Systemsmountingguidelinesforseparablereciprocatingcompressorsinpipelineservice PDF

SYSTEMS MOUNTING
GUIDELINES FOR SEPARABLE

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
IN PIPELINE SERVICE
Prepared by
Anthony J. Smalley
P. Joe Pantermuehl
SwRI Project No. 18.12083.01.401
Prepared for
Gas Machinery Research Council

3030 LBJ Freeway, Suite 1300
Dallas, Texas 75234
December 2006
S O U T H W E S T R E S E A R C H I N S T I T U T E
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SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE
6220 Culebra Road
San Antonio, Texas 78238
SYSTEMS MOUNTING
GUIDELINES FOR SEPARABLE
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
IN PIPELINE SERVICE
Prepared by
Anthony J. Smalley
P. Joe Pantermuehl
SwRI Project No. 18.12083.01.401
Prepared for
Gas Machinery Research Council

3030 LBJ Freeway, Suite 1300
Dallas, Texas 75234
December 2006
Approved:
____________________________________
Danny M. Deffenbaugh, Director
Mechanical and Fluids Engineering
S O U T H W E S T R E S E A R C H I N S T I T U T E
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The objective of this GMRC project is to develop a consensus best-practice guideline for
the installation of pipeline reciprocating compression equipment. The intent is to ensure
installations that are free from damaging vibrations, operate reliably with acceptable alignment
over the long term, and present the owner with affordable life cycle costs. The need for these
guidelines was driven by a number of problem installations. The GMRC recognized that it was
desirable for all segments of the industry to learn from such problems and so to minimize or
avoid them in the future.
This document presents a set of guidelines on the mounting of large horsepower, medium
to high-speed, separable, reciprocating compressors for pipeline service. The emphasis is on
modern separable compressors with low-pressure ratio, powers of 1,500 to 10,000 HP, and
speeds of 500 to 1,200 RPM. Mounting includes support of the compressor, the driver,
compressor cylinders, filter bottles, vessels, and other appurtenances. In addition, mounting
covers the functions provided by the skid or skids, reinforcements, grout and concrete, the mat
and foundation, anchor bolts and washers, mounting plates, chocks, piers, clamps, cylinder
supports, frames, and other support structures.
The guidelines are intended to capture the knowledge base, which has been accumulated
across a number of organizations in the process of procuring, engineering, installing, and
operating this class of compression over the last decade. The guide acknowledges that, in a
competitive environment, without very explicit specifications in critical areas, packagers and
other suppliers may make some decisions during the bid process on the basis of initial installed
cost rather than integrity and long-life. Therefore, this guideline strives to provide the end-user
with a framework and mechanism for requesting the same scope of work from all bidding
organizations, which also helps the suppliers provide a competitive price on an equal basis. The
document further emphasizes the due diligence needed by all stakeholders to ensure the
installation meets expectations.
This document is organized to provide the user both background and specific guidelines.
The specific guideline is presented in Chapter 4, while the background information addressing
why the guidelines are given is presented in the first three chapters. It is recommended that the
first time user familiarize himself/herself with the overall subject by reviewing all four chapters.
During implementation for a specific project, it is only necessary to refer to Chapter 4.
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page ii

Systems Mounting Guidelines for Separable Reciprocating Compressors in Pipeline Service December 2006
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................. ii

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... x
LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................................xvi
1. INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL BACKGROUND ............................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Scope of Guidelines .................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Definitions and Terminology........................................................................................ 2
1.3.1 Mounting.......................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 High and Medium Speed ................................................................................. 3
1.3.3 Package........................................................................................................... 3
1.3.4 The Packager .................................................................................................. 3
1.3.5 Integral Engine Compressor............................................................................ 3
1.3.6 High Speed Driver with Low Speed Separable Compressor........................... 3
1.3.7 Grout................................................................................................................ 3
1.3.8 Anchor Bolts .................................................................................................... 4
1.3.9 Canister Bolt .................................................................................................... 4
1.3.10 Chock .............................................................................................................. 4
1.3.11 Mounting Plate................................................................................................. 4
1.3.12 Sole Plate ........................................................................................................ 4
1.3.13 Cylinder ........................................................................................................... 4
1.3.14 Crosshead ....................................................................................................... 5
1.3.15 Crosshead Guide............................................................................................. 5
1.3.16 Crosshead Guide Support ............................................................................... 5
1.3.17 Wedge ............................................................................................................. 5
1.3.18 Grout Box ........................................................................................................ 5
1.3.19 Pedestal........................................................................................................... 5
1.3.20 Coupling .......................................................................................................... 6
1.3.21 Alignment......................................................................................................... 6
1.3.22 Double Spherical Washer................................................................................ 6
1.3.23 Grout Expansion Joint ..................................................................................... 6
1.3.24 Two-Piece Anchor Bolt .................................................................................... 6
1.3.25 Grout Head Box............................................................................................... 6
1.3.26 Foot ................................................................................................................. 7
1.3.27 Precision Shims............................................................................................... 7
1.3.28 Head End Support ........................................................................................... 7
1.3.29 Vibracon .......................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Historical Perspective.................................................................................................. 7
1.4.1 Slow Speed Compressors ............................................................................... 7
1.4.2 The Current Choice of Medium and High Speed Compressors ...................... 8
1.4.3 Performance Implications ................................................................................ 8
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)
Section Page
1.4.4Growth of the Skid Mounted Packaged Compressor ...................................... 8

1.4.5Standards for Packaged Compression Equipment.......................................... 9
1.4.6Historical Mounting Practice in the Pipeline Industry....................................... 9
1.4.7Past Compressor Mounting Research........................................................... 10
1.4.8Force Management Issues and Characteristics in Slow Speed Integrals ..... 11
1.4.9Changes in Practice for Mounting Integral Engine/Compressors
Attributable to Research and Experience ...................................................... 11
1.4.10 Current Mounting Technology for Slow Speed Integrals ............................... 13
1.4.11 Mounting Problems in Separable Compressors ............................................ 13
1.4.12 The Option to Block Mount Separable Compressors .................................... 13
1.5 Situation Summary.................................................................................................... 14
1.6 Typical Pipeline Compressor Applications ................................................................ 15
1.6.1 Mainline ......................................................................................................... 15
1.6.2 Storage .......................................................................................................... 16
1.6.3 Mixed Service ................................................................................................ 16
1.6.4 Lateral Line Compression.............................................................................. 16
1.6.5 Characteristics of Different Services ............................................................. 16
1.7 Relevant Codes, Standards, Specifications, and Guidelines .................................... 17
1.7.1 API 11P Specification for Packaged Reciprocating Compressors for
Oil and Gas Production Services [6].............................................................. 17
1.7.2 API 618 Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and
Gas Industry Service, 4th Edition, June 1995 [8]............................................ 21
1.7.3 API 686 Recommended Practices for Machinery Installation and
Installation Design, 1st Edition, April 1996 [7] ................................................ 21
1.7.4 ACI 351.3R-04 Foundations for Dynamic Equipment [9]............................ 22
1.7.5 ASTM A193 Standard Specifications for Alloy Steel and Stainless
Steel Bolting Materials for High Temperature Service [10]............................ 23
1.7.6 ASTM A194 Standard Specifications for Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts
for Bolts for High Pressure and High Temperature Service [11] ................... 23
1.7.7 Compressor OEM Specifications to Packagers............................................. 23
1.7.8 Driver OEM Guidelines.................................................................................. 24
1.7.9 Documents Available from GMRC................................................................. 25
2. SPECIFIC BACKGROUND................................................................................................ 27
2.1 The Compression System......................................................................................... 27
2.2 Physical Interfaces .................................................................................................... 28
2.3 Forces to Recognize and Manage in Designing the Mounting System..................... 29
2.3.1 Skid Weight ................................................................................................... 30
2.3.2 Weight of Compressor and Driver ................................................................. 31
2.3.3 Weight of Cylinders and Crosshead Guides.................................................. 31
2.3.4 Primary Discharge Bottle Weight................................................................... 32
2.3.5 Primary Suction Bottle Weight....................................................................... 32
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page v

Section Page
2.3.6 Vertical Vessel Weight and Inertia Forces..................................................... 33

2.3.7 Other Horizontal Vessel Weight and Inertia Forces ...................................... 34
2.3.8 Rotating Unbalanced Forces ......................................................................... 35
2.3.9 Reciprocating Unbalanced Forces from Compressor.................................... 35
2.3.10 Unbalanced Forces from Driver..................................................................... 38
2.3.11 Compressor Cylinder Gas Forces ................................................................. 38
2.3.12 Cylinder Gas Forces on Crosshead Guide Supports .................................... 39
2.3.13 Potential for Imperfect Internal Balancing of Gas Forces .............................. 39
2.3.14 Differential Stretch Forces ............................................................................. 39
2.3.15 Dynamic Gas Forces in Suction and Discharge Bottles ................................ 39
2.3.16 Differential Vertical Forces for Compressor................................................... 40
2.3.17 Installation Weight Forces ............................................................................. 42
2.3.18 Installation Fit-up Forces ............................................................................... 42
2.3.19 Piping Thermal Forces .................................................................................. 42
2.3.20 Compressor Frame Thermal Growth Forces ................................................. 43
2.3.21 Engine Block Thermal Growth Forces........................................................... 43
2.3.22 Grout to Concrete Thermal Growth Forces ................................................... 43
2.3.23 Compressor and Driver Anchor Bolt Forces.................................................. 43
2.4 Geometries to be Managed....................................................................................... 43
2.4.1 Compressor Frame Geometries .................................................................... 43
2.4.2 Engine Geometries........................................................................................ 47
2.4.3 Motor Geometries.......................................................................................... 52
2.5 Experience Base: Successes and Problems with Medium and High-Speed
Separable Reciprocating Compressor Systems ....................................................... 55
2.5.1 Survey Results and Tabular Experience Base .............................................. 55
2.5.2 Case Studies ................................................................................................. 58
2.6 Technical Background and Topics to Support Specific Guidelines........................... 89
2.6.1 Geotechnical Assessment ............................................................................. 90
2.6.2 Pulsation: Methods of Analysis and Control ................................................. 90
2.6.3 Torsional Vibrations: Method of Analysis, Assessment, and Control ........... 92
2.6.4 Piping and Compressor Manifold Vibrations Modeling Methods and
Examples....................................................................................................... 94
2.6.5 Alignment: Discussion of Key Elements for Medium and High-Speed
Separable Compressors and Their Drivers ................................................. 103
2.6.6 Anchor Bolt Tension Management and Monitoring ..................................... 105
2.6.7 Skid Structural Analysis: Treatment of Excitations ..................................... 106
2.6.8 Complicating Factors and Incompletely Resolved Issues ........................... 106
3. GENERAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL GUIDELINES........................................................ 117
3.1 Organizations and Their Interfaces ......................................................................... 117
3.2 Responsibilities ....................................................................................................... 118
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page vi

Section Page
End User Responsibility .............................................................................. 118

3.2.1
3.2.2
Packager Responsibility for Skid-Mounted Units......................................... 119
3.2.3
Compressor OEM Responsibilities.............................................................. 120
3.2.4
Driver OEM Responsibilities........................................................................ 120
3.2.5
Responsibilities for Foundation Design and Installation for Foundation
and Skid....................................................................................................... 121
3.2.6 Responsibilities of Third Party Analysts ...................................................... 122
3.3 End User Due Diligence.......................................................................................... 123
3.4 Needed Project Skills .............................................................................................. 125
4. SPECIFIC GUIDELINES.................................................................................................. 127
4.1 Bid Specifications.................................................................................................... 127
4.1.1 Package Configuration Requirements......................................................... 128
4.1.2 General Requirements ................................................................................ 128
4.1.3 Design Analysis Requirements.................................................................... 128
4.1.4 Skid Design Requirements .......................................................................... 128
4.1.5 Piping Design Requirements ....................................................................... 129
4.1.6 Foundation Design Requirements ............................................................... 129
4.1.7 Installation and Mounting Design Requirements ......................................... 130
4.1.8 Alignment Requirements ............................................................................. 130
4.1.9 Installation Requirements ............................................................................ 131
4.1.10 Start-Up and Operation Requirements ........................................................ 131
4.2 Choosing Skid or Block Mounting for Medium and High-Speed Separables .......... 131
4.2.1 Some Skid Mount Advantages .................................................................... 132
4.2.2 Some Skid Mount Disadvantages ............................................................... 132
4.2.3 Some Block Mount Advantages .................................................................. 132
4.2.4 Some Block Mount Disadvantages.............................................................. 133
4.2.5 The Current Experience Base for Block Mounting ...................................... 133
4.3 Skid Design ............................................................................................................. 134
4.3.1 Basic Requirements .................................................................................... 134
4.3.2 Specific Skid Design Guidelines.................................................................. 141
4.4 Foundation Design for a Skid Mounted Compressor .............................................. 150
4.4.1 Basic Foundation Requirements ................................................................. 150
4.4.2 Specific Guidelines for Skid Mount Foundation Design............................... 150
4.5 Foundation Design for a Block-Mounted Compressor and Engine ......................... 151
4.5.2 Specific Guidelines for Block-Mounted Compressor and Engine ................ 154
4.6 Piping Design and Design for Pulsation Control ..................................................... 158
4.6.2 Specific Guidelines ...................................................................................... 158
4.7 Design and Specification of Mounting and Installation............................................ 167
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page vii

Section Page
4.7.1Overview and Basic Requirements ............................................................. 167

4.7.2Skid to Foundation Mounting....................................................................... 168
4.7.3Compressor Mounting (To Skid or Block).................................................... 170
4.7.4Driver Mounting (To Skid or Block).............................................................. 173
4.7.5Crosshead Guide Mounting (To Skid or Block) ........................................... 176
4.7.6Cylinder Head End Support Mounting to Foundation (If Required) ............. 177
4.7.7Discharge Bottle to Foundation Block Mounting.......................................... 178
4.7.8Suction Bottle Structural Support Mounting: Use a Grouted, Anchor
Bolted Support............................................................................................. 182
4.7.9 Vessel Mounting .......................................................................................... 182
4.8 Analytical Studies.................................................................................................... 183
4.8.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 183
4.8.2 Pulsation Analysis ....................................................................................... 184
4.8.3 Torsional Analysis ....................................................................................... 185
4.8.4 Piping and Compressor Manifold Vibration Study ....................................... 186
4.8.5 Structural Analysis of Skid and Mounted components ................................ 187
4.8.6 Foundation Analysis .................................................................................... 191
4.8.7 Piping Stress and Flexibility Analysis .......................................................... 193
4.9 Installation ............................................................................................................... 194
4.9.1 Basic requirements...................................................................................... 194
4.9.2 General Installation Guidelines.................................................................... 195
4.9.3 Foundation Installation ................................................................................ 196
4.9.4 Preparations for Grouting of Skid to the Concrete....................................... 197
4.9.5 Grouting....................................................................................................... 200
4.9.6 Alignment of Equipment .............................................................................. 202
4.9.7 Installation of Pulsation Bottles and Piping.................................................. 203
4.9.8 Ensure Piping and All Bottle Chambers are Thoroughly Clean Before
Installation and Operation............................................................................ 204
4.10 Start-Up and Commissioning .................................................................................. 204
4.10.1 General........................................................................................................ 204
4.10.2 Prior to Coupled Operation, Perform Uncoupled Runs and Tests of
Driver ........................................................................................................... 205
4.10.3 Apply Compressor and Driver Checklists .................................................... 205
4.10.4 Perform Start-Up with Compressor on an Adequately Sized Bypass.......... 205
4.10.5 Perform Appropriate Hot Alignment Checks on Main Equipment................ 205
4.10.6 Check and Re-Tighten All Frame Anchor Bolts on Driver and
Compressor Once Hot Operating Conditions have Stabilized..................... 205
4.10.7 Continue the Short-Term Check and Retighten Cycle for Anchor Bolts
Until Clear Evidence of Day-to-Day Repeatability is Obtained.................... 205
4.10.8 Check and Adjust Crosshead Guide Support Shims Under Hot
Conditions.................................................................................................... 205
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Section Page
4.10.9 Adjust Wedges Under Discharge Bottles with the Operating

Temperature Stable..................................................................................... 206
4.10.10 Adjust Head End Supports Under Hot Conditions, If the Design
Includes Them ............................................................................................. 206
4.10.11 Adjust Suction Bottle Clamps and Wedges Once Stable Operating
Conditions Have Been Reached ................................................................. 206
4.10.12 Rigorously Confirm That All Wedges on Both Sides of the Unit Have
Been Properly Adjusted, Including Those Below Floor Level...................... 206
4.11 Start-Up Testing ...................................................................................................... 206
4.11.1 General........................................................................................................ 206
4.11.2 Scope of Start-Up Vibration Testing ............................................................ 207
4.11.3 Perform Start-Up Vibration Tests According to Test Matrix, and Apply
Appropriate Vibration and Pulsation Criteria ............................................... 208
4.11.4 Evaluate Any Non-Compliance Between Test Data and Criteria ................ 208
4.11.5 Decide on Further Documentation and Problem Definition ......................... 208
4.11.6 Perform Engine Testing for Heat Rate and Compressor Testing for
Efficiency and Capacity, In Addition to Performing and Evaluating
Vibration Tests............................................................................................. 209
4.12 Corrective Action for High Vibration ........................................................................ 209
4.12.1 Evaluate Options for Corrective Action........................................................ 209
4.12.2 Implement Corrective Action ....................................................................... 209
4.13 Longer Term Operation........................................................................................... 210
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ 211
6. REFERENCES................................................................................................................. 213
7. COMPRESSOR MOUNTING AND FOUNDATION BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................. 215
APPENDIX A Experience Base Presented as 13 Tables ................................................... A-1
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page ix

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Figure 2-1 Large Skid for 5,000 HP Motor Driven JGU/Z, with Beams Alone
Weighing Over 85,000 lbs and Completed Skid Weighing Over 220,000 lbs
After Addition of Concrete ................................................................................... 30
Figure 2-2 Crane Lift of Skid with 6-Cylinder Ariel JGD Compressor Already Mounted ....... 31
Figure 2-3 Rugged Support Structure for 4-Chamber (3 + Common Chamber) Suction
Filter Bottle on JGU6, Replacing 3-Chamber ...................................................... 33
Figure 2-4 Cat G3616/Ariel JGD6 Installation (5 Units) ........................................................ 34
Figure 2-5 Ariel JGD4 Installation Showing Modifications to Control Observed
Vibrations: Cylinder Supports Grouted with Anchor Bolts at Their Base; An
Increased Number of More Rugged Clamps; An Increased Number of More
Rugged Wedges; Cross-Bracing on Suction Chokes; Added Cross Beams
to Skid Structure.................................................................................................. 34
Figure 2-6 Model of Block and Frame of Separable Slow Speed Compressor Used for
Calculating Anchor Bolt Transverse Loads ......................................................... 36
Figure 2-7 Comparison of Maximum Transverse Force as Predicted by Rigid Frame
(RIGID) Assumption, by Finite Element Analysis (FLEX), and by Frame
with Zero Bending Stiffness (SOFT) ................................................................. 37
Figure 2-8 Cross-Bracing Between Suction Bottles.............................................................. 41
Figure 2-9 Schematic of a Cylinder, Showing Also Piston, Piston Rod, Crosshead,
Crosshead Bearing, Pin Bearing, Connecting Rod, and Crankshaft ................... 41
Figure 2-10 Illustration of Load Balance at Crosshead Pin from Which Vertical Force on
Crosshead Bearing is Determined....................................................................... 42
Figure 2-11 Axial View of Ariel JGC:D Frame......................................................................... 44
Figure 2-12 Axial View of Ariel JGU:Z Frame ......................................................................... 45
Figure 2-13 Axial View of Ariel KBB:V Frame......................................................................... 46
Figure 2-14 Cross-Section of Wartsila Engine........................................................................ 47
Figure 2-15 Cat GCM Cross-Section ...................................................................................... 48
Figure 2-16 Cat G3600 Series Engine Oblique Cutaway ....................................................... 48
Figure 2-17 End Elevation of Cat G3616 ................................................................................ 49
Figure 2-18 Pedestal for Skid Mounted Wartsila Engine ........................................................ 50
Figure 2-19 Engine Skid for G3616 ........................................................................................ 50
Figure 2-20 Concrete Well to Accommodate GCM34 Sump for Concrete Block Mounted
Installation of 8180 HP Engine and Ariel JGV6 compressor ............................... 51
Figure 2-21 Typical Induction Motor Dimensions 680-Frame (Courtesy Siemens) ................ 52
Figure 2-22 Typical Induction Motor Dimensions 800-Frame (Courtesy Siemens) ................ 53
Figure 2-23 Typical Induction Motor Dimensions 1120 Frame (Courtesy Siemens) .............. 54
Figure 2-24 Overview of Cat G3608 Driven Ariel JGD4 ......................................................... 58
Figure 2-25 Vertical Vibrations on Cylinders 2 and 4 of the Compressor of Figure 2-24........ 59
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page x

LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd)
Figure Page
Figure 2-26 Vertical Vibrations on Cylinders 1 and 3 of the Compressor of Figure 2-24........ 60
Figure 2-27 Comparison of 4th Order Vibrations for Cylinders 1, 2, 3, and 4 with
Ineffective Head End Supports at Cylinders 1, 2, and 4...................................... 60
Figure 2-28 ANSYS Model of Ariel JGD4 with Cylinders, Bottles Head End Supports,
Viewed with Orientation Similar to Figure 2-24 ................................................... 61
Figure 2-29 Mode Shape for 48.7 Hz Cylinder-Bottle Mode without Head End Support ........ 62
Figure 2-33 Influence of Crosshead Guide Support Stiffness on Frequency of the Four
Predicted Cylinder-Bottle Modes ......................................................................... 64
Figure 2-34 Influence of Discharge Bottle Wedge Support Stiffness on the Frequency of
the Four Predicted Cylinder-Bottle Modes........................................................... 65
Figure 2-35 Illustration of Bottle Ovalization in Response to Nozzle Vertical Load and
Rigid Wedge Under Bottle ................................................................................... 65
Figure 2-36 Influence of Cylinder Head End Support Attachment Stiffness on the Four
Predicted Cylinder-Bottle Modes ......................................................................... 66
Figure 2-37 Need for Head End SupportInfluence on Vertical Cylinder-Bottle Modes
and Comparison with 4th Order Excitation Range ............................................... 67
Figure 2-38 Comparison of Cylinder Maximum Vibration Component Before and After
Modifications, which Include Re-Grout of Head End Supports and Added
Anchor Bolts ........................................................................................................ 67
Figure 2-39 Cat G3608 Engine Mount Before Modification to Control Vibrations and Soft
Foot Under Vibracons ......................................................................................... 70
Figure 2-40 Close-up: Cat G3608 With Vibracon Mounts With Steel Plates Between
Vibracons and Skid .............................................................................................71
Figure 2-41 Motor-Driven Ariel JGV6...................................................................................... 72
Figure 2-42 Crosshead Guide Support and Compressor Pedestal for Motor Driven Ariel
JGV6 ................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 2-43 Peak Hold Spectrum Load Step 5 (Asymmetric) .............................................. 74
Figure 2-44 Peak Hold Spectrum Symmetrical Load Step (Load Step 1)............................ 74
Figure 2-45 Vertical Vibration Profile Motor-Driven Unit 156 Hz....................................... 75
Figure 2-46 Model of Cylinder, Frame, Bottles, and I-Beam Support Structure ..................... 75
Figure 2-47 Model Without Bottles ......................................................................................... 76
Figure 2-48 I-Beam Pedestal Structure (Plate Model) ............................................................ 76
Figure 2-49 Detail Showing Compressor to I-Beam Interface ................................................ 77
Figure 2-50 Case Study 2 Predicted Mode Shape at 98.9 Hz ............................................. 77
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xi

Figure Page
Figure 2-51 Axial Profile of Frame Vibration Amplitudes Under Asymmetric Unbalanced
Gas Loading ........................................................................................................ 78
Figure 2-52 Compressor Base Response (Horizontal, Perpendicular to Cranshaft) as a
Function of Frequency......................................................................................... 79
Figure 2-53 Vertical Profile of Vibration Amplitudes (Horizontal, Perpendicular to
Crankshaft).......................................................................................................... 79
Figure 2-54 Compressor Base Response as a Function of Frequency Under
Asymmetric Loading; Pedestal Stiffness Increased by 4X; No Sliding at
Mount .................................................................................................................. 80
Figure 2-55 Vertical View Profile of Frame Vibration Amplitudes, Corresponding to Peak
of Figure 2-54 ...................................................................................................... 80
Figure 2-56 Minimum Friction Coefficient for Cast-Iron on Various Other Materials, from
GMRC Technical Report TR97-3 [2] ................................................................... 81
Figure 2-57 Siemens Motor Driven JGV6 with Replacement 4-Chamber Suction Bottle
Installed and Rugged Support Structure for Suction Bottle ................................. 82
Figure 2-58 Rugged Support Structure for New 4-Chamber Bottles in More Detail
Showing Clamp Holding Bottle Against Wedges and Long U-Bolts
Providing Substantial Bolt Stretch Length ........................................................... 82
Figure 2-59 Comparison of Primary and Secondary Discharge Bottle Configuration
Against Single 4-Chamber Discharge Bottle ....................................................... 83
Figure 2-60 Original Discharge Bottle on JGU6, With No Clamps Holding Bottle Against
Wedges ............................................................................................................... 85
Figure 2-61 Original 3-Chamber Suction Bottle on Ariel JGU6 Driven by Cat G3616 ............ 85
Figure 2-62 Illustrative Prediction of JGU6 Compressor Manifold Vibration........................... 86
Figure 2-63 Discharge Bottle with Added Strap to Control Vibrations; Ariel JGU6
Installation ........................................................................................................... 87
Figure 2-64 JGU6 with Replacement 4-Chamber Suction Bottle............................................ 87
Figure 2-65 Original Installation of G3520-JGT4 .................................................................... 88
Figure 2-66 Views of Modified Installation of G3520-JGT4 .................................................... 89
Figure 2-67 Very Stiff Crosshead Guide Support, which is a Single Structure for Two
Adjacent Cylinders; Installed to Control Cylinder Vibrations Identified with
Less Stiff Individual Cylinder Guide Supports ..................................................... 89
Figure 2-68 Three-Dimensional Schematic of Common Chamber Suction Filter Bottle
[14] ...................................................................................................................... 92
Figure 2-69 Model of Manifold System, Piping, and Cylinders for 6-Cylinder Single-
Stage Compressor, which Uses Shell Elements for 4-Chamber Suction and
Discharge Bottles ................................................................................................ 95
Figure 2-70 Details of Model at Joint Between Nozzle and Suction Bottle Showing Shell
Elements Used for Bottle and for Reinforcing Pad .............................................. 95
Figure 2-71 Predicted Stress Distribution in Bottle Modeled with Beam Elements................. 96
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xii

Figure Page
Figure 2-72 Predicted Stress Distribution in Bottle Modeled with Shell Elements .................. 96
Figure 2-73 Beam Element Model of Compressor Manifold ................................................... 97
Figure 2-74 Shell Element Model of the System Modeled with Beam Elements in Figure
2-73 ..................................................................................................................... 97
Figure 2-75 Velocity Spectrum Predicted with Beam Elements (Model of Figure 2-73) ......... 99
Figure 2-76 Velocity Spectrum Predicted with Shell Elements (Model of Figure 2-74) .......... 99
Figure 2-77 Stress Distribution Predicted with Beam Element Model of Figure 2-73 ........... 100
Figure 2-78 Stress Distribution Predicted with Shell Element Model of Figure 2-74 ............ 100
Figure 2-79 Predicted Vibration Velocity for Unbraced Suction Bottles................................ 101
Figure 2-80 Predicted Vibration Velocity for Braced Suction Bottles .................................... 101
Figure 2-81 Cat G3608 Installation; Vibracon Mounts with Jacking Screws for Vertical
and Horizontal Motion ....................................................................................... 104
Figure 2-82 Simplified Illustration of Forces and Couples Acting on a Compressor
Frame ................................................................................................................ 107
Figure 2-83 Free Body Diagrams for Two Contacting Bodies Illustrating Friction Forces
in Reaction to Externally Applied Forces........................................................... 109
Figure 2-84 Schematic of Canister Bolt (Courtesy Robert L. Rowan) .................................. 111
Figure 2-85 Illustration of Anchor Bolt and Compressed Sandwich, Including Grout
Layer ................................................................................................................. 112
Figure 4-1 Foot of JGV6 Compressor Driven by Wartsila 18 Cylinder Engine ................... 135
Figure 4-2 Compressor Foot of JGD4 Driven by Cat G3616, Mounted on Chock Set in
Grout Box .......................................................................................................... 135
Figure 4-3 Stiff Crosshead Guide Support Connecting JGV6 (GCM34 Drive) Guide
Directly to Block................................................................................................. 136
Figure 4-4 Skid Being Lifted Into Position on Foundation Block Prior to Grouting to
Block.................................................................................................................. 137
Figure 4-5 Stiff Crosshead Guide Structure Covering 2 Cylinders of Ariel JGD4, Driven
by Cat G3608 .................................................................................................... 137
Figure 4-6 Crosshead Guide Support for Wartsila Engine Driven JGV6 ............................ 138
Figure 4-7 Compressor Section of Skid Before Compressor is Mounted ........................... 139
Figure 4-8 Close-Up of Jacking Screw for Skid of Figure 4-14........................................... 139
Figure 4-9 Anchor Bolt for JGV6 Compressor Frame Extending Below Skid ..................... 140
Figure 4-10 Box Structure for Achieving Stretch Length for Anchor Bolts ............................ 140
Figure 4-11 Bottle Mounted on Skid and Resulting Elevated Compressor Mounting ........... 142
Figure 4-12 Foundation Block for Cat G3612 Installation ..................................................... 143
Figure 4-13 Staggered Concrete Levels as a Means of Controlling Height from Which
Discharge Bottle is Supported ........................................................................... 143
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xiii

Figure Page
Figure 4-14 Underside of Skid for Cat G3616/JGD6 Installation, Showing Concrete in
Skid Under Compressor, and Jacking Screws for Leveling and Alignment
Along the Side ................................................................................................... 145
Figure 4-15 Crosshead Guide Supports and Anchor Bolts for JGV6.................................... 146
Figure 4-16 Mounting Foot Mounted on Chock Set in Grout Box, With Shims Between
Chock and Foot for Alignment and Leveling...................................................... 146
Figure 4-17 Cat G3616 Engine Mounting Foot, with Adjustable Vibracon Supports
Mounted Directly onto Skid ............................................................................... 147
Figure 4-18 Freestanding Stretch Tube on Compressor Pedestal for JGV6 Installation
Later Reinforced with Horizontal Plate Mid-Way Down Bay Between
Gussets ............................................................................................................ 147
Figure 4-19 Mounting for 4-Chamber Suction Bottle Support Structure Retroactively
Installed on JGV6 .............................................................................................. 149
Figure 4-20 Mounting of Structural Support for 4-Chamber Bottle Retroactively
Designed and Installed for JGU6....................................................................... 149
Figure 4-21 Block Mounted JGV6 Installation ...................................................................... 152
Figure 4-22 Schematic of Canister Bolt (Courtesy Robert L. Rowan) .................................. 156
Figure 4-23 Photograph of Several Canister Bolts (Courtesy Robert L. Rowan).................. 157
Figure 4-24 Siemens Motor Driven JGV6 with Replacement 4-Chamber Suction Bottle
Installed and Rugged Support Structure for Suction Bottle ............................... 158
Figure 4-25 Acoustic Filter Options Which Impact Mounting ................................................ 161
Figure 4-26 Cat G3612 Driven Installation ........................................................................... 161
Figure 4-27 JGT4 Installation; Rugged Low Profile On-Skid Mounting of Secondary
Bottle ................................................................................................................. 162
Figure 4-28 Cat G3616/JGD6 Installation (5 Units) .............................................................. 163
Figure 4-29 Robust Off-Skid Mounting for Lateral Piping ..................................................... 163
Figure 4-30 Cat G3608 Installation Showing Bracket Added to Control Piping Vibration..... 164
Figure 4-31 Cat G3608 Installation With Added Clamping on Piping ................................... 164
Figure 4-32 Pipe Support Added to Insulated Elbow ............................................................ 165
Figure 4-33 Insulated Flange at Building Wall Installed Before Wall was Installed and
Now Very Difficult to Get a Wrench to Because of the Wall .............................. 166
Figure 4-34 Skid for Ariel JGT4/Cat G3520 Installation With Grout Showing Anchor Bolt
With Supernut and Jacking Screw for Leveling Skid ....................................... 168
Figure 4-35 Corner of Skid Showing Grouting, Skid Anchor Bolt, and Skid Jacking
Screw ................................................................................................................ 169
Figure 4-36 Epoxy Filled Self-Aligning Mount (U.S. Rotech, Inc.) ........................................ 171
Figure 4-37 Riverhawk Stud Tensioner Graphic (from
http://www.riverhawk.com/tools.html) ................................................................ 173
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xiv

Figure Page
Figure 4-38 Schematic of Alternative Adjustable Mount Patent Pending (Courtesy

Robert L. Rowan and Associates) ..................................................................... 174
Figure 4-39 Photograph of Alternative Adjustable Mount Patent Pending (Courtesy
Robert L. Rowan and Associates) ..................................................................... 174
Figure 4-40 Packager Shop Installation of Cat G3616 ......................................................... 174
Figure 4-41 JGD4 Installation Showing Tuning Mass Added to Head End Support to
Change Natural Frequency from Value Leading to Very High Torsional
Vibration of Support........................................................................................... 178
Figure 4-42 JGD4 Installation ............................................................................................... 180
Figure 4-43 Close-up: More Rugged Clamp and Wedge on JGD4 Installation ................... 180
Figure 4-44 Cat G3616/JGD6 Installation (5 units)............................................................... 181
Figure 4-45 JGD3 Installation Driven by Cat G3606............................................................. 181
Figure 4-46 Piers Constructed to Support Retrofit Bottles.................................................... 182
Figure 4-47 Vibration Induced Stresses and Allowable Vibrations For Piping Spans........... 188
Figure 4-48 Finite Element Model of Concrete Block for Calculating Concrete Stresses..... 194
Figure 4-49 Field Sandblasting Bottom of Skid [12].............................................................. 198
Figure 4-50 Expansion Joint Foam in Position [12] .............................................................. 199
Figure 4-51 Movable Head Box [12] ..................................................................................... 201
Figure 4-52 Head Box on one Side of Skid Being Filled with Grout ..................................... 201
Figure 4-53 Grout Pulling Tool [12]....................................................................................... 201
Figure 4-54 Grout Pulling Tool in Use [12] ........................................................................... 201
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xv

LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Table 2-1 Typical Compressor Heights From Under-Surface of Feet to Crankshaft

Centerline ............................................................................................................ 47
Table 2-2 Caterpillar Engine Mode Heights from Low Point and from Under-Surface of
Feet to Crankshaft Centerline.............................................................................. 51
Table 2-3 Representative Motor Dimensions: Heights of Siemens Motors from Under-
Surface of Feet to Shaft Centerline ..................................................................... 55
Table 2-4 Comparison of Predicted Response Frequencies for Manifold and Piping
Based on Beam and Shell Models ...................................................................... 98
Table 2-5 Anchor Bolt Forces (lbs) for Different Sizes and Stress Levels......................... 110
Table 2-6 Full Load Rolling Torques for Cat G3608 and G3616 ....................................... 115
Table 2-7 Full Load Rolling Torques for Cat G3606 and G3612 ....................................... 116
Table 2-8 Cat Large Engine Dynamic Significant Linear and Torsional Excitation
Frequencies....................................................................................................... 116
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xvi

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xvii

1. INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL BACKGROUND
This document has four main sections:

1 Introduction and General Background
2 Specific Background
3 General and Organizational Guidelines
4 Specific Guidelines
This first section introduces the subject, the scope of the guidelines, some relevant
definitions and terminology, and the recent evolution in upstream and pipeline compression. A
situation summary defines current experience leading to the need for guidelines, followed by a
summary of existing codes, standards, specifications, guidelines, and how they should be
supplemented when applied to pipeline separable compressors.
The second section provides a more specific definition of the factors influencing the
procurement, engineering, and installation of medium and high-speed compressors in pipeline
service, and the challenges faced by the end users project engineering team. It includes sub-
sections on the forces to be managed, the driver and compressor geometries to be managed, and
experience from the end users and other industry segments with a number of case studies. The
second section concludes with technical discussion, which provides background for the specific
guidelines in Section 4 of this document. The relevant sub-section (2.6) identifies state-of-the-
art limitations, pointing to areas where research is needed to comprehensively support the
reliable engineering of separable reciprocating compressors in the future.
The third section provides qualitative, but significant guidance for planning and
organization of a project to install one or more medium or high speed separable reciprocating
compressors in pipeline service. It includes a definition of responsibilities, the due diligence
required of the end users project engineer, and needed project skills.
The last and longest of these four sections provides specific guidelines on specification,
design, design analysis, mounting, installation, start-up, testing, and corrective action.
Additional sections include references, a bibliography, and an appendix containing a
tabular experience base obtained by industry survey.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This document presents a set of guidelines on the mounting of separable reciprocating
compressors, with speeds generally referred to as medium and high speed. The guidelines are
intended to capture the knowledge base, which has been accumulated across a number of
organizations in the process of installing such compressors between 1997 and 2006. The need
for these guidelines arises because certain problems arose, often for identifiable reasons, and it is
desirable for all segments of the industry involved to minimize or avoid such problems in the
future. Such problems have frequently resulted in unanticipated and undesirable extra cost
often to a number of the stakeholders. Delays in the added capacity anticipated from new
compression has been another common result. The first half of the guidelines document
provides background, and the second half presents general and specific guidelines.
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page 1

The guidelines, appropriately followed, should help project stakeholders install separable
compressors that encounter a minimum of problems, that enhance reliable deliverability of the
U.S. pipeline system, that represent valuable business assets to pipeline companies, and that the
diverse supplier teams can profit from with justifiable pride.
In a number of areas, the work of assembling and preparing the guidelines has revealed
gaps or limitations in the current state-of-the-art. These areas will need research to advance
knowledge and practice to the point where it can comprehensively support effective engineering
for mounting and installation of medium and high speed separable compressors in pipeline
service.
1.2 SCOPE OF GUIDELINES

These guidelines will address the mounting of separable reciprocating compressors for
pipeline service. Mounting includes support of the compressor, the driver, compressor cylinders,
filter bottles, vessels, and other appurtenances; it covers the functions provided by the skid or
skids, reinforcements, grout and concrete, the mat and foundation, anchor bolts and washers,
mounting plates, chocks, piers, clamps, cylinder supports, frames, and other support structures.
The guidelines will emphasize modern, high-speed separable compressors, with power of
approximately 1,500 HP and above, with either fixed or variable speeds in the range from 500 to
1,200 RPM. The guidelines will seek to address decisions, which will influence the short and
long term integrity and economics of the installationwhose expected life for pipeline service
can be expected to exceed at least 20 years. These decisions include both hardware choices and
the design analyses, which guide and validate these hardware choices. The guidelines also
emphasize less tangible but vital issuescommunication, due diligence, and the management of
interfacesboth physical and organizational.
As stated, the guidelines will emphasize pipeline service, but should also be relevant to
other installations with long life requirements. Those responsible for installations in other
services may choose to apply many of the general aspects of the guidelines but should recognize
the special considerations of pipeline service implicit in the guidelines (typically single stage,
ratio below 1.5, high availability requirements, with need for high thermal efficiency, and long
service life).
The guidelines will consider alternative mounting types, particularly block mounting and
skid mounting. In general, the guidelines do not address slow speed integral compressors,
although some of the lessons learned from experience over the lifetime of the large number of
slow speed integrals in pipeline service will be adapted to the present guidelines.
1.3 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY
1.3.1 MOUNTING
Mounting is the location, weight support, alignment, mechanical and gas load
management, and tie-down of the compressor, its driver, associated systems, and appurtenances.

1.3.2 HIGH AND MEDIUM SPEED
For the purposes of these guidelines, high speed is considered to be 900 RPM and above.
Medium speed is 500 to 900 RPM. These definitions are somewhat arbitrary and do not greatly
influence the mounting guidelines.
1.3.3 PACKAGE
In principle, a package is the compression systemeverything between the suction
flange and the discharge flange, with a driver and support systems; a turnkey system which just
has to be set in place, connected to compressor station gas headers, connected to fuel or power
lines, started, and operated. In fact, it is this turnkey concept, which needs some qualification
and rethinking when applied to large pipeline compressors, as the guidelines will discuss.
1.3.4 THE PACKAGER

The Packager is the single source and point of contact for the procurement, engineering,
assembly, transportation, installation, start-up, commissioning, and problem resolution for the
compression system. The packager purchases and assembles the compressor, driver, coupling,
vessels, coolers, controls, oil system, etc., designs a skid, mounts the components on the skid,
delivers the package to the end user, installs it, starts it up, and assures its function as a system
for a finite period. When not explicitly specified by the purchaser, the packager normally
decides and procures the engineering analyses, which will be employed to support the design.
Considering all industry segments they serve, packagers offer sale, lease, or contract operation.
1.3.5 INTEGRAL ENGINE COMPRESSOR

A compressor and engine in the same frame, normally burning the same gas that it
compresses, whose single crankshaft transmits power from the power cylinders to the
compressor cylinders. Often referred to as slow speed integral engine compressors, their speed is
most commonly from 200 to 475 RPM. These guidelines are not directed at such units, but
where possible seek to take advantage of the existing knowledge base for integral engine
compressors.
1.3.6 HIGH SPEED DRIVER WITH LOW SPEED SEPARABLE COMPRESSOR

This configuration has been proposed on occasion for pipeline service with the potential
advantages of combining the high thermal efficiency of a low speed compressor with the low
heat rate of a modern high-speed engine. It includes a gearbox to reduce speed from the engine
to the compressor. A small number of examples exist in other services. Many of the principles
developed in these guidelines would apply to this configuration, but it is not explicitly addressed
in these guidelines.
1.3.7 GROUT
A pourable material, which cures and hardens with time, to form a stiff layer, and fills the
previously empty space into which it has been poured. The hardened grout forms a structural
element of the mounting system for skids, sole plates, chocks, compressors and their drivers.
Once the grout is hardened, anchor bolts are tightened at certain locations on mounted equipment
or a skid, with the effect of compressing the grout. Grouts in this application are epoxy material
formed from long chain polymer compounds, which can be formulated to provide a Youngs

modulus of 1.5 million PSI or more. The modulus has a time dependent characteristic
sometimes referred to as creep, which can cause slow changes in deflection under load. Grout
properties are also temperature dependent, which must be accounted for during start-up and
initial operation.
1.3.8 ANCHOR BOLTS

Anchor bolts for compression equipment normally pass upwards through a hole in a
plate, flange, or foot, and via a nut and washer, apply a vertical downwards force on the upwards
facing surface of a component to be mounted (of which the plate, flange, or foot forms an
integral part). Anchor bolts may be embedded in concrete or may be terminated at their lower
end by a head, which bears against a surface of the steel structure onto which the component is to
be mounted.
1.3.9 CANISTER BOLT

An anchor bolt designed for installation in concrete with a termination disk at its lower
end for embedment in the concrete and an encasing sleeve covering the entire length of the bolt,
which helps protect the bolt. The bolt can usually be temporarily lowered into the canister flush
with or below the concrete surface, if needed, then raised up again to interface with mounted
equipment.
1.3.10 CHOCK
A chock is a stiff, flattish element, rectangular in plan view, with typical dimensions of 6
to 12 inches on a side, and 1 to 3 inches of thickness. A chock separates a component to be
mounted from the structure to which it is to be mounted. Normally, a single anchor bolt passes
through the chock, and the tensioning of the anchor bolt produces a high normal force between
the interfaces involved (e.g., the compressor to chock interface, the chock to skid interface, or the
chock to concrete interface).
1.3.11 MOUNTING PLATE

This component is similar to a chock on which the compressor and driver feet are
amounted and which, in turn, is solidly supported by the skid. Often, the mounting plate is set in
a rectangular box containing grout, and the box is welded to the skid or to a pedestal structure for
mounting the engine or compressor.
1.3.12 SOLE PLATE

A sole plate performs some similar functions to a chock or mounting plate but normally
has a larger area in plan view. The sole plate is normally grouted in place on top of a concrete
block providing multiple points of support for a compressor or driver.
1.3.13 CYLINDER
This is a compressor component, which contains the compressed gas as it changes
pressure under the action of the piston and its motion. The cylinder incorporates suction and
discharge valves, gas flow passages, and packing. The valves manage the gas flow into and out
of the cylinder volumes and trap the gas while it is being compressed under the action of the
reciprocating piston. There is most commonly one cylinder per throw, and an equal number of

cylinders on each side of the compressor, although variations on this configuration have been
successfully installed.
1.3.14 CROSSHEAD
A sliding component, which moves along a straight line, guided by a slider bearing and
acted upon by the connecting rod. The crosshead is the slider of this slider-crank
mechanism. The piston rod projects from and is driven by the crosshead; the piston rod
imposes reciprocating motion on the piston.
1.3.15 CROSSHEAD GUIDE

A structural element to which the cylinder is attached at its outer end and which at its
inner end is connected to the compressor frame. It acts as a spacer between frame and cylinder.
It also partially supports the crosshead guide slider bearing, which keeps the crosshead moving
in a straight line. Some compressors also have a separate compartment, called a distance piece,
between a crosshead guide and a cylinder.
1.3.16 CROSSHEAD GUIDE SUPPORT

The crosshead guide support is a structural element, which provides vertical support,
vertical restraint, and axial restraint to a cylinder and crosshead. It typically attaches to a
crosshead guide or cylinder near the joint between crosshead guide and cylinder.
1.3.17 WEDGE
This is an incline plane device to hold and restrain a bottle or section of pipe. Used
strictly in pairs these present flat surfaces at about 45 degrees to the vertical below and on either
side of the bottle. Wedges are adjustable by means of long bolts, which pull the pair of wedges
together to tighten them against the bottle. With high or variable discharge temperatures, the
vertical growth of discharge nozzles requires care in the use of discharge bottle wedges, but for
pipeline applications, this is the preferred configuration for bottle support.
1.3.18 GROUT BOX

A metal box, open from above, normally with rectangular or square cross-section as seen
from above, welded to the top of a main skid beam member, with sides several inches high. The
box is filled with epoxy grout and a plate (normally milled steel) is set in the grout, with its upper
surface horizontal, and typically with about 2 inches of grout under the plate. The box and plate
act as a mount for the feet of a compressor and driver, so the plate and box have holes for one or
two anchor bolts located to match bolt holes in the feet of the machine to be mounted at that
location.
1.3.19 PEDESTAL
A structure, commonly built of I-beams or wide flange beams, to provide a mounting
surface at appropriate height for the compressor or its driver on the skid. An important function
of the pedestal under the engine is to locate the engines feet so the sumps lowest point is at the
desired position relative to the main skid. The function of a pedestal under the compressor (if a
pedestal is used here) is to elevate the compressor shaft centerline to the same level as that of the
driver.

