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    ethics

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    Life, Liberty and the Defense of Dignity The Challenge for Bioethics Leon R. Kass M.D. | ENCOUNTER BOOKS SAN FRANCISCO CHAPTER ONE The Problem of Technology and Liberal Democracy ol )New and novel also isthe thing t names: indus trial seale proceses and products offering power to alter and con ‘rol the phenomena of ife—in plant, in animale and, increasing’, also inhuman beings, But while the word may be new, the idea of bosechnology is od, and o ae the motives behind i eis central to the modern humanistic vision, frst conjured inthe seventeenth cenury, that would bring the pursuit of knowledge into firm mar- riage with the aspiration of humankind forthe conquest of disease, the rl of suffering and te prolongation of lie ‘As have aleady said, biotechnology today flourshesespe- cially in iberal democracies. es practice takes advantage of thei freedoms; ts products serve the needs of muleudes. Yet as Iwill argue from start 0 ish in thi book, biotechnology and the sc- aceon which it rest are proving to hea growing problem fr lib- tral democracies, both in practice and in thought. To understand ‘why his might be s,s ello place biotechnology in is anges Content and o consider more generally the problem of technology ara whole ‘Aitepeing an overview of he problem of tchnology is daunt- ing, For one thing, the topics enormous: technology is everywhere ina shiking varery of guises, from fash toils o food processor, from automobiles to artificial organs, feom cell phones to smart ‘bombs. Second, given this wat heteroenciy, it eems foolish etry to identify the problem of technology, alone how it relates co ib cal democracy, a hefty subject by itself. Tir, there i the embar- ‘assent of apparent hypocrisy how cana man wih tavels hither and yon by airplane and automobile, to delves leetures produced 30 Uf Liberty andthe Defense of Digi ‘on computer and ae prints rendered legible and auibethrough cveplasses and microphone, and now made readable through the latest printing and publishing techniques, have the efrontery to speak about technology as a problem? Finally there isthe mater ‘of my limited competence; though Ihave worsed for more than ‘shiny years about the meaning of biomedical technologies, [remain , laegely ignorant of other technological areas and, I cones, Lhave not often tried co think abou the problem af echaology wile Sill, one mast make the atemp, fr the stakes ate high, For ome suspects tha technology, despite its great diversity, eemains in some sense “a whole," whose aggregate significance for human ile cannot be exaggerated, We have let ou innocence about technol ‘ogy in recent decades, and hence we ned all the more to ty #0 tanderstand it Probably the most common view of “the peublem of rchnol- ‘ogy is something like this: technology isthe sum otal of human and methods, devised by human beings to control our env- at fr our own benef. Because it is esentlly instrament, technology i self morally neva, wsable for both good aj ‘There ae, ofcourse, dangers of abuse and misuse of technology, but these appear tobe problems nt of technology bur of human users, o be addeessed by morality in general, And, besides abuse and misuse, there isa genuine problem of techaology sel th unin tended and undesired consequences ang from ts proper se. Thus, the problem of technology cas be deal with om onesie, by tech ‘ology assessment and careful regulation (to handle side effects and misuse) and on the othe sid, by good wil compassion, and the Jove of humaniy co preven abuse). This combination will enable sto solve the problems technology creates without sacrificing its ihe frie ‘This view, contends mach too simple t holds too narow an understanding ofthe nature of rchnology, o0 shallow a view ‘ofthe difculies it produces, and too opimisic view of ou abi fry wo deal with them—not east because this vsion itll infected With the problem of technology. That at lest i what I will now endeavor to show. The Probe of Tacoma nd Liberal Democracy What Is Technology? ‘We mst begin by ving ro understand what echnoogy is The ern ite singulry unl according ro the Oxford Engl Dic tionary