents and their adjustment (r = 0.486; df=148;
P<.01). These results are in agreement of the results of tables 4.01 and 4.02
respectively, interpretation remaining the same.
Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
groups of parents in terms of self-concept trait of personality.
Hypothesis No. 2 : It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents
would excel over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of self-concept.
Verification
An attempt was made to compare the children of alcoholic and
nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. For the purpose SDPI were
administrated on them and scores on adjustment was made. Thereafter, the
obtained score were analysed using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r
respectively. The children respondents belonging to alcoholic parents were
considered as group-I and that of belonging to nonalcoholic parents were
considered as group-II. The results are as follow :
(a) Application of chi-square
Chi-square test was employed for the analysis and treatment of the data
obtained by the high and low self-concept group of respondents on SDPI. The
respondents falling at and above the median value were placed in low self-
concept group and the respondents falling below the median value were
placed in to high self-concept group. The percentages of the respondent
children of two groups were compared using chi-square test. The results thus
obtained have been recorded in table 4.04 given below :
Table - 4.04
Chi-square showing the significance of difference in percentages of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic groups of parents in terms of high and low self-
concept scores.
self-concept
Groups N High Low 2 df p
I 150 31% (47) 69% (103)
39.11 1 <.01
II 150 67% (101) 33% (49)
From the results displayed by table 4.04 it is clear that there is a
significant influence of alcoholic behaviour of parents on their children' self-
concept. It is found that 69% (N = 104) children of nonalcoholic parents and
only 31% (N = 47) children of alcoholic parents showed high self-concept. On
the other hand 33% (N = 49) of children of nonalcoholic parents and more
than 69% (N = 103) children of alcoholic parents manifested low self-concept.
The chi-square showing the significance of differences among the
percentages was found significant beyond .01 level of confidence (chi-square
= 26.18 df = 1, p <.01). Thus, hypothesis no. 2 is retained. In the second
chapter of the present endeavour it was hypothesized that It is likely that the
children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the children of alcoholic
parents in terms of self-concept, was fully retained. The finding relating to self-
concept might be interpreted on the ground that favourable family climate is
conducive to the proper growth and development as a result of adequate
primary socialization. This happens properly among the children of
nonalcoholic parents leading to have comparatively higher self-concept than
children of alcoholic parents.
(b) Application of t-test
To examine the significance of difference between the means on self-
concept scores by the two groups of children respondents, it was thought
proper to employ t-test keeping in view the size of the sample. The
respondents of the two groups were administered SDPI and their respective
scores on self-concept variable was determined using manual then t-test was
employed to analyse the results which is recorded in table 4.05 given below :
Table - 4.05
Mean, SD, SE and t-ratio showing the significance of difference
between the means of children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms
of their self-concept trait of personality.
Groups N Mean SD SE t df P
I 150 7.35 2.07 0.16
8.79 298 < .01
II 150 9.46 2.11 0.17
It is evident from table 4.05 that the children of group-II ( = 9.46) has
scored significantly higher on self-concept than the children of group-I ( =
7.35). The comparison between two means has yielded a t-value of 8.79
which is significant beyond .01 level of confidence. The obtained t-value (t =
8.79; df = 298; p < .01) confirmed the hypothesis. The interpretation remained
the same.
(c) Application of Pearsonian r
 To ascertain the relationship between alcoholic behaviour of parents
with adjustment of children, product moment coefficient of correlation was
computed. The results thus obtained has been recorded in table 4.06 given
below :
Table - 4.06
r - showing the relationship between self-concept and the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Variables N r df P
Alcoholic Parents Vs Children' self-concept 150 0.421 148 <.01
Nonalcoholic Parents Vs Children' self-concept 150 0.469 148<.01
It is clear from results table - 4.06 that their is a significant negative
correlation between children of alcoholic parents and their self-concept (r =
0.421; df=148; P<.01) whereas there is a significant positive correlation
between children of alcoholic parents and their self-concept (r = 0.469;
df=148; P<.01). These results are in agreement of the results of tables 4.04
and 4.05 respectively, interpretation remaining the same.
Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
groups of parents in terms of ego-strength trait of personality.
Hypothesis No. 3 : It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents
would excel over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of ego-strength.
Verification
An attempt was made to compare the children of alcoholic and
nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. For the purpose SDPI were
administrated on them and scores on adjustment was made. Thereafter, the
obtained score were analysed using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r
respectively. The children respondents belonging to alcoholic parents were
considered as group-I and that of belonging to nonalcoholic parents were
considered as group-II. The results are as follow :
(a) Application of chi-square
Chi-square test was employed for the analysis and treatment of the data
obtained by the high and low ego-strength group of respondents on SDPI. The
respondents falling at and above the median value were placed in low ego-
strength group and the respondents falling below the median value were
placed in to high ego-strength group. The percentages of the respondent
children of two groups were compared using chi-square test. The results thus
obtained have been recorded in table 4.07 given below :
 Table - 4.07
Chi-square showing the significance of difference in percentages of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic groups of parents in terms of high and low ego-
strength scores.
ego-strength
Groups N High Low 2 df p
I 150 36% (54) 64% (96)
20.69 1 <.01
II 150 68% (102) 32% (48)
From the results displayed by table 4.07 it is clear that there is a
significant influence of alcoholic behaviour of parents on their children' ego-
strength. It is found that 68% (N = 102) children of nonalcoholic parents and
only 36% (N = 54) children of alcoholic parents showed high ego-strength. On
the other hand 64% (N = 96) of children of alcoholic parents and only 32% (N
= 48) children of nonalcoholic parents manifested low ego-strength. The chi-
square showing the significance of differences among the percentages was
found significant beyond .01 level of confidence (chi-square = 20.69 df = 1, p
<.01). Thus, hypothesis no. 3 is retained. In the second chapter of the present
endeavour it was hypothesized that It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic
parents would excel over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of ego
strength., was fully retained. The high scorers on ego-strength trait of
personality are characterised by certain activities, such as to be able to
concentrate and attend to different activities at a time, to have the feelings of
personal adequacy and vitality, to have adequate control over impulses, and
high coordination between thoughts and actions. They face the odds of life
realistically and bear frustrations and handle them effectively. They are
relatively free from dreadful dreams and fantastic ideas. Also, they are tolerant
of individual differences in ideas and ways of doing things. The finding
relating to ego-strength might be interpreted on the ground that favourable
environment builds up confidence in the children of nonalcoholic parents
leading to have comparatively higher ego-strength on their part.
(b) Application of t-test
To examine the significance of difference between the means on ego-
strength scores by the two groups of children respondents, it was thought
proper to employ t-test keeping in view the size of the sample. The
respondents of the two groups were administered SDPI and their respective
scores on ego-strength variable was determined using manual then t-test was
employed to analyse the results which is recorded in table 4.08 given below :
Table - 4.08
Mean, SD, SE and t-ratio showing the significance of difference
between the means of children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms
of their ego-strength trait of personality.
Groups N Mean SD SE t df P
I 150 8.21 1.97 0.16
6.83 298 < .01
II 150 9.85 2.10 0.17
It is evident from table 4.08 that the children of group-II ( = 9.85) has
scored significantly higher on ego-strength than the children of group-I ( =
8.21). The comparison between two means has yielded a t-value of 6.83
which is significant beyond .01 level of confidence. The obtained t-value (t =
6.83; df = 298; p < .01) confirmed the hypothesis. The interpretation remained
the same.