1.3.20 COUPLING
The device used to connect shafts of driver and compressor. Couplings used for medium
and high speed compressors most commonly offer some tolerance to angular and transverse
offset between driver and compressor, achieved with a spool piece between angularly flexible
joints mounted on each shaft (though low speed separables sometimes use a rigid, flanged,
coupling). Compressor OEMs normally recommend a coupling, which is torsionally stiff but
allow for a torsionally soft coupling, if shown by torsional analysis to be needed. Couplings of
all types are a maintenance item. Examples of various different coupling models are seen in
practice.
1.3.21 ALIGNMENT
Alignment normally refers to the process of adjusting the position of driver and
compressor on their mounts so the shafts of each are very close to collinear while avoiding
undesired axial or thrust forces at normal operating temperatures. Alignment is further used in
this document to refer to the leveling and elimination of twist and bending within the frame of
both driver and compressor.
1.3.22 DOUBLE SPHERICAL WASHER

A pair of washers mounted adjacent to a nut on an anchor bolt, with a spherical interface
between them. This pair of washers provides a flat interface with the nut or bolt cap to avoid
point loading. By allowing small relative angular motion between the pair of washers at the
spherical interface, any lack of parallelism between the surfaces is accommodated, and pressure
can be transferred with acceptable uniformity across these interfaces.
1.3.23 GROUT EXPANSION JOINT

A soft element often of neoprene foam or polystyrene, typically 2 to 3 inches high and
0.5 to 1.5 inches wide, extending most commonly in a direction parallel to the crankshaft of
driver or compressor, and across the width of a skid to be grouted in place, located immediately
on top of a concrete foundation. The expansion joint acts to break up the layer of grout poured
between the concrete and skid mounted on the concrete into rectangular sections. These joints
are typically spaced three or four feet apart. Their benefits are to reduce the probability of
thermal stress cracking and to break up the grout pour into manageable segments.
1.3.24 TWO-PIECE ANCHOR BOLT

A bolt used in concrete foundations with two segments (pieces). The lower segment is
embedded in the concrete and held against upwards pull by a termination device (nut, washer, or
disk); the lower segment does not extend above the top of the concrete block section in which it
is embedded, but allows for a second, upper, segment to be attached to the lower segment by a
threaded sleeve. The upper segment extends above the concrete high enough to mount whatever
is to be mounted. It is typical to provide a free work gap area in the concrete around the top of
the lower segment so the joint can be made without difficulty.
1.3.25 GROUT HEAD BOX

A box typically constructed of plywood, with rectangular (~9X36) cross-section when
viewed from above, with sides of 9 to 12 inches in height, and an opening at the bottom of one

long side, running the length of that side. The head box is set firmly against the side of a skid to
be grouted in place, flat on the concrete surface, and filled with grout. The height of the grout in
the box sets the head driving the flow across the volume between skid and concrete.
1.3.26 FOOT
This is a localized component integral with or bolted to a compressor or engine frame for
use in mounting. The foot presents a flat surface, facing downwards, which mates with a
mounting plate facing upwards, with precision thickness shims or sometimes with an adjustable
mount between the foot and the mounting plate.
1.3.27 PRECISION SHIMS

Flat metal strips of uniform, and precisely known thicknesses, used to adjust height
between a mounting plate and foot. Plastic shims should not be considered for pipeline
applications. Specification of stainless steel shims will be subsequently recommended.
1.3.28 HEAD END SUPPORT

This is a structural element, which restrains motion of the cylinder, attached near the
outboard end of the cylinder, sometimes called an outboard cylinder vibration suppression
device. For integral engine/compressors, a similar device was often referred to as a cold
support. However, for high-speed separable compressors, it functions predominantly to control
vibration.
1.3.29 VIBRACON
A mount of cylindrical shape, used increasingly to support engine drives from the skid,
which provides vertical adjustability and self-alignment and thereby can aid in vertical alignment
of mounted equipment.
1.4 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
1.4.1 SLOW SPEED COMPRESSORS

The natural gas transmission industry has made heavy use of reciprocating compressors
at stations along the pipeline system. These compressors move the gas and overcome frictional
resistance to flow between stations. When first applied in this industry, the compressors were
slow speedfirst, the 88 to 180 RPM horizontal compressors, and then the 200 to 475 RPM
engine-compressor combinations, now termed slow speed integrals (the Cooper Quad is an
engine/compressor example at the high end of the 200 to 475 RPM speed range). These slow
speed integrals still form the backbone of the pipeline system, and economics will drive most
pipeline companies to keep these integrals operating for as long as possible (while responding to
regulatory constraints).
Over the years, centrifugal compressors have also become a popular choice, and a
significant fraction of the systems expansion since 1960 has come through deployment of gas
turbine driven centrifugal compressors. However, most operating companies must deal with
widely varying conditions and have determined that a mix of reciprocating and centrifugal
compressors provide the operating flexibility they need. Thus, they will continue to operate their
old, slow speed, integral, engine compressors even with the added constraint of environmental

regulation, and will add (or replace) horsepower with a balanced mix of centrifugal and
reciprocating compressors.
1.4.2 THE CURRENT CHOICE OF MEDIUM AND HIGH SPEED COMPRESSORS

While on rare occasions a slow speed unit may be chosen, present trends show clearly
that the majority of new or replacement reciprocating compression in pipeline service will be
medium and high speed separable compressors, with a mix of gas engine and electric drivers.
The sustained emphasis on reciprocating compressors results in part from economics as well as
operating considerationsa very competitive market exists for high and medium speed
separable engine compressor packages; the engines now have very attractive heat rates (5,900 to
6,600 BTU/BHP-Hr); and under specific operating conditions, the positive displacement
reciprocating compressor can achieve thermal efficiencies at 90% or more. The shorter stroke of
a high-speed compressor reduces the required span of the cylinders and frame in the horizontal
direction perpendicular to the crankshaft. This reduces the amount of steel and cast iron needed
to achieve the kinematic requirements of reciprocating piston motion, and significantly reduces
the cost of a medium or high-speed separable package.
1.4.3 PERFORMANCE IMPLICATIONS

The shorter cylinders of medium and high-speed separables also reduce the natural area
available for gas to flow in and out of the cylinder for a given capacity. This reduced flow area
increases the flow resistance because the gas flows through the valves and cylinder passages with
higher velocity, related pressure drop varies with the square of flow velocity. The result of this
higher flow resistance is seen especially in pipeline compressors across which the pressure rise
tends to be a fairly small fraction of the line pressure (compression ratios as low as 1.1 are quite
common). Effort is expended by compressor manufacturers to maximize the flow area for a
given cylinder size for pipeline application, but the physical configuration constrains how far this
can go. The attached compressor manifold system, nozzle orifices, and in pipeline applications,
filter bottles incur as much as 10% additional pressure drop.
1.4.4 GROWTH OF THE SKID MOUNTED PACKAGED COMPRESSOR

The growth of the market for packaged separables has come from the needs of the gas
industry upstream of the regulated pipelines. Compression needs exist at the wellhead, in
gathering systems, in gas processing, and in boosting of gas pressure to meet pipeline inlet
requirements. The needs to link gas supply sources to pipelines and thereby to gas markets are
fast moving and opportunistic. Numerous packager companies formed to meet these upstream
needsthe packager would provide turnkey compression, take care of the many logistical issues
involved in compression, and offer a flexible and competitive range of lease, rental, purchase, or
contract operation options. Most compressor and engine manufacturers provide their products
only through packagers.
In the process, the packagers learned how to engineer, procure, assemble, transport,
deliver, and install at site an integrated, operating package for the lowest possible costa natural
and innovative result of competition. The skid mount was a natural choice from the startit can
be designed, cut from I-beam, and welded up and partially to completely filled with concrete in
the packagers shop. There, it provides a base in a relatively clean environment to assemble and
component test the gas scrubbing and gas piping systems, oil system, cooling system, electric

and control systems after mounting the compressor, and aligning it to its driver. It is not rare to
test run a fully loaded unit at a packaging facility if the unit is of appropriate size. To provide a
base and carry the weight of larger components, a wide flange beam structure with concrete is
ideal. However, under greater lateral forces, the beam cross-sections may deform and need
external reinforcement unless proper design and construction techniques are applied. Such
deformation can cause reliability problems.
First cost was a driving factor, together with availability guarantees; long life was less
of a requirement, and in the upstream industry, capacity and availability normally have more
perceived value than efficiency. Sometimes the integrity and rigidity of the package fell victim
to cost savings; sometimes under the action of reciprocating kinematics and intermittent gas
flows, dynamic forces on skid, vessels, and piping led to damaging vibrations, excessive motion,
fatigue failures, and potentially harmful deterioration in alignment.
The short project life cycle for gas producers differs substantially from pipeline
requirements and impacts many aspects of equipment design and installation. As an example,
producers will often install equipment on a compacted earth pad with no concrete foundationa
practice quite inappropriate at a pipeline station.
Over time, weights, sizes, and power densities of packaged compressors grew, driven by
economies of scale. In general, size increases exposed new rigidity and integrity issues. The
resulting problems have generally been solved with more steel and concrete in the package, with
more intensive engineering and management of forces and pulsations, with more rigid
compressor frames, and with targeted reinforcement. Yet, problems still arise, and these
guidelines seek to consolidate past experience, good and bad, and to define approaches and
principles, which will minimize the probability of future problems, and make problems, if they
occur, more manageable.
1.4.5 STANDARDS FOR PACKAGED COMPRESSION EQUIPMENT

The leading compressor manufacturers, whose products are used in packages, each have
developed a set of standards for the packagers. In general, these require that the skid shall be
adequately stiff to carry loads induced by the compressor and its operation, to carry the weight of
the installed equipment when being hoisted into place, and to keep the natural frequencies of skid
and installed vessels outside the inherent excitation frequency range of the compressor. These
are important requirements and, in general, the guidelines developed under this project will
complement these standards and provide specific details to achieve these and other requirements.
Each manufacturers specifications have additional considerations, beyond those listed above,
and those relevant to the selected compressor should be carefully reviewed by the packager and
end users project engineer.
1.4.6 HISTORICAL MOUNTING PRACTICE IN THE PIPELINE INDUSTRY

With very few exceptions, slow speed integrals were mounted on concrete blocks.
Through the 40s, 50s, 60s and 70s, the standard installation involved a full bed grout. A
rectangular concrete block was first installed with a space constructed for the engine/compressor
sump; when being installed the compressor frame was held in position and aligned with jacking
screws, and then the base of the compressor frame was uniformly grouted to the concrete block
using a cementitious grout. Vertical anchor bolts set in the concrete passed through holes in the
flange at the bottom of the frame and nuts tied the frame down to the block.

A beneficial installation evolution, which started in the 1970s and progresses to this day
for slow speed integral units, is the replacement of cementitious grout with epoxy grout and the
use of chocks between the compressor frame and the concrete block. The epoxy grout could be
formulated with substantially higher strength (three or more times that of cementitious grout); it
was a more pourable material; it could be stronger in both tension and compression than
cementitious material; and it offered more thermal resistance. Chocks provided clearly defined
support points under each anchor bolt rather than a continuous support over the wide base area of
the compressor frame. The chock materials were variously steel, grout, or most recently a
composite material. Some chocks offered height adjustability, through tapered interfaces, or
through replaceable shims. A further benefit of the chocks was the air gap, which added thermal
resistance to conductive heat transfer, between the bottom of the frame and the concrete (except
at the chocks), and also allowed cooling air to flow and carry heat away by convection. As a
result, the temperature difference from the top to the bottom of the block and the associated
tendency to hump or bow upwards were reduced.
Newer installations increasingly would use chock mounts and most pipeline companies
instituted a re-grout program for the older sites. In recognition of the deterioration of their
older foundations and mounting systems, these programs replace the concrete block partially
(near the top) or entirely, and remount the compressors on chocks instead of a full bed grout.
Re-grouting a compressor represents a major maintenance cost item outside the scope of normal
annual maintenance for a unit. As a result, re-grouting is generally scheduled for units with
mounting in the worst conditions of the fleet, and a re-grout program for a large fleet would
extend over many years.
1.4.7 PAST COMPRESSOR MOUNTING RESEARCH

In parallel with this evolution for integral engine/compressors, and while such
compressors were still being widely installed, organizations such as GMRC (then the Pipeline
and Compressor Research Council [PCRC]) and the Pipeline Research Council International
(PRCI) took a critical engineering look at the physics of compressor mounting: the heat transfer
and thermal distortion issues just mentioned; the role of gas and inertia forces inherent to
operation of the compressor; and the transfer of these forces through the frame, the connecting
rods, crankshaft and bearings, the frame-chock joints, and into the concrete [1, 2, 3, 4, 22, 23, 24,
25]. Some early work undertaken by PRCI focused on reducing crankshaft stresses and
crankshaft failures [5].
Some inherent flaws in the most widespread methods of analyzing and designing for the
transmission of shaking forces and moment were identified and emphasized by these studies.
With appropriate arrangements of crankshaft throw angles, the compressor manufacturer
can offset forces and moments from some throws with opposing forces and moments from other
throws, leading to net forces and moments substantially lower than the forces and moments from
individual throws. In fact, the net (global) dynamics forces and moments from reciprocating
unbalance can be reduced very close to zero for six throw compressors with 120 degrees between
throw pairs.
The manufacturers of the compressors (both integral and separable) would normally
provide the integrated shaking forces and moments for the entire compressor (eight quantities in
all: (vertical/horizontal) x (primary/secondary) x (forces/moments)) to those responsible for

engineering the foundation and mounting system. However, there are limitations implicit in this
information and in the assumption of complete balance for six-throw single-stage compressors,
as will be discussed below.
1.4.8 FORCE MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND CHARACTERISTICS IN SLOW SPEED INTEGRALS

With information provided on overall shaking forces and moments, the natural and often
unstated or unrecognized assumption in foundation engineering was that the compressor frame
would act as a rigid body under the action of these forces and moments. The apparent load-
carrying requirement for the tie down locations was sometimes disarmingly low, and mounting
systems designed to comfortably carry these overall forces and moments could, in fact, have
inadequate local load carrying capability. The frame is far from rigid and without restraints
designed to carry a major fraction of the forces from individual throws at or near the line of
action of the force, the frame was unable to meet the implicit expectations for load carrying;
relative motion could occur between frame and foundation at the tie-down point. The frame
could move under the dynamic loads and some after the fact increases in diameter, number,
strength, and tightness of anchor bolts were required to restore integrity to the installation.
Although tie-down forces were sometimes inadequate for the compressor driven loads,
the speeds and speed related excitation frequencies of these old compressors were sufficiently
low that they did not excite natural frequencies of the compressor frame as a box on its
mounting. Not that slow speed integrals had no dynamic problemsthe gas flow dynamics and
acoustic natural frequencies of the gas in the piping created substantial dynamic challenges:
torsional vibrations periodically occurred with new configurations of crankshafts, which led to
some notable crankshaft failures and solutions; and the cylinders would sometimes experience
lateral resonances excited by gas forces at 6 to 10 times their slow operating speed. An
additional mode of concern termed the low mode involved the set of cylinders on one side of
the compressor moving together with the bottles, which connect them together. However, the
compressor was attached rigidly enough to the block that this low mode would generally involve
bending flexibility of the cylinder crosshead guides, distance pieces, and their joint to the frame.
For medium and high speed separable compressors, which tend to have nearly equivalent sets of
cylinders on both sides, the nearest equivalent to this low mode is a compressor frame rotating
mode in which the frame and the cylinders and the bottles on both sides rotate about a central
vertical axis as a system and deflect the skid or pedestal on which the frame is mounted. In the
subsequent discussion, this will be referred to variously as the system mode, basic mode, or low
mode.
These characteristics of slow speed integrals are mentioned at this point because with
medium and high speed compressors, the system mode frequency and cylinder stretch natural
frequency can sometimes fall into the range of strong excitations at about 8 to 12 times running
speed. Vertical system vibration modes involving cylinders and suction bottles can also become
more troublesome than with slow speed units. The heavy cylinders typical of pipeline
applications can aggravate these characteristics.
1.4.9 CHANGES IN PRACTICE FOR MOUNTING INTEGRAL ENGINE/COMPRESSORS

ATTRIBUTABLE TO RESEARCH AND EXPERIENCE
In the process of re-grouting many old integral units and installing new ones, some
practices, old and new, were questioned and slowly changed, specifically:

The use of J and L Bolts These have an asymmetric termination, which
naturally produces a local overload on the concrete; GMRC testing (1) has shown J
or L Bolts tend to pull out, and the preferred termination is a symmetrical nut, nut
and washer, or for canister bolts a disk.
The use of short anchor bolts in concrete, sometimes 2 feet long or less This
can make the stretch in the anchor bolt sensitive to any small relaxation at the
chock, in the grout, or at the termination point. The termination is also a point of
high stress, both compressive and tensile, and when near the compressor, the
termination stresses may interfere with stresses induced by the transmitted dynamic
forces. The longer the anchor bolt, the better, and extending anchor bolts into the
mat below the foundation block would minimize any termination point cracking,
and if cracking does occur, it will make it invisible and as far removed as possible
from dynamic stresses and leaking oil. Anchor bolts in concrete should be at least
four feet, and anchor bolts as long as 12 feet have been successfully installed.
Low rebar density, sometimes only 0.1% or less by volume (sometimes none at
all!) The static and dynamic stresses in the concrete for a reciprocating
compressor installation can be high and both compressive and tensile. The tensile
stresses can cause crackingrebar has a limited benefit in reducing the tendency to
crack, and its main benefit is that it limits and arrests the progress of cracking.
Some practitioners, based on experience, recommend #8 rebar on 8-inch centers or
#6 rebar on 6-inch centers. GMRC research showed that about 1% rebar density
was desirable, which is roughly consistent with this practice. In some cases,
complete blocks have been replaced with much higher rebar density. Other
regrouting and foundation repair projects have focused on the top 2 to 4 feet where
deterioration was most pronounced; increasing rebar density in this top section,
where equipment-induced dynamic stresses are also highest, had substantial benefit
even without replacement of the full concrete block.
Anchor bolts embedded in the concrete over their length Any stretch of an
embedded anchor bolt produces relative motion and/or stress in the concrete.
Sleeving the anchor bolt over its length, as a preferred alternative, makes it free to
stretch over its length. A canister bolt implicitly has a sleeve over the length, which
extends into the concrete.
Low strength anchor bolts The yield stress sets the limit to which an anchor
bolt can be stretched. The GMRC and ACI recommend ASTM A193 Grade B7
anchor bolts. These provide 105,000 PSI yield strength for 2.5-inch diameter and
below, and 95,000 PSI yield strength for larger diameters. Nuts to ASTM 194 and
the use of hardened double spherical washers were also deemed best practice.
Bolt stretch to a small fraction of yield strength Meeting tie-down
requirements with a limit on bolt diameter often requires the maximum anchor bolt
force possible. This is because the horizontal restraint at grout-metal interfaces
comes from friction alone, and coefficients of friction can fall to 0.2 or below, so
the force normal to the interface produced by the anchor bolt must be five times or
more the required horizontal force to be restrained. A bolt can be stretched to a
high fraction of yield stress without danger and (where needed and properly

engineered) 80% of yield is allowable, giving over 145,000 lbs anchor bolt preload
for an effective area of 1.745 in2 with ASTM A193 Grade B7 bolts (for a 1.75 inch
diameter bolt).
Thick epoxy grout layers An overly thick epoxy grout layer, besides being
costly, can impose high thermal stresses and distortion because its coefficient of
thermal expansion exceeds that of concrete by a factor of two or more. In addition,
it can exaggerate the loss of preload in anchor bolts experienced as a result of creep
in the compressed grout. The recommended thickness is two to four inches, and as
much as six is normally acceptable. Note: Thick epoxy layers can develop
excessive internal heat during curing. However, whatever the grout layer thickness,
the anchor bolt must be designed long enough to make loss in tension tolerable.
Use of Expansion Joints Without expansion joints, grout tends to crack because
it has such a thermal expansion mismatch with concrete. An expansion joint in the
grout layer every three to four feet is generally recommended.
1.4.10 CURRENT MOUNTING TECHNOLOGY FOR SLOW SPEED INTEGRALS

Thus, much was learned from experience and analysis of slow speed integral engine
compressors, and today a well-engineered new foundation or upgrade to an existing foundation
can be installed for a slow speed integral reciprocating compressor. However, even for gas
transportation service, the economics of the situation dictate that most future installations will
use medium or high speed reciprocating compressors. The capital cost savings inherent in a
medium or high-speed separable package compared to a slow speed integral is substantial and
probably growing. This savings, coupled with the other benefits discussed, ensures slow speed
integrals will rarely, if ever, be deployed for new installations, and the knowledge developed on
slow speed integrals must be adapted to modern separable compressors, if it is to be of value to
new pipeline compressor installations.
1.4.11 MOUNTING PROBLEMS IN SEPARABLE COMPRESSORS

As discussed earlier, there has been a trend to increasing frame size in medium and high-
speed separable compressors. This growth has been made possible, in part, by the development
of large medium and high-speed gas engine drivers. A substantial number of units in the power
range from 2,000 HP to 8,500 HP have been installed on skids in pipeline and storage service.
For the bigger units, the combination of size, speed, and power density, with a skid mount has
introduced a number of new problems and challenges, some of which are directly related to
mounting practice. Transportation is an issue above a certain size, and the major components
must be disassembled before shipping to a site from the packagers shop. Even smaller units
down to 1,500 HP have had substantial problems associated with the mounting, and the need for
guidelines to avoid these problems is clear. Much has been learned over the last eight or ten
years about mounting separable compressor systems, but the knowledge base is dispersed
amongst many individuals and organizations. These guidelines will condense much of this
knowledge base into a single location.
1.4.12 THE OPTION TO BLOCK MOUNT SEPARABLE COMPRESSORS

Some contend that the answer to observed problems with skid-mounted compressors is to
mount medium and high-speed separable compressors above a certain size on a concrete block

foundation, although the size cut-off is open to debate. Others contend that the advantages of
skid mounting are so substantial that they would always choose to skid mount; others suggest the
solution is to de-rate the application to avoid the highest speeds and power densities.
While slow speed separable compressors are most commonly block mounted, there are
but two known examples of a block mounted high-speed separable in other service, and in late
2005, an 8,180 HP engine driven JGV6 storage unit was installed with a block mount in
Louisiana at the Jefferson Island Storage facility. However, to this date, the number of block
mounted medium and high-speed separable compressors remains very small.
1.5 SITUATION SUMMARY

The current situation can be briefly summarized as follows:
All or almost all new pipeline reciprocating compressors are now medium or high
speed separables.
Essentially all are skid mounted.
Capital cost savings help to drive this trend.
High-speed compressor efficiencies can reach 90%, but such levels are difficult to
maintain over a wide range of conditions and typical experience is five points or
more lower than this in pipeline service. An expectation stated by one industry
representative surveyed was 80% efficiency at a 1.25 compression ratio and 86% at
1.55 compression ratio. Losses can occur at valves, nozzle orifices, in the manifold
system, and in the piping.
Dynamic characteristics observed in pipeline separable units include:
A cylinder stretch mode;
A frame/block first system rotational model;
System vertical modes;
Shell modes (250 Hz Up); and
Drive shaft torsional vibration failuresparticularly on motor driven
compressors.
The above list of problems represents coincidence of high excitation and natural
frequencies not normally encountered with slow speed integrals.
A number of these problems are system issues influenced by mounting of
compressor, driver, bottles, cylinders, and other vessels.
Some engine drivers of large separable compressors have exhibited high lateral
vibrations at 4th order or below when not very soundly tied to their skid pedestal or
foundation.
In addition to considering high frequency vibration modes, it remains important to
manage 1X and 2X loads on the mounting system even if they do not excite
resonances.
Some compressors fitted with heavy pipeline cylinders for the first time have
experienced quite low frequency vibrations as a result of insufficient stiffness in the
crosshead guide supportsat 1X compressor operating frequency.

Not all large medium/high speeds report dynamic problems, but an undesirably high
number do.
It is generally accepted that significantly higher vibrations levels must be tolerated
on separable compressors than was the case on integral engine/compressors.
Some operating company representatives mention the existence of 50 to 100 RPM
speed bands on their medium and high-speed separables where they cannot run
because of some sort of vibration problem.
Torsionally soft couplings have been applied with torsional vibration benefits on a
number of units, both motor and engine driven; however, some failures of
torsionally soft couplings have been reported with, as yet, an imperfect diagnosis of
the root cause of the failures.
Initial misalignment and deterioration of alignment have been noted on some large
skid mounted units. Misalignment is blamed for some of the problems observed,
and improved alignment is anecdotally credited with reduction in vibration levels.
Packages are not transportable as a single unit over a certain size; the skid may
show up at the installation site with compressor and driver still to be installed.
For some large pipeline examples, drivers and compressors are shipped straight to
the site from the manufacturer.
Large pipeline applications have raised the question as to whether a size or other
criterion exists where block mounting the compressor directly is preferable.
However, the number of reference examples of block mount designs for high-speed
compressors in pipeline service is currently very small.
1.6 TYPICAL PIPELINE COMPRESSOR APPLICATIONS

In todays market, pipeline companies use reciprocating compressors in a variety of
applications. These can include mainline transmission, storage injection and withdrawal,
compression added on a lateral line, or a combination of these functions.
1.6.1 MAINLINE
Mainline applications generally involve larger horsepowers; examples exist of medium
speed separable reciprocating compressors as large as 8,500 HP in mainline transmission, and
many exist in the range of 4,000 to 8,000 HP. (Existing frame sizes and rod load capacities
could produce compression power as high as 12,000 HP.) At the low end at least one example of
mainline transportation in the range of 1,750 HP exists.
These mainline applications are particularly critical, for a number of reasons. First,
mainline transmission is the primary business of the pipelines, and deliverability at all take-off
points on the system is dependent on the reliability and availability of compression assets all
along the line. With more capacity packed into a single unit, the more the system depends on
that unit. On a high load day, all compression capacity becomes essential. Secondly, firm
transportation contracts require regulated interstate pipelines to assure capacity, which is a
function of available compression (whether it is used or not).

1.6.2 STORAGE
Storage can require similar horsepowers to mainline transmission. Dukes Moss Bluff
storage facility has an 8,000 HP separable, and AGLs Jefferson Island Storage facility has
installed a similar sized unit (directly on a concrete block foundation). Energy Transfer Partners
now own the Bammel storage field installed originally by Enron, with a number of 7,000 HP
motor driven compressors. Storage service can also be critical to operation of an individual
company, and to the pipeline system as a whole; it is offered to a pipelines clients as a means for
these clients to manage their gas purchases and to assure deliverability on high demand days.
1.6.3 MIXED SERVICE

The most likely example of mixed service is a combination of transmission and storage.
This is a complicated service, which requires the flexibility to switch from single-stage operation
to two or more stage operation. NiSource Wellington Station has an example with a 6-cylinder
4,500 HP high-speed separable, motor driven at 1,200 RPM, designed for at least eight different
flow and pressure conditions.
1.6.4 LATERAL LINE COMPRESSION

Lateral line compression most typically provides extra compression for a power plant.
As an example, Williams has installed two 5,000 HP electric motor driven medium speed
separables running at a fixed speed of 720 RPM on a lateral line. This much compression is
more than usual for this type of service, and examples exist in the range of 2,000 HP. The
service tends to be variable, often driven by demands from a power plant. The variability in
power plant gas deliveries can be up and down daily on very short notice. In most cases, the gas
is to drive a peaking or combined cycle gas turbine plant, with high inlet pressure
requirementssometimes approaching 1,000 PSI for the most efficient aeroderivative gas
turbines, such as the Rolls Royce Trent.
1.6.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT SERVICES

The characteristics of mainline transmission are typically low ratio (1.1 to 1.4), single-
stage operation, with a typical service factor of 60%. High availability is a requirement to meet
regulatory requirements and swings in actual demand. Lifetimes of 20 years and above are
required.
Storage service requires a wider range of operationnormally both single and multi-
stage service with discharge pressures of 3,000 PSI or above. It used to be that storage units
operate only part of the year, with a service factor of 40% or below, but the demand for storage
injection and withdrawal is less seasonal now and more market driven. Lifetimes of 20 years and
above are required.
Mixed storage and transmission is the most demanding service of all and requires great
care and attention to the integrity and long-term reliability of the installation.
Lateral line service is variable, particularly when supplying fuel to a peaking gas turbine
power plant. Most lateral applications require a higher ratio and more compression stages than
mainline transmission to achieve the required gas turbine fuel inlet pressure. The lifetime
requirement is likely to be less than for mainline transmission and storage.

1.7 RELEVANT CODES, STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS, AND GUIDELINES
There exist a number of codes and standards, which provide relevant information;
however, most of them require substantial supplementing to fully meet the requirements for
successful installation of a separable reciprocating compressor in pipeline service.
1.7.1 API 11P SPECIFICATION FOR PACKAGED RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS FOR OIL
AND GAS PRODUCTION SERVICES [6]
This standard has actually become obsolete but is still widely referred to. It is replaced
by ISO 13631 (which appears to contain very similar text). Outside of what is covered in its
Section 11 Skids, API 11P briefly covers a number of topics loosely related to mounting, as
well as mechanical integrity, safety and basic performance, and the following bulleted list
summarizes these (details are paraphrased in placessection number indicated should be
consulted for specific language):
1.7.1.1 Summary of API 11P Line Items Related to Mounting

When specified by the purchaser, compressor manufacturer shall furnish values for
unbalanced primary and secondary forces and moments in horizontal and vertical
directions (2.1.4).
Purchaser may specify maximum allowable piston speed and maximum allowable
RPM (2.2).
Maximum discharge temperature to be below 350F, and compressor must have
enough stages for this unless otherwise specified by purchaser (2.3).
Maximum rod load shall be below allowable (2.4.1).
Rod loading shall reverse enough to ensure adequate lubrication (2.4.2).
Cylinder support shall be designed to avoid misalignment or excessive rod run-out
(2.5.2.1).
A compressor frame oil level device shall be provided by the packager (2.11.6).
Materials, casting factors, weld quality to be up to ASME Code Section VIII, Div. I
(2.13.1.4).
When required, inspection shall be according to ASME Code Section VIII
(2.13.4.2).
Capacity control may be by speed variation, clearance variation, bypass, single
acting, valve unloaders, Ps control, or any combination (3.2).
Bypass capacity control shall be of cold gas downstream of cooler (3.2.3.2).
Starting system shall be provided (air, gas, or electric) (4.2.3).
Rated BHP requirements (NBtreated differently for motor and engine) (4.2.1).
Electrical installations according to NFPA70 (1.7).
Packager will assume responsibility for a torsionally sound system (1.9).

Flywheels, sheaves, belts, shafts, and couplings shall have removable safety guards
that meet OSHA standards (2.14.5).
Safety guards shall protect to within -inch of stationary housings and shall be stiff
enough to withstand deflection and prevent rubbing as a result of bodily contact
(2.14.5.1).
Engines to be equipped with the standard lubrication system (4.2.1).
Crankcase explosion-proof doors shall be furnished when specified by the
purchaser (5.2).
Engine cooling systems to be provided for lube oil, turbo air (aftercooler), and
engine water jacket (5.2).
Compressor cooling systems to be provided for cylinder jackets, rod packing, frame
lube oil, and compressed gas (5.3).
Pressure vessels for compressed gas shall be in accordance with ASME pressure
vessel code Section VIII, Div. 1 (construction, materials) (6.1).
Pulsation control and pulsation studies will be as specified by the purchaser and will
be quoted separately by the packager (6.3.1).
Reinforcement pads shall be at least equal to the cut-away area (6.3.7).
Extent of gas piping to be supplied by the packager is to be specified by the
purchaser (7.1.4).
When specified, the purchaser shall review the arrangements and drawings of all
piping and appurtenances immediately upstream and downstream of the compressor
prior to fabrication (7.1.5).
Connections 1.5 inches and smaller shall be designed to minimize overhung weight
and shall be braced back to the main pipe in at least two planes to avoid breakage
due to vibration; bracing shall be arranged to occupy minimum space (7.2).
Piping design shall accomplish: (7.3):
Proper support and protection to prevent damage from vibration shipment,
operation, and maintenance (7.3.1).
Proper flexibility and normal accessibility for O&M and thorough cleaning
(7.3.2).
Installation in a neat and orderly arrangement adapted to machine contour and
not obstructing access openings (7.3.3).
Eliminate air pockets; complete drainage; and eliminate low points that could
trap liquid (7.3.4, 7.3.5, 7.3.6).
Utilize pipe clamps on any piping two inches and larger (7.3.7).
Do not weld supports direct to piping (7.3.8).
Materials (for piping) shall be ASTM A-53 Grade B or A-106 Grade B or purchaser
approved equivalent (7.1).

1.7.1.2 Instruments and Controls in API 11P
It should be noted that API 11P states that instruments and controls and electrical systems
will not be addressed by the guidelines.
However, a few instruments are mentioned (discharge temperature measurement to be
provided on each discharge nozzle; vibration shutdowns to be provided on cooler and at
crankshaft level on prime mover and compressor). It is good to see all these included
discharge temperature provides a sensitive basis for condition monitoring. Protection monitoring
against excessive vibration at compressor and engine frames will catch and draw attention to any
unexpected high vibrations.
1.7.1.3 Observations from Review of API 11P

The above list of topics is provided in some detail to provide the reader with a sense of
the tone of the API 11P standard, to make the reader keenly aware of the purchasers
responsibilities for specifying items, and to recognize that what API 11P does explicitly specify
is generally no more than what would be reasonably expected as standard scope of supply.
1.7.1.4 Apparent Gaps in API 11P for Pipeline Applications

It is pointed out that there is no statement about post weld heat treatment in the API 11P
section on piping (Section 7). There are no explicit requirements for piping weld inspection in
Section 7, although reference is made in Section 2 to ASME Section VIII, which has inspection
requirements. The purchaser should assure that this need is clearly understoodsince examples
of poor weld quality, which would not have passed such an inspection have come to light in
some packages after installation and operation. There is a statement that threaded joints can be
used for piping less than 2 inches in diameter. In an environment with potential for high
vibration, it is recommended that all joints should be welded or flanged. There does not appear
to be an explicit statement about piping for interstate pipeline compressor stations needing to
meet ASME B31.8 [15] requirements for thermal flexibility (just the comment above about
Proper Flexibility). Material test reports (MTRs) and numerous other DOT requirements are
also not addressed in API 11P.
In general, it should be recognized that when API 11P was written (pre-1995), the
pipeline industry was not a target market for skid-mounted compressors; most of these units were
used in the upstream gas industry.
1.7.1.5 API 11P: Section 11 Skids

All line items and subsections of API 11P Section 11 are covered below; slight
paraphrasing has been used, so API 11P or ISO 13631 should be reviewed for specific language:
11.1 General. Structural steel, concrete, or concrete-filled steel skids shall be strong
enough for transportation and installation, and transmit forces and couples to the
purchasers foundation.
11.2 Design
11.2.1 Lifting Skids shall have provision for winching or lifting.

11.2.2 Members Load bearing components shall be full depth members,
strong enough to prevent excess deflection that would damage installed
equipment during transportation or installation
11.2.3 Mechanical Equipment Compressor and driver to be mounted on
full depth load bearing members and secured by bolting, grouting, or
sole plate mounting. Horizontal jackscrews shall be provided. All bolts
and nuts shall be accessible for maintenance with standard tooling.
11.2.4 Shims Provision for shims to be provided where alignment is critical.
Shims to be of corrosion resistant material (e.g., stainless steel).
Provision for vertical alignment in the field of 0.125 inches.
11.2.5 Size Skid to be wide and long enough for installation of equipment.
11.2.6 Screws and Bolts On non-concrete-filled steel skids, leveling screws
and anchor bolt holes are to be providedminimum 3 per side, with a
sufficient number of leveling screws to support the total weight of the
skid and equipment.
11.2.7 Floor Plates Open areas on skid shall be covered with at least 3/16-
inch solid raised pattern floor plate welded or bolted in place.
Provisions shall be made to facilitate grout placement. Floor plate is not
required on concrete or concrete-filled steel skids.
11.2.8 Braces Supports and braces shall not be attached to unsupported
floor plate.
11.2.9 Scrubbers On steel skids, scrubbers shall be supported by full depth
skid members and not the floor plate. They shall be welded or bolted to
the members as specified by purchaser.
11.3 Construction Structural steel skids shall be of welded construction. Abutting
beams shall be welded on both sides. Splicing flanges of load bearing members is
not acceptable. Contact between webs at perpendicular joints shall be a minimum
of one-third of the depth of the smallest member.
11.4 Walkways, Stairs, and Platforms Walkways, stairs and platforms, when
specified by the purchaser, shall be provided with handrails on both sides except
that they are required on only one side when the walkways and platforms are
within two feet of grade or when one side is bounded by equipment not presenting
a safety hazard. Handrails shall be complete with mid-rail and toe-plates.
The above items in Section 11 of API 11P are generally important, but clearly need
substantial supplementing and refinement by the purchaser of a skid mounted pipeline
compressor beyond the areas of specification highlighted in bold italics. In general, what is
specified here just provides explicit language to ensure the purchaser gets what would reasonably
be expected. (Clearly, it is important to be able to safely lift and install the skid, that loads be
carried by full depth beams, that the equipment be attached to full depth members, that the skid
be big enough for the mounted equipment, with horizontal jacking screws, that shimming for
alignment should be possible with stainless steel shims, that there should be at least three skid
anchor bolt holes per side, and that the skid vertical jacking screws should be able to carry the

total load of skid and equipment. Floor plate should cover open spaces, and nothing should be
attached to or supported from the floor plates.)
Section 4 of these guidelines provides the needed supplement to address issues of
dynamics and integrity incompletely addressed in API 11P for pipeline applications.
API 11P sections not discussed further are on painting, shipping, marking, corrosive
gases, offshore, and marine.
API 11P Appendices
API 11P also has five appendices, which are not discussed further in these guidelines:
A Excerpts from GPSA Engineering Data Book
B List of API Authorized Packagers
C About the API Monogram
D Data Sheets Provided by Purchaser to Packager
E Data Sheets for the Packagers Design
1.7.2 API 618 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS FOR PETROLEUM, CHEMICAL, AND GAS
INDUSTRY SERVICE, 4TH EDITION, JUNE 1995 [8]
The API 618 standard says very little about mounting of separable compressors apart
from one schematic in an appendix, which is titled Figure L-1 Typical Mounting Plate
Arrangement. API 618 also does not address reciprocating natural gas engines. An important
value of API 618 for pipeline separable compressors is to provide a basis for specifying pulsation
analysis and associated criteria related to pulsations at the cylinder flange, outside the filter
system, and for pressure drop in the piping. Structural dynamic criteria in API 618 are limited to
piping.
API 618 has been undergoing a major revision effort over the last several years; the 5th
Edition has not yet been published, but this event is expected in 2006 or 2007. In the area of
pulsations, much of the 4th Edition material is expected to be replaced.
1.7.3 API 686 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR MACHINERY INSTALLATION AND

INSTALLATION DESIGN, 1ST EDITION, APRIL 1996 [7]
This standard is also undergoing an update at this time, but the current edition has some
very valuable and relevant information related to a number of the steps involved in a successful
installation. API 686 is worth studying, and some sections/paragraphs may be beneficially
referenced in purchaser specifications. API 686 is a general code for all types of machinery,
turbo and reciprocating, compressors and pumps, engines and driven equipment, with probable
emphasis from refineries and chemical plants so the reader may need to extrapolate some items
to medium and high speed separable compressors for pipeline applications.
Section 1 Addresses Scope and Definitions of Terms
Section 2 Addresses Rigging and Lifting
Section 3 Addresses Job Site Receiving and Protection
Section 4 Addresses Foundations
Section 5 Addresses Grouting

Section 6 Addresses Piping
Section 7 Addresses Alignment
Section 8 Addresses Lubrication Systems
Section 9 Addresses Commissioning
1.7.4 ACI 351.3R-04 FOUNDATIONS FOR DYNAMIC EQUIPMENT [9]

This document presents the state of practice in the design, installation, and repair of
concrete foundations. Its emphasis is design, but it covers construction and repair. It includes
foundations for reciprocating compressors, and its main sections provide the following:
Chapter 1 Addresses Introduction, Background, Purpose, Scope
Chapter 2 Addresses Foundation and Machine Types
Chapter 3 Addresses Design Criteria
Chapter 4 Addresses Design Methods and Materials
Chapter 5 Addresses Construction Considerations
Chapter 6 Contains References
This document has some valuable information relating to:
Soil-bearing capacity
Soil material stress-strain and damping properties
Geotechnical testing methods
Foundation types
Use and modeling of piles
Foundation design criteria and loading
Foundation-soil modeling and vibration modes to consider
General machine vibration criteria
Concrete compressive strength
Design methods
Concrete performance criteria
Handling of concrete fatigue potential
Rebar density
Anchor bolt configurations and materials
Anchor bolt length
The need for anchor bolt templates
Chocks
Anchorage performance criteria

Grout and grouting
Repair methods
Subsurface characteristics
Subsurface preparation and remedial action
Forms and shores
Concrete mix design
Construction sequence
Quality control and inspection
A long list of reference materialmuch from ACI and ASTM
1.7.5 ASTM A193 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR ALLOY STEEL AND STAINLESS STEEL
BOLTING MATERIALS FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE SERVICE [10]
This specifies material requirements for high strength anchor bolts, as recommended in
this guidelines document.
1.7.6 ASTM A194 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR CARBON AND ALLOY STEEL NUTS
FOR BOLTS FOR HIGH PRESSURE AND HIGH TEMPERATURE SERVICE [11]
This specifies material requirements for the nuts to go with the bolts of ASTM A193, as
recommended in this guidelines document.
1.7.7 COMPRESSOR OEM SPECIFICATIONS TO PACKAGERS

Each Compressor OEM has a series of specifications, which they make available to
packagers of their equipment. They cover a wide range of installations with emphasis on the
smaller packages for the upstream market. The topics addressed in the skid design sections of
these specifications include:
Skid rigidity and ability to maintain alignment under loads:
Transportation and installation loads
Drive torque
Dynamic loads from engine and compressor
Skid mass
Machine mounting or tie-downs
Anchor bolt dimensions and strength
Crosshead guide support integrity
Skid and mounted component natural frequency margins from 1X and 2X
Head end supports or outboard cylinder vibration suppression devices
These documents have commonalities and differences that vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer. At least one manufacturer publishes all its specifications on the Internet. Others
impose more limits on the distribution of these specifications. It is, of course, essential that the

packager has in hand and responds to the particular packager specifications of the compressor
being mounted. It is also strongly recommended that the end users project engineer have the
relevant specifications in hand for the compressor being purchased, review these specifications,
and understand their significance. The pipeline project engineer should consider carefully places
where specifications, which derive from upstream gas production and gathering needs, may be
inconsistent with the needs of pipeline applications.
In general, it should be noted that the compressor OEM specifications address skid
performance requirements with less provided on the methods to achieve such performance. The
specific guidelines presented in Section 4 of this document seek to add more in the way of
specific methodology, and Section 2 provides specific background to the guidelines.
1.7.8 DRIVER OEM GUIDELINES

At the time of writing this document, the information in this document is limited to
examples of one engine supplier and one motor supplier: Caterpillar, which is the most
commonly applied driver of separable compressor for pipeline service (in fact, the G3600 series
is the most widely applied model in this service); and Siemens, who have provided motor drivers
for several substantial medium and high speed installations in the last 8 or 10 years. It is
reasonable to assume that similar information can be obtained from other driver suppliers.
1.7.8.1 OEM Guidelines: Engine Driver Example, Caterpillar

In 1997 and 1998, Caterpillar published a pair of Gas Engines Application and
Installation Guides for the G3600: one on Mounting and Alignment and one on
Commissioning. The alignment and mounting document provides model specific information
about G3600 mounting feet, alignment, alignment adjustment and criteria, thermal growth, and
web deflection measurement. The commissioning guide documents a process starting with
design review for the different engine systems, construction review and audit, commissioning
review (system by system), cold mounting and alignment, hot mounting and alignment, and field
testing.
These documents emphasize gen-set applications and appear to leave compressor drive
applications for inference; however, they are G3600 specific.
It appears the mounting and alignment documents have been superceded by a pair of
documents, which now address the entire engine lines from G3300, G3400, G3500, to G3600,
one on mounting, and one on alignment. Thus, there is less of direct relevance to the G3600
series and more of a general nature, including didactic information about torsional and linear
vibrations.
At the time of this writing, no comparable documents were available for the GCM34
engine. Mounting and alignment guidelines for the GCM34 engine were being provided on a
project-by-project basis until a published version was released.
Discussions have been held with Caterpillar technical experts, working in Mossville and
some initial data on excitation orders, and roll torque magnitudes based on these discussions for
the most relevant gas engine models are presented in Section 2 of this document. The need for
supplementary information in a format appropriate for cost-effective design audit has been
discussed and may form a topic for future research and investigation.

1.7.8.2 OEM Guidelines: Motor Driver Example, Siemens
Siemens provided the following documents for review:
Induction Motors/Generators: Installation, Operation, Maintenance
Dimension Prints for Different Frame Sizes
Selection Charts Indicating Power Available as a Function of Speed and Frame Size
The first 38-page document provides details, which should be studied by any
organization installing such a motor. It covers installation (with details on foundation, mounting,
coupling, alignment (hot and cold), vibration, and lubrication); operation (with details on initial
start, normal operation, and troubleshooting); and maintenance (with details on preventive
maintenance, inspection, corrective maintenance, cleaning, and bearings).
The second item represents one-page prints, with overall dimensions and important
quantities directly relevant to mounting, such as width, height from base to shaft centerline,
length.
The third item is useful for induction motor selection; it covers five or six different frame
sizes, different enclosures, 6, 8, 10 pole motors (1,200 RPM, 900 RPM, and 720 RPM), and
power from below 1,500 HP to 8,000 HP or above.
An additional open literature paper (copyright IEEE), authored by Finley and Burke, was
provided by Siemens [20], entitled Proper Specification and Installation of Induction Motors.
This paper has generic information on different enclosures and the protection they provide;
ambient air and water and cooling issues; power supply issues; important items to specify or
select (e.g., temperature rise, installation, vibration, construction, bearings, noise, torque, and
inrush). The paper discusses control settings for alarm and shutdown, base design,
commissioning tests, checks, and items to record, including alignment, vibration, a useful
diagnostic chart, preventive maintenance, and several other relevant open literature references,
articles, and standards.
1.7.9 DOCUMENTS AVAILABLE FROM GMRC

The following documents are available from GMRC, and most, if not all, can be
downloaded from the GMRC website. They were written strictly with integral
engine/compressors in mind, but the material provides worthwhile background to the subject of
mounting high-speed separable compressors.
1.7.9.1 GMRC TR97-2 Foundation Guidelines by A. J. Smalley and P. J.

Pantermuehl, January 1997
This document would be helpful to those contemplating a block mounted separable
compressor.
1.7.9.2 GMRC 97-3 Friction Tests: Typical Chock Materials and Cast Iron, by
P. J. Pantermuehl and A. J. Smalley, December 1997
The data in this report would help with the engineering of tie-downs with interfaces of
particular material combinations.

1.7.9.3 GMRC TR97-5 Epoxy Chock Material Creep Tests by A. J. Smalley,
December 1997
The data in this report would help with the engineering of tie-downs with using epoxy
materials.
1.7.9.4 GMRC TR97-6 Compressor Anchor Bolt Design

This document guides the sizing and engineering of anchor bolts with guidelines for
minimizing the effects of creep and for achieving a particular holding capacity through anchor
bolt tension.
1.7.9.5 GMRC TA94-1 Parameter Studies for Enhanced Integrity of

Reciprocating Compressor Foundation Blocks, by J. S. Mandke and A. J.
Smalley
This is an early research report on a series of investigations supported by GMRC into
foundation block mounting.
1.7.9.6 Recommended Practice for Control of Torsional Vibrations for High Speed
Separable Reciprocating Compressors, by R. E. Harris and A. J. Smalley,
February 2002 (GMRC)
This document provides detailed recommendations for torsional design and analysis for
medium and high-speed separable compressors.
1.7.9.7 GMRC TR92-2 Dynamics of Compressor Skids, by J. S. Mandke and P. J.

Troxler, March 1992 [26]
This document was an early GMRC investigation of packaged compressor dynamic
issues. At the time, the experience base was limited almost entirely to upstream applications.
The report includes a literature search, methods for predicting local and global shaking forces
and couples, and engineering guidelines. Key overall points recognized even then were the need
for the end user to ensure that critical issues are addressed and that the various contractors
involved communicate and coordinate. The importance of keeping the CG low, of gusseting
beams, of alignment, of the need for similar analyses recommended in these guidelines were
recognized by GMRC then and is even more important today with larger horsepower
installations. The present guidelines are, therefore, not inconsistent with the findings of TR92-2,
but they, of course, bring to bear a wealth of experience and knowledge accumulated in fifteen
years.