it orginal English meaning, dating back to the aly se vceath cota, was “a dcoure ce treatise [at ogee 08 ftvorthe art” og aa, "th cent dy a logos] ofthe pea: tealoc indus are” Axed meaning Meats echoology 2 “nl nomen he emily sph fegee—of «parle at Only in th intent earry was the meaning aur th praca are demuele, ake colle tity “Hi technology const of mening, cut canoes, making ade weapons (1264) “Thterm has Greck rots: fecne, mening art especialy he ofl cally eathr shan the Bea, that earpenty and hoe. teaking athe than por aed dane and logo nesting ten lat speech or dscurive reason. Ba the Greeks didnot have the compound iecboogo. Asa 2 en lhe loses they cero “yc ston was nt an acount about ata logos of ene but nar of eaking Rhetore, the ato permate speech, was inde tee oflogs and in he Soph ew a means of ton ing politcal le fre of the need for force. (One could Think, get vey far inundestanding the difference between the scent eck pols and te modern nation-state by beginning wth snd thinking through the difeencebrwoen ecology understood 3 theorc and chology undersced tational art and nds) il ac and pech ar tnately elated. Bot ate mai tation of an atonal, of the fact that ane the animal a ing logs the rational or esonng animal Human erat unlike the productive actives of animals not spontaneoe oii Trtvales elteratig cxelatng.odeingtinking, panne — allmanifestions of laos. The conetion was observed sucinly {by Arnot: tec, he sii disposition or bait of makings \ X contrasted with doing) involving tue reasoaing (logos)? All artfl raking has a manual element, ro be sue] but to be eal technical ie must be guided by mind, know-how, expertise is chis mental \\ and rational element that makes the various arts eminently teach- (a) ‘Life, Liberty and the Defense of Digity ‘ble—through various “how40” guides and manval. (About the Alispositin wo make— tats, why human beings want vo make wil speak shor) Following up these cues, one might thik that technology is the sum ofthe products of craft and industry, and, even moe, the sum of the knowhow shill and other devies for thei production and use. But this i, at best, a pata view. Technology, expecially mod ern technology, occupies itself not oaly with dhe bringing into-being fof machine and role and other artifacts. Je i centrally involved in the harnessing of power and enegy—thernal,hydeoelec, chen eal, solar, stomic. The dling fr ol, the damming of rivers the ‘pling of atoms provide ot objects of art hut an undifierentiated ready resource forall sors of himan aciites, both in war and in Peace. Indeed, aeeording ro Heidegger, this aspect of modern tech nology is essential and decisive. Modem technology les bring ing forth of objects chan a setting upon, «challenging fort, » ‘demanding of aaure tha is conceal In and energies be released and ordre as standing reserves, avalable and wansfoemable focany muliiude of purposes? Not the loom or the plow, but the ‘ol storage tank or the sel mill or the dynamo, is the emblem of moder technology ‘et this too, does not go far enough. For technology and ech- sigue are not today limited to external and physial nati) nology now works dizetly on # “There is burgeoning biomedical technology, to this pont largely ar nese by che art of healing, but inthe fare usable als foe genetic ‘engineering and the lke. There is psychological technology, fom various techniques of psychotherapy to psychopharmacology. There are abundant techniques of edvction, communication and enter tainment; techniques of social organization and engineering (for example the army and the police; echniques of management (he factory othe boardroom) techniques of inspection and regulation; techniques of sling and buying, learning and rearing, dating and mating, biting and dying, and even—God help sof gre. In modern mes, as Jacques Fla has persuasively argued he tecni- ‘als ubiquitous, much wider and deeper than the mechanical oF the energetic. For him (as for Heidegger), eechaology-i an entre way of being inthe world, a social phenomenon more than a merely ‘The Prem ofTecmoloy ond Libel Democracy 33 imatesial one characterize bythe effort, through rational analysis, ‘methodical artfulness and correlative organization, to orde all ‘epee of our