(c) Application of Pearsonian r
To ascertain the relationship between alcoholic behaviour of parents
with adjustment of children, product moment coefficient of correlation was
computed. The results thus obtained has been recorded in table 4.09 given
below :
Table - 4.09
r - showing the relationship between ego-strength and the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Variables N r df P
Alcoholic Parents Vs Children' ego-strength 150 0.375 148 <.01
Nonalcoholic Parents Vs Children' ego-strength 150 0.469 148<.01
It is clear from results table - 4.06 that their is a significant negative
correlation between children of alcoholic parents and their ego-strength (r =
0.375; df=148; P<.01) whereas there is a significant positive correlation
between children of alcoholic parents and their ego-strength (r = 0.469;
df=148; P<.01). These results are in agreement of the results of tables 4.07
and 4.08 respectively, interpretation remaining the same.
Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
groups of parents in terms of curiosity trait of personality.
 Hypothesis No. 4 : It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents
would excel over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of curiosity.
Verification
An attempt was made to compare the children of alcoholic and
nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. For the purpose SDPI were
administrated on them and scores on adjustment was made. Thereafter, the
obtained score were analysed using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r
respectively. The children respondents belonging to alcoholic parents were
considered as group-I and that of belonging to nonalcoholic parents were
considered as group-II. The results are as follow :
(a) Application of chi-square
Chi-square test was employed for the analysis and treatment of the data
obtained by the high and low curiosity group of respondents on SDPI. The
respondents falling at and above the median value were placed in low
curiosity group and the respondents falling below the median value were
placed in to high curiosity group. The percentages of the respondent children
of two groups were compared using chi-square test. The results thus obtained
have been recorded in table 4.04 given below :
Table - 4.10
Chi-square showing the significance of difference in percentages of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic groups of parents in terms of high and low curiosity
scores.
Curiosity
Groups N High Low 2 df p
I 150 39% (51) 61% (99)
23.35 1 <.01
II 150 73% (110) 27% (40)
From the results displayed by table 4.10 it is clear that there is a
significant influence of alcoholic behaviour of parents on their children'
curiosity. It is found that 73% (N = 110) children of nonalcoholic parents and
only 39% (N = 51) children of alcoholic parents showed high curiosity. On the
other hand 27% (N = 40) of children of nonalcoholic parents and more than
61% (N = 99) children of alcoholic parents manifested low curiosity. The chi-
square showing the significance of differences among the percentages was
found significant beyond .01 level of confidence (chi-square = 23.35 df = 1, p
<.01). Thus, hypothesis no. 4 is retained. In the second chapter of the present
endeavour it was hypothesized that It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic
parents would excel over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of curiosity,
was fully retained. Curiosity trait is reflected in several activities, such as
exploring details of objects which are relatively new, making enquiries about
strangers, reaching the place of destination before time, going into the details
of construction of some complex machinery or not trying to know the contexts
of others' reactions towards one self, enquiring people regarding the purpose
of large gathering of persons, rushing for reading newspapers, trying to know
about the habits and customs of foreigners and so on. Our common sense
observations show that these characteristics are often found in adolescents
and youths having good character. The finding relating to curiosity might be
interpreted on the ground that children of nonalcoholic parents enjoy all the
facilities conducive to the growth and development positive personality traits
including curiosity.
(b) Application of t-test
To examine the significance of difference between the means on
curiosity scores by the two groups of children respondents, it was thought
proper to employ t-test keeping in view the size of the sample. The
respondents of the two groups were administered SDPI and their respective
scores on curiosity variable was determined using manual then t-test was
employed to analyse the results which is recorded in table 4.05 given below :
Table - 4.11
Mean, SD, SE and t-ratio showing the significance of difference
between the means of children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms
of their curiosity trait of personality.
Groups N Mean SD SE t df P
I 150 8.25 2.51 0.20
5.57 298 < .01
II 150 9.92 2.80 0.23
It is evident from table 4.11 that the children of group-II ( = 9.92) has
scored significantly higher on curiosity than the children of group-I ( = 8.25).
The comparison between two means has yielded a t-value of 5.57 which is
significant beyond .01 level of confidence. The obtained t-value (t = 5.57; df =
298; p < .01) confirmed the hypothesis. The interpretation remained the same.
(c) Application of Pearsonian r
 To ascertain the relationship between alcoholic behaviour of parents
with adjustment of children, product moment coefficient of correlation was
computed. The results thus obtained has been recorded in table 4.06 given
below :
Table - 4.12
r - showing the relationship between curiosity and the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Variables N r df P
Alcoholic Parents Vs Children' curiosity 150 0.341 148 <.01
Nonalcoholic Parents Vs Children' curiosity 150 0.459 148 <.01
It is clear from results table - 4.06 that their is a significant negative
correlation between children of alcoholic parents and their curiosity (r =
0.341; df=148; P<.01) whereas there is a significant positive correlation
between children of alcoholic parents and their curiosity (r = 0.459; df=148;
P<.01). These results are in agreement of the results of tables 4.10 and 4.11
respectively, interpretation remaining the same.
Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
groups of parents in terms of decisiveness trait of personality.
Hypothesis No. 5 : It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents
would excel over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of decisiveness.
Verification
An attempt was made to compare the children of alcoholic and
nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. For the purpose SDPI were
administrated on them and scores on adjustment was made. Thereafter, the
obtained score were analysed using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r
respectively. The children respondents belonging to alcoholic parents were
considered as group-I and that of belonging to nonalcoholic parents were
considered as group-II. The results are as follow :
(a) Application of chi-square
Chi-square test was employed for the analysis and treatment of the data
obtained by the high and low decisiveness group of respondents on SDPI.
The respondents falling at and above the median value were placed in low
decisiveness group and the respondents falling below the median value were
placed in to high decisiveness group. The percentages of the respondent
children of two groups were compared using chi-square test. The results thus
obtained have been recorded in table 4.13 given below :
Table - 4.13
Chi-square showing the significance of difference in percentages of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic groups of parents in terms of high and low
decisiveness scores.
decisiveness
Groups N High Low 2 df p
I 150 31% (47) 69% (103)
26.18 1 <.01
II 150 67% (101) 33% (49)
From the results displayed by table 4.13 it is clear that there is a
significant influence of alcoholic behaviour of parents on their children'
decisiveness. It is found that 67% (N = 101) children of nonalcoholic parents
and only 31% (N = 47) children of alcoholic parents showed high
decisiveness. On the other hand 33% (N = 49) of children of nonalcoholic
parents and more than 69% (N = 103) children of alcoholic parents manifested
low decisiveness. The chi-square showing the significance of differences
among the percentages was found significant beyond .01 level of confidence
(chi-square = 26.18 df = 1, p <.01). Thus, hypothesis no. 5 is retained. In the
second chapter of the present endeavour it was hypothesized that It is likely
that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the children of
alcoholic parents in terms of decisiveness, was fully retained. The high scores
on decisiveness trait take quick decision in controversial matters, decide
easily which of the activities should be taken up first, undertake a journey after
quick decision, take a clear-cut stand over the given issues, remain firm over
the decision and stick to them, decide priorities accordingly and attend to
them, resolve a conflict by much of pondering, and take political, social,
religious, and other decisions independently (Singh, 1978). The finding
relating to decisiveness might be interpreted on the ground that the children of
nonalcoholic enjoy comparatively more favourable climate to grow and
develop decisiveness trait of personality.