2. SPECIFIC BACKGROUND
This section of the guidelines more specifically defines important factors in procurement,
engineering, and installation of medium and high-speed compressors in pipeline service, and the
challenges faced by the end users project engineering team. It comprises five sub-sections:
The Compression System (2.1)
Physical Interfaces (2.2)
Forces to Recognize and Manage in Designing the Mounting System (2.3)
Geometries to be Managed (2.4)
Experience Base (2.5)
Technical Background and Topics to Support Specific Guidelines (2.6)
The last sub-section includes the identification of state-of-the-art limitations, pointing to
areas where research is needed to comprehensively support the reliable engineering of separable
reciprocating compressors in the future. The incomplete knowledge base most commonly
involves the interaction of forces defined in Section 2.3 with the mounting system, and how to
engineer this interaction. Research is also needed to quantify alignment criteria in terms of
damage risk when the criteria are exceeded.
2.1 THE COMPRESSION SYSTEM

A skid-mounted pipeline compression system built around a medium or high-speed
reciprocating compressor comprises (without limitation):
A driver (natural gas engine or electric motor)
The compressor frame (with crankshaft, bearings, connecting rod, and crosshead)
A coupling which connects driver output shaft to compressor input shaft
The compressor cylinders (attached to the frame by crosshead guides/distance
pieces)
Suction and discharge nozzles (sometimes two of each per cylinder)
Often nozzle orifices at the cylinder to nozzle flanges
Suction/discharge primary bottles (normally with internals to control pulsation)
Sometimes suction or discharge secondary bottles (with chokes)
Attached suction and discharge piping
Often a discharge gas cooler system
Often a suction separator
The skid on which many of these components are mounted
A concrete foundation on which the skid and some components are mounted
Sometimes pilings under the concrete foundation

Mounting system between compressor frame and skid or concrete foundation
Mounting system between engine frame and skid or concrete foundation
Mounting system for compressor cylinders and crosshead guides
Fuel, control, and ignition systems for engines
Electric power for a motor drive
Lubrication systems for driver and compressor
Water cooling systems for driver and compressor
Sometimes a speed control for a motor
An unloader system for the compressor
Sometimes added steel structures for support of bottles
Instruments for protection, control, and condition monitoring
If compressor and/or engine are mounted directly on a block, part or all of the skid will
be removed from the above list, but essentially all the other items remain.
The list is provided for the purpose of identifying items, which must be considered. It
may not be exhaustive, and site-specific additions may be needed and should be added and
considered. Almost all these items have some direct or indirect relationship to mounting.
2.2 PHYSICAL INTERFACES

The above list of components gives rise to a large number of interfaces, most of them
very important to installation integrity, and many of which carry with them the potential for
divided or neglected responsibility. The list follows (without exclusion):
Compressor frame to skid
Driver to skid
Driver to compressor
Skid to foundation
Foundation to ground
Crosshead guide to skid
Cylinder to frame
(Cylinder to head end support)
(Head end support to foundation block)
Compressor nozzle to suction bottle
Compressor nozzle to discharge bottle
Discharge bottle to foundation block
Suction bottle to its structural support
Suction bottle structural support to the foundation

Left side suction bottle to right side suction bottle
(Primary suction bottle to secondary suction bottle)
(Primary discharge bottle to secondary discharge bottle)
Left side piping or chokes to right side piping or chokes
Discharge gas to coolers or to station headers
Station piping to suction separator or compressor suction lateral
Interfaces for fuel gas, oil, air, water, electric power
Items in parentheses may not be required in all installations. Of course, the full
installation will involve further interfaces not covered in relation to mounting.
2.3 FORCES TO RECOGNIZE AND MANAGE IN DESIGNING THE MOUNTING

SYSTEM
The forces to be managed or carried by the mounting system can be distinguished broadly
as weight forces, inertia forces, gas forces, drive forces, installation forces, and thermal forces.
More specifically, they can be categorized as follows:
Weight of skid
Weight of compressor
Weight of driver
Weight of cylinders and crosshead guides
Weight of discharge bottle(s)
Weight of suction bottle(s)
Weight of other vessels
Local rotating unbalanced forces
Local reciprocating unbalanced forces at rotating frequency
Local reciprocating shaking forces at 2X rotating frequency
Local reciprocating engine unbalanced forces
Local horizontal gas forces in compressor cylinder
Potential unbalance in horizontal gas forces
Differential cylinder stretch forces
Axial gas shaking forces in discharge bottles
Lateral gas shaking forces in discharge bottles
Axial gas shaking forces in suction bottles
Lateral gas shaking forces in suction bottles
Vertical gas forces

Torques which produce differential vertical forces
Installation and fit-up forces
Piping thermal forces
Anchor bolt forces
Grout to concrete thermal growth forces
Compressor and engine frame thermal growth forces
These are discussed briefly below.
2.3.1 SKID WEIGHT

A skid with concrete can weigh well over 200,000 lbs. Figure 2-1 shows a large skid
whose beams alone weighed over 85,000 lbs and which weighed over 220,000 lbs with concrete
added. Skid weight and, of course, all components mounted on the skid must be carried and
located by the concrete foundation below the skid. Thus, whether or not a unit is directly
mounted on the block, its weight, together with any skid weight, must be satisfactorily supported
by the block. In turn, the soil bears this weight over the area of the foundation block, so the soil
must be able to carry the implied pressure (maximum weight per unit area).
Figure 2-1. Large Skid for 5,000 HP Motor Driven JGU/Z, with Beams Alone Weighing Over
85,000 lbs and Completed Skid Weighing Over 220,000 lbs After Addition of Concrete
Prior to grouting the skid, its weight with added concrete, and mounted equipment must
be carried on a series of vertical jacking screws. It is not unknown for these jacking screws to be
undersized (or too few) and to deform under the required loadparticularly since, during
alignment, load sharing between jacking bolts can be far from even; thus, care must be taken to
ensure and document adequate jacking screw strength.

2.3.2 WEIGHT OF COMPRESSOR AND DRIVER
The weight of the compressor and its driver must be accommodated on the skid (and/or
block) with some attention paid to the location of the center of gravity (CG) of the components
and to the distribution of the weight about the CG. If either compressor or driver is mounted on
the skid before lifting into place, the skid must be able to carry its own weight and the additional
weight of equipment during a crane lift (see Figure 2-2 for a skid being lifted into place with
compressor alone in position on the skid).
Figure 2-2. Crane Lift of Skid with 6-Cylinder Ariel JGD Compressor Already Mounted
2.3.3 WEIGHT OF CYLINDERS AND CROSSHEAD GUIDES

The cylinders and crosshead guides are cantilevered from the compressor frame; they
must be provided additional direct line structural skid support at points of significant weight
load, and they must be carefully aligned with the frame and crosshead bearings. As a minimum,
a solid A-frame support should be used under each crosshead guide near their joint with the
cylinder, and these supports must themselves be appropriately mounted with direct line structural
skid support to the block (or, in the case of a block-mounted compressor, directly to the block),
with engineered anchor bolts, and well-aligned mounting plates or chocks, with all metal-to-
metal interfaces machined and free of rust, coating, dirt, oil, or paint. This area of the support
structure needs to be carefully engineered and carefully installed to manage the weight and
associated dynamics.
The cylinder weight is also supported by the nozzle attached to the discharge bottles,
whose weight support depends, in turn, on the thickness of the bottle wall and the method used to
support the discharge bottle and its adjustment. Stress at joints under weight load should be
considered in the pipe static stress analysis required and performed for pipeline compressors (to
satisfy ASME B31.8). The wedges under the bottles must be robust, stiff, and appropriately
adjusted.

The compressor OEM may further recommend a head end support for heavy cylinders
typical of pipeline applications (or first stage of storage applications), provide bolt holes for the
attachment of a head end support to the cylinder, and procedures for installation and adjustment.
The compressor OEM will normally provide detailed directions for appropriately
shimming at the crosshead guide support to offset any droop of the cylinder; such shimming
should be undertaken with the recognition that it affects the clearances and alignment of the
crosshead slider bearing, and these clearances should be checked after shimming to be sure they
remain within OEM tolerances, with further adjustment to satisfy these tolerances as needed.
In addition to supporting cylinder weight and managing deflections under that weight, the
potential must also be considered for the mass associated with the weight to cause low natural
frequencies which can be excited by high energy at lower orders of compressor operating speed.
Such natural frequencies can involve both vertical and horizontal (parallel to the crankshaft)
motion of the cylinder. Options for their control include: confirming that in-line and transverse
skid beams exist directly beneath A-Frame attachment points; locating anchor bolts at skid
perimeter directly beneath crossheads; installing gussets on beam webs at bolted joints associated
with the crosshead supports; increasing the stiffness of individual cylinder A-frame support;
combining the support of crosshead guides for two or three cylinders into a single, stiff, and
reinforced beam; increasing discharge bottle wedge support stiffness; increasing discharge bottle
wall thickness; adding a cylinder head end support. As will be further discussed, the head end
support option needs careful consideration and should not be applied without OEM
recommendation, or analytical evidence that it is needed. This option should also not be applied
without attention being paid to the mounting and flexibility (under cylinder stretch) of the
support, its possible geometrical interference with the discharge bottle, and its potential to add
new modes of vibration within the support itself.
2.3.4 PRIMARY DISCHARGE BOTTLE WEIGHT

The geometry of larger discharge bottles typical of gas transmission leads to them being
most commonly (though not universally) supported below skid level on the foundation block and
normally with wedges and/or clamps. Use of an extra chamber on the discharge bottles is quite
common as a pulsation control approach and recommended (and elsewhere discussed in these
guidelines) whenever possible (i.e., four chambers for three cylinders on one side). The extra
length and weight must be accommodated in the discharge bottle supports and clamping. For
pipeline applications, it is strongly recommended that the discharge bottle always be supported
directly from the concrete foundation by solid wedges under each clamp and each discharge
nozzle, with a pair of robust, side-by-side, tie-rods (which must be adjusted to accommodate
vertical thermal growth of the cylinder discharge nozzle once operating temperature is reached
after start-up). Discharge bottles are designed on the basis of pulsation analysis, and their
diameter may well impact the width of the skid in the compressor area.
2.3.5 PRIMARY SUCTION BOTTLE WEIGHT

The primary suction bottles are sometimes supported and restrained only by the suction
nozzles; in principle, their weight can be supported by the suction nozzles, but the concern to be
addressed is that with large bottles typical of transmission, the suction bottle lateral resonance
may be excited if they are not more completely constrained. Some suction bottles employ an
extra chamber (four chambers for three cylinders on one side) on the basis of pulsation analysis,

and this is recommended whenever possible in these guidelines (see Figure 2-3, for example). In
this case, the added mass and rotary inertia makes it desirable to support the suction bottles more
fully for dynamic considerations as well as for weight support. A solid beam structure
specifically designed for the suction bottles is recommended, together with an effective method
to attach the suction bottle to this structure. Figure 2-3 shows an example of a retrofitted 4-
chamber bottle on a compressor with three cylinders per side with stiff support structure and
robust clamping between bottle and support.
Figure 2-3. Rugged Support Structure for 4-Chamber (3 + Common Chamber) Suction
Filter Bottle on JGU6, Replacing 3-Chamber
Note clamp and wedge support for bottle with 2-tie bolts on wedges, tying bottle to stiff I-beam structure.
An option sometimes considered for suction bottle support is close coupling the bottle,
structurally, to an adjacent vertical vessel. This option should be carefully analyzed, if
considered.
Cross-bracing similar bottles on opposite sides of a compressor is widely applied practice
and is recommended as general practice in these guidelines (see below). It is a conservative
design approach to include the brace attachment points in the vessel construction, even if the
analysis indicates that they are not needed.
2.3.6 VERTICAL VESSEL WEIGHT AND INERTIA FORCES

Vertical vessels, whether used to support suction bottles or not, require weight support
and solid mounting to control their reed mode vibrations. A solid mounting plate is essential
with a 2-inch plate and multiple anchor bolts a normal design. If the vessel is on the skid, it must
be attached to main skid members (never to the floor plate) or to heavy, structural plate welded
firmly to skid members. Heavy vertical vessels may need bracing, in addition to a heavy,
structural base support, to manage dynamic loads and natural frequencies, and this potential need
must be carefully engineered, as part of the piping and/or structural analysis.

2.3.7 OTHER HORIZONTAL VESSEL WEIGHT AND INERTIA FORCES
Horizontal vessels, including secondary suction or discharge bottles, must be solidly
mounted, and this mounting subject to careful engineering and structural analysis for weight
support and control of natural frequencies. Figure 2-4 and Figure 2-5 illustrate solid mounting
structures for secondary bottles, including side-to-side bracing in Figure 2-5.
Figure 2-4. Cat G3616/Ariel JGD6 Installation (5 Units)

Rugged support structure for secondary suction and discharge pulsation filter bottles for four of the units.
Figure 2-5. Ariel JGD4 Installation Showing Modifications to Control Observed Vibrations:
Cylinder Supports Grouted with Anchor Bolts at Their Base; An Increased Number of More
Rugged Clamps; An Increased Number of More Rugged Wedges; Cross-Bracing on Suction
Chokes; Added Cross Beams to Skid Structure

2.3.8 ROTATING UNBALANCED FORCES
The compressor and engines crankshafts have the potential to generate rotating
unbalanced shaking forces at 1X rotational speed. Most commonly, the obvious rotating
unbalanced forces attributable to individual throws are effectively and directly balanced by the
crankshaft geometrical design. There remains small residual rotating unbalance due to
manufacturing imperfections, which result in small mass eccentricities of the crankshaft, and the
manufacturer can be expected to provide the maximum residual unbalance values, which should
be considered in any structural analysis.
2.3.9 RECIPROCATING UNBALANCED FORCES FROM COMPRESSOR
2.3.9.1 Forces and Couples from Individual Throws

The shaking forces from reciprocating motion of the connecting rod, crosshead, piston
rod, and piston are not so readily balanced by geometrical design. The effective frequency of
these forces is predominantly at 1X and 2X rotating speed. The approach used in most medium
and high-speed separable compressor designs is to use the opposed motion of closely adjacent
throws to achieve as much balance as possible between the reciprocating unbalanced forces of
these throws.
Viewed as a system, an adjacent pair of throws, oriented at 180 degrees to each other on
the crankshaft, with cylinders on opposite sides of the crankshaft, combine to produce a rotating
force and rotating couple at 1X and at 2X rotating speed. These act on the bearings supporting
these throws. Equalizing all the weights on this pair of throws can make the 1X and 2X rotating
forces for the pair of throws close to zero, but with any axial offset between the throws, the
rotating couples cannot be reduced to zero (the Ariel website explains this with animations).
2.3.9.2 Counterbalancing
On a 2- or 4-throw compressor, it is normal practice for compressor OEMs to provide
some level of rotating counterbalance on the crankshaft to offset the primary couple induced by
the reciprocating motion on a pair of throws. Typically, this counterbalancing is a compromise
because the reciprocation is horizontal while the rotating counterweights produce both a vertical
and horizontal component. In addition, the components at 2X produced by the slider crank
mechanism of each throw cannot be directly balanced by counterweights rotating at 1X
(although the peak-to-peak variation in the complex wave of unbalanced force may be influenced
by counterweight magnitude).
For 6-throw compressors, it is normal to phase the throw pairs at 120 degrees to each
other, and for a single-stage compressor as a whole the sum of the primary and secondary
couples is balanced in this way.
2.3.9.3 Effects of Frame Flexibility

What compressor manufacturers will not always emphasize is that the effectiveness with
which an entire compressor is balanced for forces and moments depends on the rigidity of the
frame. In fact, the frame is not rigid. This subject has been intensively explored and analyzed
by the GMRC (Smalley [13], Smalley and Pantermuehl [1], Smalley and Harrell [4]) for large
integral compressors showing that the rigid frame assumption does not apply and is non-

conservative for such compressors. There is no reason to think that similar frame flexibility is
not relevant to large medium and high-speed separable compressors.
The conservative way to look at this system is that the forces acting locally to each throw
must be restrained locally; if the frame were very flexible, such local support would be essential.
In fact, the frame has significant inherent stiffness and not all the local force must be supported
locally, but the fraction of the local forces, which is carried by the frame and shared across other
support points, is not readily quantified without detailed analysis (i.e., FEA).
2.3.9.4 GMRC Analysis of Frame Flexibility for a Low Speed Separable Compressor
Figure 2-6 shows the finite element model of a chock-mounted low speed separable
compressor used to quantify load transfer mechanisms and the load carried by the anchor bolts.
Figure 2-7 shows an interesting result for the highest predicted transverse load at any anchor
bolt, and how this maximum load varied with frame flexibility assumption. The rigid frame
assumption was non-conservative by a factor of ten with a predicted anchor bolt load of about
1,100 lbs. The FEA gave a load of 10,740 lbsthis is the most accurate analysis. Assuming the
frame has no bending, stiffness gave an anchor bolt load of 26,847 lbs.
The rule of thumb established from this GMRC research was that the individual tie-
downs for the compressor frame should be able to carry at least half the maximum lateral local
shaking force of the throw to which they are adjacent. In the absence of a comparably detailed
analysis for medium and high-speed separable compressors, this rule is a conservative approach
for such compressors. Ideally, this analysis should be undertaken as a future research
investigation for medium and high-speed compressors.
Figure 2-6. Model of Block and Frame of Separable Slow Speed Compressor Used for Calculating
Anchor Bolt Transverse Loads

26,847
Max Cylinder Load
Divided by Number of Bolts
18000 Per Cylinder on Frame &
Cross-head Guide
16000
14000 10,740
12000
Max Individual
10000 Anchor Bolt Load
8000
Max Individual
6000 Anchor Bolt Load
4000 1090
2000
0
RIGID FLEX SOFT
Figure 2-7. Comparison of Maximum Transverse Force as Predicted by Rigid Frame (RIGID)
Assumption, by Finite Element Analysis (FLEX), and by Frame with
Zero Bending Stiffness (SOFT)
2.3.9.5 Implications for Analysis of Large Medium and High-Speed Separables

It is possible to calculate the individual throw forces from engineering data provided by
the compressor OEM on reciprocating weights, adjusted to account for worst case tolerances on
nominally equal parts, and for tolerances on residual crankshaft unbalance. The only load
carrying mechanism for horizontal forces applied to engine and compressor mounts is friction
induced by the normal force in the anchor bolt acting across the interface between compressor
feet and mounting plate or chock, in series with the structure which supports the anchor bolt.
Recognizing the reality that anchor bolt diameter is already set by holes in the compressor frame,
the practical engineering approach is to seek maximum bolt strength and maximum tension for
this strength and to ensure this tension is sustained over time.
The subject of frame flexibility and its influence on mounting requirements is discussed
further under the heading Complicating factors and Incompletely Resolved Issues
(Section 2.6.8).
2.3.9.6 Fully Balanced Compressor

One model of separable compressor can achieve true lateral balancing of rotating forces
and couples by arranging throws in groups of three, which lie in a common plane, with the outer
two paired on one side of the crankshaft, and the third center throw on the opposite side of the
crankshaft. The center throw drives one piston through a normal slider crank mechanism, and
the outer pair of throws drives a second piston via a yoked pair of connecting rods, which
connect to a common crosshead. This configuration with its added complexity achieves both
force and moment balance. This configuration, however, is not normally used in pipeline
applications.

2.3.10 UNBALANCED FORCES FROM DRIVER
An engine driver potentially creates unbalanced reciprocating and rotating inertia forces.
It can be expected that these are balanced on a system basis, but just as with compressors, frame
flexibility allows some fraction of the local throw-by-throw forces to be transmitted to the feet.
In addition, some engine orders show up in the rolling torque variation (e.g., 4th, 8th, and
th
12 orders from a G3616). This torque has to be reacted by the engine mounts and most likely
creates both force and moment components at the location of the mounts. The preparation of
these guidelines has prompted initial discussion with Caterpillar experts as to how these forces
and torques would best be managed in skid dynamic analyses. This is a potential area for future
investigation and research. A later section (2.5.8.10) of these guidelines will quantify the rolling
torque components from Cat engines as well as orders that should be of most concern in linear
vibrations.
Motor drives are free from reciprocating unbalance, but they do have small levels of
residual unbalance from manufacturing imperfections, maximum values for which can be
obtained from the OEM.
2.3.11 COMPRESSOR CYLINDER GAS FORCES

Gas forces are generated in each end of a compressor cylinder during the compression
process. Considering first the head end of the cylinder, neglecting small high frequency
acoustics within the cylinder chambers, the pressure is uniform and acts equally in all directions,
particularly with equal forces outwards on the head of the cylinder and inwards on the piston
face for the head end. For the crank end, the pressure acts with equal force inwards on the fixed
inwards-facing head of the cylinder and outwards on the piston face for the crank end. At any
instant, the net force outwards from the difference between forces on the outwards and inwards
facing cylinder heads equals the net force acting inwards on the piston from the difference
between forces on the two piston faces.
The different paths through which these gas forces on cylinder and piston act then
become important. Both paths through steel or cast iron are elastic with distributed flexibility
and each possesses distributed mass. A universal characteristic of the force transmission is
cylinder dynamic stretch. Stretch is normally observable with a strong 1X component. In
addition, from the complexity of the in-cylinder pressure variation over a revolution, there are
higher order components of cylinder stretch, all of which can influence structural dynamic
response. Cylinder stretch cannot and should not be restrained by a head end support, but must
be recognized and accommodated. The potential for stretch resonance of the cylinder itself
should also not be neglected. A frequency spectrum of the stretch forces would reveal that levels
generally drop with increasing order of running speed. For slow speed compressors, the
excitation level is believed to drop to an inconsequential level before the frequency reaches the
first stretch resonance of the cylinder, but this may not be so for high-speed separables. In fact,
on some large (8,000 HP) medium speed compressors, with heavy cylinders and heavy suction
and discharge bottles, distinct cylinder stretch resonances as low as 160 Hz have been seen. This
shows that sufficient energy to excite these resonances exists in the cylinder stretch force
spectrum to at least the 12th order of running speed.

2.3.12 CYLINDER GAS FORCES ON CROSSHEAD GUIDE SUPPORTS
The stretching or compressive actions in response to the net cylinder forces acting
inwards or outwards occur in part in the crosshead guide. With stiff, short, crosshead guide
supports, this stretching motion is seen at the mounting of the crosshead guide support, and it is
important to ensure that forces and stresses set up as a result can be accommodated by the
mounting and its support structure. This may be particularly important in block-mounted
applications where the crosshead guide support is mounted on concrete with a downwards-
vertical surface just outboard of the mount.
2.3.13 POTENTIAL FOR IMPERFECT INTERNAL BALANCING OF GAS FORCES

In the past, for slow speed compressors, it has traditionally and validly been assumed that
gas forces internally balance within the compressor. Certainly, as discussed above, such
balancing occurs within the cylinders trapped volume, but the different force transmission paths
(one path through the stationary frame, and one path through the piston rod, bearings, and
throws), the distributed flexibility and inertia of each path, and the potentially high excitation
energy acting at higher frequencies require this assumption to be revisited. A case study
discussed in this document showed that the magnitude of vibration (above 0.5 IPS) on a JGV
compressor frame at a frequency of about 100 Hz when unsymmetrical load steps were used
could not easily be explained if this internal balancing assumption is made. The mode of
vibration excited by the inferred forces is an unsymmetrical first mode of the compressor system
(frame, cylinders, bottles) rotating about a vertical central axis. A proven approach to avoiding
this problem is to avoid unsymmetrical load steps (i.e., always load and unload the end cylinders
on each side of a 6 or 4-throw equally). However, such a loading solution should be evaluated
for its impact on torsional excitations, torsional vibrations, and acoustic shaking forces before
implementation. If this loading solution is not possible, then a conservative approach is that the
support system should be analyzed for its response to gas forces at the frequency of this mode of
vibration as if the gas forces were not internally balanced (i.e., calculate the gas force frequency
spectrum and apply it as acting on the bearings without an offsetting force on the cylinders.
Further research on this and other forcing mechanisms is needed.
2.3.14 DIFFERENTIAL STRETCH FORCES

The cylinder stretch differs in phase from cylinder-to-cylinder. As a result, bottles
connected to three or more cylinders of a single-stage unit can be exposed to differential motion
along its length, which will induce stress in the bottle and nozzles. If the nozzles are too short,
this differential motion can overstress welded joints and nozzles, and even if the stretch-induced
stresses are tolerable in themselves, they can add to the stresses from pulsation induced vibration
at other frequencies.
2.3.15 DYNAMIC GAS FORCES IN SUCTION AND DISCHARGE BOTTLES

The intermittent gas flow produces the potential for pulsations in the compressor
manifold and attached piping system, which is partially mitigated by acoustic filtering, by center
feeding of bottles, and by orifices. A primary goal of filtering is to minimize the level of
pulsations above the filter cut-off frequency, which passes to the laterals and headers of the
compressor station. Orifices dampen peak responses at resonances, which cannot be fully
filtered; center feeding minimizes the potential for excitation of acoustic modes.

In general, it should be assumed that exciting forces would exist and act in the axial,
lateral, and vertical directions for suction and discharge bottles. These forces should be
quantified from the pulsation study, and the suction and discharge bottle supports should be
designed and evaluated for their ability to carry these loads with minimal or tolerable deflection.
Discharge bottles are easier to support than suction bottles and should be provided with robust
wedge and clamp supports, which will restrain them effectively in all three directions. It should
further be recognized that, without cylinder supports or a suction bottle support structure, the
discharge bottle support system might be the primary restraint against vertical motion of the
cylinders, of the suction nozzles, and of the suction bottles. As the experience base shows, the
vertical system vibrations and their influence on stresses at the joint between suction nozzle and
suction bottle can be significant and have led to failures of welds at this joint. Thus, recognition
of the potential for forces to act vertically on the system at various locations, including the
suction bottle, is important. The ability to restrain suction bottle motion and to control nozzle
joint stresses through the combined influence of discharge bottle supports, cylinder supports, and
suction bottle support structure needs to be evaluated.
2.3.15.1 Bracing for Suction Bottle Lateral Forces

As discussed, there is unavoidable residual shaking and gas forces at 2X and above,
which have components in the lateral direction relative to the suction bottles. To preempt the
damaging influence of these lateral forces, it is often beneficial for single-stage compressors,
with individual bottles on either side, to join the two bottles with one or more braces straddling
the compressor, particularly with heavy extra chamber bottles. If planned from the outset, such
bracing can be integrated effectively and aesthetically into the design. The bracing effectively
avoids the excitation of symmetrical modes. Since such bottles often have their own piping and
support systems arranged symmetrically side-to-side, it can also be beneficial to brace across the
piping and bottle support systems as well. Figure 2-8 shows an example of such bracing in the
form of flanged pipe joining suction bottles at two points along their lengths. Figure 2-5 shows
bracing of bottles and pipes.
2.3.16 DIFFERENTIAL VERTICAL FORCES FOR COMPRESSOR

Differential vertical forces exist between the two sides of a compressor and its motor or
engine driver because the drive torque and load torque must be reacted by the support system. In
addition, any dynamic variation in the drive torque shows up as dynamic variation in the vertical
forces on the sides of the compressors support system. These dynamic vertical forces may be
considered as coming from the connecting rod as the vertical component necessary to provide the
cylinder horizontal force through a connecting rod oriented at some angle to the horizontal.
Figure 2-9 presents the schematic of a compressor cylinder with connecting rod at an
angle. Figure 2-10 shows the force balance, which produces this vertical force.
The dominant vertical connecting rod force observed at the crosshead bearing tends to be
at 2X; however, cylinder gas forces can induce higher order vertical forces at this location whose
impact should be evaluated. These forces act on the crosshead bearing, which is located near the
compressor frame wall (as seen in Figure 2-9), and the forces are transmitted through the vertical
support structure to the cylinder and to the mounting system, skid and/or block.

Figure 2-8. Cross-Bracing Between Suction Bottles
Figure 2-9. Schematic of a Cylinder, Showing Also Piston, Piston Rod, Crosshead, Crosshead
Bearing, Pin Bearing, Connecting Rod, and Crankshaft
Connecting rod oriented to cause vertical force components.

Connecting Rod
Load From Cylinder Pressure &
Load, Fcr
Reciprocating Inertia of Piston, Rod

and Crosshead, Fp
Load from Crosshead

Bearing, Fcb
Figure 2-10. Illustration of Load Balance at Crosshead Pin from Which Vertical Force on
Crosshead Bearing is Determined
It is essential to engineer for the effect of these dynamics forces acting on the
compressor-cylinder bottle system dynamics. A case study will illustrate this later in the
guidelines.
2.3.17 INSTALLATION WEIGHT FORCES

Known and predictable installation forces occur as the skid with mounted components is
hoisted into place during installation. These forces act to bend the skid and can cause excessive
loads on already mounted or coupled components, if the bending is excessive. Rigidity of the
skid must be shown by analysis to be sufficient to avoid such damage (these forces were earlier
discussed under the heading: Weight of Compressor and Driver).
In fact, experience has shown, as a general rule, that design allowing the lifting of skid
with all components attached results in an excessively large skid. Occasionally mounting the
compressor on skid prior to lifting may be accomplished without onerous design and build
issues.
2.3.18 INSTALLATION FIT-UP FORCES

Installation forces may also occur if joints cannot be made up with the pipes, bottles, and
nozzles in an unstrained condition. Come-alongs, a backhoe, or wedges have sometimes been
used to close the gap between components to be joined. These devices leave residual tensile,
compressive, or transverse forces in the components joined, which may cause misalignment of
the compressor, or cylinders, and added stresses at joints. Installation specifications should have
a clear direction against the use of such devices, and practices to avoid their use should be
encouraged (attaching and joining pipe from the compressor out; making the final joint a field
weld between compressor close-in piping and its laterals/headers). API Standard 686 [7]
provides general guidance regarding piping installation and fit-up.
2.3.19 PIPING THERMAL FORCES

Thermal forces result from expansion of piping at its temperature of operation. Overly
close clamps on discharge piping can impose excessive stresses. A thermal piping analysis
should be applied (according to ASME B31.8 [15] for transportation compressor station piping),
and the necessary piping and support modifications made to reduce such forces and stresses to
acceptable levels according to this code.

2.3.20 COMPRESSOR FRAME THERMAL GROWTH FORCES
Additional thermal forces can be experienced at compressor tie-downs. As the
compressor heats up, it will naturally expand in a horizontal plane relative to the skid or block on
which it is mounted, particularly in the axial direction. It is not possible or desirable to restrain
this thermal growth, and so some sliding will occur at tie-down locations to accommodate the
relative changes in length. This means that these joints should accommodate thermal growth but
remain resistant to sliding under dynamic forces transmitted through the compressor frame.
2.3.21 ENGINE BLOCK THERMAL GROWTH FORCES

Just as with the compressor, the engine frame will experience thermal growth in a
horizontal plane, which cannot be restrained. At one time in some engine mount systems, there
was a sliding mechanism built into the mounting plates. In fact, just as for the compressor,
sliding at friction joints will accommodate such growth.
2.3.22 GROUT TO CONCRETE THERMAL GROWTH FORCES

Epoxy grout used to mount skids to concrete or compressor-mounting feet to concrete has
a much higher coefficient of thermal expansion than concrete or steel. Grout layers more than
three or four feet in extent should be broken up by expansion joints to avoid the interface stresses
becoming excessive under growth action and thereby causing cracks.
2.3.23 COMPRESSOR AND DRIVER ANCHOR BOLT FORCES

A primary function of anchor bolts is to provide a normal force at friction joints between
the feet on compressor or engine and the mounting plates. These normal forces must be high
enough, when multiplied by the prevailing friction coefficient, to overcome any dynamic forces
parallel to the joint interface, applied by dynamic reaction forces from the engine or compressor.
As discussed in the guidelines, for engine frame, compressor frame, and crosshead guide support
anchor bolts, this force should be specified to cause 70% or even 80% of anchor bolt yield stress.
For consistency, this force at these locations should be set by a hydraulic stretching device (not
by a torque wrench) or the use of a pre-calibrated bolt tension monitor such as the RotaboltTM
(which will be subsequently described in more detail).
The anchor bolt tensile force acts to compress components under the nuts. The potential
for creep or relaxation of the compression can loosen the anchor, bolt, and the significance of
this loss in tension should be minimized by adequate anchor bolt length. At least 20 inches in
length for all main anchor bolts on skids is recommended by these guidelines (as opposed to 12X
bolt diameter).
For anchor bolts terminating in concrete (including driver, compressor, and skid anchor
bolts), a 4-foot minimum length is recommended to handle creep and relaxation. A canister bolt
or two-piece anchor bolt is desirable.
2.4 GEOMETRIES TO BE MANAGED
2.4.1 COMPRESSOR FRAME GEOMETRIES

Figure 2-11, Figure 2-12, and Figure 2-13 provide axial view elevations for frame sizes
representative of pipeline applications for the JGC:D, JGU:Z, and KBB:V compressors. The

Figure 2-11. Axial View of Ariel JGC:D Frame

Figure 2-12. Axial View of Ariel JGU:Z Frame

Figure 2-13. Axial View of Ariel KBB:V Frame

first two of these in 2, 4, or 6-cylinder arrangements cover the power range typically from 1,500
to 5,000 HP, and the KBB:V in 4 and 6-cylinder arrangements cover the power range from 5,000
to 8,500 HP. The KBB:V frame replaces the JGB:V frame (now inactive) and has a number of
features first implemented in the JGU:Z frame. Other manufacturers, including Cameron
(Cooper/Superior) and Dresser-Rand, provide comparable products to the pipeline industry. For
illustration of how to use this data, these figures provide a few overall dimensions for the Ariel
models. In particular, the height from feet to shaft centerline values is summarized below:
Table 2-1. Typical Compressor Heights From Under-Surface of Feet to Crankshaft Centerline
Model Height
JGC:D 22
JGU:Z 24
KBB:V 27
These heights in comparison with the height from the lowest point on the driver to the
drivers shaft centerline determine the height differences, which have to be accommodated in the
design of skid and equipment mounting, or the foundation block for a block-mounted system.
2.4.2 ENGINE GEOMETRIES

The engine driver normally has a sump below the mounting feet. Figure 2-14 shows the
cross-section for a Wartsila engine drive, and Figure 2-15 shows the cross-section for a Cat
GCM34 engine drive, making clear the need to accommodate the engine sump with a well,
which extends below and lies inboard of the feet. Figure 2-16 shows an oblique cutaway of a
Cat G3608, showing one of its mounting feet, and below it the sump. Figure 2-17 shows the end
elevation of a Cat G3616 with dimensions, including heights from bottom of sump to feet and to
crankshaft centerline.
Figure 2-14. Cross-Section of Wartsila Engine

Figure 2-15. Cat GCM Cross-Section
Figure 2-16. Cat G3600 Series Engine Oblique Cutaway

Figure 2-17. End Elevation of Cat G3616
As a result, engines on a skid mount are usually supported at their feet or mounting
flange from a pedestal, such as Figure 2-18 shows for a Wartsila engine or Figure 2-19 shows for
a Cat G3616 engine. The pedestal surrounds the well for the sump. Both the engines of Figure
2-14 and Figure 2-17 have mounting feet, and the practice demonstrated in Figure 2-18 and
Figure 2-19 is to support these feet on mounting plates. The mounting plates are set in grout
contained within grout boxes, and the grout boxes are welded to the main beam structure of the
pedestal. It is important that the upper surface of each mounting plate is closely parallel to the
underside of the matching mounting foot. To ensure this condition, the foot and plate are bolted
tightly together before grout is placed and hardens around the mounting plate. This is the most
effective approach and implies that grouting of mounting plates and alignment of mounted
equipment are performed concurrently. If the engine and compressor are to be field installed and
aligned after mounting plates are installed in the shop, then the plates should be carefully shot in
before grout is placed to make them as closely parallel as possible. The mounting plates and
undersides of the feet are typically separated by shims whose thickness is adjustable to achieve
accurate vertical alignment of the engine and compressor. Vibracon steel chocks are also being
used with increasing frequency to mount an engine foot to the horizontal surface of a pedestal or
skid. They enable height adjustment via a screw thread and accommodate misalignment between

the two surfaces via a spherical seat on the element in contact with the lower surface of the
engine foot. Adjustable products from Robert L. Rowan and from U.S. Rotech will be discussed
subsequently.
Figure 2-18. Pedestal for Skid Mounted Wartsila Engine
Figure 2-19. Engine Skid for G3616

Note well for engine sump. Also note three grout boxes each side with mounting plates grouted in place.
The mounting feet have holes for anchor bolts as do the mounting plates and grout boxes.
The Cat GCM and G3616 engines use one-inch anchor bolts.

No skid mount photographs for the GCM34 engine in compressor drive service are
available, but Figure 2-20 shows the sump of a GCM34, which is block mounted, together with
the well built into the concrete, which accommodates the sump. The GCM34 has a mounting
flange with bolt holes rather than individual feet.
Figure 2-20. Concrete Well to Accommodate GCM34 Sump for Concrete Block Mounted
Installation of 8180 HP Engine and Ariel JGV6 compressor
The Caterpillar gas engines most commonly used in pipeline applications have the
following heights from the lowest point on the sump to the crankshaft centerline.
Table 2-2. Caterpillar Engine Mode Heights from Low Point and from Under-Surface of
Feet to Crankshaft Centerline
Height from Foot Height from Low
Model
to Shaft C-L Point to Shaft C-L
G3520B 24.99 24.99
G3606 17.72 33.10
G3608 17.72 33.10
G3612 17.73 38.42
G3616 17.72 38.41
GCM34 29.53 49.41
These numbers can be used to establish needed pedestal height for skid mounts, to
establish well depth needed for block mounts, and to decide on minimum pedestal height for the
driven compressor (by comparing the last column above to the height from compressor foot to
compressor shaft centerlinesuch as the values given earlier for three Ariel models).

2.4.3 MOTOR GEOMETRIES
Figure 2-21, Figure 2-22, and Figure 2-23 show some overall dimensions for three
different frame sizes of standard Siemens induction motor for illustration of representative sizes.
These three frame sizes have the following height dimensions from base of feet to shaft
centerline, together with HP range for 2,300 to 4,000 V, 60 Hz applications:
Figure 2-21. Typical Induction Motor Dimensions 680-Frame (Courtesy Siemens)

Figure 2-22. Typical Induction Motor Dimensions 800-Frame (Courtesy Siemens)

Figure 2-23. Typical Induction Motor Dimensions 1120 Frame (Courtesy Siemens)

Table 2-3. Representative Motor Dimensions: Heights of Siemens Motors from
Under-Surface of Feet to Shaft Centerline
6 Pole HP Range 8 Pole HP Range 10 Pole HP Range
1,200 RPM 900 RPM 720 RPM
680 17 1,500 2,500 1,000 2,000 600 1,750
800 20 2,500 5,000 2,000 4,000 1,750 3,000
1120 28 5,000 8,000 4,000 6,000 3,000 5,000
Thus, for example to run a 6-throw JGU:Z at 900 RPM, an 1120 frame would provide the
likely required power range of 4,000 to 5,000 HP in pipeline service. This motor would stand
four inches higher at the shaft centerline if the bases of the motor and driver were at the same
level. Alternatively, to drive a JGV4 at 900 RPM, the same motor frame would stand two inches
lower at the shaft centerline than the JGV4 if the bases of the two were at the same level on a
skid. These differences may be small enough that they can be accommodated by small height
differences in the mounting feet rather than by adding a pedestal.
Some of the largest Siemens motor drives for pipeline applications were 720 RPM (10
pole) motors, driving JGV6 compressors with significantly more height between feet and
crankshaft centerline than those of the above table, requiring substantial pedestals under the
compressors.
2.5 EXPERIENCE BASE: SUCCESSES AND PROBLEMS WITH MEDIUM AND

HIGH-SPEED SEPARABLE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR SYSTEMS
2.5.1 SURVEY RESULTS AND TABULAR EXPERIENCE BASE

A series of questions was prepared and transmitted to representatives of the pipeline
industry to gather experience with mounting of high-speed separable compressors. Contact was
made with a total of 12 major pipeline or storage companies, and between one and five
representatives from each company. Responses, written or by phone, have been obtained from
18 individuals from ten companies. The responses cover 28 different units, 18 engine driven and
10 motor driven. The units range in size from a Cat G3520B of around 1,750 HP range to a
nominal 8,535 HP motor driven unit. Twenty-seven units are skid mounted and one 8,180 HP
engine driven unit is block mounted. The majority of responses come from end users,
supplemented by some experience provided by SwRI field engineers, by packagers, and by
OEMs. Appendix A presents this experience base in 13 tables, with minimal editing or comment
beyond the reorganization to achieve a reasonable consistent format. In brief, these tables cover
the following experience summary:
A group of ten engine and motor driven skid mounted JGV6s, which experienced:
High vibrations requiring addition of nozzle orifices
Changes to pulsation bottles to eliminate high stress concentrations
Added bracing across opposite suction bottles to control even modes at 2X
Needed re-alignment to reduce inferred crankshaft stresses
Added bracing on some anchor bolt stretch tubes
Added hardened washers so stretch tube will not deform contact point under
skid
Added double spherical washers to anchor bolts

Failure of a torsionally soft coupling
A G3612 driving a skid mounted Ariel JGK6, which experienced:
Ingested contaminants from existing header
Undersized bypass line
Suction lateral vibration
Removal of all unnecessary small pipe/valves near unit to avoid failures
RTD failures on compressor lube oil piping
Need to add piping restraints
Need to brace dump lines
A 900 RPM, 4,200 HP motor driven JGC6 (skid mounted), which experienced:
Cracking of suction nozzles in gusset welds
Need to drill out nozzle flange bolt holes to match compressor
Motor shaft fracture
A successful 7,000 HP motor driven JGC6 (skid mounted), which experienced:
No problems worth mentioning
A satisfied operating staff
A successful skid mounted motor driven 5,000 HP JGC6, which experienced:
No significant problems
A satisfied operating staff
Success attributed to:
Careful and extensive design studies
Max speed reduced to 720 RPM
A torsionally soft coupling
4,000 HP motor driven 4-cylinder HOS, which experienced:
Suction bottle cracking around nozzle
Regular failure of fasteners
Difficulty in routine maintenance from lack of access and walkways
Motor bar cracking
Cat G3612 driving a JGD6, which experienced minor problems:
Inlet filter collapse during commissioning damaging the compressor
PLC problems in engine panels
High frequency vibrations causing fittings and pipe to loosen
Cured by bolting down with rubber under fittings, pipe, etc.
4,445 HP engine driven installation, which experienced:
Bad pulsations, cured by adding orifice plates
Performance hurt by orifices
High rate of compressor valve failures
Problems not attributable to mounting decisions

4750 engine driven skid mounted package:
Decision made not to align in shop
Skid grouted in place when compressor frame was aligned
No problems during initial or extended operation
Block mounted GCM34 driving JGV6, 8,180 HP in storage service:
Significant engineering studies to support design
After commissioning, staff well pleased with block mount decision
Some locations with higher than desirable vibration
Solutions included:
changing to hardened washers on engine anchor bolts
added pipe/valve supports
retightening and monitoring of clamps
4,500 HP motor driven JGD6 on skid:
Complex transport and storage service
Pulsation, mechanical, and pipe thermal studies performed
Serious torsional problems caused oil pump failures
OEM provided substantial support to solve torsional problems
Other minor vibration problems, typical of any complex installation
Bracing across suction bottles added
Rod reversal problems in transition between some operating conditions
Have learned to operate around these rod reversal problems
G3616-JGU6 on skid, which experienced:
Vibrations of outriggers
High pulsations in nozzle
Vibrations to 2 IPS or more on bottles before correction
Pipe dynamic strains to 500 micro-strains before correction
Required new pulsation study
Replacement of 3-chamber suction bottle with 4-chamber bottle
Added discharge bottle clamps
Added structural support for new suction bottle
Added stiff supports to previously unsupported outriggers
Other examples involving:
Need to remove unit and re-grout to fill voidsthis solved high vibrations
S-bottle cracking with thin wall based on PV code, solved by thicker wall
High vibrations from single acting not specified for pulsation study
High vibrations because bottle supports called for not initially installed

Figure 2-24. Overview of Cat G3608 Driven Ariel JGD4
2.5.2 CASE STUDIES

This section illustrates some vibration problems, which can occur in separable
compressor mounting. In addition, it demonstrates with test data and analysis how associated
dynamic characteristics are influenced by design parameters.
2.5.2.1 Case Study 1: Compressor Cylinder-Bottle Vertical Vibrations and Engine

Frame Horizontal Vibrations on an Ariel JGD4 Driven by a Cat G3608
2.5.2.1.1 Case Study 1: Overview

This skid-mounted installation had a number of vibration issues soon after start-up and
this study addresses two of thesesystem vibration modes involving vertical cylinder motion
and horizontal vibration of the engine frame.
2.5.2.1.2 Case Study 1: Compressor Configuration

Figure 2-24 shows the compressor in overview. It has four cylinders, two on each side.
It has primary suction bottles on each side, and a single secondary suction bottle oriented across
the skid at the non-drive end. The discharge side has a 3-chamber filter bottle on each side, with
no secondary discharge bottle. The discharge bottles are mounted on the skid. This elevates the
compressor, which has a relatively tall pedestal underneath it. The crosshead guide (CHG)
supports consist of stiff A-frames for each cylinder mounted on I-beam structures, one each side,
which extend across two cylinders on either side. Part of this I-beam structure is visible behind
and above the discharge bottle in Figure 2-24. Each cylinder has a head end support (the tall
triangular structures in Figure 2-24).

2.5.2.1.3 Case Study 1: Initial Vibration
Figure 2-25 and Figure 2-26 show peak hold vertical vibration spectra for the four
cylinders obtained during a speed sweep, when first tested by SwRI. The high vibration at
Cylinder 2 reaches over 1.25 IPS at 52 Hz, whereas Cylinder 3 exhibits less than 0.3 IPS
vibration at this frequency.
The highest vertical vibrations occurred with the engine at 771 RPM (12.8 Hz), so the
peak at 52 Hz corresponds to 4th order of rotational speed.
The head end cylinder supports were attached to the skid by horizontal bolts and were
grouted to the foundation but had no anchor bolts holding them to the foundation. It was
observed that the grout under the head end supports had failed on Cylinders 1, 2, and 4 but was
still intact on Cylinder 3. This appears very consistent with the test data of Figure 2-25 and
Figure 2-26. For emphasis, Figure 2-27 presents the 52 Hz vibration in bar chart format
comparing the levels for these four cylinders; Figure 2-27 shows the Cylinder 3 vibration less
than half the vibration on Cylinders 1 and 4 and one-quarter the vibration on Cylinder 2.
2.5.2.1.4 Case Study 1: Modeling and Vibration Modes

A finite element model was prepared of the cylinders, bottles, nozzles, discharge bottle
support, crosshead guide supports, with the potential to include cylinder head end supports or
not. This model is shown in Figure 2-28 with the head end supports.
Figure 2-25. Vertical Vibrations on Cylinders 2 and 4 of the Compressor of Figure 2-24

Figure 2-26. Vertical Vibrations on Cylinders 1 and 3 of the Compressor of Figure 2-24
1.4
1.2
Vertical Vibration, IPS
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2 Cylinder 3 Cylinder 4
Figure 2-27. Comparison of 4th Order Vibrations for Cylinders 1, 2, 3, and 4 with Ineffective Head
End Supports at Cylinders 1, 2, and 4

Figure 2-28. ANSYS Model of Ariel JGD4 with Cylinders, Bottles Head End Supports, Viewed with
Orientation Similar to Figure 2-24
Figure 2-29, Figure 2-30, Figure 2-31, and Figure 2-32 show the mode shapes of
predicted modes with CHG support stiffness of 1E7 lbs/inch, with rigid wedge supports under
the bottles, but with the head end supports removed. These figures show the frequencies for
these four modes are 48.7, 50.1, 53.2, and 53.7 Hz. The modes involve various combinations of
bottle and cylinder motion with the individual cylinders moving in a vertical plane. The
closeness of these four modes to each other and to the peak at 4th order in the measured data
indicates a strong likelihood that one or more of these modes is responding to excitation from the
compressor or from gas pulsation forces but does not explicitly reveal which of the four modes
are involved.
The lower measured vibration of the one cylinder with cylinder head end support in good
condition suggests that, if the cylinder motion could be more effectively and consistently
restrained (which would also push these modes out of this apparently strong excitation range),
then the vibrations would be reduced.
2.5.2.1.5 Case Study 1: Parameter Studies

Figure 2-33 examines the influence of crosshead guide support stiffness on these four
cylinder modes. These are log-log plots, which allow a very wide range of support stiffness (in
this case, spanning five decades from 1E5 to 1E10 lbs/inch). It should be noted that the stiffness
range where the crosshead guide support is most influential is from 1E6 to 1E8 lbs/inch. At
lower stiffness, other structural supports for the cylinders take over in controlling the frequency,
and at higher stiffness, other flexibilities in the cylinder support structure dominate so that any
further crosshead guide stiffening is ineffective.