world toward efficiency, ease and contol—to achieve the fullest control atthe highest elfiieny arth leas possible cost and rouble Technology compvises organization and shedling no Tess than machinery and fuel, concepts and methods no les than physical processes, Jn short, it isa way of thinking an And felng, a way of standing in nd rows the world, Technol- ‘gy; in its fll meaning, isthe dxposition rationally co order and Position rational mastery, whose problem we hope to dacover. ‘Whence comes sachs disposition ro mastery? What is the source ofthe recclogia tite? Again, a question sfc to Tunnel Acoeing to some, ts dept rots ae somehow sed to Ihuman weakness acer isthe mother of invention. Nee is Behind the Hstooke andthe plow fae of beasts and men behind theclub andthe bariade and fear of dent behind medicines according to Hobbes, the far fon eat tht awakens aman reason andthe quest for matryJOF cours, too much ec ene tate According ro Aeschylus Prometheus, only when men cased ‘eving doom beloe tei eyes were they able with hiv id to rise ‘pom abt aothingess, poverty tron In hve the wold inkospialsy—aorto sy Coward human need and wants arousts th disposition 1 sel through tecoogy) ‘By other accounts, the primary coot is aot weak suenghy pie rather han needy fear cette technological ai tudes According to Genes, for example, the Bist oo wa he nee ‘le and the fis artifact the fig leaf, when shame—which s here ‘nothing but wounded pide—moved the primordial human beings to cover ther nakedness, ight from the moment ofthese 0 ‘uinflselcoscousess® Pride ies behind the technological poj- ‘cto the cy and tower of Babel he human rac being mowed by the desire to make sea name through ar elt-anertion” At the beginning ofthe modem er, Francs Bacon, himsef moved by honor and lon called mankind ro the conguest of ature fo the elie of mans ext, projet he regarded a th highest and most 4 if Liberty andthe Defoe of Digit ‘mapicet human posibily® Asition—the dese fr wealth, power and bonor— prompts any a man of scence ad indus Finally, the master doesnt seck mastery just escape from the col Thete are, ofcourse the posible rots than farmed and pride: fr example lasines, bench the desi fo a eater way 0 ‘mow the lawn; boredom, beneath the dese for new smssements treed, beneath dese simply or more and mo; ait and st beneath the dese fr new adornment and sllarerents ry and Jared beneath the dest ai thse who make fellow And there also the harodeeibe dese ro do something, ake someting, o order something ust 1 seit done—cll euros, calif, clit dig alt perversity ali wlt-powee think weall knw the motive ven fom she nie ‘This analysis ofthe origin ofthe echolopal dispositions so far onl psychological, and gos deep ito has etre of the human psyche. Yet his cannot be the whole story. For on thing otal human societies would he ih described technological, eventhough al of them practic a east some ofthe arts, The peo. ple of ancient Irae andthe Native Americans ofthe New World tere not cholic nitions; neither technology today the rl ing outlook in amo in much of Ata Tn plac of the depoion to ational mastery thse societies andl any oter like them are ruled bythe spiro reverence, o ational pid, othe pasion for Fighteousneso: holies or nobly, or even jas te intense devo- tion to one's own traditions. Even inthe rationalise Wise, echno- legal society seems to have appeared ony inthe lst two century and atts now runaway pace, aly inthe ls sey or ghy yer. {Weel sexs aif moder wchoology fers rom ncn te ‘ot only in sale, bur even, decisively int naar] ‘Whate one his iso can be argued tng Bt oe thing is indisputable: moder technology would no be the ubiquitous pPhenomenon—or the problem —that ts, ware tno for modern cence, tha daring and sropendoo ei of ill swelng know ge, bul only over the last 350 year, on foundations laid by Galle, Bacon and Descres. Says Robert Sith Woadhay in is ance onthe “stor of Technology” forthe Enelopadi rt ‘eis "For many thousands of yeas... an’) progress in ech: The Problem of Tecnolagy and Libr Democracy 35 J nology was made by tal and ers by empl advance... Iwas nly toward deed of the 18th century that techalogy began 0 tecome applied sence, with ess inthe 19th and 20h centres, that have tad