(b) Application of t-test
To examine the significance of difference between the means on
decisiveness scores by the two groups of children respondents, it was thought
proper to employ t-test keeping in view the size of the sample. The
respondents of the two groups were administered SDPI and their respective
scores on decisiveness variable was determined using manual then t-test was
employed to analyse the results which is recorded in table 4.14 given below :
Table - 4.14
Mean, SD, SE and t-ratio showing the significance of difference
between the means of children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms
of their decisiveness trait of personality.
Groups N Mean SD SE t df P
I 150 8.15 2.19 0.18
7.33 298 < .01
II 150 9.91 2.06 0.17
It is evident from table 4.14 that the children of group-II ( = 9.91) has
scored significantly higher on decisiveness than the children of group-I ( =
8.15). The comparison between two means has yielded a t-value of 7.33
which is significant beyond .01 level of confidence. The obtained t-value (t =
7.33; df = 298; p < .01) confirmed the hypothesis. The interpretation remained
the same.
(c) Application of Pearsonian r
To ascertain the relationship between alcoholic behaviour of parents
with adjustment of children, product moment coefficient of correlation was
computed. The results thus obtained has been recorded in table 4.15 given
below :
Table - 4.15
r - showing the relationship between decisiveness and the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Variables N r df P
Alcoholic Parents Vs Children' decisiveness 150 0.413 148 <.01
Nonalcoholic Parents Vs Children' decisiveness150 0.475 148 <.01
It is clear from results table - 4.15 that their is a significant negative
correlation between children of alcoholic parents and their decisiveness (r =
0.413; df=148; P<.01) whereas there is a significant positive correlation
between children of alcoholic parents and their decisiveness (r = 0.475;
df=148; P<.01). These results are in agreement of the results of tables 4.13
and 4.14 respectively, interpretation remaining the same.
 Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
groups of parents in terms of emotional stability trait of
personality.
Hypothesis No. 6 :It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents
would excel over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of emotional
stability.
Verification
An attempt was made to compare the children of alcoholic and
nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. For the purpose SDPI were
administrated on them and scores on adjustment was made. Thereafter, the
obtained score were analysed using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r
respectively. The children respondents belonging to alcoholic parents were
considered as group-I and that of belonging to nonalcoholic parents were
considered as group-II. The results are as follow :
(a) Application of chi-square
Chi-square test was employed for the analysis and treatment of the data
obtained by the high and low emotional stability group of respondents on
SDPI. The respondents falling at and above the median value were placed in
low emotional stability group and the respondents falling below the median
value were placed in to high emotional stability group. The percentages of the
respondent children of two groups were compared using chi-square test. The
results thus obtained have been recorded in table 4.04 given below :
Table - 4.16
Chi-square showing the significance of difference in percentages of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic groups of parents in terms of high and low
emotional stability scores.
emotional stability
Groups N High Low 2 df p
I 150 24% (36) 76% (114)
48.51 1 <.01
II 150 73% (110) 27% (40)
From the results displayed by table 4.16 it is clear that there is a
significant influence of alcoholic behaviour of parents on their children'
emotional stability. It is found that 73% (N = 110) children of nonalcoholic
parents and only 24% (N = 36) children of alcoholic parents showed high
emotional stability. On the other hand 27% (N = 40) of children of nonalcoholic
parents and more than 76% (N = 114) children of alcoholic parents manifested
low emotional stability. The chi-square showing the significance of differences
among the percentages was found significant beyond .01 level of confidence
(chi-square = 48.51 df = 1, p <.01). Thus, hypothesis no. 6 is retained. In the
second chapter of the present endeavour it was hypothesized that It is likely
that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the children of
alcoholic parents in terms of emotional stability, was fully retained. It may be
recalled that the high scorers on emotional stability dimension reply boldly the
questions put in group or in an interview, talk confidently with others and face
personal comments and criticism. They are also free from common phobic
reactions and doubts over others' actions or reactions. The finding relating to
emotional stability might be interpreted on the ground that intimate behaviour
of nonalcoholic parents to their wards which are conducive to the growth and
development of emotional stability. Such children comparatively develops to
face with stress and anxiety as compared to their counterparts children of
alcoholic parents.
(b) Application of t-test
To examine the significance of difference between the means on
emotional stability scores by the two groups of children respondents, it was
thought proper to employ t-test keeping in view the size of the sample. The
respondents of the two groups were administered SDPI and their respective
scores on emotional stability variable was determined using manual then t-test
was employed to analyse the results which is recorded in table 4.17 given
below :
Table - 4.17
Mean, SD, SE and t-ratio showing the significance of difference
between the means of children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms
of their emotional stability trait of personality.
Groups N Mean SD SE t df P
I 150 8.41 2.12 0.17
5.27 298 < .01
II 150 9.78 2.34 0.19
It is evident from table 4.17 that the children of group-II ( = 9.78) has
scored significantly higher on emotional stability than the children of group-I
( = 8.41). The comparison between two means has yielded a t-value of 5.27
which is significant beyond .01 level of confidence. The obtained t-value (t =
5.27; df = 298; p < .01) confirmed the hypothesis. The interpretation remained
the same.
(c) Application of Pearsonian r
To ascertain the relationship between alcoholic behaviour of parents
with adjustment of children, product moment coefficient of correlation was
computed. The results thus obtained has been recorded in table 4.18 given
below :
Table - 4.18
r - showing the relationship between emotional stability and the children
of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Variables N r df P
Alcoholic Parents Vs Children' emotional stability 150 0.411 148 <.01
Nonalcoholic Parents Vs Children' emotional stability 150 0.459 148<.01
It is clear from results table - 4.18 that their is a significant negative
correlation between children of alcoholic parents and their emotional stability
(r = 0.411; df=148; P<.01) whereas there is a significant positive correlation
between children of alcoholic parents and their emotional stability (r = 0.459;
df=148; P<.01). These results are in agreement of the results of tables 4.16
and 4.17 respectively, interpretation remaining the same.
Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
groups of parents in terms of heterosexuality trait of
personality.
Hypothesis No. 7 : It is likely that there would be significant difference
of heterosexuality between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Verification
An attempt was made to compare the children of alcoholic and
nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. For the purpose SDPI were
administrated on them and scores on adjustment was made. Thereafter, the
obtained score were analysed using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r
respectively. The children respondents belonging to alcoholic parents were
considered as group-I and that of belonging to nonalcoholic parents were
considered as group-II. The results are as follow :
(a) Application of chi-square :
Chi-square test was employed for the analysis and treatment of the data
obtained by the high and low heterosexuality group of respondents on SDPI.