Figure 2-29. Mode Shape for 48.7 Hz Cylinder-Bottle Mode without Head End Support


60 Mode1
Mode2
Mode3
50
Mode4
Frequency (Hz)
40
30
20
10
0
1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07 1.0E+08 1.0E+09 1.0E+10
CHG Support Stiffness lbs/in
Figure 2-33. Influence of Crosshead Guide Support Stiffness on Frequency of the
Four Predicted Cylinder-Bottle Modes
The highest frequencies of these four modes are pushed up to 56 Hz with a very stiff
crosshead guide support, but the lowest of these modes remains in the 52 Hz range. In summary,
the crosshead guide supports cannot control these modes sufficiently to eliminate the coincidence
of excitation frequency range and modal frequency range. There is no doubt that the existing
stiff crosshead guide support is a useful part of the structure, but these are heavy cylinders of
approximately 10,000 lbs assembly weight each (Ariel 13DN cylinders), and it is to be expected
that more restraint is required than the crosshead guide supports alone can provide. It would be
necessary to push the lowest of these four modes above 4th order at 1,000 RPM engine speed to
be sure they were clear of this 4th order excitation (i.e., above 67 Hz) with some margin, and no
amount of crosshead guide support stiffness can come close to doing this.
Since the nozzles also provide some support to the cylinders, the influence of bottle
support stiffness was investigated (with crosshead guide support set to 1E7 lbs/inch). Figure
2-34 shows that the highest the wedge support stiffness could elevate these frequencies to be is in
the 49 to 54 Hz rangeagain, not high enough. What happens as the wedges are stiffened is that
bottle vertical squish and some amount of bottle bending introduces flexibility which
dominates the support conditions once the wedges have been made stiff.
Figure 2-35 shows the bottle deformation occurring as part of one of these modesthe
flexibility from bottle ovalization and bending is apparent. Keeping the wedges directly under
the nozzles should help minimize the effect of bending, but cannot avoid bottle ovalization
unless a heavier wall bottle or internal reinforcement is used.

60
Mode1
Mode2
50 Mode3
Mode4
Frequency (Hz)
40
30
20
10
0
1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07 1.0E+10
Wedge Stiffness lbs/in
Figure 2-34. Influence of Discharge Bottle Wedge Support Stiffness on the Frequency of the Four
Predicted Cylinder-Bottle Modes
Figure 2-35. Illustration of Bottle Ovalization in Response to Nozzle Vertical Load

and Rigid Wedge Under Bottle

Figure 2-36 shows predictions with the head end cylinder support added (see Figure 2-28
for model). The log-log plot shows how the stiffness of the joint between head end cylinder
supports and the cylinder influence these four cylinder bottle modes. This log-log plot has an X-
axis which represents the vertical stiffness of this joint and the vertical axis is again the
frequency of the four modes.
120
100
Frequency (Hz)
80
Mode 1
Mode2
60 Mode3
Mode4
40
20
0
1.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.00E+07 1.00E+08 1.00E+09
Head-End Upper Supt Stiffness (lbs/in)
Figure 2-36. Influence of Cylinder Head End Support Attachment Stiffness on the
Four Predicted Cylinder-Bottle Modes
Figure 2-36 shows by comparison with Figure 2-33 and Figure 2-34 that the head end
support has a much stronger influence in raising the four cylinder-bottle modes than either the
crosshead guide support or the bottle wedge support. Head end supports make it possible to push
all modes well above 80 Hz; specifically, a joint stiffness of 1E7 elevates the lowest of these
frequencies to 88.4 Hz. For a bolted joint, 1E7 should be a practical stiffness value, so pushing
these modes well out of the range of 4th order excitation with head end supports should be readily
achievable. Other restraints (crosshead guide support and discharge bottle wedge support),
although these are important structural members, cannot handle such heavy cylinders alone in
this installation. Figure 2-37 summarizes and emphasizes the comparison of frequencies for the
four modes with and without the head end support with the 4th order excitation range. Figure
2-37 makes clear that only with effective head end supports can the necessary separation
between excitation range and modal frequency range be confidently achieved.
2.5.2.1.6 Case Study 1: Confirmatory Data

The much lower vertical vibration observed at Cylinder 3 provides some measured
evidence of the value of supporting each cylinder with a sound cylinder head end support, which
is well mounted from concrete. Test data obtained after each cylinders head end support had
been re-grouted, and anchor bolts had been set in the concrete and tied the support base down
hard against the grout provides further strong evidence.

100
Frequency Range for 4X Running
90 Speed
80
70
Frequency, Hz
60 Mode 1
Mode 2
50
Mode 3
40 Mode 4
30
20
10
0
1E7 CHG Supprt; Rigid Wedges-No Head End Support Added
Head End Support
Figure 2-37. Need for Head End SupportInfluence on Vertical Cylinder-Bottle Modes and
Comparison with 4th Order Excitation Range
With this modification, the highest vibration on any cylinder occurred at 27.8 Hz with the
engine running at 834 RPM (i.e., 2nd order). The magnitude was 2.3 mils or 0.2 IPS. Thus, the
cylinder head end supports, once properly installed, were very effective and were clearly needed.
Figure 2-38 compares in bar chart format the highest vertical vibration peaks before and after the
modifications, making clear the very substantial reduction in maximum vibration velocity from
1.25 IPS to 0.2 IPS.
1.4
1.2
Before
Vibration, IPS
1 After
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Cylinder 1 Cylinder 2 Cylinder 3 Cylinder 4
Figure 2-38. Comparison of Cylinder Maximum Vibration Component Before and After
Modifications, which Include Re-Grout of Head End Supports and Added Anchor Bolts

This study should not be interpreted to indicate a universal need for head end supports.
These cylinders are particularly heavy (size 13DN, weighing about 10,000 lbs) and other aspects
of this installation make head end supports essential. However, the study makes clear that
structural dynamics analysis, and evaluation of options (e.g., head end supports) should be
standard practice, and that effective, robust, installation of head end supports when used is
essential.
2.5.2.1.7 Case Study 1: Discussion of Excitation Forces

This study has not included a detailed evaluation of the specific nature of the 4th order
excitation driving the cylinder-bottle vibrations seen in Figure 2-25 and Figure 2-26. Given the
nature of the cylinder motion predicted and the fact that at this frequency cylinder vertical
motion predominates, the vertical forces imposed by the reciprocating action at the crosshead
bearing represent a likely excitation source (although other possibilities include acoustic shaking
forces).
This crosshead bearing force can be viewed as the vertical component of connecting rod
force necessary to react the gas and inertia loads from the piston. It can also be viewed as each
cylinders contribution to the load torque reaction which the compressor imposes on its
mounting. As the connecting rods push each piston rod and piston of a pair of throws outwards,
one connecting rod is oriented to exert a downwards force on its crosshead bearing and the
connecting rod on the opposite throw is oriented to exert a near equal upwards force on its
crosshead bearing. Figure 2-9 shows one cylinder with connecting rod pushing down; the
cylinder opposite will have a connecting rod pushing up. Being on opposite sides, this pair of
opposed forces produces a torque on the structure supporting the compressor (the mounting).
Inevitably some of the energy from this distinct pair of forces also has the potential to excite any
modes of vibration that have a vertical component of cylinder motion in their mode shapes (as do
the cylinder-bottle modes, which have been studied here). This potential is realized as high
vibration when the frequency spectrum of the force has a high component close to the frequency
of a system mode with a vertical motion component.
The crosshead bearing vertical force for each cylinder should be calculable from a
detailed analysis of pressure in each cylinder combined with a calculation of inertia forces to
accelerate the piston, accounting for kinematics of cylinder and connecting rod and for cylinder
valve dynamic pressure flow characteristics. The resulting predicted crosshead bearing vertical
forces on each side of each pair of throws will have a distinct frequency spectrum, and this force
spectrum must be applied with proper cylinder-to-cylinder phasing (driven by crankshaft throw
orientation) at each bearing, as the exciting function in forced harmonic analysis of the structure.
This analysis will help identify serious vibrations and indicate when a cylinder head end support
is needed.
Calculating harmonic response to phased vertical forces, based on compression physics,
applied at the crosshead guide bearings, is probably not yet standard for compressor-mounting
system structural analysis. However, with heavy pipeline cylinders, it is clearly essential that the
state-of-the-art advance to this point. It is also not clear how much detail of frame and skid
flexibility must be included to provide a correctly located crosshead bearing the freedom to
respond and to drive vertical cylinder-bottle modes such as analyzed here. Since the crosshead
bearing for a number of compressors, including that under consideration here, is located in the
region of the compressor frame wall, the need for including such flexibility in the model is clear.

A full model of the frame and supporting skid structure should reveal the appropriate flexibility;
the possibility of a simpler but approximate alternative may exist, but cannot be defined here.
Again, the state-of-the-art in skid structural analysis needs to advance as soon as possible to
account effectively for this flexibility.
2.5.2.1.8 Case Study 1: Conclusions Related to Compressor Vibrations

Some important conclusions from this study of vertical cylinder-bottle vibrations are as
follows:
Heavy pipeline cylinders create system vibration modes whose frequency and
amplitude of response must be analyzed in detail (there are other examples of this
need).
Without well-installed head end supports such cylinders may have vibration modes,
which lie in a range of high excitation. The need for head end supports should be
determined by careful analysis, recognizing that the support itself has to be
carefully engineered, if chosen.
Pushing such modes well above the 4th order of excitation was effective in this
example. A forced response analysis with forces based on detailed cylinder
pressure analysis, for all cylinders properly phased, with inertia as well as gas
component included, is also desirable to properly engineer skid and mounting
structures.
Structural dynamics analysis, using modal and forced response to expected
excitations, with evaluation of options such as head end supports, should be
standard practice.
There is research needed to address some of the open questions mentioned here on
the subject of how and where vertical forces should be quantified, applied, and
transmitted. This research should demonstrate the effective engineering of the
structures employed to mount separable compressors in pipeline service using a
combination of cylinder performance analysis and structural analysis. This research
and demonstration need to be translated into cost-effective practice.
This compressor also exhibited strong axial vibrations of the cylinders (parallel to the
crankshaft centerline) at a frequency around 26 Hz with the engine at 785 RPM. This is most
likely a system mode of vibration sometimes referred to as the low mode. These vibrations have
not been studied here, but such modes of vibration and the engineering of relevant vibration
controls must be addressed in a comprehensive study.
2.5.2.1.9 Case Study 1: Engine Horizontal Vibration

This installation also exhibited higher than desirable vibrations on the engine frame in the
lateral horizontal directionspecifically 0.78 IPS with the predominant frequency at the 4th
order. It appeared that the cause was soft foot at the engine mounts. Figure 2-39 reveals some
specificsthe engine foot has two anchor bolts through it and each ties the foot to a steel plate
via a Vibracon adjustable mount. Close examination of Figure 2-39 will show that the steel plate
sits freely on the engine pedestal structureit is not welded in place. In addition, the interface
does not appear to be machined. Such a configuration is prone to wobble if the plate or pedestal

is not perfectly flat, and one of the anchor bolt-Vibracon combinations may not end up with a
hard connection to the pedestal. Such was the case here.
Figure 2-39. Cat G3608 Engine Mount Before Modification to Control Vibrations
and Soft Foot Under Vibracons
Note single plate unwelded to skid supporting two Vibracons. Any imperfections or lack of flatness in either
skid or plate surface can lead to a soft foot or a weak attachment, and the possibility of sliding at the joint.
Vibrations 0.78 IPS.
2.5.2.1.10 Case Study 1: Solution to Engine Horizontal Vibration

The solution imposed was to split the plate in two, as shown in Figure 2-40, so that each
bolt-Vibracon-plate joint is independently controlled by the relevant anchor bolt tension and is
much less prone to wobble. Welding the plate to the pedestal would have been an alternate
solution, but the chosen solution appeared to be reasonably effective, and the vibration on the
engine base was cut in half as a result from 0.78 IPS to 0.4 IPS. The predominant frequency of
these forces was engine 4th order but independent of engine speed.
It is not clear that analysis of the response of the engine and its mounting joint and its
supporting structure to a properly quantified set of forces from the engine is part of the normal
skid structural analyses or that the required forces at 4th order are normally quantified.
Discussions with Cat technical representatives indicate that at present the rolling torques
provided elsewhere in these guidelines come closest to providing this information.
The additional lessons from these results are:
Engine mounting effectiveness is important.
High vibration excitations will act on the engine if the foot is not firmly tied to the
engine pedestal.

Figure 2-40. Close-up: Cat G3608 With Vibracon Mounts With Steel Plates
Between Vibracons and Skid
Note the plates were not welded to the skid and are the result of cutting in half a plate,
which originally supported both Vibracons.
Even at 0.4 IPS, this vibration remains distinct and emphasizes the need to engineer
a sound structure which both firmly joins the foot to the supporting pedestal without
sliding and which also ensures sufficient rigidity of the entire supporting structure
to keep vibrations under control.
Quantified local excitation forces from the engine are, however, not readily
available or readily calculable. This remains an area deserving further investigation
(i.e., an open question to be the subject of future research).
The option exists to specify a center foot for the G3608 engine; based on these
results, it is strongly recommended to always specify this center foot.
2.5.2.2 Case Study 2: Mounting Joint Motion and Pedestal Flexibility in a Motor
Driven Ariel JGV6 Mounting

This installation had a number of vibration problems on start-up, and this study addresses
one of thema frame vibration which could cause the unit to trip under some conditions.
2.5.2.2.2 Case Study 2: Configuration

A photograph of the unit in question is shown in Figure 2-41, and a section of the
pedestal under the compressor is seen in Figure 2-42. This pedestal is attached to and supported
by the main skid. The pedestal is needed to line up the centerlines of motor and compressor
shafts. The pedestal adds substantially to the elevation of the compressor center of gravity, and
this added height is a factor (not the only one) in observed compressor vibrations.

Figure 2-41. Motor-Driven Ariel JGV6
Figure 2-42. Crosshead Guide Support and Compressor Pedestal for Motor Driven Ariel JGV6

2.5.2.2.3 Case Study 2: Measured Vibration
Figure 2-43 shows the horizontal vibration spectra at two locations under what is termed
asymmetrical loadingnamely, a load step which does not equally load the cylinders at the two
ends of the compressor (Cylinders 1, 2 and Cylinders 5, 6). It was found that such a load step
could cause trip level frame vibrations (0.6 IPS or above). The compressor frame vibration has a
distinct peak at about 100 Hz reaching about 0.5 IPS in this figure. Figure 2-44 shows a similar
pair of spectra for a symmetrical load stepnote that the 100 Hz peak is present but drops to just
over 0.1 IPS with symmetrical loading. The other peak in both Figure 2-43 and Figure 2-44 is
believed to be a cylinder stretch mode at just below 160 Hz.
Figure 2-45 shows a vertical vibration profile for the compressor, which includes points
at the bottom of the skid, the top of the skid, the bottom of the I-Beam, and the top of the I-beam
where the I-Beam as well as on the foundation. The I-Beam refers to the compressor pedestal
shown partially in Figure 2-42.
Although this profile is for vibration at 157 Hz (the cylinder stretch mode), it is very
revealing about the relative flexibilities of skid, pedestal, and joint between the pedestal and the
compressor. It suggests very little motion of the foundation or the skid (less than 0.03 IPS, a
substantial jump in motion across the compressor pedestal (to 0.15 IPS), a very significant jump
from the top of the pedestal to the base of the compressor frame (adding 0.26 IPS). The two
observations to be made are that the compressor pedestal is much more flexible than the skid,
and that there is significant motion across the joint between the mounting plate grouted into the
grout box and the bottom of the compressor foot. This motion is most likely slippage of the
frictional interface between foot and plate but may have some small contribution from
deformation of grout within the grout box under load from the mounting plate.
2.5.2.2.4 Case Study 2: Modeling, Vibration Modes, and Response Analysis

A finite element model of the pedestal was prepared and used to evaluate the relevant
behavior of the compressor on its pedestal. Figure 2-46, Figure 2-47, Figure 2-48, and Figure
2-49 show in increasing detail features of the finite element model, which used plate elements to
represent the webs and flanges of the wide flange beams of the pedestal. This model includes a
flexible compressor frame guided by OEM drawings, a flexible pedestal member, on which the
compressor is mounted, based on packager drawings, A-frame crosshead guide supports, the
cylinders, the crosshead guides, and the suction and discharge bottles attached by nozzles to the
cylinders. The model did not include the skid under the pedestal. This expeditious
simplification was justified in part because the data of Figure 2-45 suggests that the predominant
flexibility comes from the compressor pedestal. The good agreement with data for the following
results provide further justification, as does the fact that the skid has a much wider footprint than
the pedestal.
The observed base mode of the compressor on its pedestal was predicted at 98.9 Hz, and
the mode shape is shown isometrically in Figure 2-50. This frequency agrees well with the peak
in Figure 2-43. Figure 2-51 shows the forced harmonic response shape of this mode,
emphasizing its naturein which the entire system rotates about a central vertical axis, causing
the pedestal to deform by twisting about the vertical axis.

Figure 2-43. Peak Hold Spectrum Load Step 5 (Asymmetric)
Figure 2-44. Peak Hold Spectrum Symmetrical Load Step (Load Step 1)

Figure 2-45. Vertical Vibration Profile Motor-Driven Unit 156 Hz
Figure 2-46. Model of Cylinder, Frame, Bottles, and I-Beam Support Structure

Figure 2-47. Model Without Bottles
Figure 2-48. I-Beam Pedestal Structure (Plate Model)

Figure 2-49. Detail Showing Compressor to I-Beam Interface
Figure 2-50. Case Study 2 Predicted Mode Shape at 98.9 Hz

Figure 2-51. Axial Profile of Frame Vibration Amplitudes Under
Asymmetric Unbalanced Gas Loading
In an attempt to reproduce the observed vibration levels at the base mode of the
compressor, a forced harmonic response analysis was performed. Figure 2-52 shows the forced
response prediction at the outboard compressor foot as a function of frequency, with a peak of
0.6 mils. Figure 2-53 presents a predicted vertical profile of the vibration amplitude at the peak
of the response curve in Figure 2-52. Several aspects of this profile are worthy of mention: first,
the amplitude at the center of the frame of 0.72 mils corresponds to 0.45 IPSvery close when
compared to the 0.5 IPS measured at 100 Hz in Figure 2-43; secondly, the relative motion across
the mounting joint is pronouncedmatching qualitatively what is seen in Figure 2-45; thirdly,
the pedestal also exhibits substantial deformation. The term skid top in Figure 2-53 actually
means the pedestal top.
2.5.2.2.5 Case Study 2: Discussion of Excitation Forces

It is important to mention here a dilemma, which was partially, but not completely,
resolved in this case study. It was found that applying the gas forces calculated from a detailed
cylinder analysis to the bearings and to the cylinder ends (so as to balance the inwards and
outwards acting gas forces) did not come close to predicting the level of vibration observed at
100 Hz. After review, it was concluded that at the frequency of 100 Hz under consideration, the
level of flexibility in the connecting rod, piston rod and bearings, and the associated
reciprocating inertia were causing the gas forces to be partially unbalanced. When the gas forces
were applied as an unbalanced load at the bearings, the vibrations came very close to the
predictions as already discussed. It is recognized that this expeditious assumption is not entirely
satisfactory, and that further research is needed to provide a better explanation of the observed
behavior.

Figure 2-52. Compressor Base Response (Horizontal, Perpendicular to Crankshaft)
as a Function of Frequency
Figure 2-53. Vertical Profile of Vibration Amplitudes (Horizontal, Perpendicular to Crankshaft)

2.5.2.2.6 Case Study 2: Influence of Pedestal and Mount Stiffening
With the frequency of the base compressor-pedestal mode demonstrated by the model,
and an expeditious assumption about excitation providing the appropriate amplitude of response
at this mode, it is possible to explore the potential for and benefits of moving this mode to a
higher frequency. For this purpose, the joint flexibility was reduced so its stiffness
(1E8 lbs/inch) was consistent with the stiff joint between mounting plate and grout box (i.e., the
possibility of slippage at the foot to mounting plate joint was eliminated). In addition, the
pedestal stiffness was raised by a factor of 4. These changes raised the modal frequency to
116 Hz, and the harmonic response plot of Figure 2-54 shows the resonant amplitude reduced by
a factor of 2 at this elevated frequency. Figure 2-55 shows the resonant deflected shape, which
indicates more substantial relative bending of the frame as a result of increased pedestal and
mount stiffness.
Figure 2-54. Compressor Base Response as a Function of Frequency Under Asymmetric Loading;
Pedestal Stiffness Increased by 4X; No Sliding at Mount
Figure 2-55. Vertical View Profile of Frame Vibration Amplitudes,

Corresponding to Peak of Figure 2-54

Recognizing the evidence from data that slippage could occur at the friction joint
between foot and mounting plate, an investigation was made of the force to be held by friction to
avoid sliding at this joint under resonant conditions. It was found from the finite element
analysis that 11,000 lbs is transferred across this joint for the conditions leading to the 116 Hz
resonant frequency, and the response at the peak of Figure 2-54. The force, which can be held
by friction, is the coefficient of friction multiplied by the normal force exerted by the anchor bolt
on the joint. Thus, the required anchor bolt tension is the required friction force divided by the
coefficient of friction. GMRC friction tests summarized in Figure 2-56 for cast iron against steel
show a minimum coefficient of 0.19 under dry breakaway conditions (ideal), but under oily
conditions, the low value for breakaway friction coefficient is 0.16, which sets the minimum
required anchor bolt tension at 69,000 lbs. This is just one loading and interface condition, and
other conditions could give rise to higher or lower anchor bolt requirements.
0.3
0.25
0.2
Epoxy
0.15 Adjustable
Steel
0.1
0.05
0
Dry-Break Dry-Slide Oily-Break Oily-Slide
Test Conditions
Figure 2-56. Minimum Friction Coefficient for Cast-Iron on Various Other Materials,
from GMRC Technical Report TR97-3 [2]
2.5.2.2.7 Case Study 2: Implemented Changes

It is to be noted that the compressor system of Case Study 2 experienced these
compressor system modes and cylinder stretch modes at these frequencies for a variety of
reasonsvery heavy bottles, with suction bottles unsupported, and both primary and secondary
bottles on suction and discharge. Changes have been made on two of these units to reduce bottle
diameter (by use of four chamber filter bottles), to change unloading methodology, and to add
supports for the primary bottle, which are also cross-braced. Figure 2-41 has shown an overview
of the JGV6 installation of Case Study 2 before modifications; Figure 2-57 shows an overview of
the adjacent unit after these modifications, and Figure 2-58 shows in more detail the rugged
structure installed to support and restrain the new suction bottle. Figure 2-59 combines two
figures to compare the original primary and secondary discharge bottles (first part of figure) to
the new, smaller diameter, single 4-chamber discharge bottle (second part of figure).

Figure 2-57. Siemens Motor Driven JGV6 with Replacement 4-Chamber Suction Bottle Installed
and Rugged Support Structure for Suction Bottle
Note cross-bracing between bottles on each side, also double nozzles for high flow low ratio application.
Figure 2-58. Rugged Support Structure for New 4-Chamber Bottles in More Detail Showing Clamp
Holding Bottle Against Wedges and Long U-Bolts Providing Substantial Bolt Stretch Length

Figure 2-59. Comparison of Primary and Secondary Discharge Bottle Configuration
Against Single 4-Chamber Discharge Bottle
Note new discharge bottle is closer to cylinders on top, and being smaller in diameter is also substantially higher at
its support wedges, so the piers have been built up to meet it. (Comparison is actually between bottle configurations
for an engine drive JGV6 above and a modified motor drive configuration below.)
Several of these changes undoubtedly combined to elevate the system mode to over
130 Hz, and the cylinder stretch mode to over 200 Hz as measured in subsequent data. Adding a
stiff suction bottle support puts restraint of the system out at a wide radius for the rotational
system mode and is probably more effective along with the mass reductions in elevating this
frequency than a four-fold increase in pedestal stiffness. Figure 2-59 makes clear a side
benefitmore space available below the floor after the secondary discharge bottle is removed.

2.5.2.2.8 Case Study 2: Conclusions
The following may be concluded from this case study:
Reducing compressor pedestal flexibility can have some influence in elevating the
compressor system mode (low mode).
If high vibrations are noted under some unloading conditions, it may be caused by
an asymmetrical load step and, if so, eliminating this loading condition should
substantially reduce the vibration. However, before implementing such a change in
the unloading step, the corresponding impact on torsional excitations and vibrations
should be evaluated.
Minimizing the mounted mass of suction and discharge bottles by use of 4-chamber
filter bottles and adding a structure to support the suction bottle have a strong
influence on the system inertia and controlling stiffness and showed their ability to
raise the system rotational (low) mode by 30%, and the cylinder stretch mode to
over 200 Hz.
Research into the effective horizontal excitation forces acting at frequencies of
100 Hz and above is needed, including a study of the potential for partially
unbalanced gas forces.
2.5.2.3 Case Study 3: High Compressor Manifold Pulsation and Vibration on a

G3616 Driven JGU6

Field measurements taken by SwRI showed high vibrations on the suction bottle,
discharge bottle and piping with high strains at welded joints.
2.5.2.3.2 Case Study 3: Configuration

Figure 2-60 shows the original suction and discharge bottles end on. The lack of
clamping on the discharge bottle is apparent. Figure 2-61 shows the 3-chamber suction bottle at
an angle.
2.5.2.3.3 Case Study 3: Measured Vibration and Pulsation

The pulsations exceeded API 618 recommended levels at various points, including one of
the cylinder suction flanges where it was 74.5 PSI overall and a discharge flange where it was
63.3 PSI overall. Measured vibration on bottles exceeded 2 IPS, and on some piping it
approached 5 IPS. The dynamic strain exceeded 500 micro-strain on one of the discharge
nozzles. Frequencies of the highest vibrations were in the 30 to 70 Hz range, with lower levels
to 200 Hz.
2.5.2.3.4 Case Study 3: Redesign Analysis

A finite element model of the compressor manifold piping and a piping acoustic model
were prepared. Figure 2-62 shows the predicted operating mode shape of the compressor
manifold, under one condition analyzed.

Figure 2-60. Original Discharge Bottle on JGU6, With No Clamps Holding Bottle Against Wedges
Figure 2-61. Original 3-Chamber Suction Bottle on Ariel JGU6 Driven by Cat G3616

Figure 2-62. Illustrative Prediction of JGU6 Compressor Manifold Vibration
The pulsation study and finite element study revealed the need for modified filter bottles
on suction and discharge, added clamping on the new discharge bottle, and a strong support
structure for the new 4-chamber suction bottle.
2.5.2.3.5 Case Study 3: Modifications Implemented

Figure 2-63 shows the new discharge bottle with added strap for restraint of motion.
Figure 2-64 shows the new 4-chamber suction bottle from the drive end. The down lateral from
the fourth chamber is apparent near the far end, and behind that the support structure for the
bottle. Figure 2-3 has shown the rugged support structure more clearly from the other end of the
suction bottle. Figure 2-3 makes clear the strap and wedges holding the suction bottle to the
support structure, including the side-by-side tie rods on the wedges, with Fabreeka pad between
wedge and bottle wall, and under the strap.
2.5.2.3.6 Case Study 3: Results

SwRI did not undertake a full vibration survey after these changes were implemented.
Data obtained with the owners measurement equipment indicated the lower frequency
vibrations were reduced. A vibration of 0.67 IPS was recorded on the suction down lateral seen
in Figure 2-64 in a direction normal to the crankshaft at 150 Hz.

Figure 2-63. Discharge Bottle with Added Strap to Control Vibrations; Ariel JGU6 Installation
Figure 2-64. JGU6 with Replacement 4-Chamber Suction Bottle

2.5.2.4 A Before and After Photo Comparison: Ariel JGT4 Compressor Driven by a
Cat G3520
Figure 2-65 shows the compressor and engine as originally installed. In this
configuration, based on discussions with the end user, the compressor exhibited high vibrations
involving motion of the driven end cylinder upwards and towards the non-drive end. It was
determined that a clamp specified in the design analysis to restrain the discharge bottle was not
initially installed, and because the cylinder weight was not available for the original study, the
value for cylinder weight used in the model was low. A resonance existed involving axial
(parallel to shaft) motion around or below 1.5X running speed.
Figure 2-65. Original Installation of G3520-JGT4

Note individual A-frame supports for cylinders and 3-chamber discharge bottle with no clamp.
The solution designed and implemented was to build a pier and add the originally
specified clamp. In addition, very rugged beam structures were designed and built, one for each
side, which extended under both cylinders on each side and well outboard of the cylinders at
both drive and non-drive ends. This beam structure directly supported the crosshead guides and
greatly reduced the vibration.
The changes may be seen in the pair of photographs in Figure 2-66. The left hand frame
on close inspection shows the beam structure. The right hand photograph of Figure 2-66 shows
the added clamp. Figure 2-67 shows the very rugged beam structure in more detail, together
with the bolts tying the crosshead guides to it.

Figure 2-66. Views of Modified Installation of G3520-JGT4
Note very heavy crosshead guide support added as single support for two cylinders. Note clamp added to discharge
bottle in right hand frame (its just out of view in left hand frame). Modification was made to increase system axial
mode vibration frequency above 1.5X compressor running speed.
Figure 2-67. Very Stiff Crosshead Guide Support, which is a Single Structure for Two
Adjacent Cylinders; Installed to Control Cylinder Vibrations Identified with Less Stiff
Individual Cylinder Guide Supports
2.6 TECHNICAL BACKGROUND AND TOPICS TO SUPPORT SPECIFIC

GUIDELINES
This sub-section provides background and reference for some of the topics in the specific
guidelines section. Providing this material here allows the related guidelines to be more
succinct, but to have appropriate background and support information accessible in the same
document.
Section 2.6 first addresses the following seven topics:
Geotechnical assessment

Pulsation
Torsional vibration
Piping and compressor manifold vibration
Alignment
Anchor bolt tension
Structural excitation forces
It then presents in sub-section 2.6.8 a number of issues under the general heading:
Complicating Factors and Incompletely Resolved Issues
This eighth section discusses where the state-of-the-art needs further investigation to
fully support the effective design analysis and engineering of medium and high-speed separable
mounting. To the extent possible, the section also points to some working alternatives and
approximations for current use.
2.6.1 GEOTECHNICAL ASSESSMENT

The specific guidelines will indicate that soil testing must be done well ahead of any
preparation of bid specifications or detailed engineering of the foundation. It is the responsibility
of the project engineer to see that this is done in a timely manner and results communicated to
those who need them to prepare bids, to engineer the foundation, and to perform engineering
studies of skid and foundation.
The soil on which the foundation will be installed should be tested by a qualified
organization for soil bearing capacity and shear modulus. Options exist for soil dynamic testing,
which include:
The down-hole method; here a single bore hole is drilled, a signal generator is
placed on the surface, and a transducer is located at different depths down the hole.
The up-hole method, which is similar to the down-hole method, except the signal
generator and transducer change places.
The cross-hole method; here more than one bore hole is drilled (typically two); a
signal generator is placed in one hole and a transducer is placed in the other. By
testing at different depths, shear modulus can be measured as a function of depth.
With clear advantages, this is the preferred method.
The shear modulus is the key parameter for use in analyzing foundation to soil dynamic
interaction. Another important characteristic for analyzing static load carrying ability of the
foundation is soil bearing pressure capacity.
2.6.2 PULSATION: METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND CONTROL

The need for pulsation analysis arises because the choice of a reciprocating compressor,
along with its various advantages, leads to the installation of a device whose compression
process has a cyclic time varying characteristic. Double-acting cylinders with check valves,
connected via passages to suction and discharge nozzles, and from there to a manifold system
produce substantial repeated modulations in the flow. In the nozzles, the maximum flow can be

as much as six times the average flow. The function of pulsation control is to filter and attenuate
the flow modulations and greatly smooth the flow, which enters the headers to which the
compressor is attached. The potential for exciting acoustic resonances associated with particular
piping lengths complicates the design process. Pulsations can create large shaking forces in the
filter system and piping which, in turn, can excite high vibrations. The pulsation energy of
medium and high-speed compressors has similar strength as that associated with slow speed
compressors, but at two to four times the frequency, while the pipe lengths are similar. Thus,
pulsation control is challenging, and improperly handled will lead to vibrations of the
compressor manifold system, which fall into the general category of mounting problems.
Three general methods of pulsation control are:
Filtering (sometimes called reactive control)
Feed and take-off location management (sometimes called center-feeding)
Damping (generally by use of resistive orifices)
GMRC is now supporting research to develop advanced alternatives to these methods.
One promising technique is the tunable filter, which may allow pulsation minimization at various
operating points in a speed range.
For many years, the most effective tool for pulsation prediction and design of pulsation
control systems was an electrical analog, originally developed by the PCRC (now renamed the
Gas Machinery Research Council). This tool provided a very responsive design tool. In recent
years, the ubiquitous advances in digital computers and their great increases in speed have made
digital analysis for pulsation design the tool of choice in most situations. Digital tools still do not
have the full responsiveness of the analog, but they allow a more realistic treatment of
components such as valves. Digital tools also more faithfully preserve higher order flow
modulations and pulsations.
Two variations can be found in the digital tools used for pulsation studiesthe first
performs similarly to the analog by allowing for the full two-way interaction of cylinder flows
and piping pressurethe instantaneous flow through the valves is based on the instantaneous
pressure difference from inside to outside the cylinder driving flow through a valve resistance. A
less accurate, but much simpler, technique assumes that the flow through the valve equals the
instantaneous piston velocity times the swept area. The GMRC design facility uses the more
accurate approach based on instantaneous pressure difference across the valves.
For low speed compressors (200 to 475 RPM typically), the most effective pulsation
control for pipeline applications involved use of a primary and secondary filter bottles.
However, for many medium and high-speed compressors, the use of a single filter bottle with
one chamber per cylinder and an extra common chamber on both suction and discharge has
proved effective; it allows smaller diameter bottles, which are lighter and simplifies the system
mounting process. Figure 2-68 shows schematically the internals of such a common chamber
bottle. This bottle has a chamber for each cylinder, and each of these chambers separately
connects with the common chamber by an individual choke tube. As a result, the flow for each
choke is limited to that for one cylinder; the choke diameter and the bottle diameter can be
reduced as result.

Figure 2-68. Three-Dimensional Schematic of Common Chamber Suction Filter Bottle [14]
Note that choke tubes connect the right hand common chamber to the chambers for each of the two cylinders.
2.6.3 TORSIONAL VIBRATIONS: METHOD OF ANALYSIS, ASSESSMENT, AND CONTROL

Torsional vibrations have been a significant issue in many high-speed separables. A
number of examples of motor shaft breakage exist and have caused major problems across the
industry. Torsional failures of auxiliary equipment, such as the compressor oil pump, have also
occurred. At least in early installations it was not always recognized by the motor supplier that
the compressor imposes a very high torque variation on the motor shaft at various orders of
rotating speed. Engine drives are also vulnerable, with excitations from both the compressor and
the engine to contend with. Torsional excitations are experienced by the shaft system and by the
mounting systemboth for the engine and for the compressor, with significant implications for
equipment mounting integrity and system vibrations.
GMRC has developed a guidelines document relating to torsional analysis of separable
compressors. This document was listed in Section 1.7 under the heading of Applicable Codes,
Standards, Specifications, and Guidelines. A major guideline is to always perform a torsional
study, unless the application is truly a duplicate of a proven configuration in geometry and
operating conditions. It should always be recognized that torsional analysis is a system
analysisall significant inertias and flexibilities must be includedit cannot be meaningfully
performed on part of the system. The GMRC Torsional Guidelines [21] should be reviewed in
detail. However, to summarize part of these guidelines, the torsional study should include:
Mass-Elastic Model Preparation
Natural Frequency Calculation
Interference Diagram (Campbell Diagram) Preparation
Forced Harmonic (Steady State) Response Analysis
Include Excitations from Compressor

Include Excitations from Motor Drive
Include Engine Order and Half-Order Excitation, If Present
Consider 100% and Lower Load Conditions
Combine Responses to Compressor and Driver
Calculate Maximum Intensified Dynamic Stress in Each Shaft
Calculate Maximum Dynamic Torques at Critical Locations
Calculate Maximum Vibration Level at Critical Locations
Compare Steady State Stresses, Torques, Vibration Levels with Allowables
Allowable Stress to Account for (guided by ASME B106.1M 1985 [19]):
S = SCF * 16 * T * Do / ( (Do4 Di4))
SCF from Peterson or Specialized FEA
Shear Endurance Limit = Fshear * Fendurance * Fsize * Fsurface *
Freliability * Fsafety-hi * Fmean * UTS
Allowable Amplitude at Compressor Auxiliary end (y = 0.68 Exp(-0.02f), Based on
Stephens [16])
Transient Analysis:
Start-Up
Loaded Shutdown
Short Circuit with Motor Drives
Cumulative Damage Analysis Based on Transient Torques
Evaluation of Modifications to System, If Required
(e.g., add flywheel, donut, damper, change coupling, modify speed ranges, or
change SCF)
The mass-elastic model preparation referred to above is an essential step. It must account
for all important inertias in the train (e.g., flywheels, engine drive coolers); it must account for all
important flexibilitieswhich is challenging for crankshafts. The GMRC guidelines describe an
effective process of finite element analysis, which accounts for crankshaft geometry features in
the generation of torsional inertias and flexibilities of the crankshaft.
It must be recognized that torsional analysis is only meaningful when executed as a
system study involving driver and driven equipment.
Once torsional natural frequencies have been identified, a forced harmonic torsional
response analysis must be performed. The relevant torsional excitations from engine throws and
from compressor throws should be imposed with appropriate phasing at each throw. The
dynamic torques and stresses need to account for the combination of excitations from different
orders and the stress concentration factor (SCF) to establish the net stress to be expected. The
endurance limit for each shaft section needs to account for the relevant strength reduction factors
(for shear, endurance, size, surface finish, and reliability) together with a safety factor [19]. The
process is described in detail in the GMRC guidelines [21], and it is important that the end users
project engineer obtain assurance that the process outlined in the guidelines for torsional analysis

will be followed (or a process defensibly equivalent and as complete). The damping value(s)
used for steady state torsional analysis have a direct influence on the highest stresses predicted.
The GMRC guidelines have conservative damping values to use for the forced response analysis
in the absence of known applicable values.
The transient torsional analysis processes identified in the bulleted list can be very
important for both motor and engine drives, particularly with soft elements in the system (such as
a soft coupling between engine and compressor). Transient analysis is not always specified or
performed, but reveals temporary overloads which can have a cumulative effect after the
transient event in question is repeated enough times. Experience shows that start-up or shutdown
or fault conditions can be the cause of the most severe torsional loads.
Based on these observations, Section 4.8.3 of this document presents a brief set of
specific torsional vibration guidelines.
2.6.4 PIPING AND COMPRESSOR MANIFOLD VIBRATIONS MODELING METHODS AND

EXAMPLES
2.6.4.1 General
Pulsations and associated shaking forces drive piping vibrations. In addition, cylinder
stretch and vertical compression reaction forces at the crosshead bearing can provide strong
excitation at orders of rotating speed. Accurate mechanical modeling of the compressor
manifold is important to achieve reliable predictions and to guide design modifications [14].
Much of this sub-section is based on the related work of White [14], including illustrative
graphics.
2.6.4.2 Modeling Bottles and Joints

The flexibility of joints between larger and smaller pipe segments (e.g., nozzle-bottle
joints) involves local deformation under bending moments, shear forces, and forces along the
axis of the smaller pipe. Shell elements, rather than bean elements, must be used to model the
nozzles and bottles, as the following discussion shows:
Figure 2-69 shows a compressor manifold system for a single-stage, six-cylinder
compressor modeled with shell elements for the nozzles, the nozzle-bottle joints, the 4-chamber
bottles, and the head penetrations. Figure 2-70 shows one of the joints between the bottle and a
suction nozzle, including meshing details in the region of the pad reinforcement. The bottle and
each pad are treated distinctly, each with its own shell elements, in this model, which achieves
accuracy in the predicted flexibilities of this joint under different loads, and for different modes
of vibration. With the more traditional flexibility factor approach, the required flexibility factor
would be dependent on the mode shape.
Outboard of the filter system, the use of beam elements becomes adequate as a matter of
cost-effective practice.
2.6.4.3 Comparison of Beam and Shell Model Stress Distributions

Figure 2-71 shows the stress distribution predicted by a beam model and Figure 2-72
shows the stresses predicted by a shell model for the same configuration and loading. The

Figure 2-69. Model of Manifold System, Piping, and Cylinders for 6-Cylinder Single-Stage
Compressor, which Uses Shell Elements for 4-Chamber Suction and Discharge Bottles
Figure 2-70. Details of Model at Joint Between Nozzle and Suction Bottle Showing Shell Elements
Used for Bottle and for Reinforcing Pad

Figure 2-71. Predicted Stress Distribution in Bottle Modeled with Beam Elements
Figure 2-72. Predicted Stress Distribution in Bottle Modeled with Shell Elements

considerable differences in distribution detail are apparent. These differences should make clear
how essential it is to take advantage of state-of-the-art finite element tools in the modeling of the
compressor manifold.
2.6.4.4 Comparison of Frequencies

Figure 2-73 and Figure 2-74 compare beam and shell element models of another
compressor: a single-stage six-cylinder natural gas transmission compressor running from 750 to
1,000 RPM. This system has a vertical scrubber upstream of the 3-chamber suction bottlethe
suction scrubber is in this case acting also as a secondary filter bottle, and the piping between the
primary and secondary suction bottle is referred to as the external choke. The more effective
geometrical representation possible with shell modes is apparent. The following discussion
expands on this qualitative comparison to make a more extensive quantitative comparison
between predictions for the two modeling approaches.
Figure 2-73. Beam Element Model of Compressor Manifold
Figure 2-74. Shell Element Model of the System Modeled with Beam Elements in Figure 2-73

Table 2-4 summarizes predicted natural frequencies for the two methods. The
differences are substantial and no general rule can be inferred as to which approach predicts the
higher or lower frequencies; the difference in predicted values by the two methods is influenced
by the mode shape. It is noted that some modes are repeated in this tablethis is because the
mode in question involves motion of more than one component.
Table 2-4. Comparison of Predicted Response Frequencies for Manifold and Piping
Based on Beam and Shell Models
Model Description Beam Model Shell Model
Vertical Scrubber Mode 18 & 33 Hz 11 & 20 Hz
External Choke Mode 27 & 47 Hz 30, 38, 45, & 77 Hz
Suction Bottle Mode 27 & 112 Hz 30, 55, & 75 Hz
Suction (Scrubber Inlet) Mode 56 Hz 38, 51, & 65 Hz
Cylinder Mode 84 Hz 45, 55, & 63 Hz
2.6.4.5 Comparison of Predicted Vibration Levels

Figure 2-75 and Figure 2-76 compare predicted vibration profiles in response to cylinder
stretch excitation with amplitudes of excitation up to and beyond the 10th order. It is apparent
from the 0.65 IPS highest velocity for the beam model that the beam model under-predicts this
particular (important) response; the shell model exhibits several peaks higher than the beam
models highest vibration and reveals high amplitude of the scrubber down to 11 Hz. Peak
cylinder vibrations were predicted near 63 Hz, and peak suction manifold vibrations were
predicted near 55 Hz.
These results emphasize the more challenging problems and solution needs for medium
and high-speed separable compressors. It was usually effective for low speed compressor
manifold systems to shift natural frequencies away from excitation frequencies; this design
philosophy was referred to as resonance avoidance. With medium and high-speed compressors
operating over a wider speed range, and with strong excitation energy out to much higher
frequencies, the design philosophy becomes more one of resonance management rather than
resonance avoidance. This difference puts much more emphasis on effective prediction of
mechanical system response.
2.6.4.6 Comparison of Stress Levels

The vibration velocity differences discussed with respect to Figure 2-75 and Figure 2-76
are one aspect of the added accuracy and detail obtained with shell elements. Figure 2-77 and
Figure 2-78 compare stresses predicted by beam and shell models. The differences in stress
distribution are clearly very different. The magnitudes are also very different with the peak
stress from the shell model at 4,053 PSI, and the peak stress from the beam model at 2,671 PSI
a factor of approximately 1.5. The location of highest stress was also substantially different with
the beam model predicting it at the discharge nozzle flange and the shell model predicting it at
the nozzle to bottle connection (a generally more common failure location).

Figure 2-75. Velocity Spectrum Predicted with Beam Elements (Model of Figure 2-73)
Figure 2-76. Velocity Spectrum Predicted with Shell Elements (Model of Figure 2-74)

Figure 2-77. Stress Distribution Predicted with Beam Element Model of Figure 2-73
Figure 2-78. Stress Distribution Predicted with Shell Element Model of Figure 2-74

2.6.4.7 Predicted Influence of Bracing
Accurate models lead to sounder and more convincing engineering judgments. Figure
2-79 and Figure 2-80 provide a comparison of the predicted vibration in IPS for the system of
Figure 2-69 with and without the bracing between the two suction bottles. The benefits of the
bracing are very clear and convincing, with the 70 Hz (4th order) vibration greatly reduced from
over 2 IPS to under 0.5 IPS and the highest vibration to about 0.7 IPS at over 130 Hz.
This last result is added evidence to support a recommendation already made that
symmetrical suction bottles, typical of 4 and 6-cylinder pipeline compressors, should be braced
to move symmetrical vibration modes out of consideration. With the majority of pipeline
compressors employing pairs of throws in a Bicycle Pedal arrangement, the symmetrical
modes are most readily excited by both mechanical unbalance and by horizontal gas forces.
Figure 2-79. Predicted Vibration Velocity for Unbraced Suction Bottles
Figure 2-80. Predicted Vibration Velocity for Braced Suction Bottles

2.6.4.8 Considerations in Compressor Manifold and Piping Vibration Studies
The end user should obtain assurance that compressor manifold analysis will use shell
finite elements for the filter bottles, nozzles, external chokes between primary and secondary
filter bottles, and penetrations of primary and secondary bottles at least out to the flange joining
the lateral outside the filter system, and that both natural frequencies and forced harmonic
response to known likely excitations will be analyzed. In addition, the analyst should have a
valid basis for setting damping levels; damping represents resonant energy absorption. A
working value for mechanical vibration of piping around compressors is 1.5% of critical
damping (in the absence of known, applicable damping values).
2.6.4.9 Dynamic Excitation Forces and Their Application

As discussed above, the excitations to be considered as acting on the piping system for
the forced harmonic response analysis are:
Bottle shaking forces obtained as a frequency spectrum from pulsation analysis.
Shaking forces acting at elbows.
Cylinder stretch as a frequency spectrum of net pressure force acting inwards on the
bearings and outwards on the cylinder to stretch the cylinder.
Some representation of the vertical forces acting at each crosshead bearing from the
connecting rod.
The mode of application for some of these excitations is influenced by the
comprehensiveness of the system model. If the boundary condition for the joint between
crosshead guides and frame is fixed in the piping model, then vertical forces applied at this
location will not have a strong predicted influence, even if this is close to the crosshead bearing
location. Some analyses use an effective experience based vertical force at the joint between
crosshead guide and cylinder.
If the presence of a flexible frame, mounted on a flexible skid, is represented at the
crosshead guide to frame joint as an effective flexibility, or with a finite element model of the
frame itself, then it becomes more meaningful to apply individual forces acting on bearings fixed
to the frame. Such forces (which result from connecting rod orientation and the cylinder-wise
force to accelerate the piston and compress the gas) would act vertically on crosshead bearings
and both vertically and horizontally at main bearings. The forces should be predictable with the
analyst organizations models from knowledge of reciprocating and rotating weights at each
throw and from gas compression physics. Cylinder gas pressure would be generated by a
detailed model of piston-valve interaction and piston motion based on individual throw slider
crank kinematics.
2.6.4.10 Output Quantities and Criteria

Output quantities to be most concerned about in the predictions of forced harmonic
response are maximum velocities throughout the system and stresses at welded joints. Velocities
are most readily measured; they provide a reasonably consistent measure of vibration severity;
and there are some criteria established for vibration velocity by compressor OEMs and
packagers. Stresses at welded joints tend to be the cause of piping fatigue failures.