enormots influence. "” Adicio ofthe nate of technology woul beacomplee without es a ew word about moder iene. “Though i ie ahionabl to dings plied fom pues the exentilypratieahsoil and technical character of moder ot onda of war ngs ied i il saying tthe koowe Incontan, moder eens ser knowledge of bow things work, and comfort of al human nom kowers alike, Though che benets were at ist low in coming this peactia intention hasbeen at the heart of mod- frascince right from the start Here, fo example ithe elebrated sanouncement by Descartes ofthe good news of knowledge thats ery useful in ie So son at had acquired some general notions concerning Physics they canted met ee that its pouible oan | knowledge which s very asefl in ie, and thafistead ofthat speculative philosophy whichis found in the Scboo's we may find practical philoeophy by means of which, Knowing the force and the ation of ie, wate a, the stars, heave, and all {hc thes bods hat enon a dla we now the ‘teen cats of ou artisans we an inthe same way ply | | ternal hse ae ich hyve adapted thre der ours a the matere and poseso: of naar") [Emphasis aed} ut mde cence is peat and aril ot onlin its ens 1 very sions nd waye mies a conception of he intereation cof knowledge and power Natur hers coneivedenergedialy ‘nd mechanically and explanation of change ven in tems of (atmo) ecient of moving eases maven scenes, wo be spon "le means to produce an fect. Kaowledge elt obtained ro- ctively: iden eth ae gained by acing on nature, ehovgh ‘experiment, witing her arm o make he coigh up her ere. The 36 if Liberty athe Datos of Dinity so-called empirical science of natures, at atually experienced, the highly comrived encounter with apparatus measuring devices, pointer readings and numbers; nature ins ondinary course virally never Aiectly encountered. Inquiry is made “methodical,” through the ‘imposition of order and schemes of measurement *made” by the intellect. Knowledge, embodied in laws rather than theorems, becomes “systematic” under rues ofa new mathematics expresly ‘invented fo this purpose. This mathematics orders an “unnatural” ‘work! that has ben inllctally “objected,” re-pesented or pro- jected before the knowing subject as pare homogenous extension, ripe forthe mind's grasping —jast as she wosld itself wl be grasped by the techniques that science wil ater provide. Even the modeen word “concept” means “a grasping lying that dhe ig fa intervening andi contrast ts ancient counterpar.(de,) implies tha te mind fu ing. Aod moder lence jt meaning ruc, tons that cannot be answered by the application of method, cease becomes notte epesnation and demonstration of tat but an rth av of Ging he trata ater thar orton of ath that “el to bing aly found. Pally, the tt hat der science ids even about human bings—ate alue-aeutaly inno way cesining technical application, and indeed perfect adapeed for it{In shore, as Hans Jonas has put it, modern science contains manipula ts teoreial core and this remane tre even for thee reat cients who re themes motated by ede for uth and who have o interest in that mary ovr naar fo ‘wich tr dscoveinaocethele cont, nd for which ‘cei rg eed by the et of wand mighty supported by the modern sate. For his eto, we mos thik of moder science and modern technology a sng, itgrated phenotenon isthe ate fasion wth te former tat makes it bot osucesul and, as we sal ses such problem, that which ‘The Problem of Tecolgy and Liberal Democracy 37 What Isa Problem? IE we now know what we might mean by “technology,” we need alko a few words abost “problem” if we ae fruitflly co addess ‘er question, “The Problem of Technology.” What do we mean by “a problem? This sno semantic game, For there ea deep dif ence between thinking of something a a problem and regarding it say, question. (Heidegger Samousesay i “The Question Con ering Technology") A "problem from the Greck problema i traly “somthing thrown ou before” i any challenging obstacle, fom a fence chown up before an armed eam ta task se before someone to be done. Problems ae publily articulated tasks that challenge us to solve them, which sto say t0 do away with them, ‘When a problem is solved, i disappears its solution i its disso tion, The solution is usually a construction, something