The respondents falling at and above the median value were placed in low
heterosexuality group and the respondents falling below the median value
were placed in to high heterosexuality group. The percentages of the
respondent children of two groups were compared using chi-square test. The
results thus obtained have been recorded in table 4.19 given below :
Table - 4.19
Chi-square showing the significance of difference in percentages of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic groups of parents in terms of high and low
heterosexuality scores.
heterosexuality
Groups N High Low 2 df p
I 150 26% (39) 74% (111)
35.64 1 <.01
II 150 68% (102) 32% (48)
From the results displayed by table 4.19 it is clear that there is a
significant influence of alcoholic behaviour of parents on their children'
heterosexuality. It is found that 68% (N = 102) children of nonalcoholic parents
and only 26% (N = 39) children of alcoholic parents showed high
heterosexuality. On the other hand 32% (N = 48) of children of nonalcoholic
parents and more than 74% (N = 111) children of alcoholic parents manifested
low heterosexuality. The chi-square showing the significance of differences
among the percentages was found significant beyond .01 level of confidence
(chi-square = 35.64; df = 1, p <.01). Thus, hypothesis no. 7 is retained. In the
second chapter of the present endeavour it was hypothesized that It is likely
that there would be significant difference of heterosexuality between the
children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents, was fully retained. The
characteristics of persons having heterosexuality trait of personality are
manifested in several ways, such as to be loving opposite sex, reading
pornographic literature, taking active participation in a discussion over matters
relating to sex, making jokes involving sex and so on. Obviously these
characteristics are more often observed in adolescents having delinquent
tendency. The present finding also gains indirect support from the findings of
Kishore (1976) who observe significant and positive linkage between
heterosexuality motive and riskiness. There is also a vague feeling that
individuals guided by a strong heterosexual motive will be those endowed with
higher vigour. In American society, Rettig and Pasamanick have found that
persons with higher heterosexual trait take more ethical risk. Looking into
overall trend of analysis, it seems proper to suggest that the linkage between
the two variables needs to be further studied. The finding relating to
heterosexuality might be interpreted on the ground that the children of group-I
face a lot of problems due to the ill behaviour of their parents leading to be
found with inferior trait of heterosexuality trait of personality as compared to
their counterpart children belonging to group-II or nonalcoholic parents.
(b) Application of t-test
To examine the significance of difference between the means on
heterosexuality scores by the two groups of children respondents, it was
thought proper to employ t-test keeping in view the size of the sample. The
respondents of the two groups were administered SDPI and their respective
scores on heterosexuality variable was determined using manual then t-test
was employed to analyse the results which is recorded in table 4.20 given
below :
Table - 4.20
Mean, SD, SE and t-ratio showing the significance of difference
between the means of children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms
of their heterosexuality trait of personality.
Groups N Mean SD SE t df P
I 150 7.98 2.08 0.16
4.79 298 < .01
II 150 9.13 2.18 0.18
It is evident from table 4.20 that the children of group-II ( = 9.13) has
scored significantly higher on heterosexuality than the children of group-I ( =
7.98). The comparison between two means has yielded a t-value of 4.79
which is significant beyond .01 level of confidence. The obtained t-value (t =
4.79; df = 298; p < .01) confirmed the hypothesis. The interpretation remained
the same.
(c) Application of Pearsonian r
To ascertain the relationship between alcoholic behaviour of parents
with adjustment of children, product moment coefficient of correlation was
computed. The results thus obtained has been recorded in table 4.21 given
below :
Table - 4.21
r - showing the relationship between heterosexuality and the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
 Variables N r df P
Alcoholic Parents Vs Children' heterosexuality 150 0.356 148 <.01
Nonalcoholic Parents Vs Children' heterosexuality 150 0.449 148 <.01
It is clear from results table - 4.21 that their is a significant negative
correlation between children of alcoholic parents and their heterosexuality (r =
0.356; df=148; P<.01) whereas there is a significant positive correlation
between children of alcoholic parents and their heterosexuality (r = 0.449;
df=148; P<.01). These results are in agreement of the results of tables 4.19
and 4.20 respectively, interpretation remaining the same.
Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
groups of parents in terms of responsibility trait of personality.
Hypothesis No. 8 : It is likely that there would be significant difference
of responsibility between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Verification
An attempt was made to compare the children of alcoholic and
nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. For the purpose SDPI were
administrated on them and scores on adjustment was made. Thereafter, the
obtained score were analysed using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r
respectively. The children respondents belonging to alcoholic parents were
considered as group-I and that of belonging to nonalcoholic parents were
considered as group-II. The results are as follow :
(a) Application of chi-square :
Chi-square test was employed for the analysis and treatment of the data
obtained by the high and low responsibility group of respondents on SDPI.
The respondents falling at and above the median value were placed in low
responsibility group and the respondents falling below the median value were
placed in to high responsibility group. The percentages of the respondent
children of two groups were compared using chi-square test. The results thus
obtained have been recorded in table 4.04 given below :
Table - 4.22
Chi-square showing the significance of difference in percentages of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic groups of parents in terms of high and low
responsibility scores.
responsibility
Groups N High Low 2 df p
I 150 28% (42) 72% (108)
29.17 1 <.01
II 150 66% (99) 34% (51)
From the results displayed by table 4.22 it is clear that there is a
significant influence of alcoholic behaviour of parents on their children'
responsibility. It is found that 66% (N = 99) children of nonalcoholic parents
and only 28% (N = 42) children of alcoholic parents showed high
responsibility. On the other hand 34% (N = 51) of children of nonalcoholic
parents and more than 72% (N = 108) children of alcoholic parents manifested
low responsibility. The chi-square showing the significance of differences
among the percentages was found significant beyond .01 level of confidence
(chi-square = 29.17 df = 1, p <.01). Thus, hypothesis no. 5 is retained. In the
second chapter of the present endeavour it was hypothesized that It is likely
that there would be significant difference of responsibility between the children
of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents, was fully retained. It may be recalled
that the high scorers on responsibility dimension have patience to finish a task
in time, to keep careful watch on what is right or what is wrong while
interacting with others, to act well as a head or to hold a key position in an
institution, etc. These characteristics resemble to responsibility dimension of
Gordon's Personal Profile. The finding relating to responsibility might be
interpreted on the ground that the conducive behaviour of nonalcoholic
parents lead to develop favourable personality traits in their children including
responsibility traits as compared to ill mannered alcoholic parents who don't
behave properly to their ward.
(b) Application of t-test
To examine the significance of difference between the means on
responsibility scores by the two groups of children respondents, it was thought
proper to employ t-test keeping in view the size of the sample. The
respondents of the two groups were administered SDPI and their respective
scores on responsibility variable was determined using manual then t-test was
employed to analyse the results which is recorded in table 4.23 given below :
Table - 4.23
Mean, SD, SE and t-ratio showing the significance of difference
between the means of children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms
of their responsibility trait of personality.
Groups N Mean SD SE t df P
I 150 8.41 1.97 0.16
6.64 298 < .01
II 150 9.87 2.15 0.17
 It is evident from table 4.23 that the children of group-II ( = 9.87) has
scored significantly higher on responsibility than the children of group-I ( =
8.41). The comparison between two means has yielded a t-value of 6.64
which is significant beyond .01 level of confidence. The obtained t-value (t =
6.64; df = 298; p < .01) confirmed the hypothesis. The interpretation remained
the same.
(c) Application of Pearsonian r
To ascertain the relationship between alcoholic behaviour of parents
with adjustment of children, product moment coefficient of correlation was
computed. The results thus obtained has been recorded in table 4.24 given
below :
Table - 4.24
r - showing the relationship between responsibility and the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Variables N r df P
Alcoholic Parents Vs Children' responsibility 150 0.429 148 <.01
Nonalcoholic Parents Vs Children' responsibility 150 0.463 148 <.01
It is clear from results table - 4.24 that their is a significant negative
correlation between children of alcoholic parents and their responsibility (r =
0.429; df=148; P<.01) whereas there is a significant positive correlation
between children of alcoholic parents and their responsibility (r = 0.463;
df=148; P<.01). These results are in agreement of the results of tables 4.22
and 4.23 respectively, interpretation remaining the same.
Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
groups of parents in terms of dominance trait of personality.
