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Introduction
The philosophy, theory, practice and terminology of total quality management
(TQM) has emerged and has continuously developed over the last circa 15
years (Boaden, 1997). A key characteristic of TQM throughout this period has
been the positive effect on organisational improvement in times of change in
both markets and organisations. However, Dale et al. (2001) argue that TQM is
still in the early stages of theory development and that future theoretical
development incorporating appropriate management theories needs to be
realised before TQM can reach a refined stage of development. van der Wiele
et al. (2000a) contend that the progression of self-assessment from an ISO to
business-excellence-model (BEM) environment is an indicator of TQM growth
International Journal of Quality &
and development. Moreover, business process reengineering (BPR), six sigma Reliability Management
and other developing methodologies are steps along this pathway of Vol. 21 No. 1, 2004
pp. 51-71
development (Dale and Lascelles, 1997; Kruger, 2001). With the pace of q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0265-671X
change becoming more large scale, there is a need for both academics and DOI 10.1108/02656710410511696
IJQRM practitioners to both determine and predict the future direction and
21,1 development of TQM, to address these issues.
Assuming TQMs impact on organisations will continue, what types of
TQM-based improvement initiatives will develop in the future to meet the
anticipated organisational and market changes? Will the TQM of the future be
unrecognisable from the current form or will there be a clear line of continual
52 development? Future predictions in times of rapid change are notoriously
unreliable, however, the determination of the key driving forces for future TQM
development would be helpful, both for organisational planning and directing
research efforts (Wilkinson and Willmott, 1994). Based on Dale et al.s (2001)
contention that TQM theory is still in the early stages of development, there
exists an opportunity to influence the future development of TQM and to
ensure the philosophy will continue to enable organisational change in times of
uncertainty and change.
The aim of this paper is to investigate the future of TQM by determining the
scope and depth of the influencing or driving factors that will shape the body of
knowledge, known as TQM, into the future. This will include, firstly, a review
of the literature to enable a grounded list of key internal and external TQM
influencing factors, or drivers for future development, to be constructed. In
qualitative research, grounded factors are those factors, which are inductively
derived from a body of knowledge (Strauss and Corbin, 1990), where the body
of knowledge is TQM in the current study. Secondly, the paper discusses the
further development of these factors and their likely effect on TQM by showing
the results of a multiple case research study.
It is useful at this juncture to clarify the definition of TQM used in this paper.
Hermel (1997) has stated that TQM has moved from a predominantly narrow
and mechanistic focus to include more subjective and broader organisational
philosophy. This broader approach has led some writers to refer to the key
theoretical constructs of TQM, rather than devising succinct definitions. Thus,
based on the work of Dale et al. (2001), Hermel (1997), Hackman and Wageman
(1995) and DeCock and Hipkin (1997), TQM is defined as embodying the
following constructs:
.
TQM is strategically linked to the organisational goals.
.
Customer satisfaction and understanding is vital within the organisation.
.
Employee participation and understanding at all levels is required within
the organisation.
.
There is a need for management commitment and consistency of purpose
within the organisation.
.
The organisation is perceived as a series of processes, which incorporate
customer supplier relationships.
Thus, a broad and inclusive TQM definition is used, avoiding the restrictive
dangers of narrow mechanistic codicils (Wilkinson and Willmott, 1994). Dale
et al. (2001) conclude: TQM is a continuum of theories, touching soft and hard The future of
aspects of organisations. TQM
Influencing factors for the future of TQM
A review of the TQM literature, in the widest definition, resulted in a number of
grounded influencing factors being constructed. The approach used was that of 53
Strauss and Corbin (1990) where theory is viewed as being constructed over
time to form a body of knowledge. Thus, full use can be made of TQM
experience, case and other related data. The approach suits the current body of
TQM knowledge that often is not suitable for more hypo-deductive style
research. The factors were divided into two broad categories, namely internal
and external influencing factors for the future of TQM. Internal refers to issues
within the TQM movement while external refers to issues in the environment in
which TQM is placed.
Figure 1.