we make, past together rom elements ato which the problem is broken up oF, tse sy, analyzed We model he problem into a shape convenient for such analysand construction; a8 we say, we igure oxt Fr thes, problem requires a solution nt ow terms; ee solution ‘ever cases one beyond the arignal probs given. Theol of ch problem sling ase The uations ‘containing unknowns are arranged, showing the-arialyzed clements in their constrcted relations. The solutions that identify the unknowns dissolve the problem, and render the equation into an identity oe tautology, which inves no freer thot. But his mode of though is no confined to algebra eis the dominant mode of all ‘modern scientic and technological thinking, a which, as we have ‘cen, the mind makes its perplestes operational by ering der into problems tha ircan then methodically solve, But, frthes,this mode of though is infact, the dominant mode of everyone’ think ing much ofthe time, We sre alway eying to iguze something out, to finda way over or around our obstacles, o solve ou problems We do not lke to be abstracted, to beat a oss, to be resouceles. We do nt like to have problems. ‘What then, does it mean to treat technology asa problem, or teas sboot the problem (or even the problems) of technolog? For twhom is technology an obstacle? More importantly, with respect t0 3 fiery a the Daft of Dig ‘what goals or desderata does technology obstruct? Ist an obsts cle to human happiness orto justice orto self-knowledge? Could technology, understood asthe disposition and activity of mastery, ‘um out ro be a stumbling block in he path ofthe maser himsel? Finally if technology sa problem, of poses problem, what would or could be is "solution"? Ifthe dficultis caused by technology are infact only peoblems—say, for example the problem of unin tended sid ffects—we are certainly well advised tobe looking for solutions But what if the dificult attending technology ae both inzegral its very being and inseparable from its beneits—lke the “other side of coin? This would make technology mor ike «tragedy tha begs fr understanding nd endurance, chan ike a problem that «alls fra solution. To pur the point starkly: o formulate the ques tion about technology asthe problem of schnology ssf a man. ifesation of technological thinking —of the dese to knock down allobsacls, even foal in mi out the problem of tech. nology infact exemplifies ‘The Problems of Technology My warning about terminology nocwithstanding, Lam going te con- side the problems of technology. Neediess to say, I make No pre- tense of comprehensiveness. Moreover, would not even attempt a balance shee of benefs and arms, even for a single circumscribed technique; the task is vireally impossible, and the potential gain in fundamental understanding sight Finally chough {shall speak only about problems—forclealy, the blessings of technology ate well known to us all am not, Iepet, an enemy of scence and tech- nology, at least in ther proper measure, and I hold no brief for Fomantcsm rationality or the good old days. In those good old days, most of us would very likely have either died i infancy oF spent our abbreviated life in arduous tol, ad perhaps have been persecuted for our heresies, “The first thing I would observe that the argument about tec aology—or atleast about the goadess and ralfcency of human artand craftiness—is very old. Nealy everyone in antiquity agreed thar some form and degre of aus ws indispensable for meting t “The Prolon ofTeoloy and Liberal Democracy “(39.4, tuan dr and for human ring togetr: No ano cies and if no cites, no true humanity. Rational nial, echnical animal, political animal—ie fall one package. The arguments concerned ‘athe the unguaifed goodness ofthis package ad, even more, the ‘ative importance of techne and of law (or Bx) promoting the human good. Cudely put the argument could be state this way. Those who hold hat che biggest obstacles to human happiness are material, ad arse from sacity and he wnginess and violence of nature, fom the indifference ofthe powers tht be, o (whi) from di case and death, look so the arts. In this view, the inventors and bringers of the ars ace che rue benefactors of mankind, and are revered ike the gods; the supreme example