Hypothesis No. 9 : It is likely that there would be significant difference
of dominance between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Verification
An attempt was made to compare the children of alcoholic and
nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. For the purpose SDPI were
administrated on them and scores on adjustment was made. Thereafter, the
obtained score were analysed using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r
respectively. The children respondents belonging to alcoholic parents were
considered as group-I and that of belonging to nonalcoholic parents were
considered as group-II. The results are as follow :
(a) Application of chi-square :
Chi-square test was employed for the analysis and treatment of the data
obtained by the high and low dominance group of respondents on SDPI. The
respondents falling at and above the median value were placed in low
dominance group and the respondents falling below the median value were
placed in to high dominance group. The percentages of the respondent
children of two groups were compared using chi-square test. The results thus
obtained have been recorded in table 4.25 given below :
Table - 4.25
Chi-square showing the significance of difference in percentages of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic groups of parents in terms of high and low
dominance scores.
dominance
Groups N High Low 2 df p
I 150 36% (54) 64% (96)
27.77 1 <.01
II 150 73% (110) 27% (40)
From the results displayed by table 4.25 it is clear that there is a
significant influence of alcoholic behaviour of parents on their children'
dominance. It is found that 73% (N = 110) children of nonalcoholic parents
and only 36% (N = 54) children of alcoholic parents showed high dominance.
On the other hand 27% (N = 40) of children of nonalcoholic parents and more
than 64% (N = 96) children of alcoholic parents manifested low dominance.
The chi-square showing the significance of differences among the
percentages was found significant beyond .01 level of confidence (chi-square
= 27.77; df = 1, p <.01). Thus, hypothesis no. 9 is retained. In the second
chapter of the present endeavour it was hypothesized that It is likely that there
would be significant difference of dominance between the children of alcoholic
and nonalcoholic parents, was fully retained. Characteristics of the persons
with strong dominance trait may be recalled. Such persons dictate others for
their duty, oppose an opponent severely, undertake the supervision of a
difficult and complex task, impose their will over others, and like to be the
leader of their group. Obviously these characteristics are more or less
conducive to delinquent behaviour. But due to contrary empirical observation,
nothing can be said conclusively so far as the association between two
variables is concerned. However further studies are suggested in order to
arrive at conclusive result. The finding relating to dominance might be
interpreted on the ground that the favourable family climate induce superior
growth and development of dominance trait on the part of children of
nonalcoholic parents than the children of alcoholic parents.
(b) Application of t-test
To examine the significance of difference between the means on
dominance scores by the two groups of children respondents, it was thought
proper to employ t-test keeping in view the size of the sample. The
respondents of the two groups were administered SDPI and their respective
scores on dominance variable was determined using manual then t-test was
employed to analyse the results which is recorded in table 4.26 given below :
Table - 4.26
Mean, SD, SE and t-ratio showing the significance of difference
between the means of children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms
of their dominance trait of personality.
Groups N Mean SD SE t df P
I 150 8.62 2.06 0.17
5.58 298 < .01
II 150 9.96 2.14 0.17
It is evident from table 4.26 that the children of group-II ( = 9.96) has
scored significantly higher on dominance than the children of group-I ( = 8.62).
The comparison between two means has yielded a t-value of 5.58 which is
significant beyond .01 level of confidence. The obtained t-value (t = 5.58; df =
298; p < .01) confirmed the hypothesis. The interpretation remained the same.
(c) Application of Pearsonian r
To ascertain the relationship between alcoholic behaviour of parents
with adjustment of children, product moment coefficient of correlation was
computed. The results thus obtained has been recorded in table 4.27 given
below :
Table - 4.27
r - showing the relationship between dominance and the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Variables N r df P
Alcoholic Parents Vs Children' dominance 150 0.389 148 <.01
Nonalcoholic Parents Vs Children' dominance150 0.447 148 <.01
 It is clear from results table - 4.27 that their is a significant negative
correlation between children of alcoholic parents and their dominance (r =
0.389; df=148; P<.01) whereas there is a significant positive correlation
between children of alcoholic parents and their dominance (r = 0.447; df=148;
P<.01). These results are in agreement of the results of tables 4.25 and 4.26
respectively, interpretation remaining the same.
Comparison between children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
groups of parents in terms of self-disclosure trait of
personality.
Hypothesis No. 10 : It is likely that there would be significant difference
of self-disclosure between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Verification
An attempt was made to compare the children of alcoholic and
nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. For the purpose De and Singh's
Self-Disclosure Scale were administrated on them and scores on adjustment
was made. Thereafter, the obtained score were analysed using chi-square
test, t-test and Pearsonian r respectively. The children respondents belonging
to alcoholic parents were considered as group-I and that of belonging to
nonalcoholic parents were considered as group-II. The results are as follow :
(a) Application of chi-square :
Chi-square test was employed for the analysis and treatment of the data
obtained by the high and low self-disclosure group of respondents on De and
Singh's Self-Disclosure Scale. The respondents falling at and above the
median value were placed in low self-disclosure group and the respondents
falling below the median value were placed in to high self-disclosure group.
The percentages of the respondent children of two groups were compared
using chi-square test. The results thus obtained have been recorded in table
4.28 given below :
Table - 4.28
Chi-square showing the significance of difference in percentages of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic groups of parents in terms of high and low self-
disclosure scores.
self-disclosure
Groups N High Low 2 df p
I 150 33% (50) 67% (100)
29.17 1 <.01
II 150 71% (107) 29% (43)
 From the results displayed by table 4.28 it is clear that there is a
significant influence of alcoholic behaviour of parents on their children' self-
disclosure. It is found that 71% (N = 107) children of nonalcoholic parents and
only 33% (N = 50) children of alcoholic parents showed high self-disclosure.
On the other hand 29% (N = 43) of children of nonalcoholic parents and more
than 67% (N = 100) children of alcoholic parents manifested low self-
disclosure. The chi-square showing the significance of differences among the
percentages was found significant beyond .01 level of confidence (chi-square
= 29.17 df = 1, p <.01). Thus, hypothesis no. 10 is retained. In the second
chapter of the present endeavour it was hypothesized that It is likely that there
would be significant difference of self-disclosure between the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents, was fully retained. The finding relating to
self-disclosure might be interpreted on the ground that democratic behaviour
and favourable climate on the part of children of nonalcoholic parents lead to
develop proper growth and development of self-disclosure trait in the children
of nonalcoholic parents.
(b) Application of t-test
To examine the significance of difference between the means on self-
disclosure scores by the two groups of children respondents, it was thought
proper to employ t-test keeping in view the size of the sample. The
respondents of the two groups were administered SDPI and their respective
scores on self-disclosure variable was determined using manual then t-test
was employed to analyse the results which is recorded in table 4.29 given
below :
Table - 4.29
Mean, SD, SE and t-ratio showing the significance of difference
between the means of children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms
of their self-disclosure trait of personality.
Groups N Mean SD SE t df P
I 150 52.72 9.25 0.75
8.08 298 < .01
II 150 61.45 9.46 0.77
It is evident from table 4.29 that the children of group-II ( = 61.45) has
scored significantly higher on self-disclosure than the children of group-I ( =
52.72). The comparison between two means has yielded a t-value of 8.08
which is significant beyond .01 level of confidence. The obtained t-value (t =
8.08; df = 298; p < .01) confirmed the hypothesis. The interpretation remained
the same.