A working criterion for predicted vibrations on cylinders, bottles, and piping is 1 IPS.
It is pointed out that the energy density of pipeline medium and high-speed compressors
is such as to lead to high vibrationssmooth running machines in terms historically observed
on slow speed compressors should not be expected.
Predicted stresses below 3,000 PSI are generally considered tolerable, though the lower
the better for stresses. In terms of strain, this corresponds approximately to 100 micro-strains.
Specific guidelines based on these discussions are presented in Section 4.8.
2.6.5 ALIGNMENT: DISCUSSION OF KEY ELEMENTS FOR MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED

SEPARABLE COMPRESSORS AND THEIR DRIVERS
Alignment is a critical step in installation. It should be performed by an expert.
Comments in the experience base (Appendix A) from various industry segments attribute a
number of vibration problems to inadequate attention being paid to alignment.
2.6.5.1 Aligning Driver to Compressor

All separable medium and high-speed compressors typically sold for pipeline service
have a stated coupling alignment criterionnormally expressed as allowable offset and face run-
out for the coupling hubs, and normally measured with dial indicators as the hubs are rotated
together. For those compressor and driver specifications reviewed, these allowables are typically
in the range of .002 to .005 inches. They tend to be more stringent than tolerances for the
coupling itself (which is designed to tolerate some level of misalignment). The more stringent
allowables (driver or driven or coupling) should be used, though for the largest compressors and
drivers with large coupling hub diameters, it may be appropriate to discuss with the OEMs a
looser allowable for face run-out (based on angle of misalignment rather than on absolute run-
out).
The vertical adjustment of alignment at each foot is accomplished by vertically oriented
jacking screws at each foot. The horizontal adjustment of alignment of the frame (compressor or
driver) is accomplished by pairs of jacking screws oriented to push parallel to the crankshaft and
normal to the crankshaft, typically located at corners of the machines frame. Figure 2-81 shows
jacking screws for adjusting in three directions at the end foot on one side of a G3608 engine.
The driver and compressor tend to run at different temperatures. There is normally a need
to distinguish hot and cold alignment, since one machine may grow vertically more than the
otherchanging its operating alignment from its cold alignment.
Machine-to-machine alignment technology has advanced, and laser tools are now
available, which conveniently allow alignment, in coupled or uncoupled state. It is not the intent
of these guidelines to spell out alignment procedures in fine detail beyond what is stated about
goals and criteria hereingood machine-to-machine alignment is a skill where experience is
essential. The important guideline is to recognize the critical importance of machine-to-machine
alignment and to ensure that this skill and experience is available to direct this alignment at the
time it is needed on site for each pipeline compressor installation. API Standard 686 [7]
provides general guidance on machinery alignment.

Figure 2-81. Cat G3608 Installation; Vibracon Mounts with Jacking Screws for
Vertical and Horizontal Motion
2.6.5.2 Leveling and Aligning the Compressor Frame Free of Bend and Twist
Compressor OEMs in general are aware of the potential for frame bending and twisting
and agree it should be minimized in large separable compressors, but do not have formal criteria,
except for a maximum soft foot measurement. One suggested frame levelness criterion
based on optical measurements is .002-inch difference in height between adjacent bearings,
0.002-inch difference in height between sides of a particular main bearing, and 0.004-inch
difference between highest and lowest readings obtained when taken at both sides of the frame at
each main bearing location (0.008-inch overall has also been mentioned as a criterion for
levelness).
Crank web deflections offer a means to infer alignment of the crankshaft in its bearings,
though are not universally recommended. The widely used Caldwell criterion of 0.00018 inches
per inch of stroke will give a working value in the range of 0.001 to 0.0015 inches web
deflection limit for pipeline separables. The GMRC software Webmap can provide a visual
representation of a crankshafts bent shape, when provided with web deflection data.
There remains a need to define what is tolerable misalignment and twist in terms of the
potential damage caused by measurable misalignment from bearing-to-bearing and within the
frame as a whole. This needs to be the subject of further research.
While any significant soft foot is clearly an unacceptable state of alignment, the use of
this as the sole criterion for alignment of a compressor is incomplete. A widely accepted criterion
for frame alignment is a soft foot pull down limit of 0.002 inches. However, it is reported
anecdotally that in a test on a large frame compressor, one of the feet could be lifted 0.020 inches
before a 0.002-inch soft foot was detected at an adjacent foot. Thus, 0.002-inch soft foot should
be viewed as a necessary but not sufficient criterion for pipeline compressor applications.

2.6.5.3 Leveling and Aligning Engine Block or Frame Free of Bend and Twist
This alignment step is very similar to that discussed above for the compressor frame.
Again, there are no formal engine OEM requirements beyond a soft foot limit (0.002 inches for
Caterpillar engines), and a requirement by Caterpillar that one central web deflection be checked
to be within 0.0016 inches. It is also a fact that at this time not all engine frames present a
machined surface to which the engine bearings can be related and which can be used to mount
optical targets for use in alignment (because the sump covers the machined engine base). The
GCM34 engine block does provide the necessary access, whereas special arrangements must
now be made to provide similar access for G3600 series engines; it would be best to standardize
on providing this access.
2.6.6 ANCHOR BOLT TENSION MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING

There may be some debate about the magnitude of transverse forces to be held at
individual compressor and engine feet, but there is little disagreement about the importance of
keeping anchor bolts tight at their design values. This document in Sections 4.7 and 4.9 presents
guidelines for engineering, and installing anchor bolts to provide and maintain high tensile loads.
The start-up section makes clear the importance of repeated frequent checking of anchor bolt
tension when cold and again when hot until a stable tension is obtained, which repeats day-to-
day.
Monitoring anchor bolt tension is also critically important over the life of the equipment,
but is not always rigorously or accurately practiced, in spite of the fact that loss of anchor bolt
tension degrades the entire installation.
Use of a torque wrench is as inaccurate for checking tension, as it is for initial tensioning,
and potentially worse because the condition of the threads is unknown. Ultrasonic measurement
of bolt stretch is an effective alternative, if the bottom end of the bolt has a clean termination.
A device called the RotaboltTM offers a convenient means to check initial tension and to
monitor tension. It is claimed accurate to within 5%. A cap is combined with a rod inserted in a
hole drilled down into the top few inches of the bolt. The bolt is calibrated, so that the cap is
finger tight when the correct tension is reached. Loss of tension is indicated by loosening of the
cap. Some alternative versions of the RotaboltTM provide a visual indicator. The RotaboltTM
tension-monitoring device can be obtained with some high strength canister bolt products.
The following specific practice and tightening schedule is reproduced from Ariels
website. The specific sequence has not been analyzed for these guidelines, but it is presented as
one OEMs experience based guidance for ensuring tight anchor bolts long term:
Initial Maintenance: The anchor bolts are tightened and released three times, with
final tension set on the third tightening.
After 7 Days of Operation: While the equipment is still near operating temperature,
check for proper tensiondo not loosen.
After 30 Days of Operation: While the equipment is still near operating
temperature, check for proper tension.
Every 6 months, Starting 6 Months from Installation: While the equipment is still
near operating temperature, check for proper tension.

A device such as the RotaboltTM makes checking to this or to comparable schedules
relatively easy and straightforward.
2.6.7 SKID STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS: TREATMENT OF EXCITATIONS

The following should be considered as excitations in forced structural analysis:
Compressor cylinder pressure forces acting on cylinder head and main bearings
(stretch forces).
Compressor rotating and reciprocating unbalanced forces applied throw-by-throw at
the main bearings with proper phasing.
Compressor cylinder crosshead guide bearing vertical force spectrum applied with
proper phasing to account for connecting rod kinematics and orientation.
Bottle shaking forces based on pulsation analysis.
Engine vertical and horizontal forces on cylinder and on main bearings by throw.
2.6.7.1 Cylinder Head, Main Bearing, and Crosshead Bearing Forces

In general, it is possible for a third party analyst to obtain from the compressor OEM all
the necessary engineering data on bore, stroke, connecting rod length, rotating and reciprocating
unbalance, crosshead bearing location, gas conditions and composition, cylinder clearance values
for different loading conditions, and compressor frame geometry, from which to compute throw-
by-throw forces acting on main bearings, crosshead bearings, and cylinder head, and to make the
application of such forces meaningful by representing the compressor frame and crosshead
guides as a flexible structure. Some of these items would require negotiation of a non-disclosure
agreement between the analyst and compressor OEM, and a clear definition of purpose so that
the right data is provided. Anecdotal experience indicates the application of a new compressor
cylinder can delay the availability of relevant weight and mass data for the cylinder; care and
conservatism are essential in such circumstances, since an underestimate of cylinder mass may
cause a resonance with strong excitation to be missed.
2.6.7.2 Accounting for Frame Flexibility

To make the bearing force excitations meaningful, it is also necessary to account in some
way for flexibility of the compressor frame and the engine frameideally with realistic FE
models. The guidelines in Section 4.8.5 indicate simplified, non-rigorous, alternatives.
2.6.8 COMPLICATING FACTORS AND INCOMPLETELY RESOLVED ISSUES

This section brings together a number of topics referred to elsewhere in the guidelines,
which complicate the problem of designing for maximum integrity and where the issues of
methodology and data to be provided are incompletely resolved at this time. In most cases, this
situation points to the need for further research. Even if not fully resolved, the issues require the
most effective management within the current state-of-the-art and knowledge. The following
background section summarizes each topic and issue and a proposed means of management and
seeks to provide background and reference for the specific guidelines and the way in which these
guidelines address the topics and issues. The topics and issues are:

Compressor Frame Flexibility
Managing Compressor Inertia Forces in Mounting and Skid Design
Designing Tie-Downs or Mounts to Hold the Required Local Forces
Managing Compressor Gas Forces in Mounting and Skid Design
Engine Frame Flexibility
Managing Engine Gas and Inertia Forces in Mounting and Skid Design
Grout Creep and Its Influence
These are discussed below, in turn.
2.6.8.1 Compressor Frame Flexibility

Figure 2-82 illustrates schematically a loaded compressor frame where the red forces are
intended to represent individual unbalanced forces generated by internal kinematics of the
compressor, and acting on the frame illustrated schematically by the box structure. The central
red force equals the sum of the two equal red forces acting near the ends of the frame in the
opposite direction.
Fr1 Fr1
2F
F F
Fr2
Figure 2-82. Simplified Illustration of Forces and Couples Acting on a Compressor Frame
The red F forces represent internal, unbalanced forces generated by compressor action typically these are the
shaking forces from reciprocating motion of pistons, piston rods, crossheads, and connecting rods. The green Fr
forces are the local reaction forces, which must be applied externally by the mounts to equilibrate the internally
generated forces. For an infinitely rigid frame, the green Fr reaction forces are zero. For anything less than a rigid
frame, the green Fr reaction forces are not zero.
The green forces represent reaction forces applied from outside the frame in order to
preserve equilibrium of the frame.
If that frame is truly rigid in bending, the red forces are globally balanced and no external
forces are required to preserve equilibrium; the required green forces are all zero for a rigid

frame. While the force arrangement is more complex, a 6-throw compressor, with throws at
120 degrees to each other, the internal unbalanced forces will be in equilibrium on a global
basis, and for a rigid frame, no external tie-down forces would be required.
However, any bending flexibility of the frame changes this situation dramatically.
To take an extreme example, consider a frame whose bending stiffness is zero; in this
case, the red forces near the end of the frame do nothing to resist the central red force. Green
forces must directly react on a local basis to the red forces, so Fr1=F and Fr2=2F. In spite of
being globally balanced, the flexibility of the frame means that reaction forces must be applied
from outside the frame to keep the internal forces in equilibrium.
Reality is not quite so extreme, and the frame does have significant resistance to applied
bending moments, but that resistance or bending strength is not infinite. As a result, the green
reaction forces are not zero. Some fraction of the internal forces must be supported externally.
Frame flexibility is also a factor in assessing how misalignment impacts integrity issues
such as loss of bearing clearance. As mentioned in Section 2.6.5, quantified assessment of
misalignment criteria remains a needed area of research.
2.6.8.2 Managing Compressor Inertia Forces in Mounting and Skid Design

Without a detailed structural analysis, we cannot determine how much the required
external forces are. Reference [13] performed a detailed analysis for a large separable
compressor, which showed how seriously the rigid frame assumption could underestimate the
required horizontal mounting forces. Under GMRC research a number of years ago, a detailed
study for another large compressor frame was undertaken, and it was shown that as much as 50%
of the internal unbalanced force acting horizontally had to be carried by the local mounts or tie-
downs. Figure 2-6 and Figure 2-7 have shown the research methodology and results justifying
this 50% recommendation for a slow speed separable compressor. No such analysis has been
published for the large frames of todays medium and high-speed separable compressors. In the
absence of such an analysis, the proposed approach to managing these forces is to assume that
the local mounts must carry 50% of the local unbalanced forces. The fraction is likely to be less
than 50%, but a detailed study will be needed to adjust this safe fraction.
2.6.8.3 Designing Tie-Downs or Mounts to Hold the Required Local Forces

Whatever the required fraction of the local horizontal unbalanced forces to be carried by
the tie downs, the hard fact is that the only type of force from the mount, which does the job, is
friction. The basic laws of friction are relatively simple.
Two plane surfaces in contact can generate a surface-wise force in reaction to external
loads up to the coefficient of friction times the normal force as discussed below.
Figure 2-83 provides a free body diagram illustrating how friction resists applied forces.
External forces, Fex, acting on a pair of bodies with an interface parallel to the forces, produce a
reacting friction force from the interface, Ff . Friction can resist any tangential relative motion of
the two bodies as long as the friction force exceeds the externally applied force (i.e.,
Ff > Fex is required to resist any sliding at the interface).
The laws of friction state that the maximum friction forces is given by:

(Ff ) max = Fn where is the coefficient of friction
Depending on the materials in contact and the state of the surfaces, the coefficient of
friction can range from less than 0.1 to over 0.4. For steel on steel, the dry range is over 0.16 and
the oily range is about 0.12. For cast iron on steel, the corresponding friction coefficient values
are 0.19 for dry and 0.16 for oily (see Figure 2-56).
Normal Force, Fn
External Force, Fex

Friction Forces Ff
External Force, Fex
Normal Force, Fn
Figure 2-83. Free Body Diagrams for Two Contacting Bodies Illustrating Friction Forces in
Reaction to Externally Applied Forces
The components of the external forces under consideration act parallel to the contact surface. The friction forces in
reaction to the external forces also act parallel to the contacting surfaces.
Since installations free of oil are uncommon, a conservative value for friction coefficient
would be 0.12.
The desirable design process is:
Get the maximum possible value for the force applied to the mount.
Select the appropriate coefficient of friction.
Determine the minimum normal force, which must be applied to the interface.
Set the anchor bolt force to a safety factor times this minimum.
Choose length, diameter, material, stretch for the anchor bolt to give the required
force.
The fourth bullet stated mathematically is:
Fn = Fs * (Fex/)
where Fs is a safety factor.
The safety factor should take care of the substantial uncertainty in these various steps.
Table 2-5 indicates the root area and achievable normal force for 70% and 80% of yield for
ASTM 193 Grade B7 material bolts of various sizes likely to be encountered in mounting.

2.6.8.4 Anchor Bolt Design Realities
In practice, bolt diameter is set by the compressor manufacturer, and the engineering
process should, therefore, involve choosing the highest readily available bolt strength
(105,000 PSI yield per ASTM 193), specifying a bolt tension which corresponds to at least 70%
of yield, specifying a means to achieve that tension which minimizes variability (e.g., hydraulic
bolt stretching), and specifying a length for the anchor bolt which will result in an acceptably
small rate of loss of tension with time.
Table 2-5. Anchor Bolt Forces (lbs) for Different Sizes and Stress Levels
Normal force for Normal force for
Nominal Bolt American Std. Bolt
70% Yield 80% Yield
Diameter, Inch Root Area, In2
(0.7*105,000 PSI) (0.8*105,000 PSI)
1 0.551 40498.5 46284
1.25 0.89 65415 74760
1.5 1.294 95109 108696
1.75 1.745 128257.5 146580
2 2.3 169050 193200
2.25 3.021 222043.5 253764
Canister bolt products exist designed for 80% of yield, as shown, for example, in Figure
2-84. The anchor bolt is contained within the canister and sealed and, therefore, is protected
against any chemical attack, embrittlement, or stress-corrosion cracking. The product, shown as
an example, can and should be stretched to 80% of yield. The bolt has rolled threads to
minimize stress intensification at the thread root. The design has two-piece spherical washers
under the nuts at top and bottom to provide self-alignment and to minimize any added stresses
due to misalignment. The material of the anchor bolt is ASTM A193 Grade B7 with
105,000 PSI yield and 125,000 PSI ultimate strength.
This canister bolt can reportedly be provided with the RotaboltTM tension-monitoring
device discussed in Section 2.6.6. The above table, therefore, defines for either 70% or 80%
yield the anchor bolt tension to be specified for different size anchor bolts.
The use of 1.75-inch diameter canister bolts which will safely handle 80% of yield, if
appropriately tensioned will apply a 146,600 lbs normal load to each mounting interface of a
JGV6. The interfaces referred to lie between the bottom of the foot and a mounting plate or
between the bottom of the foot and the top surface of any shims used for leveling and between
the bottom surface of any shims and the mounting plate. Using a 0.12 coefficient of friction, this
will hold 17,600 lbs of transverse force. At the current state of knowledge, the specific
maximum transverse load is unknown, but it is to be hoped it is less than this 17,600 lbs.
As another example, the engine block anchor bolts for a Cat G3600 series engine is one-
inch nominal diameter. With 70% yield for ASTM 193 bolt material, the bolt tension to be
specified is, therefore, 40,500 lbs. This can be expected to hold at least 4,860 lbs horizontal
mount load per bolt (note each Cat foot has two bolts giving 9,700 lbs per foot).

2 H NUT WITH
SELF ALIGNING
DOUBLE SPHERICAL
WASHER
A
DIMENSION A = RANGE
OF ADJUSTMENT ABOVE
R 100 SERIES BOLT

TOP OF CONCRETE
SEAL AT TOP OF
CANISTER
8 tpi ROLLED THREADS
TM
PER ASTM A-193, AND
GRADE B-7 STEEL
B
3/16" LATERAL
ADJUSRMENT 0 3/16"
UPPER & LOWER

CANISTER
PLASTIC
TUBING
E
D
STEEL HOUSING WITH
SELF ALIGNING
SPHERICAL WASHER E HOUSING
FOR ANGULAR DIAMETER
C
MIS-ALIGNMENT HEX BACKUP

PLATE
STANDARD DIMENSIONS FOR ROWAN R-100/CANISTER ANCHOR BOLT
SIZE 1" 1 1/4" 1 1/2" 1 3/4" 2" COPYRIGHT 2000,

A 0 - 6" 0 - 7" 0 - 9" 0 - 12" 0 - 16" ROBT. L. ROWAN & ASSOC., INC.
B 18" 30" 48" 54" 60"
C 10" 11" 13" 17" 21"
D 3" 3" 3" 4" 4"
E 5" 5" 5" 6" 6"
CAPACITY * 50,000 84,000 125,000 174,000 232,000
*BASED ON GRADE B-7 PUBLISHED DATA AND USING 80% OF 105,000 PSI YIELD STRENGTH
(125,000 PSI TENSILE STRENGTH) IN POUNDS. ACTUAL PULLOUT STRENGTH MAY VARY DEPENDING ON THE
QUALITY OF CONCRETE AND THE STEEL REINFORCING.
Figure 2-84. Schematic of Canister Bolt (Courtesy Robert L. Rowan)
2.6.8.5 Grout Compressive Load and Strength

The compressive stress on the grout is proportional to the applied load and inversely
proportional to the compressed area. With 128,000 lbs on a 10-inch by 10-inch mounting plate,
the nominal grout compressive stress is 1,280 PSI. For 146,600 lbs, the grout nominal,
compressive stress is 1,466 PSI. If the applied load is higher or the mounting plate area is
smaller, then the average grout compressive stress will be higher. In actuality, the non-
uniformity of loads means that higher strength is needed for the grout. Grouts are available with
substantially higher compressive stress, and such strength at expected maximum temperature
needs to be part of the specification (e.g., over 10,000 PSI at 120F).
2.6.8.6 Grout Creep

Figure 2-85 illustrates the way in which creep of grout (or another relaxation mechanism)
can cause loss of bolt tension over time. The anchor bolt tension acts to compress the foot, shim,
mounting plate, grout in the grout box, and the structure or material, which provide stretch length
for the bolt (e.g., a stretch tube, a box structure, or concrete in the case of a block mounted
compressor). All these components act as a multilayer sandwich, which is compressed by the
tension in the anchor bolt.

If the compressed components are all elastic, they immediately compress by an amount
proportional to the force applied by the anchor bolt. However, if any of these components or
materials have a time-dependent deflection characteristic, no matter with what care and accuracy
they are initially tensioned, they will deflect by an increasing amount as time goes by. The extra
compressive deflection translates into loss of stretch and loss of tension in the bolt. This means
that the force normal to the friction interface goes down, and that friction interface is able to
withstand a decreasing amount of applied external horizontal load. Since there is no reason for
the applied horizontal load to go down, the potential result is a tendency for horizontal slipping
to occur at the interface, which increases with time.
Nut
Foot
Initial
Deflection
X0 Shim
Mounting Plate
Grout
Grout Box
Deflection
after Time t, Xt
Anchor Bolt
Anchor Bolt
Length L
Anchor Bolt Tension, T
Lower end of material sandwich

compressed by anchor bolt (depending
on installation this may be a Steel Box
Structure, a Stretch tube, or concrete)
Lower bolt Termination
Figure 2-85. Illustration of Anchor Bolt and Compressed Sandwich, Including Grout Layer
Epoxy grout (as opposed to cementitious grout) is needed to provide the strength under
anchor bolt loads. All epoxy grouts are polymeric material and, as such, their properties are
time-dependent and temperature-dependent. Any loaded grout layer does not immediately
deform to a final reduced thickness under load but continues to compress over weeks and
months. Thus, when the mount includes a grout layer, the anchor bolt tension, which comes
from stretching of the bolt, reduces over weeks and months and requires regular retightening.
GMRC undertook a substantial investigation of grout creep properties [3]. A number of chock
and foundation grouts were tested over several months under load, and quantitative data were
obtained which enabled engineering of such grouted joints.

2.6.8.7 Impact of Grout Creep on Anchor Bolt Design
In qualitative terms, the grout creep compression (in units of length, e.g., mils) increases
directly with grout layer thickness, and with load, and indirectly with time. The loss of anchor
bolt tension (also in length units such as mils) in turn increases directly with the time-dependent
compression of the grout layer. A given loss of tension in mils can be reduced in importance
(i.e., made to be a reduced percentage of nominal tension), if the anchor bolt is made longer.
Since both tension and creep are proportional to load, we find that the percentage loss of bolt
tension in a given time is proportional to the ratio of grout layer thickness to anchor bolt
length. GMRC [22] also developed a rule of thumb that:
Anchor bolts at least 48 inches long coupled with a grout layer 4.5 inches thick or
less are needed to keep creep loss in bolt tension below 5% in a year.
It is absolute length of the anchor bolt rather than length to diameter ratio which
determines the loss in tension for a given amount of creep, and it is the thickness of the grout
under the mounting plate which determines how much creep will occur for a given bolt tension.
The GMRC rule of thumb can be interpreted to state that the bolt length should be at least ten
times the loaded thickness of grout (rather than 12 times the bolt diameter)and this applies to
block or skid mounts.
Grout layers in grout boxes are typically about 2 inches, so the rule of thumb for such
practice translates into 20 inches in length. This is the recommendation for these guidelines.
This corresponds closely to the traditional 12D length criterion for a 1.75-inch bolt, but it also
means 20 inches even for a one-inch diameter anchor bolt. It will be recommended that the end
user should specify this as a minimum anchor bolt length for skid-mounted units.
The desirable choice of no more 5% loss of tension in a year should be made because of
the nature of creep, most of the loss occurs in a much shorter timesay one month rather than
one year. If 10% were chosen, then most of this loss would occur in a monthand this is judged
to be too much, too fast.
2.6.8.8 Managing Compressor Dynamic Vertical Loads on Crosshead Bearings

As previously discussed, any dynamic variation in the drive torque shows up as dynamic
variation in the vertical forces on the sides of the compressors support system. These dynamic
vertical forces may be considered as coming from the connecting rod as the vertical component
necessary to provide the cylinder horizontal force through a connecting rod oriented at some
angle to the horizontal.
Figure 2-9 presents the schematic of a compressor cylinder with a connecting rod at an
angle. Figure 2-10 shows the force balance, which produces this vertical force.
These forces act on the crosshead bearing, which is located near the compressor frame
wall (as seen in Figure 2-9), and the forces are transmitted through the vertical support structure
to the cylinder and to the mounting system and skid and/or block.
It is essential to engineer for the effect of these dynamic forces acting on the compressor-
cylinder bottle system dynamics. The forces are directly calculable from knowledge of the
compressor cylinder pressures in head and crank end, the areas on which these pressures act, and
the connecting rod kinematics. There will be certain orders of compressor speed at which these
forces are particularly strong, and if these orders coincide with natural frequencies of the

compressor system on its skid, then the potential for damaging high vibration exists. Such a
situation might call for the addition of head end supports, or a very strong horizontal (parallel to
crankshaft) restraint at the crosshead guide support (two examples elsewhere in these guidelines,
see Figure 4-5 and Figure 2-67). The potential for such resonances must be minimized through
engineering.
In general, it is possible for a third party analyst to obtain from the compressor OEM all
the necessary engineering data on bore, stroke, connecting rod length, rotating and reciprocating
unbalance, crosshead bearing location, gas conditions and composition, cylinder clearance values
for different loading conditions, and compressor frame geometry, from which to compute throw-
by-throw forces acting on main bearings, crosshead bearings, and cylinder head, and to make the
application of such forces meaningful by representing the compressor frame and crosshead
guides as a flexible structure. Some of these items would require negotiation of a non-disclosure
agreement between analyst and compressor OEM, and a clear definition of purpose so that the
right data is provided.
2.6.8.9 Application of Vertical Forces

The current state-of-the-art limitation comes in the proper handling of the point of
application of such forces and in the role of compressor frame flexibility in response to these
forces. The vertical forces are applied to the crosshead bearing, which is structurally supported
in part by the frame and in part by the crosshead guide support. To properly transmit the forces
to dynamically excitable parts of the system, the flexibility of the frame and crosshead guide and
its supports must be recognized and treated. Research is needed into the effective means of
accounting for these vertical forces, the vibrations they may excite, and the role that structural
flexibility of frame and other components plays, without requiring an intensive and detailed
study of the compressor frame for every installation.
2.6.8.10 Managing Dynamic Forces Acting Between Engine Frame and Mounts
Managing the engine internal forces and their influence on mounting integrity presents a
challenge. In the case of Caterpillar, who provides the majority of compressor drive engines,
discussions of the data needed has been initiated. The need has been demonstrated by Case
Study 1 where it was clear that the adequacy of the engine foot mounting significantly influences
the engine block vibration, and even with a soft foot problem eliminated, the vibrations stayed
distinct (but acceptable). Other anecdotal observations on an 8,000 HP Cat engine showed that
with loss of design tension in the anchor bolt on the engine block mounts, the vibrations became
unacceptable. As a minimum, the need exists to engineer the strength of the tie-down, which can
involve several friction joints (particularly with adjustable mounts) held together by tension in an
anchor bolt. Whatever horizontal forces from individual throws might be transmitted through the
frame to the mount must be held in friction by that mount and the anchor bolt appropriately
tensioned to create that amount of friction at each interface when the coefficient of friction is
multiplied by the anchor bolt force. In other words, the required anchor bolt tension is the
required horizontal force to be held by friction divided by a conservative value for friction
coefficient [0.12 or value specifically established from contacting materials and conditions
maintained (dry or oily)]. There remains uncertainty in some of these mechanics, which needs
further research.

For these guidelines, Caterpillar has made available rolling torques by engine for the
most significant orders. These rolling torques represent the dynamic torque functions generated
by the summation of engine cylinders accounting for cylinder-to-cylinder phasing, which must
be reacted by the engine block and its mounting. Table 2-6 and Table 2-7 provide these rolling
torques, for the G3606, G3608, G3612, and G3616, for two pressure ratios, at 900 and
1,000 RPM for important orders (4th, 8th, 12th for G3608 and G3616; 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th for G3606
and G3612). These are for use in steady state vibration analysis. Further assumption details are
provided below. Caterpillar has also provided Table 2-8, which lists the orders likely to excite
linear vibrations in G3606, G3608, G3612, and G3616 installations.
Maximum Rolling Moment/Torque: It is the phased summation maximum of all
cylinders over one full engine cycle (720 degrees).
Minimum Rolling Moment/Torque: It is the phased summation minimum of all
cylinders over one full engine cycle (720 degrees).
The following assumptions are used in calculating the rolling moments
Engine block is very rigid.
Gas pressures in combination with vertical inertia forces exert a rolling
moment on the engine block.
Table 2-6. Full Load Rolling Torques for Cat G3608 and G3616
Engine Compression Speed Rolling torque Max Min
Ratio (rpm) (lb-in) Torque Torque
(lb-in) (lb-in)
th 148,500
4 order
9.2:1 900 th 25,700 357500 41700
8 order
th 21,600
12 order
th 145,300
4 order
th 25,700
9.2:1 1000 8 order 353600 44900
th 21,600
G3608 12 order
th 202,700
4 order
11.1:1 900 th 38,700 433700 1000
8 order
th 18,400
12 order
th 199,000
4 order
th 38,700
11.1:1 1000 8 order 429700 4300
th 18,400
12 order
th 64,200
4 order
9.2:1 900 th 49,000 448000 225000
8 order
th 32,000
12 order
th 62,500
4 order
9.2:1 1000 th 49,000 447000 225000
8 order
th 32,000
G3616 12 order
th 65,300
4 order
th 69,300
11.1:1 900 8 order 513000 256000
th 27,000
12 order
th 62,200
4 order
11.1:1 1000 th 69,300 512000 257000
8 order
th 27,000
12 order

Table 2-7. Full Load Rolling Torques for Cat G3606 and G3612
Engine Compression Speed Rolling torque Max Min
Ratio (rpm) (lb-in) Torque Torque
(lb-in) (lb-in)
rd 64,400
3 order
th 38,600
9.2:1 900 6 order 232900 37700
th 16,100
9 order
th 16,200
12 order
rd 53,200
3 order
th 38,600
9.2:1 1000 6 order 197400 14900
th 16,100
9 order
th 16,200
G3606 12 order
rd 74,300
3 order
th 54,200
11.1:1 900 6 order 261900 32400
th 17,500
9 order
th 8,500
12 order
rd 44,400
3 order
th 54,300
11.1:1 1000 6 order 230000 43000
th 17,500
9 order
th 8,500
12 order
rd 45,500
3 order
th 56,300
9.2:1 900 6 order 395000 170000
th 22,800
9 order
th 23,900
12 order
rd 47,000
3 order
th 56,300
9.2:1 1000 6 order 387000 177000
th 22,800
9 order
th 23,900
G3612 12 order
rd 62,000
3 order
th 119,700
11.1:1 900 6 order 467000 164000
th 32,600
9 order
th 20,000
12 order
rd 46,600
3 order
th 119,800
11.1:1 1000 6 order 455000 182000
th 32,600
9 order
th 20,000
12 order
Table 2-8. Cat Large Engine Dynamic Significant Linear and Torsional Excitation Frequencies
Significant Engine
Cat Engine Engine Firing Specifics Orders of Excitation for Firing Order
Linear Vibration
G3606 In-Line, Even Firing Order (120) 1st, 3rd, [4.5] 153624
G3608 In-Line, Even Firing Order (90) 1st, 4th 16258374
1 , 3rd, [4.5], 6th
st
G3612 50 Vee, Odd Firing (50, then 70 & so on) 1 12 9 4 5 8 11 2 3 10 7 6
1 2 5 6 3 4 9 10 15 16 11 12
G3616 50 Vee, Odd Firing (50, then 40 & so on) [0.5], 1st, 4th, 8th
13 14 7 8
Significant Front
Cat Engine Crankshaft Engine
Orders of Excitation
G3606 3rd, [4.5], 6th
G3608 2.5, 4th, 8th
G3612 1.5, 3rd, [4.5] 6th
G3616 0.5, 2.5, 3.5, 4th, 4.5
[ ] These orders are forced excitations of the engine crankshaft due to the engine's firing order
They cause a forced twist of the engine block that directly affects linear vibrations of mounted equipment

3. GENERAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL GUIDELINES
This section provides the qualitative, but very significant guidelines for planning and
organization of the project.
It includes the following sub-sections:
Organizations and Their Interfaces (3.1)
Responsibilities (3.2)
End User Due Diligence (3.3)
Needed skills (3.4)
Some of these sections can be viewed as checklists for different aspects of project
organization. The due diligence section can be referred to by the end users project engineer,
with benefit, at all stages of the project.
3.1 ORGANIZATIONS AND THEIR INTERFACES

The number of organizations that comprise the contributors to and beneficiaries from the
compressor installation (stakeholders) is substantial, and a list is given below:
End User Engineering Department
End User Operations Department
Packager
Compressor OEM
Driver OEM
Driver Dealer
Coupling Supplier
Engineering Company
Engineer, Procure, Construct (EPC) Organization
Foundation Designers
Geotechnical Service Organization
Anchor Bolt Supplier
Installer of Foundation
Installer of Skid and/or Major Components
Alignment Expert
Grout Supplier
Grouting Expert
Ready-Mix Concrete Supplier
Provider(s) of Third Party Analysis

The list may not be complete for every conceivable situation and not every organization
on the list will be needed in every situation, but the bulleted items above provide a starting point
for an installation specific list.
Implicitly, there are important interfaces for supply of materials, equipment, and
information between many of these organizations. Ensuring these interfaces work well is
important to project success. Without quality interfaces, delays occur, costs rise, and the project
is less likely to meet expectations.
3.2 RESPONSIBILITIES
This section seeks to emphasize the primary responsibilities of the major stakeholders.
3.2.1 END USER RESPONSIBILITY

The pipeline end user organization normally delegates to a project engineer the
responsibility to ensure that the process of specification, acquisition, installation, start-up,
evaluation, and problem solution results in a compressor installation, which meets the business
and operational needs of the organization.
The project engineer, with this delegated responsibility, has great influence on how
effectively this goal is achieved, and in the case of medium and high-speed separable compressor
installations, the background sections of these guidelines have already made clear the many ways
in which problems and impediments can arise in pursuit of this goal.
Thus, the project engineer for such installations faces substantial challenge and needs
strong support within the end user organization from management and from team members with
diverse skills.
One aspect of the project engineers responsibility is the management of interfaces,
physical and organizational. In situations where the physical interface lines up with an
organizational interface (e.g., the skid to foundation interface), particular vigilance is needed to
be sure there is good communication, cooperation, and teamwork.
The project engineer is, in fact, the primary target of these guidelines, and a major goal is
to bring into a single document for the project engineer the knowledge base which the industry
and its suppliers as a whole has accumulated in the last seven or eight years of installing medium
and high-speed separables, through projects both successful and less successful. This experience
base is substantial but suffers from being very diffuse and resides within many organizations and
individuals. It is intended that these guidelines undertake the process of assembling a substantial
portion of this experience base in one place.
The project engineer must work with a team of suppliers and sub-suppliers in the
achievement of project goals. This team of organizations and individuals must work effectively
together, and ensuring effective communication becomes one of the project engineers most
important single functions.
As a practical matter, those that must eventually operate the compressor system are the
primary clients of the project engineer, and it is, therefore, of paramount importance that the
project engineer have a clear understanding of the needs of these clients and involve them at key
points in the process. In fact, communication between the project engineer and those that will

operate the compressor must be part of the teams communication, fostered by the project
engineer.
As the clients representative, the project engineer has the delicate task of leaving with
the packager and other major suppliers the responsibility to deliver and stand behind the
contracted scope of supply, while working to avoid irrevocable, undesirable actions or inactions,
which will lead to costly and aggravating problems.
Although prudence in cost management is important in any project, the pipeline
compression project engineer has a responsibility to think long term and to look very critically
before accepting low cost for its own sake. A highly respected machinery engineer once said
(paraphrased): The bitterness of poor performance remains long after the sweetness of low
price is forgotten. The project engineer needs a supportive management, which can take a
broad view of the business and will support decisions that may result in near term cost or
schedule slippage in return for the enhancement of integrity, functionality, efficiency, safety,
maintainability, or profitability in the long term.
All responsibility delegated by the project engineer to contractors (or to others in the end
user organization) should involve a clear understanding of expectations by all parties involved,
and should carry with it effective checks and balances in place to identify actual or potential
deviations from these expectations. Contracts provide a legal framework for these
understandings, but the project engineer needs to be sure that the expectations are well
understood with reference to contracts only rarely needed. Building a positive team viewpoint
and ensuring effective timely communication amongst all suppliers is an essential feature of a
project engineers function.
In summary, selecting a contractor in no way eliminates the responsibility of the end user
and the project engineer to demonstrate due diligence (see later discussion of due diligence) in
every step of the specification, procurement, design, manufacture, installation, start-up, and
problem resolution process.
3.2.2 PACKAGER RESPONSIBILITY FOR SKID-MOUNTED UNITS

In the case of skid-mounted packages, the packager is often the lead member of the
supplier team for compressor, driver, and associated engineering. The packager has the
responsibility to understand the clients needs and expectations, to deliver a compression system,
which meets these needs, and to take care of the many details involved in the multiphase process.
The specific implementation of many of these guidelines presented in this document falls to the
packager.
In this role, the packager must demonstrate and propagate the message of teamwork and
communication amongst the supplier team members. A pipeline package will tend to be larger,
with longer life expectations, and thereby will require more custom engineering and
consideration than a small upstream package. It must often be integrated into an existing
operation as horsepower replacement or as horsepower addition. In the case of a Greenfield
pipeline application, it will tend to have a high profile with uncompromising expectations from
major investors unsympathetic to delay or under-performance, which impacts returns on
investment.
The skid-mounted package for pipeline applications must always be mounted on a well-
engineered foundation. The foundation supplier may be a subcontractor to the packager or an

organization hired independently by the end user (or in some cases, by a general contractor hired
by the end user). Willingness and effectiveness of the packager to work under a variety of
project and contractual arrangements are important.
3.2.3 COMPRESSOR OEM RESPONSIBILITIES

The compressor OEM has the responsibility to deliver a reliable compressor which meets
the performance expectations of the end user, which seamlessly integrates any special features
required by the application and the specifications, yet which is actually delivered to and mounted
by the packager. This responsibility provides the opportunity for the compressor OEM to
demonstrate expertise in the delivery and installation of large flagship compressors customized
for long life pipeline service.
The common business model involves the compressor OEM supplying the compressor to
a packager who mounts it. This one step removed situation for the end user needs careful
attention by all parties, with good and open communication. The end user needs the compressor
to perform and meet expectations, so the end users project engineer team should be able to
communicate freely on a technical level with those having relevant expertise and experience in
the compressor OEM organization.
The mounting issue is complicated as has been shown by the need for the mounting to
involve both the skid and the concrete foundation on which the skid sits. The potential for
divided responsibility, for issues falling through the interface, and eventually for finger-
pointing exists, and these must be guarded against by those parties involved.
Since various parties are involved in installation design and in assuring the integrity of
the package and installation, the compressor OEM has a responsibility to make engineering
information to support this assurance available to these parties in a timely manner. A number of
independent studies may be performed by one or more third parties (e.g., pulsation, pipe thermal,
piping and compressor manifold vibration, driver-compressor package/foundation structural).
These studies require quite detailed product information, which may require expedited non-
disclosure agreements between the OEM and the organizations that perform the analysis.
Since pipeline applications are for the long term, the compressor OEM retains a long-
term responsibility to provide lifetime support to the compressors eventual owner (the end user),
including spare parts supply.
3.2.4 DRIVER OEM RESPONSIBILITIES

The engine OEM has the responsibility to deliver a driver (engine or motor) that can meet
the expectations, specifications, and needs of the end user, which seamlessly integrates any
special features required by the application and the specifications, yet which is actually delivered
to and mounted by the packager. The manufacturer may be offering a near standard product and
may be manufacturing and shipping ten or more of the products per day. However, this does not
lessen the end users view of the installation and its critical components as special and
requiring custom consideration.
The pipeline end user has a history of taking substantial responsibility for engines on the
pipeline system, often of necessity, and will likely have substantial expertise in combustion,
engine mechanics, and operation on the staff. The interstate pipeline has mandated responsibility
for guaranteeing availability of compression horsepower and for ensuring and demonstrating

compliance with regulations for emissions and safety. As a result, the pipeline feels more of a
need for such things as unit specific test observation and results, engineering information, and
continuous operating data than the engine manufacturer may normally provide to a gen-set
operator. This pipeline industry specific need and expectation needs consideration,
communication, and flexibility by all parties; for example, recognition that the driver may be a
standard and/or volume product, which keeps its price competitive, but complicates special
handling of a specific unit.
As with the compressor OEM, the driver OEM has a responsibility to provide
engineering information to other parties involved in design analyses as discussed elsewhere
(e.g., Section 4.8).
The driver OEMs business model may involve a dealer, which supplies the driver to the
packager who mounts it and delivers it as part of the package to the end user. This can create a
two steps removed situation between the end user and the engine manufacturer. This calls for
diligence by all parties, including the driver OEM, to ensure that special requirements are
communicated, and to ensure that engineering information is transmitted to those needing it for
design and for independent analysis in a timely manner with appropriate non-disclosure
agreements in place.
Regional jurisdiction for members of the engine manufacturers dealer network, the
location of the packager, and the eventual site location for the package (sometimes very remote)
can create complexity and the potential for issues. For example:
The large size of the typical pipeline driver (as much as 8,000 HP) can add complexity
and may limit the relevant experience and capacity of a particular dealer to provide all needed
support. A further complication is the range and difference in support needed during the various
steps of package design, system engineering analysis, installation, start-up, start-up testing,
problem resolution, together with lifetime issues: malfunctions and unscheduled shutdown,
minor and major overhaul, and spare parts supply.
All stakeholders need to be aware of these issues, their ramifications, and to ensure that
the potential problems do not become a reality.
3.2.5 RESPONSIBILITIES FOR FOUNDATION DESIGN AND INSTALLATION FOR FOUNDATION AND
SKID
The responsibilities exist to ensure that a skid-mounted package or a block-mounted
package has a sound foundation appropriate in size, strength, and concrete to ground interface for
the application, and for the specific location. The responsibility further exists to ensure that the
skid is solidly mounted on the concrete block, together with any off-skid items, which must be in
close proximity to the compressor or engine (e.g., discharge bottles).
These guidelines will refrain from characterizing closely to whom all these
responsibilities fall, since a number of different contractual arrangements are possible. The
important message is that these responsibilities exist and are absolutely critical to the success of
the installation. Major corrective action for concrete structures is costly and complex and may
be effectively impossible. The end user must ensure that all the necessary skills to meet these
responsibilities exist on the team, that they will be available when needed, and that appropriate
skills on the end users project team are available on a timely manner to provide oversight of the
most critical functions. The team assembled to design and install the package or components on

a foundation must recognize the various responsibilities and help ensure open communication
across organizational boundaries, must recognize critical interfaces, and must be open to ideas
and considerations dictated by the particular contractual arrangement.
In the case of skid-mounted packages, a large experience basis exists to guide these
responsibilities from a technical point of view. In the case of block-mounted, medium and high-
speed separables, the experience base is slim; all problems may not have yet shown themselves,
and anything provided in these guidelines may need subsequent refinement or addition. The
experience base of problem monitoring, identification, resolution, repair, and re-grouting for
large slow speed integral engine/compressor (involving a number of GMRC reports summarized
in Section 1.7) is much more substantial and will provide valuable input on principles to be
applied and caveats to be recognized. However, its adaptation to the block mounting of medium
and high-speed separables is still in progress; it is hoped these guidelines are an important step in
this process.
3.2.6 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THIRD PARTY ANALYSTS

It is common for third party designers and analysts to be hired to support the end user, the
packager, or the engineering company involved, most commonly for:
Pulsation analysis and pulsation control system design.
Train torsional analysis and torsional vibration control system design.
Piping and compressor manifold system vibration analysis.
Structural analysis of skid, foundation, and mounted components.
Piping thermal stress analysis.
In general, the responsibilities for providers of these services include:
Define and acquire data needed to prepare model(s) and execute relevant analyses.
Diligently pursue gaps in the needed data.
Manage unfilled gaps in data.
Prepare relevant and accurate models.
Effectively apply appropriate state-of-the-art software tools.
Apply experience and correlations from similar designs to validate predictions.
Identify potential design problems in time for needed changes to be made.
Clearly communicate results to relevant stakeholders, together with significance of
results, assumptions, and sensitivity to assumptions.
Define, analyze, present appropriate solution options.
Assist in design change decisions.
These guidelines will subsequently seek to address portions of these analyses most
relevant to the mounting integrity of the compressor (i.e., structural analysis, piping analysis, and
aspects of the pulsation analysis and pulsation control solutions, which have an impact on the
structure and mounting issues).

Responsibilities for timeliness go beyond the providers of these solutionsclearly,
analyses cannot be performed with full effectiveness until data to support these analyses is made
available to the analyst organization by the owners of that data. It is important for end users and
others to recognize critical data requirements and to actively pursue the delivery of the data.
3.3 END USER DUE DILIGENCE

The term due diligence is used at various points in these guidelines. Due diligence is
the implementation of steps and processes by the project engineer and his/her in-house project
team needed to ensure that expectations are met. Some important general steps and processes
follow; many of these will be further expanded in the detailed guidelines:
Establish clear understanding of all operational needs for the installation.
Decide or establish consensus within the end users organization on key decisions,
which will affect functionality, performance, maintainability, schedule, and cost.
These decisions may involve both physical aspects and delegated
responsibility.
One is engine or motor drive (which impacts mounting significantly).
Another is block or skid mount, which has physical and organizational impact.
Arrange for a detailed geotechnical assessment of site soil conditions.
Assemble procurement specifications to ensure uniformity of bids.
Include all items, which could impact integrity.
Include all items API 11P indicates need purchaser specifications.
Include items required by API 11P, but which need emphasis or distinction for
pipeline applications (relative to upstream applications).
Define studies to be performed on the compressor package or installation.
Evaluate bids provided by teams of suppliers for completeness, cost, and value.
Identify all team members implicit and explicit in all bids seriously considered.
Ensure that all the necessary skills are recognized and available as part of the
selected team of suppliers or added if missing (consider skills for design,
manufacture, site preparation, install, align, commission, and test).
Further ensure that these skills will be available during the phases of the project
when they will be needed.
Ensure the in-house project team has all the skills necessary to monitor adherence
and/or hires such expertise, if needed (e.g., independent monitoring of grouting
process).
Define and expedite the necessary information flow between parties.
Ensure that all studies can and will be performed to a schedule, which allows
corrective action if any of these studies identifies a problem.
Recognize the interaction of the various studies and decisions.

Encourage and facilitate communication between all team members during entire
process of procurement, design, installation, and testing.
Assure that information/data needed for analysis and design by different parties
involved is communicated in an effective, timely, and complete manner by the
owner of that information.
Stay actively involved during the design process, with particular emphasis on
mounting.
Require clear analyzed defense of deviations by supplier team.
Resolve issues not fully or effectively addressed in the specifications.
Schedule and implement critical design reviews with enough calendar time for
corrective action where indicated by review.
Critically evaluate the designs of foundation, skid, and interfaces.
Ensure that the resulting design adheres to the specifications and avoids known
problems.
Ensure completeness of design for skid and foundation.
Ensure the design and specifications clearly address all supplier interface issues
(e.g., grouting, alignment requirements), and verifiably communicate them to the
installation contractor.
Ensure inspections of critical items (e.g., pressure boundary welds).
Sign off on design of skid and foundation.
Monitor manufacture and show a regular and appropriate presence.
Maintain a thorough and detailed photographic record of manufacture, site
preparation, and installation.
Ensure adherence of manufacture and installation to design drawings and
specifications, paying particular attention to items known from the experience base
to lead to problems.
Monitor foundation installation and its adherence to design drawings and
specifications (e.g., rebar size, center distances, curing, concrete strength, and
testing).
Ensure appropriate cure time and surface preparation of foundation for installation
of skid.
Ensure an orderly skid installation, grouting, and alignment plan is prepared.
Ensure this plan includes resolution of problems, which may arise during time-
critical parts of process.
Ensure team members involved in installation, grouting, alignment share a clear
understanding of plan.
Monitor grouting, leveling, and alignment process for skid.