is Prometheus tcl, “orethoughe), ringer of re, with ts warming and transforming owes ad dhrough fe, all the other ar. By contest, those Who feunuiyand = tet te aly dof soya pase ‘hc lvsiver, ie statesmen andthe prophets ar te ue bene tos of mankind {or rou bet Louse the eles eiatal bt Mose arses iy beau hy ee comfort nd fey bas iy sina noms Sse a Seu te pretend wo selcency, nh amen egy of Tecapet Ps Repu Scr nits te Pome fio fecha the coche fe as tha hold one Trp cindy and comfrey lind toe word fetond he ty, liking th cafe worl forthe wey men Inetbnctt ofthe woe mandigin he words he bese Alpen on pont ofthc own aking and beyond te onl" Ony when ear amen ed pata and shen ples povened yn abou te una also tans pein hewn en a coer ope ohana touring. “The coming of ty modern holga poe ad now vale othis doped Wh echolay, oned sponte no ‘Sens el gies ny gy mat whoa bat kn ny ‘rue iting Whi sence ed clay could fe ong “0 if Liberty andthe Defense of Die to bear onthe human psyche (and human society) by means of a perfected psycho physics (and scent poical since)? Might one then eventually eure human happiness by purely rational and tech- ‘ical means, without the ned for law or force or fear of Gad? This ‘was certainly par ofthe sion of Deca, and, itscoms an anti pated benefit ofthe mastery of nature: “For the mind depends 30 ‘uch on the remperament and disposition ofthe boil organs tha, fits possible to find a means of rendering men wiser and leverer than they have hitherto been believe that iti in medicine that t must be sought." Medizing, cat venerable and mosehumanise ian of arts, will when iis properly transformed by the new science of nature and human naire, provide at long lst slution forthe human condition—through wat we have only now begun to call biotechnology! (Late after the Enlightenment, «similar promise ‘was also tendered in the name of a scientific anthropology and sociology.) Feasibility “The ist question arising fom a consideration ofthe problems of modern technology iafwhethee masteyof maces sible Are we really able wo exercise control even over our materia eavizonment? Here we face frst the practically important, though theoretially les interesting, problem ofthe unintended and undesired side effects ‘of machin technology ic pollton, zone depletion, cl erosion, acd rai, toxic wastes, clear fllost—a lst of teribly serious problems, most of which canbe remedied, iat al, only by more and beter—not kss—technology including the techniques of mon- itoring and regulation. Even the prophets of imminent ecological dlsaner exaggerate, het isan urgent cause Indeed, Hans Jonas ‘has powerfully argued ha, thanks othe profound ad lob eects cof ewentct-century technology, the wholesale and meaning of ‘human action has ben transformed, and a new ethic centered on ‘esponsibility forthe emir earth needs urgently tobe ineleated Itsnew categorical imperative: “Do not compromise the conditions for an indefinite continuation of humanity on earth "* Some consequencss, called sie effect because they are mmanted are, in ft, ot effects onthe side Inimatly connected ‘The Problem of Technology and Liberal Democracy 4 With the intended intervention, they must be sen, wanted or not, as entra nd inegal to the whole Consider stomobiity: by i ery ‘ature etal roads and bridges the nec fr fue an the depend nce ono the rie ofl mil, auto factories, gas stations, erage, body shops, parking facilis and taffic laws the production of noise ames, smog and auto graveyards; che need for autoworkers auto dealers and mechanics, safety and highway inspectors, trafic police, parking atendans, diving insractrs, resting and esi petsonnel, insurance agents and claims adjusters, trackers of stolen ‘at and medial personel to deal with accidents and thie nan ‘sims; and, thanks alo to aroma sel urban spas, homog- ciation through desertion of ena dfeences, separate lies for exende families, new modes of courtship behavos new objects ‘of envy and vanity, and a new battleground berween parets and children appear quite predictably on the scene} Go asses and con ‘rol the so-called unanticipated consequences of ling people p> idly move themselves about! Generally speaking, its folsh to think that human beings can exercise