(c) Application of Pearsonian r
To ascertain the relationship between alcoholic behaviour of parents
with adjustment of children, product moment coefficient of correlation was
computed. The results thus obtained has been recorded in table 4.30 given
below :
Table - 4.30
r - showing the relationship between self-disclosure and the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
Variables N r df P
Alcoholic Parents Vs Children' self-disclosure 150 0.381 148 <.01
Nonalcoholic Parents Vs Children' self-disclosure 150 0.479 148 <.01
It is clear from results table - 4.30 that their is a significant negative
correlation between children of alcoholic parents and their self-disclosure (r =
0.381; df=148; P<.01) whereas there is a significant positive correlation
between children of alcoholic parents and their self-disclosure (r = 0.479;
df=148; P<.01). These results are in agreement of the results of tables 4.28
and 4.29 respectively, interpretation remaining the same.
Correlational matrices showing relationship among the independent
variables.
11. It is likely that there would be significant relationship among the IV
(personality variables and adjustment).
Verification
An attempt was made to examine the relationship among the
independent variables under reference. The results are as under.
Table - 4.34
'r' showing the correlation among personality variables under study.
Variable N r df P
Adjustment Vs Self-concept 300 0.482 298 .01
Adjustment Vs Ego-strength 300 0.465 298 .01
Adjustment Vs Curiosity 300 0.439 298 .01
Adjustment Vs Decisiveness 300 0.445 298 .01
Adjustment Vs Emotional Stability 300 0.449 298 .01
Adjustment Vs Heterosexuality 300 0.437 298 .01
Adjustment Vs Responsibility 300 0.455 298 .01
Adjustment Vs Dominance 300 0.458 298 .01
Adjustment Vs Self-disclosure 300 0.478 298 .01
Self-concept Vs Ego-strength 300 0.488 298 .01
Self-concept Vs Curiosity 300 0.473 298 .01
Self-concept Vs Decisiveness 300 0.469 298 .01
Self-concept Vs Emotional Stability 300 0.477 298 .01
Self-concept Vs Heterosexuality 300 0.459 298 .01
Self-concept Vs Responsibility 300 0.462 298 .01
Self-concept Vs Dominance 300 0.489 298 .01
Self-concept Vs Self-disclosure 300 0.490 298 .01
Ego-strength Vs Curiosity 300 0.461 298 .01
Ego-strength Vs Decisiveness 300 0.451 298 .01
Ego-strength Vs Emotional Stability 300 0.463 298 .01
Ego-strength Vs Heterosexuality 300 0.467 298 .01
Ego-strength Vs Responsibility 300 0.488 298 .01
Ego-strength Vs Dominance 300 0.485 298 .01
Ego-strength Vs Self-disclosure 300 0.458 298 .01
Curiosity Vs Decisiveness 300 0.450 298 .01
Curiosity Vs Emotional Stability 300 0.472 298 .01
Curiosity Vs Heterosexuality 300 0.483 298 .01
Curiosity Vs Responsibility 300 0.476 298 .01
Curiosity Vs Dominance 300 0.477 298 .01
Curiosity Vs Self-disclosure 300 0.464 298 .01
Decisiveness Vs Emotional Stability 300 0.443 298 .01
Decisiveness Vs Heterosexuality 300 0.433 298 .01
Decisiveness Vs Responsibility 300 0.431 298 .01
Decisiveness Vs Dominance 300 0.466 298 .01
Decisiveness Vs Self-disclosure 300 0.472 298 .01
Emotional Stability Vs Heterosexuality 300 0.458 298 .01
Emotional Stability Vs Responsibility 300 0.474 298 .01
Emotional Stability Vs Dominance 300 0.458 298 .01
Emotional Stability Vs Self-disclosure 300 0.466 298 .01
Heterosexuality Vs Responsibility 300 0.473 298 .01
Heterosexuality Vs Dominance 300 0.439 298 .01
Heterosexuality Vs Self-disclosure 300 0.459 298 .01
Responsibility Vs Dominance 300 0.447 298 .01
Responsibility Vs Self-disclosure 300 0.488 298 .01
Dominance Vs Self-disclosure 300 0.479 298 .01
It is clear from the table 4.31 that personality variables are significantly
correlated with one another. (Adjustment Vs Self-concept r=0.482
df=298; p.<01; Adjustment Vs Ego-strength r=0.465; df; 298; p.<01;
Adjustment Vs Curiosity r=0.439; df=298; p.<01; Adjustment Vs Decisiveness
r= 0.445, df=298 p<.01; Adjustment Vs Emotional Stability r=0.449; df=298;
p<.01; Adjustment Vs Heterosexuality r=0.437; df=298; p<.01; Adjustment Vs
Responsibility r=0.455; df=298; p<.01; Adjustment Vs Dominance r=0.458;
df=298; p<.01; Adjustment Vs Self-disclosure r=0.478; df=298; p<.01; Self-
concept Vs Ego-strength r=0.488; df= 298; p<.01; Self-concept Vs
Curiosity; r=0.473; df=298; p<.01; Self-concept Vs Decisiveness r=0.469;
df=298; p<.01; Self-concept Vs Emotional Stability r=0.477; df=298;
p<.01; Self-concept Vs Heterosexuality r=0.459; df=298; p<.01, Self-concept
Vs Responsibility r=0.462; df=298; p<.01; Self-concept Vs Dominance
r=0.489; df=298; p<.01; Self-concept Vs Self-disclosure r=0.490; df=298;
p<.01; Ego-strength Vs Curiosity r=0.461; df=298; p<.01; Ego-strength Vs
Decisiveness r=0.451; df=298; p<.01; Ego-strength Vs Emotional Stability
r=0.463; df=298; p<.01; Ego-strength Vs Heterosexuality r=0.467; df=298;
p<.01; Ego-strength Vs Responsibility r=0.488; df=298; p<.01; Ego-strength
Vs Dominance r=0.485; df=298; p<.01; Ego-strength Vs Self-disclosure
r=0.458; df=298; p<.01; Curiosity Vs Decisiveness r=0.450; df=298; p<.01;
Curiosity Vs Emotional Stability r=0.472; df=298; p<.01; Curiosity Vs
Heterosexuality r=0.483; df=298; p<.01; Curiosity Vs Responsibility r=0.476;
df=298; p<.01; Curiosity Vs Dominance r=0.477; df=298; p<.01; Curiosity Vs
Self-disclosure r=0.464; df=298; p<.01; Decisiveness Vs Emotional Stability
r=0.443; df=298; p<.01; Decisiveness Vs Heterosexuality r=0.433;
df=298; p<.01; Decisiveness Vs Responsibility r=0.431; df=298; p<.01;
Decisiveness Vs Dominance r=0.466; df=298; p<.01; Decisiveness Vs Self-
disclosure r=0.472; df=298; p<.01; Emotional Stability Vs Heterosexuality
r=0.458; df=298; p<.01; Emotional Stability Vs Responsibility r=0.474; df=298;
p<.01; Emotional Stability Vs Dominance r=0.458; df=298; p<.01; Emotional
Stability Vs Self-disclosurer = 0.466; df = 298; p<.01; Heterosexuality Vs
Responsibility r=0.473; df=298; p<.01; Heterosexuality Vs Dominance
r=0.439; df=298; p<.01; Heterosexuality Vs Self-disclosure r=0.459; df=298;
p<.01; Responsibility Vs Dominance r=0.447; df=298; p<.01; Responsibility Vs
Self-disclosure r=0.488; df=298; p<.01; Dominance Vs Self-disclosure
r=0.479; df=298; p<.01

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The term self-concept, the first component has been defined as one's
concept of oneself in as complete and thorough a description as is possible
for one to give. Self-disclosure refers to the ability to express oneself. It is a
process in which, the individual purposefully communicates information about
himself/herself. Psychoanalytic theory characterizes the strength of the ego in
terms of its share of available psychic energy. Theoretically, the stronger is the
ego the greater the resoluteness of character, and according to some, the
more likely the individual will be able to withstand the slings and arrows.