Ensure adherence to drawings and specifications during installation of skid.
Monitor leveling and alignment of compressor and driver.
Plan for and monitor execution of start-up checklists.
Ensure adequate tightening, retightening, and checking of anchor bolts for
compressor, crosshead guide support, and driver.
Plan and arrange for orderly start-up testing.
Monitor conduct and results of start-up testing.
Review start-up test reports for adherence to criteria.
Be actively involved in planning for and implementation of corrective action
indicated by start-up testing.
Ensure the availability of lifetime support for the critical components of the
package (compressor and driver), including timely response when broken parts need
replacement.
Monitor for problems, deficiencies, and inconveniences during early operation.
Maintain a detailed and comprehensive photographic record.
3.4 NEEDED PROJECT SKILLS

The achievement of a successful installation calls for a broad range of skills:
Selection, sizing of compressor, and its options to meet operational requirements.
Selection, sizing of driver, and its options to meet operational requirements.
Geotechnical testing and reporting.
Package coordination and project management:
Mounted equipment
Controls
Lubrication
Cooling
Construction and assembly
Package physical design and detailing.
Package construction and assembly.
Foundation design and detailing.
Concrete mix design appropriate for application and location.
Site preparation.
Concrete foundation construction.
Transportation for skid and machinery.
Anchor bolt sizing and selection for long-term tension and strength.

Grout selection for driver and compressor mounting plate installation.
Grout selection for skid installation.
Skid grouting and leveling.
Compressor and engine alignment.
Crosshead and cylinder alignment.
Pulsation analysis and pulsation control design.
Torsional analysis and design to control torsional vibrations.
Piping thermal and static stress analysis and design to meet standards (B31.8).
Piping/compressor manifold vibration analysis and design to control vibrations.
Structural dynamic analysis and design for entire installation.
Compression physics as an input to most of these analyses.
Engine start-up, commissioning, and start-up troubleshooting.
Compressor start-up, commissioning, and start-up troubleshooting.
Measurement of transverse vibration, torsional vibration, and pulsations.
Vibration/pulsation problem identification and solution.
The project engineer working on behalf of the end user needs to ensure that all these
skills will be available on a timely basis in the project teamin-house or supplier

4. SPECIFIC GUIDELINES
This section of the guidelines document presents specific guidelines in 13 sub-sections:

Bid Specifications (4.1)
Choosing Skid or Block Mounting for Medium and High Speed Separables (4.2)
Skid Design (4.3)
Foundation Design for a Skid-Mounted Compressor (4.4)
Foundation Design for a Block-Mounted Compressor (4.5)
Piping Design and Design for Pulsation Control (4.6)
Mounting and Installation Design and Specifications (4.7)
Analytical Studies (4.8)
Installation (4.9)
Start-up and Commissioning (4.10)
Start-up Testing (4.11)
Corrective Action for High Vibration (4.12)
Longer Term Operation (4.13)
As might be expected, the first nine sections are the longest and provide the greatest
intensity of detail. At the same time, detailed technical discussions of a number of topics has
already been covered in Section 2, to which the above sub-sections refer. The intent is to provide
specific recommended actions to achieve a sound installation, and enough explanation and
illustration to indicate why and how. As with earlier sections, the recommendations are directed
at what the end user needs to encourage, expedite, and to ensure. These specific guidelines build
on the general and organizational guidelines given in the preceding section (3.0).
4.1 BID SPECIFICATIONS

The end user should recognize the risk that, in a competitive environment, without very
explicit specifications in critical areas, packagers and other suppliers will make some decisions
during the bid process on the basis of cost rather than integrity, and that some differences in price
between bids may result from differences which could influence integrity of the installation.
Recognizing such differences and factoring them into bid evaluations adds complication.
The end users project engineer will make the evaluation process more uniform and
improve the chances of eventual success in this challenging application, if the bid package
clearly specifies those many items which are important to integrity of mounting. These
guidelines will, in subsequent pages, identify many dos and donts, which the experience
base indicates will enhance integrity of mounting for pipeline applications. The project engineer
will be well advised to make many of these dos and donts requirements of the bid, rather than a
bidders option. The result may be more expensive quotations from most or all packagers, but
they will be more uniform in their scope of supply and more likely to meet all the expectations of
a pipeline application.

As a conservative approach, the project engineer preparing bid specifications for a
compressor system should assume responding bidders will treat anything not specified as not
wanted.
The following list identifies items, which the end users project engineer should specify
or consider specifying in the bid package (these items are subsequently discussed in more detail):
4.1.1 PACKAGE CONFIGURATION REQUIREMENTS

Operating conditions (pressures, capacity, unloading).
Motor or engine drive (this is commonly defined by the end user).
Whether the compressor should be skid or block mounted.
Whether the engine should be skid or block mounted.
Engine or motor driven auxiliaries.
4.1.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

List of skills, experience, and knowledge to be present in bidders team.
Timely availability of these skills.
All items listed in API 11P as specified by purchaser.
Items required by API 11P, but also requiring more explicit definition or emphasis
for pipeline applications.
Lifetime availability of technical and spare parts support for engine and
compressor.
Requirement for the further communication of specifications, and installation
procedures to the installation contractor.
Stress relief and inspection to be required on all pressure bearing welds.
4.1.3 DESIGN ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS

Specific design studies to be performed.
Clear definition of questions to be addressed by design studies.
Clear definition of analytical standards and specific analyses to be performed.
Schedule for analytical design studies.
Complete and accurate engineering data to be communicated between suppliers for
use in analytical studies.
Basis to be used for vibration and pulsation design criteria.
4.1.4 SKID DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Minimize height of pedestal (if any) under compressor.
Multiple holes along length of skid for grout placement and grout inspection.

Vertical leveling jackscrews on engine, skid, and compressor.
Jackscrews to be engineered to carry full weight of skid, concrete fill, and mounted
equipment under all conditions expected during skid leveling.
All items mounted on the skid to be attached directly to I-Beam members and
neither attached to nor through floor plate.
Any on-skid vertical vessels to be mounted on a thick plate, itself mounted directly
to main skid beams.
No horizontal beam structures outboard of the main skid without grout and anchor
bolt support to solid concrete.
Skid to contain concrete or grout within sections under compressor.
Concrete or grout within skid to be made integral with skid structure by use of
mechanical locks welded to inside of structure.
Anchor bolt stretch length to be accomplished or enhanced with a box structure in
preference or in addition to freestanding stretch tubes.
Terminate anchor bolts for compressor below main skid top level, if pedestal height
and anchor bolt length requirements so dictate.
Horizontal jacking screws on skid or block.
Manufactured levelness of skid (see Section 4.3.2.8).
Skid to be subjected to a critical design analysis.
4.1.5 PIPING DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Use of a single suction bottle with (Ncyl+1) chambers (recommended) as opposed
to a two-bottle configuration with external chokes for pulsation control.
Suction bottle to be supported by rugged structure and attached by rugged clamps
and wedges to this structure.
Cross-bracing across suction bottles (recommended).
Use of a single discharge bottle with (Ncyl+1) chambers (recommended) as
opposed to a two-bottle configuration with external chokes for pulsation control.
Bottle wall thicknesses to be assessed for structural rigidity as well as code
compliance.
Diameter and thickness for nozzle to bottle joint reinforcement.
Bypass valve minimum sizing.
Piping to be subjected to a critical design analysis for pulsation and vibration.
4.1.6 FOUNDATION DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Rebar density or size and spacing.
Length of skid to concrete anchor bolts (4 feet minimum).

Symmetrical termination of skid anchor bolts (washer, disk, or nut).
Specification for foundation reinforcing steel material.
Geometrical features, such as rounded corners, staggered levels.
An engineered concrete mix design and specification.
Concrete mix compressive strength (4,000+ PSI).
Foundation to be subjected to a critical design analysis for stress under mounting
loads and for dynamic characteristics.
4.1.7 INSTALLATION AND MOUNTING DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Height adjustability of engine and compressor at feet.
Skid to be grouted and tied to engineered concrete block with long anchor bolts.
Anchor bolt length (20+ inches) for all major equipment mounted on skid.
Maximum grout layer thickness under mounting plates, sole plates, and chocks.
Minimum values for grout modulus and strength at expected temperatures.
Use of expansion joints in skid to block grouting.
Oil resistant coating on exposed concrete surfaces.
Primary discharge bottles to be mounted off the skid (recommended).
Requirements for what else should be mounted off skid.
Mount discharge bottles with rugged two tie-rod wedges and clamps.
Wedges to be installed directly under each nozzle and under each clamp.
Machined surfaces for all foot-mounting interfaces.
Anchor bolt, nut, and washer specifications for material properties.
Specification of material for mounting shims.
Specification for anchor bolt tension in terms of % of yield strength (70%+).
No L or J Bolts in mounting to concrete.
Stairs and walkways to allow convenient maintenance of compressor and engine.
Use of cylinder head end supports should be based on OEM requirements or the
specific results of design analysis.
Cylinder head end supports, if used, should be grouted in place and tied to concrete
with full-length anchor bolts.
4.1.8 ALIGNMENT REQUIREMENTS

Compressor and engine alignment to be directed by a verifiable expert.
Compressor and engine alignment to be performed at site.
Skid installed levelness criterion.

Driver to compressor alignment criteria.
Frame levelness, twist, bending, and alignment criteria (in addition to soft foot).
Cylinder alignment criteria.
Check crosshead bearing clearances after crosshead guide support shimming and
adjust shims as needed to meet OEM clearance specs.
Access to appropriate surface on engine and compressor frame for optical
alignment.
Hot as well as cold alignment checks.
4.1.9 INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS

Pour sufficient test cylinders during main pour of foundation.
Foundation top concrete surface preparation prior to grouting.
Skid under-surface to be inspected and to be cleaned and made free of rust.
Concrete cure time allowance.
Actual concrete compressive strength based on ASTM tests.
Skid anchor bolts and jackscrews to be wrapped to avoid grout contacting them.
Fabreeka or equivalent between wedges and bottle wall.
Use of double spherical, hardened washers on anchor bolts for all mounted
equipment.
Hydraulic stretching or super-nuts for skid anchor bolts.
Hydraulic stretching of anchor bolts or use of a calibrated bolt tension check device
(e.g., Rotabolt) for compressor frame, engine block, and crosshead guide
supports.
4.1.10 START-UP AND OPERATION REQUIREMENTS

Completion of all OEM start-up checklists.
Repeated checking and adjustment of anchor bolts.
Hot adjustment of wedges under discharge bottles.
Start-up testing after all hot adjustments complete and stable.
Start-up testing content.
Criteria for testing.
4.2 CHOOSING SKID OR BLOCK MOUNTING FOR MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED

SEPARABLES
Advocates exist for block mounting medium or high-speed separable compressors at
some size level. Other advocates exist for skid mounting all units. With good engineering, it is
probable that either configuration can be implemented successfully. Thus, the issue will likely

remain one of choice, without a clear argument to be made one way or the other in these
guidelines.
With this said, the choice for a particular planned project should be based on consensus
building discussion and evaluations involving those who must engineer, procure, and install the
compressor system, those who will operate it, maintain it, and live with consequences of project
decisions, together with the equipment suppliers.
This report section lists some likely advantages and disadvantages associated with both
block and skid mounting for new installations of modern compressors, medium or high speed; no
doubt project and installation specific considerations will exist in particular situations and may
add to or change the list, but it provides a starting point for evaluating this choice.
4.2.1 SOME SKID MOUNT ADVANTAGES

Unifies and streamlines compressor/driver installation.
Takes advantage of established, efficient, competitive packager business.
Minimizes lead time.
Likely minimizes first cost.
Provides single point of contact for compression system.
Makes attachment of components more straightforward.
Normally simplifies geometry of the foundation block.
Spreads the footprint and base and enhances sharing of dynamic loads to the anchor
bolts; this should help reduce tensile stresses in the concrete.
Simplifies any needed structural changes after installation.
4.2.2 SOME SKID MOUNT DISADVANTAGES

Transportation limits exist for large single packages.
Skid may be less rigid than block for force management.
The extra height at which crank forces act aggravates response.
Can require unproductive travel for major components.
If most components are shipped direct to site, the skid may be seen as providing an
unnecessary extra interface.
If all components needed for a high horsepower installation must be on the skid, it
will tend to be crowded.
4.2.3 SOME BLOCK MOUNT ADVANTAGES

Should be more rigid than a skid (if properly engineered).
Provides a solid reference for alignment.
Lower shipping costs.
Eliminates the need to install skid as an intermediate component.

The required installation at site opens up freedom to mount ancillary equipment off
skid or even outside the building from the main compressor installation.
The block automatically minimizes the height of the compressor CG.
The compressor feet and crosshead guide support feet can be mounted at the same
level on the same flat concrete surface, ensuring very stiff crosshead guide supports.
Any differences that exist between the driver and compressor in the height above
their mounting feet and their shaft centerline can be accommodated with a
difference in height of the concrete surfaces on which driver and compressor are
mounted.
4.2.4 SOME BLOCK MOUNT DISADVANTAGES

More complex and time-consuming engineering and installation required (if block
is engineered to enjoy all potential advantages).
Overall project team will likely need new skills and interfaces and management of
the team will be more complex.
Block mounting may cost more than skid mount.
Block mounting must be carefully engineered for particular installation site and
local geophysical considerations, as well as thermal expansion.
Protection of the concrete from oil will be more critical.
Higher local forces will have to be restrained by concrete; higher concrete tensile
stresses may result.
Requires careful integration of high strength anchor bolts with concrete.
May involve sales, packaging, and warranty outside normal channels.
4.2.5 THE CURRENT EXPERIENCE BASE FOR BLOCK MOUNTING

Many low-speed separable compressors have been installed on concrete block
foundations without a skid. Motor driven hydrogen compressors on concrete blocks are common
in refineries. Columbia Gas has 20 Cooper Bessemer J-B compressors driven by Cooper
Bessemer LSV separable engines mounted on blocks. Some White Superior compressors have
been block-mounted.
However, the current experience base for block mounting medium and high-speed
separable engines and compressors is limited. To the authors knowledge, only one example
exists: an 8180 HP system with a 16-cylinder GCM34 driving a JGV6 through a Geislinger soft
coupling was installed on a block in the last year. This unit is in storage service, configured for
single- or two-stage operation. It has started, and operated successfully; so far, a limited number
of operating hours has been accumulated. It has been subjected to torsional vibration testing, and
testing for transverse vibrations on engine, compressor, block, compressor manifold system, and
attached piping. As might be expected for a high horsepower installation in a complex service
with a range of conditions, a few start-up test vibrations were higher than desirable and
corrective action is being taken.

The preceding list of advantages and disadvantages reflects this current experience base
and will probably require revision as that experience base grows.
In general, the rich experience base for block mounting low speed compressors must be
adapted to the new class of medium and high-speed compressors.
4.3 SKID DESIGN
4.3.1 BASIC REQUIREMENTS

The skid must be designed to support, locate, and provide a stable reference for alignment
of the compressor (and its crosshead guides), which has been selected to meet the performance
requirements of the application. It must further be designed to support, locate, and provide a
stable reference for alignment of the selected driver (gas engine or electric motor). It must
accommodate the mounting geometry of the compressor and driver, including alignment of the
two shafts at the same height, at the same transverse location through a drive coupling, with the
necessary axial separation required to leave the coupling and thrust bearings with no significant
axial load. The skids size is dictated by what it must support and full depth beams must extend
from end-to-end and side-to-side under the major components, and under appendages mounted
on skid (e.g., crosshead guide supports). The skid needs a floor plate (at least 3/16-inch thick)
between beams, but the floor plates should not extend over the beams at any point where
equipment is mounted (allowing direct access to the beams for mounting). The skid will usually
need also to provide strong and sturdy support for a number of other components.
4.3.1.1 Compressor Mounting Geometry

The specific mounting geometry of the compressor includes feet at each corner of the
frame and at various points along the length of the frame, each of which must be robustly
mounted to carry all vertical and horizontal loads from the compressor. (The basis for such loads
has been discussed in earlier sections of this document, including Section 2.6.) The skid must be
designed to support these feet on or directly from full depth skid beams. The compressor frame
must be level and aligned, without twist or bending, within close tolerances.
A widely used method of supporting the compressor is on mounting plates or chocks.
These plates are set in grout material, which is contained within a grout box or container. The
grout boxes are welded to full depth skid members or to a pedestal, which provides a direct load
transmission path to full-length skid members. The support plate and grout box must contain a
hole for the anchor bolt, which passes through the feet of the compressor. The alignment of the
compressor is adjusted at this pointmost commonly by shimming for vertical position and by
the force of horizontal jacking screws located at several points to move it horizontally. Figure
4-1 shows such a compressor foot mounting arrangement, with grout box, mounting plate set in
grout, shims for leveling of the foot, and an anchor bolt which puts into compression the grout,
plate and shims. Figure 4-2 shows another similar arrangement.
4.3.1.2 Crosshead Guide Support

In addition to supporting the compressor frame, the skid must solidly support the
crosshead guide for each cylinder, from a point near the joint between crosshead guide and
cylinder. The alignment of the cylinder is adjusted by shims at this joint. Figure 4-3 shows a

Figure 4-1. Foot of JGV6 Compressor Driven by Wartsila 18 Cylinder Engine
Foot is anchored to skid and supported by shims on chock, which is set in grout box.
Jacking screws for horizontal adjustment can be seen.
Figure 4-2. Compressor Foot of JGD4 Driven by Cat G3616, Mounted on Chock Set in Grout Box
Note anchor bolt stretch length achieved by box structure. Note also vertical jacking screw.

Figure 4-3. Stiff Crosshead Guide Support Connecting JGV6 (GCM34 Drive)
Guide Directly to Block
(This short vertical separation is enabled by setting compressor low on skid or block.)
pair of low profile crosshead guide supports. Figure 4-4 shows higher profile A-frame supports
for the crosshead guide, and Figure 4-5 shows a support, which extends between the two
cylinders on each side of an Ariel JGD4 and provides stiff support for low profile A-frame
supports under individual crosshead guides.
4.3.1.3 Driver Mounting Geometry

The specific mounting geometry of drivers will involve a series of anchor bolt locations
along the sides of the engine block, either at discrete feet, or spaced along a mounting flange.
A significant added consideration in engine mounting is the existence of a sump below
the engine block and below the mounting flange or feet. The pedestal, which carries the engine
feet, must have a well between two side structures to accommodate the sump. Figure 2-19,
already discussed in Section 2.4.2, shows the pedestal for a Cat G3616 engine and makes clear
the mounting plates along each side and the well for the sump between the two sides.
An important consideration in all drives is the height of the driver shaft centerline above
the lowest point on the driver (typically on an engine sump or motor feet) and how this height
compares to the corresponding height to the compressors shaft centerline. This comparison
dictates if the compressor will require a mounting pedestal or sub-base to elevate its feet above
the skid top surface. Typical height dimensions for some widely used drivers and compressors
are provided in Section 2.4, which can be reviewed for their impact on the need for compressor
pedestal in different configurations.

Figure 4-4. Skid Being Lifted Into Position on Foundation Block Prior to Grouting to Block
Note concrete in skid under area of skid, which carries the compressor. Achieving a good grout bond between this
concrete and the foundation block is important. Note also A-frame supports for crosshead guides. If such A-frames
are used, it is important to assure by structural analysis they have sufficient stiffness and strength to control
cylinder vibrations in vertical, horizontal, and mixed modes.
Figure 4-5. Stiff Crosshead Guide Structure Covering 2 Cylinders of Ariel JGD4,
Driven by Cat G3608
This structure mounts A-frame immediately under guide to skid. This installation has an elevated compressor frame
because the discharge bottles are mounted on top of the skid instead of on the concrete. It is noted this structure is
also tied back to the pedestal under the compressor frame via I-beams.

Figure 2-42 and Figure 4-6 compare the A-frame crosshead guide supports for JGV6
compressors installed at two stations on the same pipeline, Figure 2-42 for a motor drive and
Figure 4-6 for an engine drive. The difference in height of the two guide supports is clear.
Comparison of these two figures also shows a significant pedestal under the motor driven
compressor but essentially no pedestal under the engine driven compressor.
Figure 4-6. Crosshead Guide Support for Wartsila Engine Driven JGV6
As discussed, the ability to stagger the height of compressor and driver mount surface is
an advantage of mounting the compressor and driver directly on a concrete block. In general, a
substantial pedestal under the compressor adds risk and a requirement for careful assessment of
dynamic characteristics.
4.3.1.4 Skid Construction

The skid will typically consist of wide flange beams. These must be welded together,
with a pedestal for the driver or for the compressor. Figure 2-19 shows an engine pedestal, and
beyond it the support plates or chocks of the compressor pedestal can be seen at a lower level
than the chocks for the engine. Close inspection of Figure 4-7 shows the compressor pedestal for
the same installation from a different angle during installation. The difference in width of the
skid at the compressor axial position from the width at the engine is apparent also in Figure 4-7.
Figure 2-18 shows the engine pedestal for an 8,000+ HP Wartsila engine, and beyond it can be
seen the compressor mounting plates. The mounting plates of Figure 2-18 are set especially low.
Figure 2-14 shows an axial cross-section of the engine to be installed on this engine pedestal
the need for open space between the mounting plates to accommodate the sump can be seen.

Figure 4-7. Compressor Section of Skid Before Compressor is Mounted
Note chocks pre-installed in grout boxes.
4.3.1.5 Jacking Screws and Anchor Bolts

The skid should have holes for anchor bolts beneath all feet of compressor, engine, and
crosshead guide supports in skid or pedestal. In addition, the skid should have vertical jacking
screws adjacent to each anchor bolt, which will tie the skid to the concrete. These will enable
leveling of the skid before grouting (see Figure 4-8).
Figure 4-8. Close-Up of Jacking Screw for Skid of Figure 4-14

Jacking screws must be engineered to carry the full weight of the skid, concrete internal
to the skid, all mounted equipment, and allow adjustment under load without deformation.
Each anchor bolt requires, in addition to a hole in the skid or pedestal, a structure or
structural element, which will provide adequate stretch length to meet recommendations made
elsewhere (20+ inches). Figure 4-9 gives an example of internal anchor bolts extending down
into the skid. The particular anchor bolts will tie down the feet of the compressor. The full skid
for this particular installation was seen in Figure 2-18. Figure 4-10 shows a box structure to
provide stretch of a CHG anchor bolt. Use of tubes alone for stretch length is widely practiced,
but carries risks of deformation at the skid tube interface and of vibration of the standalone tube
acting as a cantilevered beam; a box structure should be specified by the end user, with or
without a stretch tube (the tube does add protection for the anchor bolt).
Figure 4-9. Anchor Bolt for JGV6 Compressor Frame Extending Below Skid
Figure 4-10. Box Structure for Achieving Stretch Length for Anchor Bolts
This was retrofitted to reinforce previously installed stretch tube.

4.3.2 SPECIFIC SKID DESIGN GUIDELINES
The skid design items listed above represent the basic functional necessities, and
generally expand upon the requirements listed in API 11P. The following represents guidelines
related to mounting of pipeline compression equipment and mounting for other applications
where long life is essential. These guidelines are generally not included in standards, such as
API 11P, but if followed effectively will help to minimize the problems, which occur.
4.3.2.1 Minimize Extra Height of Compressor and Its Feet Above the Main Skid
There are several reasons for this, including:
To keep the center of gravity as low as possible and, thereby, to keep the frequency
of modes involving horizontal motion of the compressor and attachments as high as
possible.
To reduce the vertical moment arm for horizontal forces acting at the level of the
crankshaft and cylinders.
To allow the stiffest possible mounting of the crosshead guide support to the skid.
To avoid extra structural flexibility under the compressor.
Figure 2-45, discussed with reference to Case Study 2, showed one consequence of
height on the skid of a motor drive. It presents vibration as a function of level above the bottom
of the foundation, for an installation with a base skid and a pedestal upon which a JGV6
compressor was mounted. There is a clear jump in the vibration from the bottom of the I-beam
structure to the base of the frame; part of this is elastic deformation of the structure and part is
sliding at the interface between feet and mount.
Figure 2-50 (also referred to in Case Study 2) shows a related consequencethe
existence of a vibration mode involving the entire frame-cylinder bottle system on the
compressor pedestal structure at just around 100 Hz.
Factors, which can influence elevation of the compressor, are:
Mounting the bottle on the concrete upon which the skid is mounted, not on the skid
itself.
The combined height of discharge bottle diameter, nozzle length, support pier, and
support wedges under the discharge bottle.
Supporting the bottle on concrete, which is at the same level as the concrete on
which the skid is mounted.
The height of the driver shaft centerline above the lowest point on the driver.
Placing the discharge bottle on the skid inevitably forces the compressor to be mounted
on an intermediate structure on top of the main skid with substantial height. Figure 4-11
emphasizes this point; it shows a bottle mounted on skid and behind it the compressor frame
highly elevated by a pedestal. Thus, a clear recommendation for pipeline applications is to
mount the bottles off the skid and on the concrete foundation as restated below.
Note that the nozzle length and discharge bottle diameter should be either determined by
a pulsation study or should have been confirmed by the pulsation study to be satisfactory.

Figure 4-11. Bottle Mounted on Skid and Resulting Elevated Compressor Mounting
4.3.2.2 Minimize Height of Any Required Compressor Pedestal and Make the
Pedestal and Compressor Mounting Sound and Stiff
The influence of a driver shaft centerline above the drivers low point (sump bottom for
an engine) is important and cannot easily be worked around in a skid mount, only minimized. If
the driver height exceeds the compressor height by more than a few inches, then a compressor
pedestal will be required, but its height should be minimized and must be carefully evaluated for
its influence on system dynamics. The pedestal must be made stiff enough to avoid the
excitation of undesirable compressor modes. For example, it is not required that the pedestal be
as narrow as the compressor baseextra stiffness can be gained by adding width or by adding
wide gussets or gusseting beams outboard of the pedestal.
4.3.2.3 Allow Anchor Bolts to Terminate Below the Main Skid Level, If Required
Combining the guideline for 20+ inch long anchor bolts with the guideline to minimize
height of any pedestal under the compressor may result in anchor bolts whose lower termination
lies below the top level of the main skid. Figure 4-9 has made clear the feasibility of this skid
design and construction feature. The bid specifications should make clear that this construction
should be considered, if needed, to satisfy low pedestal height and long anchor bolt
requirements.
4.3.2.4 Do Not Mount the Bottle on the Skid Mount It From the Concrete
Even if the discharge bottle is mounted on concrete, the concrete level from which it is
supported can be made lower than the concrete on which the skid is mounted (see Figure 4-12
and Figure 4-13 for staggered concrete levels). This approach may add cost to the foundation,
but, if needed, it removes any constraint on compressor height above the main skid, imposed by
bottle mounting.

Figure 4-12. Foundation Block for Cat G3612 Installation
Figure 4-13. Staggered Concrete Levels as a Means of Controlling Height from

Which Discharge Bottle is Supported

4.3.2.5 Ensure that the Skid has Multiple Holes, 4-Inch to 6-Inch in Diameter for
Grout Placement
There are strong advantages to locating these holes for grout placement near mid-way
from either side of the skid. This minimizes the distance, which the grout has to flow from the
point at which it is introduced. If holes are not provided, the grout must be introduced on one
side with a head box and made to flow all the way across. A skid, which is soundly grouted to
the concrete block, is an important element in a long life installation. The holes can be used for
visual inspection of the grouting as well as for grout placement.
There is some debate about locating grout placement and inspection holes in areas of the
skid where concrete has been added for weighttypically under the compressor. Since this a
large area and challenging to grout, there are clear benefits if such holes or pipes through the
concrete can be added in this area.
The end user should clearly specify all grout placement holes, since they add cost and
complexity to the skid.
4.3.2.6 Always Support Any Outriggers with Grout and Anchor Bolts
Outriggers are horizontal beams, which extend laterally beyond the main skid. If the skid
design incorporates outriggers, they must be grouted and anchor bolted to solid concrete.
Substantial problems have been observed with unsupported outriggers. There should be no
unsupported horizontal structural element (piping excepted). Outriggers can be used to add
lateral stiffening to a skid, and in this case, they clearly need to be rigidly grouted and bolted to
concrete.
4.3.2.7 Fill the Skid with Concrete in the Skid Sections Under the Compressor
The benefits of adding concrete under the compressor are to add weight and resulting
impedance to resist force excitations. It was seen in discussion of Figure 2-1 that concrete added
about 135,000 lbs to a skid whose beam weight was about 85,000 lbs. Such added weight
reduces vibration levels. Figure 4-14 shows installed concrete from the underside of a skid.
The concrete to skid interface should be enhanced with mechanical locks welded to the
inside of the skid structure to be filled with concrete. Concrete can change dimensionally over
time and pull away from the skid beams. The locks help avoid relative motion of the concrete.
Grout can be considered as an alternative to concrete and should reduce the dimensional
changes (at a cost). If the concrete fill does pull away, epoxy can be injected to fill the gap.
4.3.2.8 Design and Build the Skid to Be Level Within Itself to Some Agreed
Tolerance
A nominal criterion to consider for skid levelness as manufactured in the packagers shop
is 1/8-inch deviation over the skid surface. This would be a high standard, with an implied cost
to it, but high standards are appropriate for pipeline applications.
The end users project engineer will benefit from reviewing the following with potential
packagers and with those who will be involved in skid and equipment alignment:
The cost and benefit implications of any specified value for skid levelness as
manufactured.

Figure 4-14. Underside of Skid for Cat G3616/JGD6 Installation, Showing Concrete in Skid Under
Compressor, and Jacking Screws for Leveling and Alignment Along the Side
The relationship of skid levelness criteria to the manufacturing criteria for the
structural beams themselves.
The way in which levelness will be inspected and measured.
The possibility of specifying separate criteria as measured over skid length and over
skid width, as well as for crowning and sagging deviations.
The further possibility to specify the levelness at critical mounting points for driver,
compressor, and vessels.
Recognition that elevations may change as the skid is built up on the shop floor and
equipment is mounted; equipment weight and the means of skid support on the shop
floor will influence these changes.
How skid-manufactured levelness relates to planned procedures and criteria for
installation/alignment of the skid on the foundation and of equipment on the skid.
The need to replicate the shop setup at site on the foundation.
4.3.2.9 Gusset the Skid Beams and Pedestal Beams at Key Support Points
This will minimize distortion and deflection of the beam cross-sections. Figure 4-15
shows main skid reinforcement. Figure 4-16 and Figure 4-17 show reinforcement under the
engine mount pedestals. Gussets for pedestals can extend beyond the flange of the reinforced
beams.
4.3.2.10 Design for Adequate Stretch Length of Any Anchor Bolts on Skid Mounted
Units (20 Inches Minimum)
As discussed under Section 2.6.8.7, the potential for creep leads to a recommendation
that all anchor bolts be at least 20 inches thick for skids. This applies to engine mounts as well
as compressor mounts.

Figure 4-15. Crosshead Guide Supports and Anchor Bolts for JGV6
Figure 4-16. Mounting Foot Mounted on Chock Set in Grout Box, With Shims
Between Chock and Foot for Alignment and Leveling
Note pair of anchor bolts and vertical jacking screw. Note also 3 vertical gussets to
reinforce main web of beam at this support location.

Figure 4-17. Cat G3616 Engine Mounting Foot, with Adjustable Vibracon Supports
Mounted Directly onto Skid
4.3.2.11 Use a Box Structure to Achieve Anchor Bolt Stretch Length

Figure 4-2 illustrates one such box structure.
An approach quite widely used to achieve stretch length is for the nut to bear against a
tube of 10 to 25 inches in length, which in turn bears against the underside of the skid, such as
Figure 4-18 shows. However, this approach alone can cause excessive local stresses, and
possible local yielding under the beam flange. The tube can also exhibit its own mode of
vibration since it is a cantilevered beam! If the tube is designed to achieve the 20+ inch length
discussed above, the added support becomes important for small diameter anchor bolts.
Figure 4-18. Freestanding Stretch Tube on Compressor Pedestal for JGV6 Installation Later
Reinforced with Horizontal Plate Mid-Way Down Bay Between Gussets

A box structure means that the bolt load is transferred to and carried by much more steel.
Figure 4-10 shows a box structure, which has been added where previously there was just a tube;
the Figure 4-2 approach uses just a thick plate to carry the bending force transmitted by the bolt.
In Figure 4-2, a longer bolt would be recommended, since this bolt is clearly less than 20 inches
long.
Where tubes alone are used, they should be designed substantially stiffer in comparison
to the bolta tube to bolt area ratio of at least 3:1 is sometimes used, as a rule of thumb.
4.3.2.12 Perform and Act on a Critical Structural Dynamics Design Study

Ensure the structural design of the skid and supported items is subjected to a critical
analytical study to identify and solve potential vibration problems on a timely basis. Specific
minimum standards and content of analytical studies will be discussed subsequently.
4.3.2.13 Communicate Skid Interface Information to Those Responsible for Designing

the Foundation and Mounting
This includes:
The height of the discharge bottle relative to the bottom of the skid.
The skid anchor bolt locations.
The skid anchor bolt hole size.
Skid anchor bolt length.
Jackscrew locations.
Any structures to support suction bottles, which will be mounted off the concrete.
Head end cylinder supports, if required.
4.3.2.14 Ensure Installation Specifications for Mounting of Skid and Appurtenances

are Prepared and Communicated to the Installation Contractor
Ensure that the skid design includes clear specifications to those with responsibility for
installation that the skid is to be leveled, full bed grouted, and tied down to a foundation which
meets the foundation design guidelines listed in Section 4.4, using appropriate anchor boltsat
least 4 feet long for anchor bolts in concrete (see mounting and installation design and
specifications, Section 4.7) and includes grouting specifications to meet Section 4.7 guidelines.
Further include specifications for mounting with grout and anchor bolts all off-skid items,
including discharge bottle wedge support plates, cylinder head end supports, if required, and
Ncyl + 1 chamber suction bottle support structure (see Figure 4-19 for a retroactively installed
suction bottle support mounting on a JGV6, and Figure 4-20 for a retroactively installed suction
bottle support mounting for a JGU6).

Figure 4-19. Mounting for 4-Chamber Suction Bottle Support
Structure Retroactively Installed on JGV6
Figure 4-20. Mounting of Structural Support for 4-Chamber Bottle Retroactively

Designed and Installed for JGU6

4.4 FOUNDATION DESIGN FOR A SKID MOUNTED COMPRESSOR
4.4.1 BASIC FOUNDATION REQUIREMENTS

The foundation must support and locate the entire skid, the discharge bottles, and all
other specified off-skid items. It must be designed to interface with the specific geometry of
these items, which will include:
Skid anchor bolts at edges and corners.
Jackscrews for leveling skid, with appropriate landing plates.
Discharge bottle supported by rugged wedges.
Added structure to support suction bottles.
Cylinder head end supports, if specified by skid design and analysis.
4.4.2 SPECIFIC GUIDELINES FOR SKID MOUNT FOUNDATION DESIGN
4.4.2.1 Specify and Confirm Concrete with 4,000 PSI Compressive Strength
Concrete should be specified to meet recommendations of ACI 351 and API 686, which
both call for a minimum of 4,000 PSI compressive strength. Testing should be performed
according to ACI and ASTM standards to ensure the required strength has been reached before
any equipment is mounted on the concrete. Concrete using Portland cement will take at least 28
days to cure.
4.4.2.2 Specify the Pouring of Sufficient Test Cylinders During Foundation Pour
These cylinders should be according to ACI dimensions and conditions. There should be
one for each of 7, 14, 21, and 28 days and some additional cylindersseven or eight total.
4.4.2.3 Specify at Least 0.4% Rebar Density in All Three Directions

This rebar density is achieved by #7 rebar on 12-inch centers. This is consistent with
API 686 recommendations for mounting machinery, and this size and spacing is also suggested
as a minimum reinforcement by ACI 207.2R (Cracking, Massive Concrete [27]).
Note that the above is for skid foundations; a higher rebar density will be recommended
for foundations on which the compressor and driver are mounted directly.
4.4.2.4 Specify Rebar According to ASTM A615 Grade 60 Reinforcing Steel

This specification provides for reinforcing steel with a minimum yield of 60,000 PSI.
4.4.2.5 Base Foundation-Soil Interface Decisions on Site Geotechnical Report

A geotechnical report on soil conditions should be applied in the analysis and design of
the soil-foundation dynamic characteristics. The end user should obtain a geotechnical report
from a qualified testing organization before obtaining bids involving the foundation engineering.
Depending on the soil conditions, soil bearing pressure capacity and potential for settlement, it
may be necessary to build the foundation on driven piles, which clearly will influence the timing,
complexity, and cost of the foundation. Even if piles are not needed, the soil data should form

the basis for foundation-soil dynamics analysis, which should be performed as part of the
foundation design.
Options and output for geotechnical testing have been discussed in Section 2.6. The
essential soil characteristic for predicting foundation soil dynamic interaction is the shear
modulus.
4.4.2.6 Set the Concrete Height for Discharge Bottle Mounting as Determined by the
Designs of Skid, Compressor Mounting, and Pulsation Control
The foundation design should allow bottles to be set on concrete outboard of the skid at a
level appropriate to accommodate the combined height of wedges, wedge mounting plate,
discharge bottle diameter, discharge nozzles, cylinder diameter, and at the same time to allow the
compressor center of gravity height to be minimized. This may require the bottle mounting
concrete level to be below the skid mounting concrete level. Section 4.7 further addresses the
details of discharge bottle mounting with wedges.
4.4.2.7 Specify Well Rounded Corners (Inside and Outside Corners)

The highest concrete stresses induced by the function of restraining compressor dynamic
loads occur near the top at which the equipment is mounted. Corners tend to induce stress
concentration, and either the stresses from the mounted equipment loads or stresses from curing
or temperature differentials are most likely to occur at corners. Reference [1] addresses this
subject in more depth. An appropriate way to control such tendencies is to replace all sharp
corners inside and outside with generous radiidesirably impose 1.5-inch radii, which can be
achieved by adding quarter pipe sections to the form structure. Beveling corners at 45 degrees is
an option that is less effective, but better than a 90-degree sharp corner.
4.5 FOUNDATION DESIGN FOR A BLOCK-MOUNTED COMPRESSOR AND

ENGINE

The basic functional requirements of the block for a block-mounted unit are very similar
to the basic functional requirements of the skid for a skid-mounted unit.
The block must be designed to support, locate, and provide a stable reference for
alignment of the compressor (with its cylinders) selected for the application. It must further be
designed to support, locate, and provide a reference for alignment of the selected driver (gas
engine or electric motor). It must accommodate the mounting geometry of the compressor and
driver, including aligning the two shafts at the same height, and at the same transverse location,
through a drive coupling, with whatever axial separation is required to mount the coupling halves
on each shaft but leave the coupling and thrust bearings with no axial load. The block size is
dictated by what it must support, and the block must extend from end-to-end and from side-to-
side under the major components and under appendages mounted on the block (e.g., crosshead
guide supports). Floor plate or grill outboard of the area where the compressor is mounted must
be supported from the concrete or a separate steel structure. This basic function must be
accomplished with acceptable vibration characteristics of the mounted system and with
acceptable stresses in the concrete.

Outboard of the main central part of the block supporting the driver and compressor, a
concrete structure integral with the block under the compressor is required to support the
discharge bottle and any other structures, such as that supporting the suction bottle and vertical
vessels.
If required, the compressor mounting level and the engine mounting level should be
designed to be offset or staggered vertically. However, the compressor frame and crosshead
guide support must be located on a single flat level.
4.5.1.1 Compressor Mounting Geometry

The specific mounting geometry of the compressor includes feet at each corner of the
frame and at various points along the length of the frame, each of which must be robustly
mounted on the concrete block to carry all vertical and horizontal loads emanating from the
compressor, and aligned within close tolerances.
Figure 4-21 shows the foot for a block-mounted JGV6 medium speed compressor. The
compressor foot is held against a metal sole plate by an anchor bolt. The 58-inch long, 1.75-inch
diameter anchor bolt is set into the concrete and is of the canister bolt configuration. The sole
plate is grouted into the concrete.
Figure 4-21. Block Mounted JGV6 Installation

Note compressor foot on chock grouted into block, with anchor bolt (58-inch long, 1.75-inch
diameter canister bolt) on same level as minimum elevation rugged crosshead guide support,
with 58-inch long, 1.5-inch diameter canister anchor bolt.
4.5.1.2 Crosshead Guide Support

In addition to supporting the compressor frame, the block must solidly support the
crosshead guide for each cylinder, from a point near the joint between crosshead guide and
cylinder. The alignment of the cylinder is adjusted by shims at this joint. Figure 4-21 shows a

low profile stiff guide support for a block-mounted unit; this guide support is held against a
metal sole plate by a 58-inch long, 1.5-inch diameter anchor bolt. The sole plate is grouted to the
concrete block. The stiff, low profile guide support of Figure 4-21 clearly exhibits the
advantages of block mounting discussed in Section 4.2.
It is desirable to design a block, which has no change in concrete surface level between
the frame feet mounting locations and the crosshead guide support mounting locations (i.e., it is
flat across the area on which frame and guide support are mounted). This maximizes the
concrete volume available to carry the compressor frame loads and avoids excessive stress
concentrations at corners.
An area of concern with the crosshead guide support is the potential for high tensile
stresses in the area of concrete outboard of the crosshead guide support. The width of this
concrete is constrained by the point on the discharge bottles horizontally closest to the
compressor. This subject must be addressed in the concrete stress and strength analysis.
4.5.1.3 Driver Mounting Geometry

The specific mounting geometry of drivers will involve a series of anchor bolt locations
along the sides of the engine block, either at discrete feet, or spaced along a mounting flange.
A significant added consideration in engine mounting, already discussed and documented
in Section 2.4.2, is the existence of a sump below the engine block and below the engines
mounting flange or feet. The concrete, which carries the engine feet, must have a well
between two side structures to accommodate the sump. Figure 2-20 shows the concrete well to
accommodate the sump of an 8180 HP GCM34 engine. Elevation of the engine on cylindrical
steel blocks under each mounting bolt location takes advantage of the taper towards the bottom
of this sump to allow a slightly narrower well than would be needed to accommodate the width
of the sump at the top. This allows more concrete at the edges of the well between anchor bolts
for the engine mounting system and the vertical wall of the well.
There are no known instances of block-mounted, motor driven, medium or high-speed
compressors in pipeline or other service. A motor drive would not require accommodation of a
sump, but it still requires accommodation of any differences in height between mounting feet and
shaft centerline for the motor and between mounting feet and shaft centerline for the compressor.
Whether engine or motor drive are used, the shaft centerline for driver and the compressor must
be brought to the same level by the concrete level under each and any differences in height of the
individual mounting systems for driver and compressor. It is to be expected that the foundation
block would be designed and built with different levels for the flat surface under the driver and
the flat surface under the compressor. The block-mounted engine drive in Figure 4-21 and
Figure 2-20 did have such a height difference in concrete levels of a few inches. The resulting
corners at the changes in level should be rounded to minimize stress concentration.
Designing for differences in height of concrete surfaces below driver and compressor
allows one specific advantage of concrete block mounting (as discussed in Section 4.2) to be
realized.

4.5.2 SPECIFIC GUIDELINES FOR BLOCK-MOUNTED COMPRESSOR AND ENGINE
4.5.2.1 Specify Rebar Density of 1% for the Top 3 Feet Under the Compressor and
Engine Mounts
This density can be achieved with #8 on 8-inch centers or with #6 on 6-inch centers.
This is a higher rebar density (2.5X) than recommended for a foundation to support a
skid-mounted unit. This is in recognition that dynamic loads transmitted to a skid, and
distributed by the skid before transmission to the concrete in a skid mount, must now be
directly carried by the concrete. Cracks caused by compressor transverse load on block-mounted
low-speed units were most prevalent near the top of the concrete block, and analysis shows the
top 2 or 3 feet exhibit the highest tensile stresses. The high rebar density inhibits the growth of
cracks, which can start when the dynamic stress reaches a tensile value as low as 190 PSI.
If the #8 rebar for the vertical direction creates a problem for required bending, #6 rebar
may be substituted for this direction.
Reciprocating compressors generate high dynamic loads, which must be withstood by the
concrete block. Even blocks installed in the last 20 years with moderate levels of rebar have
developed cracks under the dynamic loads from the compressor. High rebar density is one of the
design actions, which can mitigate the tendency to crack. Strength requirements of the concrete
block for mounting a medium speed separable compressor should not be greatly different from
those for a slow speed compressor.
4.5.2.2 Below the Top 3 Feet, the Spacing Can Be Doubled in All Three Directions
This is because the dynamics stresses tend to be highest near the top where the loads are
applied.
To aid constructability and to facilitate placement of concrete hoses during the pour,
Windows in the rebar grid (16 x 16) are suggested in regions away from the anchor bolts,
along the center of the compressor. However, the number of such windows should be
minimized.
4.5.2.3 Engineer Anchor Bolts of High Strength Material and Tension Them to
70%+ of Yield Stress
As previously discussed in Section 2.6.8.2, a conservative requirement would be to hold
at least 50% of the local throw force in friction. Figure 2-45 has shown that relative motion can
occur between individual feet and their mounting plate under transmitted compressor transverse
loads, if the horizontal load is not adequately carried by friction.
As a practical manner, the most that can be done in this direction is to specify as high a
bolt strength as can readily be achieved, and to tension the bolt accurately to 70% or more of
yield stress. The bolts should be specified according to ASTM A193 (10), with yield stress of
105,000 PSI (see below for anchor bolts designed to allow stressing to 80% of yield).
4.5.2.4 Design the Anchor Bolts to be at Least 4 Feet Long

This recommendation is based on GMRC guidelines whose rationale hold equally true for
this application. First, the length needs to be at least 4 feet to move the location of termination

stresses away from the zone of high tensile stress induced by compressor dynamic loading.
Secondly, this length reduces the likely loss in tension for any reasonable expected grout layer
thickness to below 5% per year in its standard configuration for bolts of 1.5 inches diameter and
above.
A canister bolt (see Figure 4-22 and Figure 4-23) is a good solution to the load supporting
needs of this application and the example shown meets this 4-foot length requirement.
4.5.2.5 Design a Grout Layer No Thicker Than 4.5 Inches to Avoid Excessive Loss in
Tension by Creep
This thickness is selected to go with the 4-foot minimum anchor bolt length
recommended above and to avoid excessive creep and excessive thermal distortion or cracking.
4.5.2.6 Engineer and Specify the Grout Support for All Mounting Plates (Chocks) for
Adequate Strength
A minimum grout modulus of 1.5E6 is recommended for 120F. With resulting
compressive strain under 1,466 PSI (146,600 lbs on a 10 x 10 mounting plate) of
approximately 0.1% of the thickness, this high modulus should keep the additional deflection
from creep low as well.
The non-uniformity of loads under a mean pressure of 1,466 PSI, coupled with thermal
loads, demands much higher grout strength than the average applied pressure and at least
10,000 PSI at 120F is recommended.
4.5.2.7 Perform a Rigorous Concrete Stress Analysis with Particular Emphasis on

the Area Under Load from the Frame and Crosshead Anchor Bolts
The block experiences dynamic transverse loads from the frame tie-down locations.
These will tend to generate stresses in the concrete in the area closest to the mounting plate,
which vary from compressive to tensile. Counteracting the potential for the tensile stresses to
crack the concrete will be the static compressive stress induced in the same area by the anchor
boltif the bolt tension is sufficiently high, well monitored, and tightened before significant
tension is lost.
A question to be critically and carefully addressed in the concrete stress analysis is the
capacity of the concrete loaded by the crosshead guide mount to carry the required dynamic
loads. These locations tend to be near the outer edge of the central block supporting the
compressor, and so have a limited volume of concrete outboard of the crosshead guide support to
withstand the loads transmitted to the concrete in the region of the anchor bolts for these mounts.
Figure 4-21 illustrates this proximity.
4.5.2.8 Perform an Installation Dynamics Analysis for Compressor, Cylinders,

Bottles, Attachments, and Driver
This analysis should determine natural frequencies and forced response to excitation
forces and should seek changes as needed to avoid coincidence of high excitation forces and
sensitive natural frequencies.