Postmodern and critical
perspective challenge
and transformation of
TQM
The paradigm shifts of TQM (Spencer, 1994; Wilkinson and Willmott, 1994; The future of
DeCock, 1998) over the years can be seen in a number of resonating TQM
developments (Grint, 1997), where large-scale changes to TQM have taken
place:
.
development of human resources and empowerment concepts (Grint,
1997); 55
.
improvements in productivity management, supply chain management
(Mohanty, 1998);
.
the award processes (Malcolm Baldrige, European Business Excellence);
.
the emergence of business processes and business process reengineering
(Davenport et al., 1996);
. new methods for cultural change management (Camison, 1998);
.
new approaches to strategic management (Madu and Chu-Hua, 1994);
.
development of innovation approaches, e-business and TQM (Tidd et al.,
1999);
.
influence of applications in different sectors (van der Wiele and Brown,
1998).
These factors have influenced and shaped TQM, and in turn have been
influenced and shaped themselves, in a reflexive manner, as shown in Figure 2.
Giroux and Landry (1998) describe this development as the TQM discourse
shifting with time.
Thus, an examination of the paradigm shift/redefinition aspects of TQM,
demonstrates that future TQM development is likely to include large scale
shifts compared to the present format. These shifts are likely to include
redefinition of terminology, especially concerning the use of the word quality
(e.g. reengineering, knowledge management).
Figure 2.
TQM influencing
development factors
IJQRM External TQM drivers
21,1 The technology, markets and environmental drivers are all classed as external
drivers, or those factors, which will influence the future of TQM from without
the TQM discourse.
Technology. The ever changing and rapidly developing area of technology is
considered to be a driver in its own right. The scope of influence of technology
56 on any discourse is vast, however, the current discussion is limited to two
prevalent aspects as being illustrative, rather than comprehensive. The areas
briefly considered are information system databases and the ubiquitous
e-business. New developments in information systems databases can play a
key role in shaping TQMs influence on business processes, especially
processes requiring complex customer data (Venkatraman, 1994). For example,
modern database technology linked to the ubiquitous World Wide Web or
Internet provide organisations with opportunities that existing
operations/marketing processes find difficult to accommodate (Postma, 1998).
The challenge is to determine how existing operations/marketing processes can
be changed to maximise the effectiveness of this new technology and hence
enable the creation of new market opportunities. Ultimately, this challenge will
inform the future development of TQM methodologies.
Davenport (1993) sees information technology (IT) as one of several enablers
to bring about change in processes, and the achievement of positive results
involving a carefully considered combination of both technical and human
enablers. These arguments are likely to be projected into any future TQM
scenario. Despite this supposedly strong human-technology interface, there
remains considerable overspends of between 1million and 1 billion on major
IT projects. The research also confirms that whilst IT plays a major role in
TQM, future innovations at the organisational, managerial and human levels of
organisations are essential if true improvements are to be made (Lee and Dale,
1998). Postma (1998) has characterised this new era by stressing the need for
management to act according to the information held in databases rather than
that acquired through research and generic models. Thus, TQM will be
informed and shaped by customer requirements reflected in accurate data and
information systems (Aurand et al., 1996).
From a cursory view, the rapid development of e-business would appear to
have by-passed the TQM discourse given the paucity of systematic research
specifically on e-business and TQM. However, many of the aspects of
e-business are addressed by TQM principles without the use of e-business
terminology. For example, Morency (2000) and Biggs (2000) list business
process mapping and improvement, competitive intelligence (Benchmarking),
customer knowledge, supplier and network relations as key elements of an
e-business strategy. All of these issues have been addressed in the TQM
literature, however the full effect of technology on these issues, as represented
in e-business has not been fully investigated. For example, the role of
e-business in relation to TQM-based methods such as BPR and The future of
customer-supplier-chain issues needs clarification. Ang and Finlay (1999) TQM
and Forza (1995) state the need for more studies in the area of IT as applied to
TQM principles. Palmisano (1998) describes e-business as operating in three
ways: first, applying technology and know how to improve internal processes;
second, applying this process approach to customers and suppliers; third,
improving customer service by tapping into the reach and availability of the
57
internet. Thus, these principles will shape, and be shaped by, TQM in the
future. One example could be the increased use of e-business technology such
as option finder within the TQM management decision-making process
(Optionfinder is a touch pad electronic aid for self-assessment scoring using the
BEM).