Curiosity refers to exploring the novel things, tending to reach the destination
in time etc. Decisiveness refers to person's ability to take quick decisions.
Emotional stability refers to a tendency to be emotionally stable.
Heterosexuality refers to the trait of having normal sex relationship with
opposite sex. Such people do not feel shy among members of opposite sex
while interacting with them. Responsibility refers to a behavioural syndromes
such as finishing a task in time, meeting people on appointed time, attending
meeting in time etc. Dominance refers to the trait of dictating over others,
ruling over others, supervision of difficult task, tending to settle the
controversies between the parties.
 One major component of the present study is adjustment which needs
some elaboration here. In one sense the term 'adjustment' refers to a
continual process, by which a person varies in behaviour to produce a more
harmonious relationship between himself and his environment. In another
sense it refers to a state of harmony arrived at by a person whom we call 'well
adjusted' (Gates at el. 1950). Adjustment has been defined as a process by
which an individual attempts to meet the external demands made upon him
and his own nature. However, Hussain (1985) has given a more acceptable
explanation of the term 'adjustment'. He said the adjustment is a continual
process by which the individual attempts to bring a harmonious, stable and
satisfying relationship with his environment by bringing changes in the
environment to fit into his own demands and/or by altering his impulses and
responses to fit into the demands of his environment. This has been further
supported by Petter Stratton and Nicky Hayes (1991) who said that
adjustment refers to the individual's achieving a harmonious balance with the
demands of both environment and his cognation. Reber et al. (2009) said
"Adjustment refers to the relation that any organism establishes with respect
to its environment."
Some studies have been conducted both in India and abroad to
examine the effect of life satisfaction, parental style, social support, culture,
community, SES, sex and adjustment of the respondents (Dev. 1985; Kavita,
2004; Supriya, 2005; Ahmad, 2005; Agarwal, 2007; Singh, 2007, Kumar,
2007, Manibala, 2006; Sonam, 2007). Similarly some studies have been
conducted to examine the impact of psychological factors such as
conservatism, neuroticism, machiavellianism, cognitive style, aggressiveness
etc. without any obvious reference to the independent variables under study
(Singh, et al. 2007; Agarwal, 2007; Kumar, et al, 2006; Kumar et al, 2005;
Bano, 2006; Kumar, 2007; Kumar, 2007; Kumari, 2007, Sonam, 2007).
Moreover, some Indian studies have been conducted relating to certain
personality correlates but these studies are not sufficient enough to make a
conclusive prediction (Sarika, 2004-05, Kumar, 2007; Ranjan, 2007; Kumar et
al. 2007; Rekha Rani, 2006; Rashmi 2006; Kumari 2005; Kumar, 2004;
Prasad 2004; Das 2004 etc.) Naturally undertaking of the present study
seems justified and warranted.
Objectives : The following were the objectives of the present study :
1. The first objective of the present study was to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. In other
 sense the objective was to examine whether or not alcoholism on the
part of parents interfere with the adjustment of their children.
2. The first objective of the present study was to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of self-concept trait of
personality. In other sense the objective was to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of self-concept trait of personality in their children.
3. The first objective of the present study was to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of ego-strength trait of
personality. In other sense the objective was to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of ego-strength trait of personality in their children.
4. The first objective of the present study was to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of curiosity trait of
personality. In other sense the objective was to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of curiosity trait of personality in their children.
5. The first objective of the present study was to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of decisiveness trait of
personality. In other sense the objective was to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of decisiveness trait of personality in their children.
6. The first objective of the present study was to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of emotional stability trait of
personality. In other sense the objective was to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of emotional stability trait of personality in their children.
7. The first objective of the present study was to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of heterosexuality trait of
personality. In other sense the objective was to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of heterosexuality trait of personality in their children.
8. The first objective of the present study was to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of responsibility trait of
personality. In other sense the objective was to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of responsibility trait of personality in their children.
 9. The first objective of the present study was to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of dominance trait of
personality. In other sense the objective was to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of dominance trait of personality in their children.
10. The first objective of the present study was to compare the children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of self-disclosure trait of
personality. In other sense the objective was to examine whether or not
alcoholism on the part of parents interfere with the growth and
development of self-disclosure trait of personality in their children.
11. The last objective of the present study was to inculcate relationship
among the variables under study.
Hypotheses
1. It is likely that children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children counterpart of alcoholic parents in terms of patterns of
adjustment.
2. It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children of alcoholic parents in terms of self-concept.
3. It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children of alcoholic parents in terms of ego strength.
4. It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children of alcoholic parents in terms of curiosity.
5. It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children of alcoholic parents in terms of decisiveness.
6. It is likely that the children of nonalcoholic parents would excel over the
children of alcoholic parents in terms of emotional stability.
7. It is likely that there would be significant difference of heterosexuality
between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
8. It is likely that there would be significant difference of responsibility
between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
9. It is likely that there would be significant difference of dominance
between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
10. It is likely that there would be significant difference of self-disclosure
between the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.
11. It is likely that there would be significant relationship among the IV
(personality variables and adjustment).
 Methodology
(a) Sample
The incidental-cum-purposive sample consisting of 300 children were
drawn out of which 150 children were belonging to alcoholic parents and
remaining 150 children were belonging to nonalcoholic parents. Alcoholic
parents were identified from various alcoholic de-addiction centres of Patna as
well as on the basis of personal contact and nonalcoholic parents were
selected from the same socio economic background so far as practicable the
children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents were selected for data
collection. The children were belonging to 16-22 yrs. of age. They were both
attending/non-attending of the educational institution.
(B) Design of the Study
The problem under investigation is a comparative as well as
correlational study examining the differences in adjustment and various
personality traits namely self-concept, ego-strength, curiosity, decisiveness,
emotional stability, heterosexuality, responsibility, dominance and self-
disclosure among the children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents. Thus,
the dependent variables in the present study are alcoholic/nonalcoholic
behaviour of parents and personality traits including adjustment of their
children are independent variables. Since, in each pair of comparable group
there are separate and independent subjects, so a between group design
would be preferred.
(c) Research Tools used
1. A PDS was used to seek the necessary information about the
respondents.
2. Bell's Adjustment Inventory adapted in Hindi by Mohsin-Shamshad or
any other suitable scale will be used for measuring adjustment pattern
of the respondents.
3. Differential Personality Scale by Singh and Singh or any other suitable
scale for measuring self-concept, ego-strength, curiosity, decisiveness,
emotional, stability, heterosexuality, responsibility and dominance
personality traits of the respondents.
4. Self-disclosure Scale by De and Singh be used for measuring self-
disclosure of respondents.
Results
 1. An attempt was made to make a comparison between children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of adjustment using chi-square
test, t-test and Pearsonian r. All the statistics employed were found
significant. It was found that children of nonalcoholic parents excelled over the
children of alcoholic parents in terms of adjustment. The finding relating to
adjustment was interpreted on the ground that family environment of the
children belonging to alcoholic father is pathological. This is because such
parents are unable to behave properly even with the members of their own
family including their children. So, their primary socialization get disturbed
leading to maladjustment on the part of their ward.