2 H NUT WITH
SELF ALIGNING
DOUBLE SPHERICAL
WASHER
A
DIMENSION A = RANGE
OF ADJUSTMENT ABOVE
R 100 SERIES BOLT

TOP OF CONCRETE
SEAL AT TOP OF
CANISTER
8 tpi ROLLED THREADS
TM
PER ASTM A-193, AND
GRADE B-7 STEEL
3/16" LATERAL
ADJUSRMENT 0 3/16"
UPPER & LOWER

CANISTER
PLASTIC
TUBING
E
D
STEEL HOUSING WITH

SELF ALIGNING
SPHERICAL WASHER E HOUSING
FOR ANGULAR DIAMETER
C
MIS-ALIGNMENT HEX BACKUP

PLATE
STANDARD DIMENSIONS FOR ROWAN R-100/CANISTER ANCHOR BOLT
SIZE 1" 1 1/4" 1 1/2" 1 3/4" 2" COPYRIGHT 2000,

A 0 - 6" 0 - 7" 0 - 9" 0 - 12" 0 - 16" ROBT. L. ROWAN & ASSOC., INC.
B 18" 30" 48" 54" 60"
C 10" 11" 13" 17" 21"
D 3" 3" 3" 4" 4"
E 5" 5" 5" 6" 6"
CAPACITY * 50,000 84,000 125,000 174,000 232,000
*BASED ON GRADE B-7 PUBLISHED DATA AND USING 80% OF 105,000 PSI YIELD STRENGTH
(125,000 PSI TENSILE STRENGTH) IN POUNDS. ACTUAL PULLOUT STRENGTH MAY VARY DEPENDING ON THE
QUALITY OF CONCRETE AND THE STEEL REINFORCING.
Figure 4-22. Schematic of Canister Bolt (Courtesy Robert L. Rowan)

Figure 4-23. Photograph of Several Canister Bolts (Courtesy Robert L. Rowan)
This analysis should include independent assurance that the mounts of engine and
compressor meet the recommendations given above for anchor bolts and grouting.
4.5.2.9 Specify That Any Exposed Concrete Surface Be Coated With An Oil Resistant
Coating
Oil leaking on to the concrete should and can be minimized, but it is conservative
practice to guard against oil leaks even so. The oil can carry its own additives or chemicals,
which can damage the concrete or rebar. If cracks occur, any oil, which penetrates the crack, can
generate hydrodynamic pressure and aggravate the working of the crack under dynamic loads.
Coating the concrete will help protect the concrete and the rebar.
4.5.2.10 Ensure Adherence of Concrete Foundation Design to Relevant ACI Codes

and Specifications and Recommendations of API 686
It is not the intent of these guidelines to provide comprehensive procedures in the areas of
concrete foundation design and installation practice. Rather, it is to address topics most
specifically relevant to mounting of reciprocating compressors and their drivers. Supplementary
material from ACI specifications (e.g., ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete, ACI 351.2.3R [9] and from API 686 [7]) should be used as supplementary sources
addressing the more general issues of concrete and foundation design.
In addition, the following are to be assured in the design and specifications:
An appropriate concrete mix should be designed and specified for site conditions.
Concrete strength from the mix design should be at least 4,000 PSI.
This 4,000-PSI compressive strength should be achieved within 28 days.
Concrete samples for testing during cure, according to ASTM, should be specified.

Ensure the bottom of concrete is below the frost line.
Ensure the foundation is deep enough for the specified length anchor bolts.
4.6 PIPING DESIGN AND DESIGN FOR PULSATION CONTROL

The piping system, compressor manifold system, and any internals must carry the
flowing gas to and from the compressor at relatively low velocity (low mach number) and with
minimum pressure drop, while minimizing pulsations transmitted from the manifold system into
the laterals and headers, exhibiting acceptably low vibrations, and experiencing acceptable levels
of stress induced by pressure and temperature.
The requirements of API 11P related to piping should be reviewed and addressed but
need supplementing for pipeline applications.
4.6.2 SPECIFIC GUIDELINES
4.6.2.1 For Pipeline Applications, Seek to Minimize Pressure Drop

The pipeline application has particularly critical requirements for low pressure drop,
because the pressure rise across the compressor is typically on the order of 150 PSI and even a
7.5 PSI pressure drop will reduce thermal efficiency by 5%. Some compressors are installed
with dual suction and discharge nozzles (two of each per cylinder) for pipeline applications (see
Figure 4-24 for an example of these dual nozzles on a JGV6) to achieve lower flow velocities
with the intention of reducing pressure drop.
Figure 4-24. Siemens Motor Driven JGV6 with Replacement 4-Chamber Suction Bottle Installed
and Rugged Support Structure for Suction Bottle
Note cross-bracing between bottles on each side, also double nozzles for high flow low ratio application.

For example, while orifices may be required to control nozzle pulsations, they should be
sized so pressure drop is no more than needed to achieve acceptable pulsation control.
4.6.2.2 For Pipeline Applications, Ensure Predicted Pipe Stresses Meet ASME B31.8,
While Recognizing the Potential Conflict of Low Thermal Stress and Low
Vibration
The piping must be designed with acceptable thermal, pressure, and weight load stresses,
particularly in the hotter discharge piping. ASME B31.8 [15] is the standard, which must be met
for pipeline compressor stations. However, since one approach to achieving low thermal stresses
is to increase flexibility of the thermally loaded pipe, it is important to confirm that thermal
stress solutions do not aggravate vibration problems, as discussed further in Section 4.8.4.8.
4.6.2.3 All Joints on Gas Carrying Pipe Should Be Either Welded or Flanged
Whatever the Diameter
API 11P exempts some small sizes from this requirementthese guidelines say there
should be no exception, since vibrations can occur in any size pipe and threaded joints are
always vulnerable to vibration.
4.6.2.4 Ensure Stresses Imposed By Compressor Cylinder Stretch on the Nozzles

are Acceptable
If nozzles are very short, the relative stretch motion between adjacent cylinders can
excessively load and stress the joints between nozzles and the bottle. This should be analyzed
and engineered.
4.6.2.5 In Meeting ASME Pressure Vessel Requirements for Filter and Manifold
Bottles, Ensure Structural Dynamic Considerations are Also Satisfied
Filter and manifold bottles must satisfy wall thickness and related standards imposed by
the ASME pressure vessel code. However, these standards may not always be sufficient from
system structural considerations. In particular, low-pressure bottles (particularly suction bottles)
may meet code with a wall thickness so thin that it incurs damaging vibrations as a result of wall
flexibility or flexibility at penetrations. Such wall thicknesses should be reviewed from dynamic
considerations, based on shell element FEA modeling, and increased as needed.
The code has requirements for reinforcement at penetrations, but it is sometimes possible
at side and head penetrations of bottles for laterals and choke tubes that the requirements for
material replacement can be met with a pad, which is thin, or with no pad at all. Pad
reinforcement is always recommended from dynamic considerations (see below for dimensions).
4.6.2.6 For Any Bottle Penetration, Weld a Circular Reinforcing Pad to Nozzle and
Bottle with Diameter at Least 1.75 Times the Outer Diameter of the
Penetrating Pipe, Which is Approximately as Thick as the Bottle Wall
The benefit of the reinforcement is to stiffen the joint and to spread any loads induced by
vibration away from the point of penetration.
This guideline represents a larger diameter reinforcement than API 11P, which in its
paragraph 6.3.7 states reinforcement pads shall be at least equal to the cutaway area.

As will be further discussed in a subsequent section (4.8.4.4), any modeling of close in
piping and bottles should employ shell elements for the pipe and bottle walls and should
accurately account for the details of the reinforcement with a sufficiently fine array of shell
elements to reflect flexibility of the joint under bending loads and loads normal to the bottle.
4.6.2.7 Use a Manifold Bottle on Both Suction and Discharge With One More
Chamber Than the Number of Cylinders
Figure 2-68 shows such a suction bottle configuration for a compressor with two
cylinders per side in a finite element model. Baffles create a chamber for each cylinders gas
flow, and then individual choke tubes carry the flow from each cylinders chamber to or from a
common chamber not associated with any individual cylinder.
In this way, each cylinders chamber, in combination with the common chamber, and the
choke tube, which connect the two, form a volume-choke-volume filter just for that cylinder.
Because the flow from only one cylinder must pass through each choke, the choke
diameter is reduced, and the required volume of each chamber is minimized, as is its diameter.
For medium and high-speed compressors, the effectiveness of pulsation control with the
single (Ncyl +1) bottle has been found in SwRI studies to be as good as, or better than, with a
two-bottle system (though the two-bottle system can be more effective for slow speed
compressors).
As discussed in Case Study 2, a smaller diameter bottle has significant benefit in
mounting compressors, whether on a skid or on a block, and there are benefits for both suction
and discharge bottles to be small. For the discharge bottle, we have seen that this helps reduce
the stack-up in height, which must be accommodated between the cylinder and the bottle
wedges. In a block mount, it also allows an increase in width of the block pedestal under
compressor and crosshead guide supports, with specific benefit to the concrete surface area
outboard of the guide support.
For the suction bottle, the reduced diameter helps reduce the overall weight and system
moment of inertia, which has to be carried by the compressor mounting system. The bottle with
(Ncyl + 1) chambers also eliminates the need for a secondary bottle, which would otherwise take
up space and have to be separately mounted. Figure 4-25 shows three different filtering options:
secondary bottles on suction and discharge; secondary bottle on suction with 3-chamber bottle on
compressor with 2 cylinders per side; and 4-chamber bottles for suction and discharge on JGV6
compressor (with 3 cylinders per side).
It is recommended that the end user specify use of such a single filter bottle, unless
specific reasons not to do this can de documented.
4.6.2.8 The End User Should Further Specify that the Resulting Suction Bottle Be
Separately Supported With Its Own Rugged I-beam Structure
Figure 2-3, Figure 4-26, and Figure 2-58 show such support structures and bottle
attachment methods.

2ndary Discharge & Suction 2ndary Suction &
2+1 Chamber Discharge for 4 Cyl
3+1 Chamber Suction & Discharge

Bottles for 6 Cyl
Note Stiff S-Bottle Support
Structure
Figure 4-25. Acoustic Filter Options Which Impact Mounting
Figure 4-26. Cat G3612 Driven Installation

Note heavy support, with wedges and straps for 4-chamber suction bottle, walkways and stairways for convenient
maintenance of compressor cylinders, and cross-bracing between suction bottles.

4.6.2.9 Specify Cross-Bracing Between Suction Bottles and Suction Piping on 2 Sides
of Piping and Cylinder Manifold Systems
The benefits of this simple addition of bracing are predictableit tends to elevate out of
consideration several symmetrical (even) modes of vibration where the two sides move
symmetrically in opposite directions from each other. It has little or no effect on unsymmetrical
(odd) modes of vibration, but by eliminating the even modes, it just simplifies the vibration
control requirements. Figure 2-5 shows such suction bottle and suction pipe cross-bracing on a
JGD4. It costs little and removes one potential problem. However, to help ensure it is included
in all bids and in the final installation, the end user should specify this cross-bracing.
4.6.2.10 Ensure Cross-Bracing has Sufficient Bending Stiffness to Avoid Introducing

Undesirable Vibrations of the Bracing Itself
It should be recognized that the cross-bracing itself can exhibit its own modes of
vibration, and so the piping used for cross-bracing should be of substantial diameter. It can be
relatively thin-walled, provided it carries no pressure (normally the case). Dynamic
requirements should be evaluated, but as a broad rule for initial sizing, the L/D ratio should be
low enough to push the lowest predicted bending vibration mode of the bracing above 100 Hz.
4.6.2.11 Robustly Mount All Piping Wherever Possible, Both On-Skid and Off-Skid
Figure 4-27 shows a secondary bottle ruggedly mounted, on-skid, with a low profile. All
spans of piping should be critically evaluated for vibration, both at the design stage and after
installation. Long spans should be avoided; piping should be kept as low as possible; piping
should not be mounted to outriggers or deck plate.
Figure 4-27. JGT4 Installation; Rugged Low Profile On-Skid Mounting of Secondary Bottle
While use of secondary filter bottles is not the preferred approach to acoustic filtering
(primary filter bottles with Ncyl + 1 chambers are preferred), it can be made to work. If
secondary bottles are used, close attention must be paid to their mounting. Figure 4-28 shows a

robust off-skid mounting I-beam structure on a heavy concrete pier. The suction bottles are
clamped to the I-beam structure with supporting wedges, and the discharge bottles are directly
clamped with wedges to the concrete pier.
Figure 4-28. Cat G3616/JGD6 Installation (5 Units)

Rugged support structure, with clamps and wedges for secondary suction and discharge pulsation filter bottles for
all five units during construction and installation.
Figure 4-29 shows a rugged off-skid mount for lateral pipingpart of the original
installation for a JGT4 driven by a G3520B.
Figure 4-29. Robust Off-Skid Mounting for Lateral Piping

Note clamp strap over pipe, epoxy wedges with tie bolts, I-Beam structure anchor bolted and grouted to a pier.

Figure 4-30 and Figure 4-31 show clamping added to piping spans on a G3608 engine,
which previously showed high vibration.
Figure 4-30. Cat G3608 Installation Showing Bracket Added to Control Piping Vibration
Figure 4-31. Cat G3608 Installation With Added Clamping on Piping

4.6.2.12 Apply Critical Review to Piping Both Inside and Outside the Compressor
Building
Figure 4-32 shows a pipe support added to a U-Bend outside the compressor building,
which was previously unsupported and had exhibited high vibration after start-up.
Figure 4-32. Pipe Support Added to Insulated Elbow
4.6.2.13 Avoid Appendages to Bottles and Piping, If Possible

This should include isolation valves, instrumentation, and inspection ports; where
unavoidable make instruments runs as short as possible.
4.6.2.14 Review All Flange Locations for Convenience of Access After Installation is
Complete
Figure 4-33 presents an example of a flanged pipe joint assembled before the building
walls were installed; after installation of the walls, it proved very difficult to get a wrench to the
flange bolts because of proximity to the wall.
4.6.2.15 Wherever They are Mounted, Vertical Vessels Should Be Robustly Supported
on Thick Plates with Appropriate Bracing
Any vessels on skid should be mounted as directly as possible to full depth skid members
and never to the deck plating.
4.6.2.16 Subject Piping Design to Critical Analysis of Pulsations, Shaking Forces,

Thermal Loads, Pressure Drop, Mounting Influence, and Vibration Potential
Each pipeline application has unique features and should be subjected to critical site and
configuration specific static (thermal) and dynamic analysis, accounting for all loading
conditions, the range of suction and discharge pressures, the range of gas composition, speed

Figure 4-33. Insulated Flange at Building Wall Installed Before Wall was Installed and Now Very
Difficult to Get a Wrench to Because of the Wall
variation, the shaking forces which result from pulsations, cylinder stretch loads, and uncertainty
in properties such as speed of sound. Methodology and criteria are discussed in Section 4.8.2.
Detailed recommendations for the analytical approach to be used in structural analysis of
piping have been discussed in Section 2.6.4.
4.6.2.17 Stress-Relieve All Welded Joints; Subject All Welded Joints to Non-
Destructive Testing for Flaws
Almost all piping failures occur at welded joints; these are the weakest points and flaws
can be introduced in the heat affected zoneseven of full penetration welded joints and girth
welds on bottles. Stress relief helps eliminate thermally induced stresses in the welded joint.
Inspection helps identify any poorly welded joints or flaws, which remain after stress relief.
The end user should specify both requirements explicitly; examples exist where
inspection was not performed. Specifying stress relief and inspection adds these items to the list
of requirements to be checked as part of the due diligence process.
4.6.2.18 Design Bypass Valve to Be No Less Than One Pipe Size Below the Unit
Discharge Piping
This rule is to avoid overheating during start-up prior to loading. Particularly during the
early starts in the unit, it may be necessary to run for some time on bypass. Excessive flow
resistance in the bypass valve can lead to high discharge pressure and high discharge
temperature. Experience shows that a unit with insufficient valve flow area will trip on high
discharge temperature. This can substantially complicate the start-up checkout process.

The conservative solution is to select the bypass valve full open area the same as the unit
discharge line area.
4.6.2.19 Locate High Pressure End of Bypass Downstream of the cooler

In this way the bypass, when open, returns cool gas to suction. This recommendation
adds pipe and cost and requires selection of pipe and valve diameters sufficiently high to
minimize pressure drop. However, the potential disadvantages of not following this
recommendation include:
Hot gas in start-up recycle lines may prevent a cold engine from successfully
starting because it is not warm enough to take the load.
Too much delta P can cause high gas temperature or engine or starter over-torque in
bypass mode.
Noise through valve mounted on skid.
Crowded skids or skid area due to valve location.
Reduced safety due to all of the above making operations more complex.
4.7 DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION OF MOUNTING AND INSTALLATION
4.7.1 OVERVIEW AND BASIC REQUIREMENTS

The issues of mounting of structures and of joints between system components and
members cross both physical and organizational boundaries, but attention to all of the processes
involved in selection, design, and implementation for mounting is essential to project success.
So, the end users project engineer must ensure that all critical functions are satisfactorily
executed and that no essential responsibilities are neglected. This section of the guidelines
document seeks to define all design requirements, which fall under the heading Design and
Specification of Mounting and Installation and to provide relevant recommendations. The
subject of design and specification should cover all of the geometry, components and materials
used, the installation thereof, and the successive processes used to accomplish the final
installation. This section has very close ties with the section headed Installation, where the
specific steps required to implement the design and specifications are taken.
Where the associated responsibilities fall depends on how the project is structured, but
the importance of all items remains whoever is responsible. It is in attention directed to the
physical mounting method and mounting locations where the potential for an underperforming
mounting system occurs (the devil is in the details). These requirements discussed below
should appear in specifications produced during design of skid and foundation. In all cases, the
end user will also achieve a more uniform bid and increase the probability of success, if these are
specified in the request for quotation prepared prior to seeking bids.

4.7.2 SKID TO FOUNDATION MOUNTING
4.7.2.1 Any Pipeline Compressor Skid Must Be Grouted to a Well-Designed

Foundation with Anchor Bolts Tightened Against the Grout Joint Once
Cured
This requirement helps ensure a long life installation. If a grouted joint is not used, the
existence of gaps and finite contact points between skid members and foundation is inevitable,
and any tightening of the anchor bolts has the potential to deform the skid. Establishing a finite
gap of at least 2 inches (but not much more than 2 inches) provides a volume to be filled with
grout so that any lack of gap uniformity is taken up by the grout material, which hardens and
cures. Once the grout is cured, it provides a strong layer against which anchor bolts can be
tightened without deforming the skid. With well-designed and well-specified anchor bolts, in
combination with a sound foundation and a well-executed skid-grouting job, the skid will be well
installed and the installation has a sound basis.
The volume to be filled with grout includes all gaps under main beam members, under all
cross members, and under all concrete added within the skid. Successful filling of these voids
must be assured.
Figure 4-34 shows a corner anchor bolt for the skid supporting an Ariel JGT4 compressor
driven by a Cat G3520. This anchor bolt has been tightened using a supernut, which when
properly applied achieves an accurate tensioning. Beside the anchor bolt, the associated jacking
screw may be seen. Desirably, jacking screws are retracted and removed after grout has
hardened. Figure 4-35 shows another bolted, grouted skid installation for a JGD4 compressor
driven by a G3608.
Figure 4-34. Skid for Ariel JGT4/Cat G3520 Installation With Grout Showing Anchor Bolt With
Supernut and Jacking Screw for Leveling Skid

Figure 4-35. Corner of Skid Showing Grouting, Skid Anchor Bolt, and Skid Jacking Screw
Thus, it must be clearly specified that the skid be grouted and anchor bolted for pipeline
applications.
4.7.2.2 Specify the Grout for This Purpose Should Have Appropriate Modulus and
Compressive Strength
1.5E6 PSI for modulus; 10,000 PSI for strength at 120F
4.7.2.3 Specify the Following Grouting Requirements to the Installer

Wait 28 days or more, if required, for the concrete to cure and reach strength.
ASTM strength tests to be applied to concrete samples poured during installation.
Concrete surface to be chipped before grouting.
Skid under-surface to be inspected and all dirt, rust, and coatings removed.
Expansion joint foam to be placed before grouting.
All equipment to be in place before leveling and grouting of skid.
Compressor feet should be clean before placing them on the skid mounting plates.
Mounting plates for feet should be machined, clean, and free of paint or coating.
Skid should be leveled but not bent flat by the anchor bolts.
Jackscrews and anchor bolts should be wrapped to avoid contact with grout.
Grout should be placed and demonstrably shown to have flowed to fill gaps under
all downwards-facing surfaces under skid (main and cross beams, skid concrete).

Grout should be allowed to cure before tightening anchor bolts.
Jacking screws to be loosened and removed before tightening anchor bolts.
4.7.3 COMPRESSOR MOUNTING (TO SKID OR BLOCK)
4.7.3.1 General Requirements

The compressor frame will sit on steel mounting plates or chocks, which have been
installed as part of the skid structure. Commonly, each mounting plate is installed in a
rectangular grout box, which is welded to the skid to sit under each compressor mounting foot.
Each chock surface should be aligned with the skid surface. The separation between each
mounting plate and the corresponding compressor foot must be adjustable. Most commonly, the
adjustability for compressor feet is provided by shims, as seen in Figure 4-1 under a JGV6.
Generally, the compressor will have been mounted on the skid in the packagers shop and
approximately aligned before transportation to site, so that utility piping and equipment can be
positioned and connected, and so any needed adjustments can be made in the shop environment.
The driver will also have been mounted in the packagers shop for similar purposes. With large
compressors and drivers typical of pipeline service, one or both will have been removed from the
skid and transported separately.
4.7.3.2 Specify that Final Alignment of Both Compressor and Driver Must Occur at
Site
Whether or not the driver or compressor are transported to the installation site on skid,
some shifting or change in alignment is inevitable under transportation loads. For pipeline
applications, final alignment should be undertaken at site under the direction of a verifiable
alignment expertwho may be hired for the purpose or may be a part of the supplier team.
4.7.3.3 Specify that the Level of Compressor Feet Should Be Adjustable at Site
This is an important corollary of the preceding requirement. Adjustability is provided
most commonly by shims between the compressor feet and the corresponding, skid-mounted,
mounting plate.
One alternative to shims is a device provided by U.S. Rotech and Mechanical Solutions
called the Epoxy-filled Self-Aligning Mount, illustrated in Figure 4-36. This device consists
of a rectangular box, also termed the bottom plate, with springs between it and a top plate of
similar rectangular size. When inserted under a compressor foot, the springs push the top plate
up against the foots downwards-facing surface. There is a slot for the anchor bolt to pass
through and a hole in the top plate through which jacking screws can pass. Jacking screws from
the foot are used to adjust the foots level by pushing against the bottom plate, while the top plate
remains in contact. When the compressor is satisfactorily aligned and adjusted for height at all
feet, the space between top and bottom plates is filled with grout. When the grout is cured, the
anchor bolt is tightened against the mount.
4.7.3.4 Recognize There are As Many As Four Items of Alignment

Alignment of the driver to the compressor.

Figure 4-36. Epoxy Filled Self-Aligning Mount (U.S. Rotech, Inc.)
Alignment of the compressor frame within itself.

Alignment of the driver block or frame within itself.
Alignment of the cylinders and crosshead guides to the compressor frame.
The details are described in the installation section (4.9).
4.7.3.5 Specify that Alignment Should Be Directed By a Verifiable Expert in the

Subject
Good alignment is an essential step in the achievement of a sound installation and smooth
running machinery. There are many pitfalls in machinery alignment, and experience in the
practice of alignment helps minimize these.
4.7.3.6 Specify High Strength Anchor Bolts to Attach Compressor Frame to Skid
Use of bolts meeting the requirements of ASTM A193 (standard specifications for Alloy
steel and stainless steel bolting materials for high temperature service) Grade B7 are strongly
recommended and should be specified by the end user to ensure that a less costly and possibly
less strong alternative is not used. Such bolts (with diameter of 2.5 inches or less) will have an
ultimate tensile strength of 125,000 PSI (860 MPa) and a yield strength of 105,000 PSI
(720 MPa).
Double spherical, hardened washers under each nut make the anchor bolt and joint
integrity more tolerant to misalignment caused by small tolerances in bolt or hole location.
4.7.3.7 Nuts Meeting ASTM 194 (11) Should Be Used with ASTM 193 Bolts
4.7.3.8 Specifications to State that Anchor Bolts Should Be Located With An

Accurate Template Based on the Actual Hole Pattern of Equipment to be
Mounted
This helps achieve a smooth installation process, minimizes misalignment and lack of
perpendicularity of anchor bolts, and thereby achieve near uniform load across the interface
between nut and washer and between washer and foot.

4.7.3.9 Specify the Use of Double Spherical, Hardened Washers for All Anchor Bolts
Even if anchor bolts are perfectly located, differential thermal expansion will produce
small changes in relative position and small changes from perpendicularity. The double
spherical washer accommodates these changes and maintains the most uniform possible interface
loads and pressures. These components are consistent with a long life installation, but add cost,
and should be explicitly specified by the end user.
4.7.3.10 Specify Tension of Compressor Frame Anchor Bolts to 70% or 80% of Yield
Stress
The interface between compressor and skid or pedestal is a critical joint. Evidence exists
that sliding can occur (as discussed above with respect to Figure 2-45) even in well-engineered
and well-installed installations under the action of forces transmitted from compressor to feet and
feet mounts. Thus, the highest normal force, which can be achieved with the highest practical
anchor bolt diameter, should be specified. As stated by ACI 351.3R-04 (9), the practical limit
for bolt stress is 80% of the yield stress. Past GMRC reports have recommended 70% as a safe
general limit, considering the possibility of stress corrosion cracking. Canister bolts, as
illustrated schematically in Figure 4-22 and by the photograph in Figure 4-23, are designed to
protect the bolt from any corrosive influences, and canister bolt products are available which
recommend bolt stress up to 80% of yield. In summary, 70% of yield is recommended as a
general limit, and with appropriate product selection and engineering, this can be raised to 80%.
The required tension for the anchor bolts in pounds should be explicitly specified.
4.7.3.11 Use a Hydraulic Stretching Device or Tension Calibrated Bolt to Achieve

Accurate Anchor Bolt Tension
Use of torque to achieve a desired tension is notoriously inaccurate. Hydraulic bolt
stretching devices are available, which grip the bolt or stud near its top, apply hydraulic pressure
to force the gripping element to stretch the bolt to a known tension, and then allow the nut to be
easily lowered and tightened manually to the point where it maintains the stretch set up
hydraulically. Figure 4-37 (obtained from the web site of Riverhawk Stud Tensioner,
http://www.riverhawk.com/tools.html) illustrates the main components of a hydraulic bolt-
stretching device. The load cell is supplied with high pressure oil to achieve the upwards force
which stretches the bolt. Hydraulic stretching achieves a much more consistent bolt tension,
close to the limit, and allows the limit to be set higher because variability will only exceed the
limit by a small amount.
An alternative to hydraulic tensioning is a bolt with pre-calibrated tension indicated by a
tension-checking device at the top (RotaboltTM), discussed in Section 2.6.6.
4.7.3.12 Provide Sufficient Anchor Bolt Stretch Length

If the anchor bolt does not possess sufficient length, its initial tension will be lost too fast.
Major causes of tension loss are elements which are compressed by the anchor bolt, but which,
over time, are compressed more than when initially loaded because of creep, relaxation, or
change in dimensions caused by environmental changes. Creep of epoxy grout is a common
source of time dependent compression. Details documenting the need for anchor bolts of at least
20 inches long have been presented in Section 2.6.8.7.

Figure 4-37. Riverhawk Stud Tensioner Graphic (from http://www.riverhawk.com/tools.html)
4.7.3.13 Specify Additional Checks on Alignment Once the Compressor is Aligned

Within Itself and the Anchor Bolts for Its Feet Have Been Tightened
Section 2.6.5 summarizes this content and the steps involved.
4.7.4 DRIVER MOUNTING (TO SKID OR BLOCK)
4.7.4.1 Basic Requirements

The engine will sit on steel mounting plates or chocks, which have been installed as part
of the skid structure, or on adjustable mounts, such as the Vibracon mount, the Epoxy-filled
self-aligning mount described in Section 4.7.3.3, or a device developed by Robert L. Rowan
and Associates, shown in Figure 4-38 and Figure 4-39 and described in Section 4.7.4.2.5 below.
Most commonly, each mounting plate is installed in a rectangular grout box, which is itself
welded to the skid to sit under each mounting foot. Vibracons may sit directly on the engine
pedestal (Figure 4-17), but if so, the interface should be machined.
Generally, the driver will have been mounted on the skid or pedestal in the packagers
shop and approximately aligned before transportation to site, so that utility piping and equipment
can be positioned and connected, and so any needed adjustments can be made in the shop
environment. With large compressors and drivers typical of pipeline service, one or both will
have been removed from the skid and transported separately.
For Caterpillar G3600 engines (which represent the majority of installed pipeline
drivers), the engine is mounted by feet attached to the engine frame by horizontal boltsfour
horizontal bolts per foot for in-line engines (G3606, G3608) and six horizontal bolts per foot for
Vee engines. These feet each contain holes for two vertical anchor bolts, each 1 inch in
diameter. Figure 4-40 shows a foot located at the center of one side of a G3616 (in a shop
installationnote the six horizontal bolts). Figure 2-39 shows a foot for a G3608 located at the
middle of one side (note the four horizontal bolts). Both Figure 4-40 and Figure 2-39 show a
pair of anchor bolts through each foot.

Figure 4-38. Schematic of Alternative Figure 4-39. Photograph of Alternative
Adjustable Mount Patent Pending Adjustable Mount Patent Pending
(Courtesy Robert L. Rowan and Associates) (Courtesy Robert L. Rowan and Associates)
Figure 4-40. Packager Shop Installation of Cat G3616

Note engine foot mounted via shims on chock set in red grout box. Grout box is welded to skid.
Note heavy gusseting of skid.
4.7.4.2 Specific Guidelines for Driver Mounting
4.7.4.2.1 Specify a Center Foot on G3606 and G3608 Engines

Use of a center foot on each side appears to be optional for G3606 and G3608 engines,
with four feet, one at each corner, the minimum according to the OEM. It is recommended that
the center foot option always be exercised for pipeline applications of in-line engines, and that
this should be specified by the end users project engineer (as long as it remains an option).
Figure 2-39 shows a center foot for a G3608.

4.7.4.2.2 Center Feet Should Always Be Specified for G3612 and G3616 Engines
Figure 4-40 shows the center foot for a G3616 in place during a shop installation. In this
case, the foot is mounted on shims that separate it from the mounting plate, which is set in a
grout box.
4.7.4.2.3 Each Mounting Plate Surface Should Be Aligned with the Skid Surface
It is important to ensure that all mounting surfaces are as level as possible in the
specification and implementation of the skid design.
4.7.4.2.4 Make the Separation Between Each Mounting Plate and the Corresponding
Engine Foot Adjustable
Most commonly, the adjustability for compressor feet is provided by shims, as seen in
Figure 4-40 under a G3616. Shims represent a minimum addition of height above the mounting
plate for adjustability, and can be installed in steps as small as 0.002 inches. The high shear area
presented by a shim leads to a shim being a very stiff member, provided the shimmed joint has
sufficient normal forces across it for the friction force to exceed the horizontal force transmitted
by the frame or block to the joint.
For the G3608 of Figure 2-39, the foot is mounted on two Vibracon adjustable mounts.
Some other options for adjustable driver mounting have been listed in Section 4.7.4.1.
and are discussed further in Section 4.7.4.2.5 below.
4.7.4.2.5 Review and Analyze Integrity of Adjustable Mounts

Vibracons for engine mounts have been well known in the marine diesel industry but
have been introduced to the compressor mounting application quite recently. They enable height
adjustment via a screw thread and accommodate misalignment between the two surfaces via a
spherical seat on the element in contact with the lower surface of the engine foot.
While examples have been anecdotally reported, these guidelines contain no illustrations
of medium or high-speed compressors mounted on Vibracons; at the same time, a number of
engines are mounted on Vibracons (see Figure 2-40 and Figure 4-17). Not all packagers are yet
convinced they will provide the necessary long life and integrity, but they are in increasing use
as they provide convenient adjustability and self-aligning capability.
Since the weight of the engine is carried by a screw thread in the Vibracon, some concern
exists with regard to long-term integrity. In addition, there may be flexibility introduced by the
horizontal elastic flexibility of the Vibracons structure itself or at the joints between the
contacting surfaces. The desirable condition at these contacting surfaces is that the normal force
causes sufficient friction force to avoid any sliding.
Robert L. Rowan has introduced a product, which achieves height adjustability by
relative motion of two spirals; the load is carried directly on spirally inclined steel surfaces as
opposed to screw threads. Figure 4-38 and Figure 4-39 present, respectively, a schematic and
photograph of this alternative.
The epoxy-filled self-aligning mount offered by U.S. Rotech and Mechanical Solutions,
Inc. has been described in Section 4.7.3.3. This offers a one-time adjustability during alignment

and installation; subsequent realignment would require installation of a replacement mount with
new grout.
4.7.4.2.6 Specify Shims of 302 Stainless Steel for Adjustment of Alignment
4.7.4.2.7 Engineer the Highest Holding Force Possible Within Existing Constraints
Even if the horizontal force transmitted to the mount is not known, it is possible to
minimize the potential for slip at the joint by installing the largest diameter bolt at that joint
which the engine foot will accommodate: use the highest grade bolt material available (as per
ASTM A193 Grade B7) with rolled threads; accurately tension the bolt to a high percentage of
the 105,000 PSI yield stress of this bolt material (not less than 70%); and make the bolt
adequately long (between closest nuts) to minimize the opportunities for creep. For skid mounts,
the recommended stretch length is at least 20 inches, and for bolts embedded in concrete, the
recommended minimum stretch length is 48 inches.
4.7.5 CROSSHEAD GUIDE MOUNTING (TO SKID OR BLOCK)
4.7.5.1 General
The crosshead guide support is typically located near the joint between crosshead guide
and the cylinder. In particular, with heavy pipeline cylinders, the crosshead guide support is an
essential element in weight support and vibration control.
4.7.5.2 Specific Guidelines for Crosshead Guide Mounting
4.7.5.2.1 Make the Crosshead Guide Support As Stiff and As Strong As Possible and
Minimize the Vertical Separation Between the Main Skid and the Underside
of the Crosshead Guide
Figure 4-6 shows a stout short crosshead guide support for a JGV6 mounted on the skid
by a mounting plate, which sits in a grout box. The support itself is available from the OEM for
JGU and JGV compressors. Figure 4-21 shows a similar A-frame crosshead guide support
mounted on a sole plate grouted into a concrete block for a block mounted JGV6 compressor.
The height separation between skid or block and guide for both these configurations of guide
support mounting is desirably short and stiff.
Engineering the equipment arrangement to achieve such a stiff mounting configuration is
strongly recommended.
4.7.5.2.2 Carefully Review Structural Dynamics and Plan Countermeasures Where

Needed
The stiffest crosshead guide supports are not always implemented and sometimes are not
fully possiblemany installations have a larger height separation for various reasons. In these
cases, the potential that heavy pipeline cylinders and the added flexibility may lower some
associated natural frequencies too close to fundamental excitation frequencies should be
carefully reviewed, and countermeasures planned and implemented, if necessary. Such a
countermeasure is shown in Figure 4-5 where an OEM A-frame guide support is located on top
of a stiff I-beam structure, which runs across both cylinders on one side of a JGD4 and is also

connected back to the pedestal under the compressor (this connection is hidden in Figure 4-5).
Another such countermeasure is shown in Figure 2-67, which presents a very stiff, reinforced I-
beam structure that mates directly to the bottom of the crosshead guide and extends under both
cylinders on one side of a JGT4. The Figure 2-67 guide support structure was engineered to
raise the frequency of horizontal modes of vibration, which were originally in the range of 1.5X
the rotational speed of the compressor.
4.7.5.2.3 Elevate Cylinder By Shims at the Joint Between Guide Support and Guide,
or Under the Guide Support, to Meet Criteria Established By the
Compressor OEM in Order to Offset the Cylinder Droop Caused By Its
Weight and the Weight of Appendages
Some OEMs provide tables or spreadsheets to assist the shim selection.
4.7.5.2.4 Confirm After Shimming That OEM Specifications for Clearance at Top
and Bottom of Crosshead Guide Bearing are Met
These crosshead bearing clearance specifications should prevail, so adjustments to
shimming should be made to meet these criteria.
4.7.6 CYLINDER HEAD END SUPPORT MOUNTING TO FOUNDATION (IF REQUIRED)
4.7.6.1 General
The cylinders of some compressors need head end supports to control their vibrations
and/or to take the weight. This solution on the surface seems to offer significant benefits, and
from the pure question of controlling vertical vibration modes, it probably does. However, the
head end support introduces another critical mounting interface and also can introduce new
vibrations modes of its own, which can be excited by cylinder motion. In addition, care must be
taken to avoid the head end support offering a significant constraint to cylinder stretch motion.
4.7.6.2 Specific Guidelines: Cylinder Head End Support
4.7.6.2.1 Design Cylinder Head End Supports to Have a Substantial Mounting Base
The mounting design must include a solid base grouted to the concrete under the base and
four widely spaced anchor bolts with adequate stretch length installed in the concrete and
tensioned against the grout once hardened.
4.7.6.2.2 Do Not Consider Attaching the Head End Support Only to the Skid to be an
Adequate Mounting
Explicit evidence exists that, if the head end support is needed, such inadequate mounting
will lead to an ineffective head end support and high vibration, as discussed in Case Study 1.
4.7.6.2.3 Ensure By Analysis That Even With a Good Base Mount the Head End
Support is Flexible Enough to Avoid Constraining Cylinder Stretch
Basically, this means that the stiffness in response to a force acting perpendicular to the
crankshaft at the top of the support should be significantly less than the stiffness of the crosshead
guide.

4.7.6.2.4 Evaluate the Potential for Excitation of Vibration Modes of the Head End
Support Itself, and Be Prepared for Some Field Detuning
Head end support modes tend to be very lightly damped and, therefore, to respond to
quite light excitation. Such modes may be at a frequency in the range of 8th order of compressor
running speed or higher, and the response to any excitation at this order can be very sensitive to
small errors in the predicted frequency. Thus, it may be difficult to ensure avoiding them.
Luckily, they are also sensitive to small changes in mass distribution; Figure 4-41 shows a
detuning mass added to a plate structure head end support. This mass detuned vibrations,
which under certain conditions had reached 11 IPS at 122 Hz before its addition!
Figure 4-41. JGD4 Installation Showing Tuning Mass Added to Head End Support to Change
Natural Frequency from Value Leading to Very High Torsional Vibration of Support
4.7.7 DISCHARGE BOTTLE TO FOUNDATION BLOCK MOUNTING

As discussed elsewhere and emphasized again here, the discharge bottle must be mounted
in all pipeline installations. Freely hanging bottles may be satisfactory for some installations, but
not for pipelines.
4.7.7.1 Specific Guidelines for Discharge Bottle Mounting
4.7.7.1.1 Mount the Discharge Bottle Off the Skid

As discussed in Case Study 1 and elsewhere, placing the bottle on the skid tends to
elevate the compressor and impose the requirement for a flexible pedestal under the compressor.
Thus, the discharge bottle should be solidly mounted on the concrete foundation, as further
expanded below.

If combined height of wedge mounting plate, wedges, bottle diameter, and nozzle would
otherwise require elevating the compressor, then the concrete level under the bottle should be
made lower than the concrete level on which the skid is mounted (this has been discussed under
foundation design).
4.7.7.1.2 Ensure Solid Wedges, With Two Side-By-Side Strong Tie-Bolts, Soundly
Supported on the Concrete, Directly Under Each Nozzle and Under Each
Discharge Bottle Clamp
Holding down the discharge bottle can be very important to system dynamic integrity.
Skid mounting the discharge bottle is not recommended, and the wedge configurations in Figure
4-42 also aggravated the associated dynamic problems for such a bottle. This wedge is
inadequate, and it is in the wrong placeit has only one thin tie bolt. It is very narrow; it does
not lie directly under a nozzle; and it is not directly over a structural beam. Figure 4-41, in
addition to the detuning weight discussed above, shows the replacement for the wedge of Figure
4-42. This has two tie bolts instead of one and both are thicker than the original. It is about four
times as long axially and twice as extensive in the direction across the bottle; it is sitting directly
on a beam structural member and directly under a nozzle. Figure 4-43 shows another wide
wedge directly under a clamp, again with 2-well separated tie-down bolts.
Figure 4-44 shows another illustration of good solid wedges located directly under each
nozzle. These wedges each have two tie-bolts and are located on plates grouted directly to the
concrete foundation. The leveling screws for the plate are visible. The plates have not yet been
grouted in place, but when this installation is complete the wedges of this bottle support will be
very robust with anchor bolts tightened against the hardened grout.
In recognition of thermal growth of discharge nozzles, discharge bottle wedge bolts
should be tightened when the compressor is at the operating temperature (as discussed further in
Section 4.10.9).
4.7.7.1.3 Mount Wedges on a Sole Plate Directly Grouted Into the Concrete With
Anchor Bolts
Piers are sometimes used under the bottle wedges, but it should be recognized these add
flexibility. The discharge bottle-mounting configuration shown in Figure 4-44 is preferred to
that of Figure 4-45 for this reason. If circumstances dictate pier mounting, effort should be
applied to achieve stiff piers. Figure 4-46 shows the mounting of retrofit, reduced diameter
bottles on solid stiff piers built up, and butted against the main block to provide the needed
support for the wedges.
4.7.7.1.4 Place Fabreeka Between Clamp and Bottle; Also Between Wedges and
Bottle
Figure 4-43 also makes clear the use of Fabreeka between the wedge and the bottle; this
is not a universally accepted recommendation, but is believed by the author of these guidelines to
be beneficial, if performed carefully. The Fabreeka should be compressed until it is very stiff,
and in the process, it broadens the contact from a line contact to an area contact, so reducing the
chance for fretting damage, if relative sliding motion occurs at the contact point.

Figure 4-42. JGD4 Installation
Wedges with single tie-bolt installed before modifications to control vibrations.
Note location is not directly under nozzle.
Figure 4-43. Close-up: More Rugged Clamp and Wedge on JGD4 Installation
Note clamp and wedge directly on skid cross-beam. Note Fabreeka between wedge and bottle.

Figure 4-44. Cat G3616/JGD6 Installation (5 units)
Note bottles installed off skid and supported on rugged wedges directly under each nozzle
this keeps the center of gravity low.
Figure 4-45. JGD3 Installation Driven by Cat G3606

Bottle mounted on piers and wedges below level of skid.

Figure 4-46. Piers Constructed to Support Retrofit Bottles
Retrofit bottles had reduced diameter, and so the wedges underneath them had to be higher than in the original
configuration. Note piers are integrated to foundation block under main skid.
4.7.7.1.5 Ensure Specifications Call for Adjustment of Wedges Under Discharge

Bottle When Hot
The nozzles grow down when hot; if wedges are too tight when cold they may lift the
cylinders when hot.
4.7.8 SUCTION BOTTLE STRUCTURAL SUPPORT MOUNTING: USE A GROUTED, ANCHOR

BOLTED SUPPORT
The use of a 4-chamber primary suction bottle on each side of a pipeline 6-cylinder
compressor (i.e., one more chamber than the number of cylinders) has substantial pulsation
control benefits for a compressor speed above 600 RPM. The extra chamber, however, does add
mass and rotary inertia, so the bottle needs supporting, and the support structure needs to be well
mounted with a grouted, anchor bolted, support. Figure 4-19 and Figure 4-20 have shown the
mounting of such structures.
4.7.9 VESSEL MOUNTING

Mount vertical vessels via a stiff plate to concrete or to a full depth skid member.
Vertical vessels need to be mounted via a very stiff plate to which they are attached. The plate
should be mounted to the concrete block or to a full depth skid beam member. With the freedom
offered by large pipeline applications for significant amount of site installation, even if a skid is
being used, the vertical vessels, such as suction scrubbers, can be installed directly on concrete

and off the skid. The effectiveness, stiffness, and natural frequencies of the mounted vessel
should be evaluated very carefully in the installation structural analysis.
4.8 ANALYTICAL STUDIES
4.8.1 OVERVIEW
As previously discussed, it is common for third party designers and analysts to be hired to
support the end user, the packager, or the engineering company involved, most commonly for:
Pulsation analysis and pulsation control system design.
Train torsional analysis and torsional vibration control system design.
Piping and compressor manifold system vibration analysis.
Structural analysis of skid, foundation, and mounted components.
Piping thermal stress analysis.
In general, the responsibilities for providers of these services include:
Define and acquire data needed to prepare model(s) and execute relevant analyses.
Diligently pursue gaps in the needed data.
Manage unfilled gaps in data.
Prepare relevant and accurate models.
Effectively apply appropriate state-of-the-art software tools.
Apply experience and correlations from similar designs to validate predictions.
Identify potential design problems in time for needed changes to be made.
Clearly communicate results to relevant stakeholders, together with significance of
results, assumptions, and sensitivity to assumptions.
Define, analyze, and present appropriate solution options.
Assist in design change decisions.
The following discusses these topics in varying depth, recognizing that other documents
and guidelines address certain types of analysis in considerable depth, which this document will
not seek to reproduce. Harris and Scrivner [18] provide a good overview, with examples, of the
various methods of analysis and design evaluation for integrated design of compressor
installations. The GMRC-SwRI short course [30] provides three days of in-depth technical
instruction on the subject.
This section seeks to focus on how the analysis, associated design/configurational
decisions, and the phenomena that the design analysis seeks to control will impact mounting and
its integrity.

4.8.2 PULSATION ANALYSIS
4.8.2.1 General
The time varying flows from reciprocating compressors tend to excite acoustic
resonances and pulsations in attached piping. These phenomena require effective management
supported by detailed acoustic modeling. The details of analysis and of pulsation control are
discussed in more depth in Section 2.6. A pulsation analysis for the specific conditions and
attached piping design is absolutely essential for pipeline applications.
It is almost certain that a digital pulsation analysis will be offered and performed (as
opposed to analog). Since digital pulsation analysis capability has become ubiquitous, the end
user should be assured that the digital tool used is accurate and proven, and that the designers
using it on the pipeline package has relevant experience in pipeline service design (characterized
by low ratios, high flow, a need for high thermal efficiency, and for long life).
In addition, the organization performing the pulsation analysis should be open to
considering the (Ncyl + 1) filter bottle approach for suction and discharge. The associated
benefits of reduced bottle diameter and effective pulsation control have been discussed in section
2.6.2.
The choice between one and two bottle systems creates close ties between pulsation,
pulsation control, and mounting. It impacts discharge bottle diameter, suction bottle diameter,
bottle lengths, and mounting requirements for one or two suction bottles. Figure 4-25 has shown
this mounting impact of primary and secondary bottle choices. Thus, based on the above
discussion, the key guidelines for pulsation analysis are:
Ensure that a thorough pulsation analysis is performed for every pipeline
application of medium and high-speed reciprocating compressors.
Ensure the organization performing the analysis has a validated design tool and
experience with pipeline compressor system design.
In addition, the preferred prediction algorithms would account for two-way interactive
between compressor valve and piping dynamic flows (as discussed in Section 2.6.2).
4.8.2.2 Ensure Pulsation Criteria are Derived from API 618

This API standard is undergoing revision at this time and the 5th edition is not published
yet. The prevailing standard, therefore, is the 4th edition. At the cylinder flanges, the API 4th
edition criterion is the lower of 3R% or 7% of line pressure; 3R normally prevails for pipeline
applications (3.5% to 5% of line pressure).
Outside the filter system, the API 4th edition criterion is 300/(PL*ID*f)0.5 where PL is line
pressure, ID is pipe inner diameter, and f is the frequency in Hzthis typically yields 0.25% to
1% of line pressure for pipeline applications. An additional criterion for pressure drop is
specified by API 618.