In summary, technology is likely to continue to be a key driver of TQM,
shaping its future through e-business and IT.
Markets. Globalisation among organisations responding to improved
communications and market opportunities is resulting in virtual
organisations. These organisations or business units retain core skills but
also have the ability to rapidly exploit emerging market opportunities.
Demerest (1997) contends that as integrated structures increase the
organisational boundaries will become fluid and groups of entrepreneurial
cadres will spontaneously form, directed from a virtual centre, thus
questioning the concept of corporate headquarters. These networks will be able
to respond rapidly to localised customer needs (Craven et al., 1996). Key factors
in these networks are the dynamics of organisational change, customer
characteristics and core competencies (Achrol, 1991).
TQM has a key role to play in these developments, however, TQM itself
must be developed to meet this market challenge. A key tenet of TQM is
customer satisfaction. In this situation the organisational and customer
satisfaction demands are likely to be significantly greater than those
experienced before. Gunneson (1997) contends that a healthy quality process
will always ensure a quality product/service, whatever the operational
circumstances. He sees empowered network teams and organisations as an
opportunity for strategic quality improvement teams to function in an optimal
manner. Peters (1992) refers to this process as unleashing the power of
subordinate units. There is also an opportunity for increased TQM-based
learning and development in these networks (Beer et al., 1990). The TQM of the
future must also address the issue of diversity for network organisations acting
in fragmented markets. Diversity in this context refers to the different
organisational forms of the networks caused by local market conditions. For
example, flexible organisations (e.g. Hewlett Packard) allow groups and teams
in different geographical areas to select their own TQM approaches based on
market and customer needs, rather than imposing normative central office
dogma (Coulson-Thomas, 1994).
IJQRM In summary, the future of TQM as influenced by market changes is likely to
21,1 result in less structured TQM approaches and more devolved, empowered,
customer facing TQM activity. While TQM exponents may argue that these
elements have been in existence for some time, there is clearly a need for TQM
to become more mobile and agile to meet such challenges. Possible resultant
future developments in TQM initiatives may include empowered team
58 approaches and coping with diversity. Further large-scale changes in
TQM-based customer-supplier chain relationships are also likely.
Environmental. There is an increasing trend towards improved
environmental performance and socially responsible business practices
(Axelrod, 2000). TQM is already intrinsically associated with this movement
through the International Standard for Environmental Management Systems
ISO 14000, and quality-award models (e.g. Baldrige, mainly USA and the BEM,
mainly Europe). The ISO 14001 standard, although extrapolated from ISO 9000
thinking, has many features which indicate an acceptance of larger scale
change such as commitment to improvement, employee involvement,
prevention and continuous process improvement (Cascio and Baughn, 2000).
However, as Cascio and Baughn (2000) state: when implemented, ISO 14001
establishes an institutional discipline. Thus, elements of extrapolation (point
1) remain. Allen et al. (2000) point out that environmental management
systems are now seen as high priority in many forward looking organisations.
Thus, the challenge for the future development of TQM is to ensure
TQM-based environmental standards are both proactive in nature and
dynamic in their evolution (Allen et al., 2000) and to develop initiatives that
will encourage these attributes within the international standard, such as Kanji
and Ashers (1993) model.
Research methodology
To further determine the influencing factors for TQM future development, a
qualitative research study into 40 organisations, each of which had developed
TQM as evidenced by their involvement in quality award models and future
TQM plans (all had scored in excess of 400 points in the BEM), was conducted).
It should be noted that the 400 point limit was supported by the researchers
knowledge of the cases and was therefore only used as an initial screening rule.
All of the cases were found to have systematically developed self assessment,
beyond that of scoring, after the manner suggested by van der Wiele et al.