2. An attempt was made to make a comparison between children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of self-concept trait of personality
using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r. All the statistics employed
were found significant. It was found that children of nonalcoholic parents
excelled over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of self-concept trait of
personality. The finding relating to self-concept was interpreted on the ground
that favourable family climate is conducive to the proper growth and
development as a result of adequate primary socialization. This happens
properly among the children of nonalcoholic parents leading to have
comparatively higher self-concept than children of alcoholic parents.
3. An attempt was made to make a comparison between children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of ego-strength trait of personality
using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r. All the statistics employed
were found significant. It was found that children of nonalcoholic parents
excelled over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of ego-strength trait of
personality. The finding relating to ego-strength was interpreted on the ground
that favourable environment builds up confidence in the children of
nonalcoholic parents leading to have comparatively higher ego-strength on
their part.
4. An attempt was made to make a comparison between children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of curiosity trait of personality
using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r. All the statistics employed
were found significant. It was found that children of nonalcoholic parents
excelled over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of curiosity trait of
personality. The finding relating to curiosity was interpreted on the ground that
children of nonalcoholic parents enjoy all the facilities conducive to the growth
and development positive personality traits including curiosity.
 5. An attempt was made to make a comparison between children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of decisiveness trait of personality
using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r. All the statistics employed
were found significant. It was found that children of nonalcoholic parents
excelled over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of decisiveness trait of
personality. The finding relating to decisiveness was interpreted on the ground
that the children of nonalcoholic enjoy comparatively more favourable climate
to grow and develop decisiveness trait of personality.
6. An attempt was made to make a comparison between children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of emotional stability trait of
personality using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r. All the statistics
employed were found significant. It was found that children of nonalcoholic
parents excelled over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of emotional
stability trait of personality. The finding relating to emotional stability was
interpreted on the ground that intimate behaviour of nonalcoholic parents to
their wards which are conducive to the growth and development of emotional
stability. Such children comparatively develops to face with stress and anxiety
as compared to their counterparts children of alcoholic parents.
7. An attempt was made to make a comparison between children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of heterosexuality trait of
personality using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r. All the statistics
employed were found significant. It was found that children of nonalcoholic
parents excelled over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of
heterosexuality trait of personality. The finding relating to heterosexuality was
interpreted on the ground that the children of group-I face a lot of problems
due to the ill behaviour of their parents leading to be found with inferior trait of
heterosexuality trait of personality as compared to their counterpart children
belonging to group-II or nonalcoholic parents.
8. An attempt was made to make a comparison between children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of responsibility trait of personality
using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r. All the statistics employed
were found significant. It was found that children of nonalcoholic parents
excelled over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of responsibility trait of
personality. The finding relating to responsibility was interpreted on the ground
that the conducive behaviour of nonalcoholic parents lead to develop
favourable personality traits in their children including responsibility traits as
compared to ill mannered alcoholic parents who don't behave properly to their
ward.
9. An attempt was made to make a comparison between children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of dominance trait of personality
using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r. All the statistics employed
were found significant. It was found that children of nonalcoholic parents
excelled over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of dominance trait of
personality. The finding relating to dominance was interpreted on the ground
that the favourable family climate induce superior growth and development of
dominance trait on the part of children of nonalcoholic parents than the
children of alcoholic parents.
10. An attempt was made to make a comparison between children of
alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents in terms of self-disclosure trait of
personality using chi-square test, t-test and Pearsonian r. All the statistics
employed were found significant. It was found that children of nonalcoholic
parents excelled over the children of alcoholic parents in terms of self-
disclosure trait of personality. The finding relating to self-disclosure was
interpreted on the ground that democratic behaviour and favourable climate
on the part of children of nonalcoholic parents lead to develop proper growth
and development of self-disclosure trait in the children of nonalcoholic
parents.
Conclusions
1. Children belonging to nonalcoholic parents excel over children of
alcoholic parents in terms of their adjustment. In other words nonalcoholic
environment is conducive to sound adjustment.
2. Children belonging to nonalcoholic parents excel over children of
alcoholic parents in terms of their self-concept trait of personality. In other
words nonalcoholic environment is conducive to proper growth and
development of trait of personality including self-concept.
3. Children belonging to nonalcoholic parents excel over children of
alcoholic parents in terms of their ego-strength trait of personality. In other
words nonalcoholic environment is conducive to proper growth and
development of trait of personality including ego-strength.
4. Children belonging to nonalcoholic parents excel over children of
alcoholic parents in terms of their curiosity trait of personality. In other words
nonalcoholic environment is conducive to proper growth and development of
trait of personality including curiosity.
5. Children belonging to nonalcoholic parents excel over children of
alcoholic parents in terms of their decisiveness trait of personality. In other
words nonalcoholic environment is conducive to proper growth and
development of trait of personality including decisiveness.
6. Children belonging to nonalcoholic parents excel over children of
alcoholic parents in terms of their emotional stability trait of personality. In
other words nonalcoholic environment is conducive to proper growth and
development of trait of personality including emotional stability.
7. Children belonging to nonalcoholic parents excel over children of
alcoholic parents in terms of their heterosexuality trait of personality. In other
words nonalcoholic environment is conducive to proper growth and
development of trait of personality including heterosexuality.
8. Children belonging to nonalcoholic parents excel over children of
alcoholic parents in terms of their responsibility trait of personality. In other
words nonalcoholic environment is conducive to proper growth and
development of trait of personality including responsibility.
9. Children belonging to nonalcoholic parents excel over children of
alcoholic parents in terms of their dominance trait of personality. In other
words nonalcoholic environment is conducive to proper growth and
development of trait of personality including dominance.
10. Children belonging to nonalcoholic parents excel over children of
alcoholic parents in terms of their self-disclosure trait of personality. In other
words nonalcoholic environment is conducive to proper growth and
development of trait of personality including self-disclosure.
Implications of the Present Study
The present study may be characterized as exploratory and the results
obtained may be considered tentative depending on further investigation and
verifications. Nevertheless a limited number of implications may be drawn
from analysis and comparisons and are given as under :
1. The findings of the present study in general will be quite useful and
helpful in creating public awareness about alcoholic behaviour and will serve
as an useful source for future research.
 2. The present findings will help administrators, policy-makers,
government, politicians and workers of voluntary organizations in careful
planning for prevention and control of alcoholism.
3. The findings will prove as an eye-opener for administrators, policy
makers, government agencies, politicians and active members of voluntary
organization.
4. The fact and the reported analysis will be accessible for the local
authorities, research scholars and social scientists for further research and
verification of findings.
Suggestions
Measures would be employed so as to improve the family climate or
environment of the family by means of training and rehabilitation of alcoholic
parents. In this connection help of counsellor rehabilitates experts, de-
addiction centres, NGO etc. might be taken to get rid of such ill habit on the
part of alcoholic parents. Moral and ethical education to such parents might be
helpful in this connection. They must be trained and educated to behave
properly to the family members as well as the members of the society nearby.
They must be trained to take alcohol within limit so far as their behaviour
cannot be irrelevant as for as possible.
Recommendations
On the basis of the conclusions arrived, the investigator feels that more
studies of this type should be undertaken till one develops better
understanding of the problems of alcoholism. Some of the problems struck in
the mind of the investigator during study in this area which can be undertaken
for the purpose of further research may be stated as follows:
1. The present study was confined only to Patna town and hence further
study can be extended to cover the people belonging to Bihar.
2. The similar studies carried out in other states in India will benefit to
cross-correlates with the findings of this study.
However the results of this study cannot be easily generalized because
it was conducted on limited sample of limited area.
So further research with better design and sample should be
encouraged at the base level.

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