extensive control over the conse- quences of technology, noe least because the users et life can be altered inthe process As C. 8 Lewis pointed ot, we greatly exag- tstate the increase in ovr power over nature that eechnology pro- ‘ie each gran ee ou decendans onde ew devices, but by the fess, we preoedain ofa ast great contain how dh Mor rail nalts of tecalogy agg tat modern ech- nique is beyond human controls pricple) Jacques Ell in his profound stady La Technique (The Technological Society), argues thar what looks like free human choice betwen competing tch- rigues is infact, automaticaly made, always in favor of greater efficiency; tha technique encroaches everywhere, eliminating of transforming all previously nontechnical aspect of ies that teck- nology augments isl reversibly and in geometric progression; and that technology advances a funder aa ron lv: "Since i was oul, twas neceanary."* This alleged automaticity of techno ‘ogy and its manifold ees, if rv, would ertsnly embareass the pretense to maser. Winston Churhil poi staskly over fit years ‘go, wel before most of his contemporaries even suspected that there was ay problem with technology a Life Liberty andthe Defoe of Dignity Science bestowed immense new powers on man and atthe same tine crated conditions which were largely beyond is ‘comprehension and sill ore beyond his contro. While he ured th llsion of growing mastery and enue in his new trappings he became the spor and preset the vit of ies and currents, whilpools and tornadoes, amid which he was far ‘more helpless than he had ben for along time” In this connection, let me jst mention in passing the special kindof heplessnes experienced by million of people inthe wen- tieth century as a result of modern despotism, o whose wopian programs and tyremicalsoceses andl excess moder technology — ilar, psychological organizational, ecetera—concibted might iy. This sobering fae reminds us that wha is called "mans poser ‘ove nature” i, fat, always power of some men over others— not only under despotsms but even when eis benevolenly used “This thought about bad and; Ss intentions leads us to the second problem, the problem of pf technology. Goals and Goodness Let set aside petons of easily andthe problem of unwanted and unweleome conseqance and hink now only abo the deed {ea What on closer examination, an we ay shout the oa of the project forthe mastery of mature? ‘As weave aleady noted, mastery of mature sch, t0 beg wit, man’s bration rm chance and fom natural neces bath ‘ithe and within freedom from toi and lack, ream frm di tas and depesion,fedom fom he ks of death Pu pose, ‘hee goal cold ald confortable sustenance, heal oma and payee avd longevi e thse wonder hing ate nt yet {at human Nourishing; providing the condos forthe pur of Aapiness, they ae not happiness ells ther, a fat any clear soton of happiness and hurnan flourishing that inform the the telogcaldipostion? Farther whats the ground of these and oer goals? Where do they come fromi{ Doe liberation from natural necessity Iso ‘nea iberacon fon natural poste dors man even ua aster ‘fate, remain within the grip of mature cepa ie goal? Are “he Froblon of Tecmoly ond Libera Democracy 43 not the goals of survival and pleasure, for example, given ro man { by is own narure? Hf 3, then mastery over nacure will always be incomplete: what looks like marery wil, in fact, be KéviceS-will ‘ye suboedination tothe dictates of nature spontaneouity- working, ‘withia and finaly beyond human contol. Mastery willbe enslaved meat to instincts, deve, hss, impulsions,passons* ‘On the other hand, perhaps technology ean enable man 0 scape compeey fom che grip even of his own nature, even read ing the goals of mastery (ehough in another sense, ofcourse, man ‘cannot simply be ouside of nature) fo, then mastery of nature ‘vould mean the virally complete liberation of man from natures ‘Control Reason would not only be took reason would eee. Man ‘would be fee fr ful self-xertion, toward goals e fel st for himself Mans goals, lke his means, would be his own projects “This alone would be genuine mastery, sticly speaking. Something like this view of ecology scems to be the understanding and the

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