(2000a). There were 20 large private, ten large public/service and ten SME
organisations, all with different product/service classifications. The research
method chosen was that of inducting theory using case studies (Eisenhardt,
1989). In this approach theory or models are developed throughout the
empirical study in a grounded approach (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and
Corbin, 1990), rather than using hypothesis testing. In this approach there is no
need for a large number of cases to achieve validity, rather there is a more
in-depth study of a number of cases to observe what is happening (Remenyi The future of
et al., 1998; Burgoyne and Reynolds, 1998). Furthermore, a priori constructs are TQM
admissible to initiate the study (Eisenhardt, 1989). The key steps of the
research methodology are shown in Figure 3.
Semi-structured interviews with senior management, ethnographic
observations and organisational archive material were used to obtain the
data and triangulation (Remenyi et al., 1998). Each case was fully written up, 59
then coded (Remenyi et al., 1998; Easterby-Smith et al., 1993) and compared
with the a priori drivers of TQM, derived from the literature as described
earlier. The coding process was undertaken by the researchers who coded
individually and then check-coded each others work.
It should be noted that the BEM referred to in this section and later in the
paper, is one of the main quality-award models in use in Western Europe (van
der Wiele et al., 2000a). The model seeks to represent the principles of TQM in a
measurable manner using a criteria and points-based self-assessment system
(EFQM, 2002).
Figure 3.
Research methodology
60
21,1
Table I.
IJQRM
Summary of
61
Figure 4.
Grounded model of
internal and external
TQM drivers
Conclusions
The aim of this paper is to investigate the future of TQM by determining the
scope and depth of the influencing or driving factors that will shape the body of
knowledge, known as TQM, into the future.
The key conclusions of the paper, as drawn from the literature and the
current research in regard to the aims are summarised in Figure 4. Overall, the
findings indicate that TQM will play in a central role in future organisational
development. The changes to TQM will build on the existing academic and
organisational reputation of TQM to meet the demands of large-scale market
and organisational change.
First, two internal drivers labeled as extrapolation (mechanistic) and
paradigm shift (organismic) were found as being influential the current and
future development of TQM (Figure 4, part A). Historically and currently these
two drivers have been found to act independently in shaping the future of
TQM. For example, ISO 9000 (extrapolation) has developed relatively
independently of the empowerment (paradigm shift) side of TQM. However,
there are indications that combinations of such drivers may offer more
sophisticated TQM approaches in the future. Thus, there is likely to be a
requirement for more interdisciplinary research as the future of TQM develops
(Dale et al., 2001).
Second, four external drivers were identified as being influential to the
future of development of TQM, namely organisational praxis, market,
technology and environmental drivers (Figure 4, part B). These drivers were
found to be influential in shaping the future of TQM through their effect on
organisations from all sectors. The Organisational praxis driver indicates that The future of
the TQM of the future is likely to remain grounded in praxis. However, as TQM
shown by Dale et al. (2001), this link to praxis does not preclude increased
theoretical development of TQM. The market driver indicates that future TQM
development will be influenced by increasingly competitive and global
markets, where competition will continually increase. In this scenario TQM will
play a key role in improving competitiveness through state of the art
69
methodologies. Another key external driver was that of technology. Rapid
changes in the application of e business in organisations will increasingly
affect business processes and supply chains. Such changes will shape the
future of TQM through a need for increased effectiveness and efficiency. The
environmental driver is currently limited due to lack of awareness and
concerns regarding additional costs. However, the findings indicated that
environmental related issues are likely to have an influence on the future of
TQM as environmental issues and environmental quality systems become
increasingly important.
The internal dynamics section of Figure 4 illustrates how the future of
TQM can be continuously internally transformed by the interaction of both the
extrapolation and paradigm shift drivers. This change over time, and based on
different epistemological assumptions is referred to as a longitudinal
epistemological transformation (Alvesson and Willmott, 1996). This process
of future TQM development is in turn influenced by the external drivers
(Figure 4, part B).
However, a number of caveats were inserted with the overall mood of
optimism in TQMs future credibility. TQM must remain focused on
organisational practice and business goals, not only operational but also
strategic. Furthermore the TQM culture must be reinforced by supportive
leadership, enabling organisations to reduce cost, increased flexibility,
improved customer responsiveness and the adaptation of new technologies
to achieve competitive advantage.
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