4.8.3 TORSIONAL ANALYSIS
4.8.3.1 General
Torsional vibrations have been a significant issue in many high-speed separables. A
number of examples of motor shaft breakage exist and have caused major problems across the
industry. At least in early installations, it was not always recognized by the motor supplier that
the compressor imposes a very high dynamic torque variation on the motor shaft. However,
engine drives are also vulnerable, with excitations from both the compressor and the engine to
contend with. Torsional excitations are experienced by the shaft system and by the mounting
systemboth for the engine and for the compressor, with significant implications for equipment
mounting integrity and system vibrations.
GMRC has developed a guidelines document relating to torsional analysis of separable
compressors. This document was listed in Section 1.7 under the heading of Applicable Codes,
Standards, Specifications, and Guidelines. Section 2.6.3 provides background and summarizes
this torsional analysis guideline. The following presents key guidelines for the present mounting
guidelines document.
4.8.3.2 Always Specify the Performance of a Torsional Analysis Unless the

Installation is an Identical Duplicate of Another Problem Free System
The consequences of exciting a poorly damped torsional natural frequency at a strong
excitation order can be severe and can include shaft breakage. Identifying and correcting
problems at an early stage can save cost and delays.
4.8.3.3 Specify the Torsional Study Content of GMRC Torsional Guidelines [21]
Section 2.6.3 summarizes this content and the steps involved.
4.8.3.4 Specifically Predicted Torsional Amplitudes at Compressor Auxiliary End

Reference [16] provides a useful criterion for these torsional vibration amplitudes to
avoid damage to the auxiliary drive system.
4.8.3.5 Be Prepared to Design and Implement Changes to the Torsional System

Changes to consider and evaluate include: adding a flywheel, adding an internal donut,
or a damper, changing coupling stiffness, replacing a stiff coupling with a soft coupling,
modifying the speed range, or reducing a high stress concentration factor.
Clocking can sometimes helpthis is the rotation of the two sides of the coupling
relative to each other using available coupling holes. A 6th order vibration was anecdotally
reduced by clocking one hole out of twelve.
4.8.3.6 Critically Evaluate the Integrity of the Coupling and Its Attachment to the
Shafting Under All Torsional Excitations, Including Possible Overloads
During Start-Up and Shutdown, and Fault Conditions, Based on a Thorough
Transient Analysis
This is particularly relevant to soft couplings.

4.8.4 PIPING AND COMPRESSOR MANIFOLD VIBRATION STUDY
The purpose of piping and compressor manifold analysis is to predict (and control where
needed) the vibrations of the compressor manifold and close-in piping. These vibrations can be
excited by time-varying forces induced by pulsations (pressure modulations) in the piping, by
shaking forces in compressor manifold bottles, by reciprocating and rotating inertias in the
compressor, from gas forces and moments induced by compression action and kinematics of the
compressor, and from dynamic torques coming from the engine.
When a structural analysis of the skid and mounting is being performed on the same
system, there are arguments for combining the piping and structural analyses, since they are
closely related. However, arguments can also be made for keeping the two separate. These
arguments include limiting the size and focus of a particular analyses, limiting dynamic stress
analysis and evaluation to the piping system, and the fact that some excitations such as those
from the engine tend to have limited impact on piping vibration. No strong recommendation is
made here; the more important guideline is:
4.8.4.1 Both System Structural Analysis and Piping/Compressor Manifold Analysis

Should Be Performed, Evaluated, and Acted Upon
Piping and manifold analysis is considered separately here to allow emphasis on
modeling practice and details for piping.
4.8.4.2 Include the Following Steps in All Piping and Compressor Manifold Analyses
Generate a mass-elastic model of the piping.
Calculate natural frequencies and mode shapes.
Perform forced response analysis for amplitude and stress.
Compare stresses and amplitudes with limits.
4.8.4.3 Apply the Technology Made Readily Available By Powerful PC-Based

Commercial Finite Element Software (e.g., ANSYS)
The structural modeling of piping for compressor manifold systems has undergone
substantial change in the last several years, in parallel with the widespread deployment of
powerful finite element codes on PC platforms. While piping modeled as beams and reinforced
joints modeled with flexibility factors was state-of-the-art fifteen years ago, it is no longer
adequate for the vibration analysis of compressor manifold systems.
Section 2.6.4 provides further background on this subject.
4.8.4.4 Model the Nozzles, Pulsation Filter Bottles, Bottle Penetrations With a Fine
Array of Shell Elements to Capture the Essential Flexibility Characteristics of
Reinforced Joints as an Integral Part of the Model as Well as Shell
Deformation Characteristics of Pulsation Bottles
The flexibility of joints between larger and smaller pipe segments (e.g., nozzle-bottle
joints) involves local deformation under bending moments, shear forces, and forces along the
axis of the smaller pipe. Section 2.6.4 discusses modeling requirements and analytical content in
depth. The following guidelines provide the essentials:

Predict natural frequencies and mode shapes of the compressor manifold and close-
in piping system.
Predict forced response of compressor manifold and close-in piping systems to
excitations from pulsations, cylinder stretch and unbalanced mechanical forces, and
vertical crosshead bearing forces.
Apply sound, experience-based criteria for acceptable values of predicted velocity
and stress.
Recognize and address the possible conflicts between design for thermal flexibility
and design for vibration control.
This conflict may require iteration between the thermal flexibility analysis and the piping
vibration analysis.
In the absence of other criteria, the following are suggested for predicted vibrations.
1.0 IPS for compressor manifold vibrations.
3,000 PSI or 100 micro-strain for dynamic peak-to-peak pipe stresses near joints.
A related conflict can occur when discharge bottle clamps are specified between each
nozzle. These often help control vibrations, but under cold conditions, can cause cylinder
misalignment. This conflict needs to be resolved.
4.8.4.5 Use the Nomogram of Figure 4-47 for Piping Not Subject to Detailed
Structural Analysis
It should be recognized that not every pipe in the installation would be the subject of a
detailed structural analysis. Figure 4-47 shows a piping nomogram, which can be used to
estimate natural frequencies of various piping configurations and to relate stress in these pipes to
vibration amplitude.
4.8.5 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF SKID AND MOUNTED COMPONENTS
4.8.5.1 Overview of Structural Analysis

The previously discussed analysis of piping and compressor manifold vibration has some
overlap with the structural vibration of the skid and major mounted equipment. Even so, there
exist arguments for some division of the analyses (to keep individual problem size manageable,
to limit stress evaluation to piping, and to recognize that an excitation, such as engine rolling
torque, probably has a weak influence on dynamics of gas piping connected to the compressor).
However, the analysis of compressor manifold and skid is divided up; it is important that a skid
structural analysis be undertaken.
It is important also for the end user to ensure that this part of the analysis is adequately
budgeted. Any savings from an inadequately budgeted structural analysis can be rapidly
overwhelmed by the cost of after-the-fact studies, measurements, diagnosis, and added or
modified hardware to eliminate problems.

Figure 4-47. Vibration Induced Stresses and Allowable Vibrations For Piping Spans

In addition, it is also important that the end user ensure the important data (e.g., cylinder
weight) is available on a timely basis for the study.
Thus, we can state the following guidelines:
Undertake a skid structural analysis, using finite elements methods.
Ensure an adequate budget for the skid structural analysis.
Ensure critical information is available for the analysis on a timely basis.
4.8.5.2 Objectives of Structural Analysis

Of particular importance in the skid structural analysis is to predict the main modes of the
most massive mounted equipment (enginecompressor frame, shaft and connecting rods
cylinders with the added bottle masses) on the skid, accounting for flexibility of the main
structural support (the main skid, any pedestals above the main skid to support engine and
compressor, any flexibility in the mounting joints, crosshead guide support, nozzles, and cylinder
head end supports), and to realistically assess the severity with which they will be excited by
forces from the compressor and piping.
Case Studies 1 and 2 showed how the compressor base rotational mode and cylinder-
bottle modes can be severely excited by forces at excitation orders from the compressor in the
range of 3 to 8 and higher. The experience base also included an example of a mode involving
compressor cylinders being excited below 1.5X operating speed. Case Study 1 also showed how
high energy orders from the engine can excite high lateral vibration of the engine on its mounts.
Engineering against these and other vibrations is essential.
4.8.5.3 Process and Main Steps for Skid Structural Analysis
4.8.5.3.1 Include the Following Major Steps in the Structural Analysis

Generate a mass-elastic model.
Calculate natural frequencies and mode shapes.
Perform forced response analysis.
Compare predicted vibration levels with limits.
In addition, it is appropriate to assess engineering adequacy of the tie-downs and anchor
bolts and their ability to hold robustly the transverse forces from compressor and engine.
4.8.5.3.2 Do Not Use Beams to Model Skid Members

As with piping analysis, beam modeling of skid members misses aspects of these
members, which are important to accuracy.
4.8.5.3.3 Use Plate Elements to Model Skid Beam Members

Case Study 2 illustrated the use of plate elements for skid beam modeling. Without
subdividing the beam flange and webs, the compressor pedestal flexibility in this model would
have been misrepresented. With such plate element representation, the demonstrated accurate
prediction of the observed base mode of the compressor on its pedestal was possible.

4.8.5.3.4 Include All Major Compressor Masses in Model
It is essential to represent the compressor frame mass (and approximate its mass
distribution over the enclosed volume of the frame), as well as to include the mass of attached
cylinders and added mass of the attached compressor manifold. This is essential to predict the
base rotational mode of the compressor and attached components on skid and pedestal flexibility.
The presence of the cylinder mass, mass and mass distribution of the compressor manifold, and
any cross-bracing and supports of suction and discharge bottles are also important to predict the
cylinder-bottle modes seen in Case Study 1.
4.8.5.3.5 Include All Flexibilities of Crosshead Guide, Crosshead Guide Support,

Discharge Nozzles, Discharge Bottle, Discharge Bottle Supports, and
Cylinder Head End Supports In Model
Heavy cylinders have a significant influence on the cylinder-bottle modes and all the
components mentioned above which support the cylinder have a significant influence in
supporting and influencing the frequencies of these modes.
4.8.5.3.6 Make Some Account of Compressor Frame Flexibility in the Model

Ideally, the compressor frame would be represented by finite elements (plate, etc.)
closely aligned with the frame structure. Such a model would most accurately quantify the
contribution of the frame to important modessuch as the base rotational mode (particularly
when the compressor frame is mounted on a stiff structure), cylinder stretch modes, and cylinder-
bottle modes. As discussed elsewhere, such detailed modeling of the compressor frame is not
generally within the state-of-the-art as practiced for pipeline (or any) compressor installations,
partly because it is not specified or budgeted for. However, if forces are to be applied within the
compressor frame (e.g., at main bearings or crosshead bearings), it is necessary to have
flexibility in the structure so that these forces are transmitted to other points in the structure
where they may excite modes whose frequencies lie in the range of high energy compressor
excitations.
A compromise option sometimes applied for both mass and flexibility of the frame is to
represent the compressor frame volume, as defined by its major dimensions, as a uniform block
of material with density appropriate to give it the correct overall mass and to assign some
reduced modulus to the material. This is not a rigorous approach, but it may be better than
taking no account of frame flexibility.
4.8.5.3.7 Account for Engine Frame Mass

To enable prediction of fundamental modes of engine on skid and engine pedestal, the
engine mass and mass distribution must be represented. As with the compressor, an option is a
body of material with overall dimensions and a density, which gives the right mass.
4.8.5.3.8 Recognize the Engine Block is Not Rigid

Adding some flexibility through a reduced modulus associated with the engine block
volume is an option sometimes practiced (as previously mentioned for the compressor, this is not
rigorous but may be more effective than neglecting this flexibility). This enables any known

excitations (such as rolling torques) to be applied to the engine and to be transmitted through
engine block deformation to the engine mount.
4.8.5.3.9 Establish Important Vibration Modes for Skid-Mounted Equipment

Establishing system modes of the compressor on its mounting is important with big
heavy pipeline installations, together with cylinder-bottle vertical and horizontal modes.
4.8.5.3.10 Assess Severity of Modes By Forced Response Analysis

Once the modes are known, it is important to assess severity by predicting forced
response to expected forces.
4.8.5.3.11 Consider the Following As Excitations in Forced Structural Analysis

Compressor cylinder pressure forces acting on cylinder head and main bearings.
Compressor rotating and reciprocating unbalanced forces applied throw-by-throw at
the main bearings with proper phasing.
Compressor cylinder crosshead guide bearing vertical force spectrum applied with
proper phasing to account for connecting rod kinematics and orientation.
Bottle shaking forces based on pulsation analysis.
Engine vertical and horizontal forces on cylinder and on main bearings by throw.
Section 2.6.7 discussed in particular the methodologies for calculating forces and the
challenges involved in their application.
4.8.5.3.12 Calculate Response Amplitudes on Foundation, Skid, Frame, Cylinders,

and Bottles
The calculations performed should provide amplitudes of vibration (mils, IPS) at key
locations on skid, compressor frame, piping, strains at critical welds, and the adequacy of the
friction joints tying the compressor to its pedestal.
The methodologies for obtaining forces and options for representing structural flexibility
have been discussed above and in Section 2.6.
4.8.6 FOUNDATION ANALYSIS
4.8.6.1 General
For both block-mounted and skid-mounted compressor systems, it is important to assess
the foundation vibration modes on the soil, and their response to shaking forces and moments.
The soil bearing pressure capacity should also be compared with the applied soil loads
and, if necessary, piled foundations should be considered.
Concrete strength near the points of application of dynamic loads is also important.

4.8.6.2 Specific Foundation Analysis Guidelines
4.8.6.2.1 Calculate Soil Pressure Loading and Ensure the Adequacy of the Soil to
Carry This Loading
This calculation should account for all the weight of the skid (with added concrete), the
mounted equipment including bottles and their supporting structure, and the concrete and
reinforcing steel of the foundation itself. API 686 recommends limiting the resulting pressure on
the soil to 75% of the soil capacity. Such a limit helps limit settlement and improve the
predictability of dynamic response of the foundation on the soil.
4.8.6.2.2 Calculate Foundation Natural Frequencies Based on Soil Properties on the

Mass and Mass Distribution of the Concrete and Mounted Equipment
The critical soil characteristic to be determined by geotechnical testing, which influences
these natural frequencies, is its shear modulus, together with its Poissons ratio and density. Due
to the inevitable uncertainty in these properties and the non-linearity of soil response to loads,
even after tests have been performed, some range should be considered.
This guidelines document does not provide detailed methodologies for predicting natural
frequencies of foundation blocks on soil; however, a number of sources define the options. ACI
351.3R.04 provides some good overview information and enough to make predictions, if the
mass distribution and soil properties are available. Relevant textbooks include Arya, ONeill,
and Pincus [28] and Richart, Hall, and Woods [29].
While it is common practice to treat foundation blocks as rigid bodies, the combined
length of driver and compressor and the block thickness may require review in comparison with
relevant criteria (ACI 351.3R [9]) gives T>2+ LB/30 as the criterion for treating the foundation
as rigid, where T is the vertical thickness of the block and LB is the length (both in ft). While
this ACI criterion is usually satisfied for blocks vertically thicker than 4 feet, it may not always
be sufficient, particularly with higher frequency excitations.
The option to analyze the foundation dynamics using finite elements exists and should be
seriously considered to set to rest any question regarding block rigidity. Major commercial
codes usually have reinforced concrete elements. When finite elements are being used for
concrete stress analysis, the decision to use them for the dynamic analysis accounting for
foundation block flexibility may be more readily made. Even using finite elements, the
appropriate treatment of the soil requires care.
4.8.6.2.3 Calculate the Response of the Foundation Block on Soil to Excitation

Forces and Moments from the Driver and Compressor
For analyzing foundation response on soil, it is normally adequate to consider the global
shaking forces and moments based on a rigid frame assumption (this differs from requirements
for analyzing integrity of mounting and response of mounted components).
With smaller compressors (less than six cylinders), even with counterweights, there will
normally be some residual unbalanced global shaking moments acting in a horizontal plane and
in a vertical plane aligned with the crankshaft centerline (values can be obtained from the
compressor OEM.

In addition, engine drivers and compressors generate torques, which must be reacted by
the foundation blocktypically at strong orders for the unit in question (e.g., 4X, 8X, and 12X
for a 16-cylinder Vee engine). The Caterpillar rolling torques given in Section 2.6.8.10 can be
used for Cat engines, and the time-varying compression torques on the compressor, which must
also be reacted by the foundation block, can also be calculated from a compressor model. These
torques should be applied over the speed range for the engine and compressor, with recognition
that the natural frequencies are subject to some uncertainty as a result of soil property variability.
The foundation-soil structure should be engineered to achieve tolerable dynamic
characteristics in response to all these excitations, both for block-mounted and for skid-mounted
installation.
4.8.6.2.4 For Block-Mounted Compressors, Subject the Foundation Block to

Concrete Stress Analysis Under Loads from the Compressor and Engine
Placing the compressor and engine directly on a concrete block means that the concrete
must now carry dynamic loads directly. In a skid mount, these loads are applied to the top of the
skid or pedestal and from that location cause less localized and less severe stresses on the
concrete.
The loads, which are applied, come from the feet of the compressor and the engine.
Based on discussions in Sections 2.6.8.2 and 2.6.8.10, these loads come from the throw-by-throw
forces and are conservatively equal to half the load, which would result if the frame in question
had zero bending stiffness. The foot must be tied soundly to the mount (plate or adjustable
device), and the structure below the mount must carry the transmitted load with acceptable stress.
In concrete, compressive strength is high (4,000+ PSI), but tensile strength is not much above
zero!about 190 PSI is a typical allowable for dynamic stress [1].
The areas of concern for high tensile stress are around the engine feet, around the
compressor feet, and around the mounting point for the crosshead guide feet. The crosshead
guide support carries a significant fraction of the rod load because of flexibility of the crosshead
guide, and the concrete under the crosshead guide support carries some of this load also. These
areas should be engineered to avoid excessive tensile stress.
This analysis must be performed on an appropriate model of the concrete using
appropriate finite elements for the purpose of modeling reinforced concrete. Figure 4-48 shows
an example of a foundation block model built using brick-shaped finite elements for reinforced
concrete.
4.8.7 PIPING STRESS AND FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
4.8.7.1 Overview of Piping Stress and Flexibility Analysis

For interstate pipelines, the DOT requires a piping stress analysis be performed according
to ASME B31.8. This sort of analysis is greatly assisted by available commercial codes, which
incorporate code compliance analyses.

Figure 4-48. Finite Element Model of Concrete Block for Calculating Concrete Stresses
Piping stress analysis establishes that inappropriate loads will not be applied to the
machinery by the piping as the gas becomes hotter. It also establishes that bending and
extensional stresses induced by pipe changes in temperature are acceptable. The available codes
have established criteria for stress and provide the mechanism to report on adequacy of a piping
system.
It should be recognized that code compliance for a piping stress and flexibility analysis
sometimes leads to solutions involving added flexibility; inappropriately applied such solutions
can have a negative impact on piping vibration. Thus, the close integration of the flexibility
analysis and the vibration analysis for a piping system is beneficial in ensuring the avoidance of
such conflicting solutions.
The primary guidelines here are:
For all pipeline compressor stations, perform a piping stress flexibility analysis and
make configurational changes as needed to meet ASME B31.8.
Ensure that solutions considered in order to meet ASME B31.8 code requirements
are also evaluated for their possible impact on piping vibrations.
4.9 INSTALLATION

The installation process puts in place the complete compression system with supporting
subsystems and integrates the compression system into the compressor station piping and control
systems, so that it is ready to become a contributing component in the pipelines natural gas
delivery system.
An installation contractor will normally perform the installation, and it is not the intent of
this section to spell out how to perform every step, which the installation contractor will perform.
In many cases, it should suffice to say that the installation should be performed to design, to
drawings and to specifications prepared for the installation, and using the specified materials. At
the same time, this section will address items which have proved critical and whose execution
has sometimes fallen short of requirements, with explanation of their importance for emphasis.

It is added that API 686 [7] provides much general guidance on installation of mechanical
equipment.
A number of steps in the installation process have been addressed from the design and
specification viewpoint in Section 4.7 entitled, Mounting and Installation Design and
Specification. Some duplication is inevitable, but the following guidelines address the subject
of installation from the point of view of implementation.
4.9.2 GENERAL INSTALLATION GUIDELINES
4.9.2.1 Ensure the Existence and Communication of a Complete Installation Plan

Planning and associated communication and discussion are essential for a project as
complicated as the procurement, design, manufacture, and installation of a separable compressor
on block or skid. The installation plan is an important component of the overall project plan;
achievement of quality and schedule will be strongly influenced by the installation plan. The
plan must include details for time critical, dynamic, processes such as grouting, with real-time
contingencies and solutions for real time problems (see also pre-grout job meeting below). The
availability of sufficient grouting materials and sufficient mixers (with mixer fuel) is very
important to confirm.
The responsibility for preparing different segments of the plan may fall to different
parties with responsibility and expertise for executing different parts of the process. The end
users project engineer needs to be sure that all aspects of the process are planned and that he/she
understands the plan, and that the plan is communicated and followed.
4.9.2.2 Maintain a Detailed Photographic Record

The value of a detailed photographic record cannot be overemphasized, and todays
digital photographic equipment makes comprehensive and extensive photographic recording
rather inexpensive and easy. The record should start with the green field site and should include
all elements of the process, including work done at the packagers shop, at the compressor
OEMs shop, during site preparation excavation, foundation installation, header and lateral
piping installation. The skid without compressor should be photographed from several angles,
close-up and wide view, both in the shop, with and without the equipment installed in the shop,
again at site without equipment located, and during grouting, alignment, installation of cylinders,
cylinder and crosshead supports, and testing. Details of anchor bolts and mounting points should
be included in the record prior to installation.
The value is to provide the end user organization a record of what is there. Once the
compressor is bolted down and utility connections are made, it is difficult to recreate a picture of
details covered by the installation process. When problems arise, such details can assist
corrective action. Memories dim about details and photographs can help fill in gaps. When the
project engineer changes during the project, such records provide continuity. Many of the
photographic records in this document are a testament to good recordkeeping during past
installations.

4.9.3 FOUNDATION INSTALLATION
4.9.3.1 Excavate and Prepare Site as Needed
4.9.3.2 Install Forms, Rebar, and Concrete for the Mat
4.9.3.3 Install Forms for Foundation Block
4.9.3.4 Install Rebar with Specified Diameter and Spacing of Specified Material
For a compressor to be directly mounted on a concrete foundation, with no skid, the
recommended rebar spacing should be #8 (1-inch diameter) on 8-inch centers for the top three
feet of the foundation. This achieves 1% rebar density. To simplify the pouring process, a
limited number of 16-inch by 16-inch windows can be located in the middle of the block, away
from the anchor bolts. No. 6 rebar may replace #8 for vertical direction only to simplify
bending.
This is a lot of steel. It is justified because of the high dynamic loads imposed by a
reciprocating compressor at its frame and CHG support points, when the frame is directly
connected at these points.
For a skid-mounted compressor, the dynamic concrete loads are spread and their
localized intensity is reduced by the skid. As a result, the recommended rebar density is lower
for a skid mount.
4.9.3.5 Add Radii to Inside and Outside Corners of Concrete

This step eliminates points of high stress. Use PVC quarter-pipe sections of 1.5-inch
radius. Forty-five degree beveling is a less desirable but acceptable alternative.
4.9.3.6 For Skid-Mounted Units, Place Anchor Bolts with Templates Matched to
Hole Locations in Skid, and in Other Major Items to be Mounted on the
Concrete
4.9.3.7 For Block-Mounted Units, Place Anchor Bolts With Templates Matched to
Hole Locations in Driver, in Compressor, in Crosshead Guide Supports, and
in Other Major Components to be Mounted on the Concrete
The use of a template for anchor bolt location in the foundation is essential practice,
especially for pipeline applications. It ensures that the anchor bolts can be installed vertically,
with minimal misalignment between their anchor location deep in the concrete and the point
where they pass through the feet to the nut. This should be done after the rebar is installed and
before concrete is poured.
4.9.3.8 Pour Concrete of Specified Mix Design for Foundation Block

This step applies to skid-mounted or block-mounted installations. Appropriate QA of the
concrete from the batch plant is important.

4.9.3.9 Pour Sufficient Sample Cylinders of Concrete for Testing (i.e., 7 or 8)
4.9.3.10 Test Concrete Samples for Strength

This should be done at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days according to ASTM methods for strength;
concrete should have reached at least 4,000 PSI strength before concrete preparation or grouting
of any equipment starts.
4.9.4 PREPARATIONS FOR GROUTING OF SKID TO THE CONCRETE
4.9.4.1 Ensure a Pre-Grout Job Meeting Occurs With All Relevant Stakeholders
The grouting process is a time critical process, which must keep moving once started. It
requires all those involved know their responsibilities and what action to take in the event of
problemssuch as failure of mixer, leaking from forms, etc. This meeting allows
communication of the plan and backup to the team involved and key stakeholders. Safety is an
essential meeting topic. This recommendation and a number of others in the section are based on
a GMC paper by Rowan [12].
4.9.4.2 Wait 28 Days After Pouring for Concrete to Cure and to Reach Full Strength
The concrete strength should also be established at 4,000 PSI by ASTM testing
procedures before grouting and before any other preparations for grouting.
4.9.4.3 Perform Concrete Remediation, If Needed

This is certainly an undesirable step, which should be avoided by following the other
guidelines (particularly use of an engineered concrete mix design and QA). However, if concrete
is seriously under-strength, the addition of post-tensioning rods can increase effective tensile
strength.
4.9.4.4 Chip the Top Surface of the Concrete Wherever Grout is to Be Applied
This chipping process is very important and ensures a much higher quality of grout bond.
It should be performed after the concrete is fully cured and meets specified compressive strength;
it should be done soon before grouting with a pneumatic chipping gun, 30 lbs maximum, with a
chisel point; the aggregate should break rather than pop out. A Bush Head should not be
used, and neither sandblasting nor acid etching should be used.
4.9.4.5 Inspect Skid Base for Corrosion, Dirt, or Coating or PrimerRemove Any
Found
The bottom of the skid, wherever it is to be grouted to the concrete, should be clean and
free of dirt, protective coating, or primer. The skid can, and should be cleaned and sandblasted
at site, if any are found on it. Figure 4-49 shows such sandblasting in progress.

Figure 4-49. Field Sandblasting Bottom of Skid [12]
4.9.4.6 Glue Expansion Joint Foam to the Chipped Surface at 3 or 4 Feet Intervals
Along Foundation, Oriented Across the Foundation
This approach to expansion joint installation assumes the skid will be lowered into
position with a crane. Smaller skids may be maneuvered on rollers, but it is reasonably expected
that the size for pipeline applications will dictate a crane.
The main purpose of expansion joints in the grout is to minimize grout thermal cracking.
Epoxy grout and concrete have widely differing expansion coefficients and changes in
temperature can set up interface stresses, which will eventually crack the grout, if they are not
limited. While such stresses still occur over 3 or 4 feet, they remain below the level, which will
cause cracking. Figure 4-50 shows expansion joint foam in place before the skid is lowered onto
it. Use of expansion joints has the added benefit of breaking up the grout pour into orderly
segments and allows easier checking that all voids are filled. Expansion joints oriented parallel
to the crankshaft might appear desirable also, but currently such installation remains impractical.
4.9.4.7 Lower the Skid Into Position on the Foundation in Preparation for Leveling
and Grouting Using a Crane
The anchor bolt holes and jacking screw locations for the skid should have been specified
by the skid designer to the foundation designer, as well as to the installer. The installer should
place steel landing plates on the foundation at appropriate locations for each jacking screw. The
landing plates should be cut from circular stock with all sharp edges rounded. The skid should
be lowered on to the foundation so that bolt holes and anchor bolts mate. If there are any
discrepancies in hole locations, the implications and options for corrective action should be
reviewed by stakeholders, including the end users project engineer, before corrective action is
taken.

Figure 4-50. Expansion Joint Foam in Position [12]
The skid should be rough leveled using the jacking screws to give between 2 and 3 inches
of separation between skid base and chipped concrete surface. It should slightly compress the
expansion joint foam.
4.9.4.8 Ensure the Main Equipment Items are in Place on the Skid Before Final
Leveling of the Skid
In some cases, with smaller skids, the equipment may already be installed on the skid
when delivered to site. If so, some vertical and horizontal adjustability should remain for
leveling and alignment of compressor within itself, and to the piping and for alignment of the
driver to the compressor.
If either or both of the compressor and driver have been shipped to site separately, the
purpose at this stage is to position them so their weight is appropriately distributed to the skid.
The cylinders and crosshead guides should be attached. The suction and discharge bottles should
be attached to the nozzles but not clamped to their support structure. Alignment and final anchor
bolt tensioning will follow later in the process.
Clean bottom surface of compressor and driver mounting feet to remove any dirt,
paint, primer, or coating prior to placing compressor on skid.
Before leveling the skid, allow it 24 or 48 hours of thermal cycling to reach a stable
state of alignment within itself.
Ensure upwards facing mounting plates in metal surfaces on skid or pedestals at
which mounting feet will be mounted are machined and free of dirt, rust, paint,
primer, or coating.

Level the skid so as to minimize its deviations from level to earth using
jackscrews; do not use anchor bolts to force skid level.
This leveling process should be performed with the skid supported by its jackscrews on
all landing plates. The jackscrews are adjusted to achieve the leveling. The only load on the
skid in the process should be gravity; no skid to foundation anchor bolt loads should be applied
to bend the skid. The leveling should have a target of approximately 1/8-inch deviation from
level to earth. The separation between skid base and chipped to foundation surface after leveling
should remain approximately 2 to 3 inches.
It is not desirable to seek to reduce any lack of levelness of the skid by preferential
tightening of anchor bolts before grouting. The skid should be manufactured to some acceptable,
achievable, and mutually agreed levelness, and if this levelness is achieved, then it should be
accepted. Section 4.3.2.8 discusses skid construction levelness.
Ensure adequate grout materials as specified is delivered and assembled on site
prior to grouting.
Ensure all equipment for grouting is assembled and in position.
Before grouting, wrap jacking screws and exposed length of anchor bolts so that
grout does not adhere to them; jacking screws will be backed off or removed after
grout hardens.
It is necessary to remove the jacking screws once the grout has hardened and before
tightening of the anchor bolts. Left in place, the jacking screws can be crack initiation sites.
4.9.5 GROUTING
4.9.5.1 Place Grout So It Flows Under All Mating Surfaces and Fills Gap Between
Skid Base and Chipped Concrete Surface and Between One Pair of
Expansion Joints
Holes in the skid structure will assist the grouting process. If, or where, there are no
holes, a wooden head box will provide the grout flow needed, as shown in Figure 4-51 and
Figure 4-52. To ensure the grout fills the space under the skid from one side to the other, with a
head box delivering grout from one side, as shown in Figure 4-52, the following procedure has
been shown to work:
On the opposite side from the header box, drill a 1-inch hole horizontally through
the wood form.
Placing pulling tool head inside the wood form and screw a piece of -inch
conduit, 3 feet longer than the skid in width is screwed into the tool.
Pour grout into the head box and push the pulling tool horizontally over to the other
side until it is under the head box.
Pull the tool away from the head box. Move grout from one side over to the other.
As the tool is pulled, two blades or wings deploy to form a tee. As the tool is
pushed back again towards the head box, the wings retract so as not to move grout
back from where it came! Figure 4-53 shows such a tool, and Figure 4-54 shows its
use.

Figure 4-51. Movable Head Box [12] Figure 4-52. Head Box on one Side of Skid
Being Filled with Grout
Figure 4-53. Grout Pulling Tool [12] Figure 4-54. Grout Pulling Tool in Use [12]
Fill each compartment between the transverse expansion joints completely before
plugging the hole in the wood from the pulling rod and moving over to the next
area/compartment to be grouted. The anchor bolts clearly provide a natural way to
break up the grout pour.
4.9.5.2 While Grout is Still Fluid, Demonstrate All Voids are Filled Under Skid
If the grout level visible on both sides of the skid is clearly above the level of the highest
downwards facing surface under which a grout fill is required (main beams, cross beams, and
concrete fill), this provides a satisfactory visible demonstration that the grout must have filled all
voids. Fill holes in concrete remove any doubt that trapped air may be resisting the fill
somewhere.

Repeat grout pour and spreading process and check all voids are filled for each
successive pair of expansion joints.
Inspect grout for proper placement without voids, once poured and cured.
Wait until grout is cured to tighten skid anchor bolts.
Leave no shims or screws between skid base and concrete top when tightening
anchor bolts.
4.9.6 ALIGNMENT OF EQUIPMENT
4.9.6.1 Ensure Alignment is Directed By a Verifiable Expert in Machinery Alignment

This has been previously discussed in Section 4.7, but is re-stated here because effective
alignment is an integral part of installation.
4.9.6.2 First Level and Align the Compressor Frame Within Itself
The goal of this alignment step is to ensure that the frame is level lengthwise and across,
that the bearings lie in a straight line as viewed from the side and above, and also that there is no
twist of the frame from end-to-end. Early recognition of the potential for and nature of bending
and twisting misalignment in medium and high-speed separables is given in a paper by Raymer,
et al. [17].
Most OEM recommendations for alignment are based on use of a machinists level. This
is good practice, but use of optical alignment with targets mounted on reference surfaces at a
series of points along and across the frame should be seriously considered by end users as the
most accurate alignment method for pipeline installation (when practiced by an expert).
Section 2.6.5 includes further discussion of alignment issues and assessment methods.
4.9.6.3 Supplement Soft Foot Testing with Tests for Acceptably Small Twist and
Bend of Frame
While testing for soft foot may be performed as one of the OEM alignment criteria, it
should be supplemented by tests for twisting and bending of frame using optical and web
deflection methods (see Section 2.6.5).
4.9.6.4 Complete Alignment of Compressor Frame to Earth and Within Itself Before
Tightening Compressor Frame Anchor Bolts
Once the compressor frame is satisfactorily aligned within itself, it should be tied down
by tensioning all its anchor bolts against the shims.
4.9.6.5 Align the Driver to the Compressor

Before tightening the anchor bolts for the driver, it should be aligned within itself and to
the compressor. All alignment of the driver to the compressor should be directed by an expert in
the subject and should end up meeting all engine and compressor allowables for radial offset and
face run-out of the coupling hubs, and meet agreed to limits for straightness and twist of the
engine. In general, the driver and compressor OEM allowables for machine-to-machine
alignment will be more stringent than those of the coupling supplier and should prevail.

This critical alignment step and process has the goal that driver output shaft and
compressor input shaft during operation have centerlines, which are parallel and collinear at the
point where the two are coupled. This is normally achieved by adjusting the height and
horizontal position of the drivers feet so its output shaft is parallel to and collinear with the
compressor input shaft.
4.9.6.6 Level and Align the Driver Block or Frame Free of Bending and Twisting
This alignment step is very similar to that discussed above for the compressor frame.
Again, there are no formal engine OEM requirements beyond a soft foot limit (0.002 inches for
Caterpillar engines), and a requirement by Caterpillar that one central web deflection be checked
to be within 0.0016 inches. It is also a fact that at this time not all engine frames present a
machined surface to which the engine bearings can be related and which can be used to mount
optical alignment targets for use in alignment. The GCM34 engine block does provide the
necessary access, whereas special arrangements must now be made to provide similar access for
G3600 series engines.
4.9.6.7 Align the Cylinders and Crosshead Guides to the Compressor Frame
The centerlines of the crosshead bearing bore and the cylinder bore should be collinear.
This is the implicit goal of this alignment step. Pipeline cylinders are heavy and their weight can
be a significant cause of vertical misalignment. The OEM typically provides guidance in terms
of the thickness of shim to be placed at the joint between crosshead guide support and the
crosshead guide to offset the weight of cylinder (and weight of unsupported appendages, such as
suction bottles), and specific procedures for applying these shims. Sometimes this guidance is in
the form of software or a spreadsheet.
4.9.6.8 Check Crosshead Bearing Clearance After Crosshead Guide Shimming

Once the crosshead guide has been shimmed, the crosshead bearing clearance should be
checked top and bottom to be in compliance with OEM specifications. Further adjustment of the
shims may be needed to meet these specifications.
4.9.7 INSTALLATION OF PULSATION BOTTLES AND PIPING
4.9.7.1 General Requirements

The piping should be installed without imposing external forces on the compressor frame
and cylinders. Checks for alignment and parallelism should be performed at each step, before
adding gaskets and tightening flange bolts.
4.9.7.2 Specific Guidelines for Installing Pulsation Bottles and Piping
4.9.7.2.1 Install Piping from the Compressor Out
4.9.7.2.2 Check for Alignment and Parallelism of Discharge Bottle Flanges Before
Final Installation
This check should be performed with the flange nuts installed and slightly tensioned to
hold the bottle in position. The flange faces of bottles and nozzles should be checked for

parallelism across individual flanges and for gaps at any flange. A tolerance appropriate for the
gaskets in use should be used; a maximum of 0.02-inch gap or lack of parallelism should be
tolerable. If lens joints are used for high-pressure joints (e.g., in storage applications) the criteria
for gaps and alignment of the specific product should be used.
In addition to parallelism and gaps, the concentricity of holes on mating flanges should
be checked such that bolts can be readily installed.
It is noted that API Standard 686[7] has general recommendations regarding parallelism,
face separation, and flange-to-flange hole concentricity, and these are: (1) 1 mil per inch
maximum out of parallel for flange faces; (2) flange face separation equal to gasket thickness
plus or minus 1/16-inch; and (3) 1/16-inch maximum offset between pipe flange bolt holes and
nozzle bolt holes. For context to these criteria, the full API 686 document should be reviewed.
If the appropriate criteria are not met, the issues should be discussed and resolved
between the bottle supplier, compressor OEM, end user, installation contractor, and gasket
supplier, with rejection as an option.
With alignment satisfactorily checked, lower discharge bottle, install gaskets and
orifices, lift bottle into place, and tighten bolts, following appropriate sequence for
tightening.
Repeat previous alignment check and installation steps for suction bottle.
Check faces for parallelism (criteria discussed in Section 4.9.7.2.2) of any further
suction and discharge connections and address any violation of criteria.
Install clamp at first clamping point.
Connect compressor lateral to station headers; consider field welding to minimize
associated load.
4.9.8 ENSURE PIPING AND ALL BOTTLE CHAMBERS ARE THOROUGHLY CLEAN BEFORE
INSTALLATION AND OPERATION
The presence of dirt, foreign objects, and other contamination, in the piping and
compressor manifold system is proving a common start-up problem. Special care must be taken
to clean out the (Ncyl+1) chamber bottles recommended in these guidelines.
4.10 START-UP AND COMMISSIONING
4.10.1 GENERAL
A carefully executed startup process (summarized below) is as essential to the success of
the installation as any of the equipment selection, design, manufacture, and installation, which
brought the system to this point. Numerous checks of alignment and repeated adjustments are
listed, and these are critical steps in achieving successful long life operation.

4.10.2 PRIOR TO COUPLED OPERATION, PERFORM UNCOUPLED RUNS AND TESTS OF DRIVER
4.10.3 APPLY COMPRESSOR AND DRIVER CHECKLISTS

These must be obtained from the relevant OEMs for driver, compressor, coupling and
support systems (e.g., cooling, controls, ignition, monitoring, valves). These checklists should
be reviewed, understood, and implemented by those responsible. As an example, Ariel publishes
a substantial start-up checklist for their compressors on their website.
4.10.4 PERFORM START-UP WITH COMPRESSOR ON AN ADEQUATELY SIZED BYPASS

The need for an adequately sized bypass line has been stated under Section 4.6.2.18.
Without it, the consequences are likely to be frustrating shutdowns during start-up work. Once
start-up checks are satisfactorily completed on bypass, the unit should be loaded to a ratio typical
of expected operation in order for hot adjustments and checks to be made.
4.10.5 PERFORM APPROPRIATE HOT ALIGNMENT CHECKS ON MAIN EQUIPMENT

These checks should include hot coupling alignment and other checks recommended by
the driver, compressor, and coupling manufacturers as part of their start-up checklists, together
with supplementary web deflection checks, and optical or precision level checks for side-to-side
levelness, for frame twist along the axis, and for bending of the frame between bearings.
Adjustments to mounting should be made as needed to satisfy all these hot alignment checks.
4.10.6 CHECK AND RE-TIGHTEN ALL FRAME ANCHOR BOLTS ON DRIVER AND COMPRESSOR
ONCE HOT OPERATING CONDITIONS HAVE STABILIZED
It should be recognized that bolt loosening will occur as a result of initial creep and
relaxation, as a result of changes in temperature which change dimensions of bolts and material
compressed by the bolts, and as a result of decreases in modulus which occur with temperature
(the reduction in grout modulus between 70F and 120F may be as much as 30%, which causes
substantial bolt tension loss).
4.10.7 CONTINUE THE SHORT-TERM CHECK AND RETIGHTEN CYCLE FOR ANCHOR BOLTS
UNTIL CLEAR EVIDENCE OF DAY-TO-DAY REPEATABILITY IS OBTAINED
As has been emphasized several times in the guidelines, the holding capacity of
compressor and drive mounts is a direct function of anchor bolt tension and the friction force,
which it produces. The slipping, which will occur as soon as tension is lost, causes fretting
damage to mating surfaces; and even short-term loss of concrete compression by the anchor bolts
can lead to cracking. Thus, the discipline of anchor bolt tension maintenance, both short-term
and long-term, is critical.
4.10.8 CHECK AND ADJUST CROSSHEAD GUIDE SUPPORT SHIMS UNDER HOT CONDITIONS
These shims should be adjusted as needed to maintain crosshead bearing clearances and
to maintain concentricity between crosshead bearing and cylinder bore under hot conditions.

4.10.9 ADJUST WEDGES UNDER DISCHARGE BOTTLES WITH THE OPERATING TEMPERATURE
STABLE
The tie-bolts on all wedges should be carefully adjusted with Fabreeka in place, once the
unit has reached a stable, typical, operating temperature, and once compressor frame and
crosshead guide support hot adjustments have stabilized.
4.10.10 ADJUST HEAD END SUPPORTS UNDER HOT CONDITIONS, IF THE DESIGN INCLUDES
THEM
The head end supports should be adjusted after frame, crosshead guide, and discharge
bottle wedges have been adjusted hot. It is important that the head end support be effectively
and tightly attached to the cylinder, but it should not cause any changes in hot alignment.
Compressor OEMs generally provide guidance in their specifications for the proper adjustment
of head end supports (or outboard cylinder vibration suppression devices as they may be
called).
4.10.11 ADJUST SUCTION BOTTLE CLAMPS AND WEDGES ONCE STABLE OPERATING
CONDITIONS HAVE BEEN REACHED
These are the tie-downs used between the heavy (Ncyl+1) suction bottles and the frame
structure designed to support these suction bottles. Sound attachment of the suction bottles to
their supports is an essential part of the mounting system. Checking and adjusting this
attachment as needed is as important as the deign effort which led to this support being installed.
4.10.12 RIGOROUSLY CONFIRM THAT ALL WEDGES ON BOTH SIDES OF THE UNIT HAVE
BEEN PROPERLY ADJUSTED, INCLUDING THOSE BELOW FLOOR LEVEL
Wedges below grade will likely be used for block-mounted units, including those under
clamps and under the nozzles. Loose or missing bolts below floor level are more common than
above grade, but equally important to avoid!
The wedge supports are a critical element in the system mountingnot the only one, but
all wedges under clamps and under nozzles are an essential contributor to system integrity as
designed.
4.11 START-UP TESTING
4.11.1 GENERAL
Vibration testing is important, but must come at an appropriate time in the start-up
sequence. For vibration testing to be meaningful, the system should have passed all its initial
checks and hot alignments, adjustments, and a number of initial tightening and check cycles for
the anchor bolts. In other words, all mounts should be demonstrably tight and ready to operate,
and units should be aligned as they are expected to run.

4.11.2 SCOPE OF START-UP VIBRATION TESTING
4.11.2.1 As a General Guideline, Start-Up Vibration Testing Should Cover All Items
Which Can Impact Integrity and Should Cover a Representative Number of
Test Point Locations and Operating Conditions
Enough test points and conditions should be covered so that subsequent surprises are
minimized. The testing by a qualified expert can add cost, and this cost is influenced by the
range of test conditions required. To the extent possible, the scope of testing should be part of
the end users bid specifications. However, if during design and design analysis issues arise,
which will require more extensive testing than originally planned, this may require further
negotiation.
4.11.2.2 Linear Vibration Test Locations Should Include Foundation, Skid,

Compressor, Driver, Manifold Bottles, and Piping
4.11.2.3 The Start-Up Vibration Testing Process Should Cover the Range of Expected
Operating Conditions
Test conditions for a pipeline compressor should cover the range of speed (minimum to
maximum), loading, and unloading conditions. If single-acting operation is planned, this should
be included in the test condition matrix. If the range of loading or unloading conditions requires
the compression ratio across the compressor to be changed, the appropriate arrangements should
be made to pinch suction or to adjust compression capacity temporarily at upstream or
downstream stations.
Pipeline compressors are mostly large single-stage units. However, storage compressors
may be equally large and can have many of the same needs for integrity, but will likely have
more than one stage; testing for storage compressors should cover each stage combined with the
relevant range of loads and speeds. In addition, pressure differentials to achieve the required
loading may need to be arranged for the storage compressor during the test phase.
4.11.2.4 Vibration Testing Should Include Pulsations, Linear Vibrations, and

Torsional Vibrations As A Minimum
Appropriate test points should be defined for each of these measurements.
4.11.2.5 Vibration Testing Should Be Performed By a Verifiable Expert(s) in the Field
4.11.2.6 Based on the Vibration Testing Scope a Test Matrix Should Be Prepared
The step of preparing a test matrix will increase the efficiency of the testing by ensuring
plans are made to achieve all required test conditions. The third party, which will perform the
vibration test, should be involved in the planning process for test points and conditions. At the
same time, the flexibility to add documentary and diagnostic testing as indicated by initial results
should be preserved in the plan.

4.11.2.7 The Test Matrix Should Include a Number of Piping Dynamic Strain
Measurements
Dynamic strain is a more critical measure of vibration severity than vibration amplitude.
Vibration velocity correlates more directly with potential damage than displacement amplitude,
but strain is the most complete evaluator. The locations for strain measurements are best guided
by a survey of piping vibrations. The survey will indicate the weld locations most vulnerable
and the orientation with which the strain gage should be applied.
Again, the vibration testing third party should be involved in planning for dynamic strain
measurement.
As an alternative to strain gage testing immediately following vibration surveys, the
extent of vibration severity can be more fully evaluated and problem solutions sought before
strain gage testing is undertaken.
4.11.3 PERFORM START-UP VIBRATION TESTS ACCORDING TO TEST MATRIX, AND APPLY
APPROPRIATE VIBRATION AND PULSATION CRITERIA
There should be a pre-established and agreed to set of criteria for pulsations and for
vibration (torsional, linear). The criteria may differ depending on the location.
The third party undertaking the testing should be experienced and will most likely have
sound, defensible, criteria to apply to the test results. The compressor and engine OEM may also
have some guidelines for integrity of the equipment they provide. As an alternative, the
following provides some guidance as to levels beyond which some review and/or further
diagnostic evaluation is required:
Skid, engine block, compressor frame 0.4 IPS
Cylinders and piping 1.0 IPS
Pipe dynamic bending strain .. 100 Micro-strain
Pulsations criteria should be based on API 618 design limits (see Section 4.8.2).
For torsional vibrations, criteria should be obtained from References [16] and [21], or
based on specific, defensible criteria of OEMs and service providers.
4.11.4 EVALUATE ANY NON-COMPLIANCE BETWEEN TEST DATA AND CRITERIA

Such deviations should be critically evaluated for magnitude, for significance, for
consequence, and for the extent of need for corrective action. The evaluation should involve key
stakeholders involved and the organization involved in the related analysis. Safety is an essential
factor in all such evaluations.
4.11.5 DECIDE ON FURTHER DOCUMENTATION AND PROBLEM DEFINITION

The amplitude of vibration in itself does not directly cause failure; it is the relative
motion at bolted and sliding joints or the strains at welded joints, which actually cause failure or
damage by fatigue or fretting. The severity of these depends on the nature of the mode shape.
Vibration is more readily measured than strain, which is why it is widely used. Strain can be
inferred from vibration levels and models, or can be measured by strain gauges. On piping, the
strain gauges may be laid fairly readily near welded joints, such as at nozzle to bottle joints,

whereas on a rotating shaft laying the gauge, powering the gauge and extracting the signal are
substantially more complicated.
In general, more focused, and often more difficult measurements, are involved in
improving the definition of severity and in isolating and diagnosing causes. Experts should be
involved in the process.
Isolating the cause of a problem may also require more focused measurement and testing
under more specific conditions. Following further measurement and data acquisition, it may be
necessary to build and run a model, first to reproduce the offending phenomenon as defined by
the data, and then to evaluate the benefit of modifications in design or changes in operating
conditions. Case Study 1 has demonstrated such an application of modeling.
4.11.6 PERFORM ENGINE TESTING FOR HEAT RATE AND COMPRESSOR TESTING FOR
EFFICIENCY AND CAPACITY, IN ADDITION TO PERFORMING AND EVALUATING VIBRATION
TESTS
These performance tests are not the prime subject of these guidelines, but ultimately, the
reliable and efficient performance of the unit with long-term integrity provides a broad goal of
the compressor installation project and all aspects of this goal are important and related.
4.12 CORRECTIVE ACTION FOR HIGH VIBRATION
4.12.1 EVALUATE OPTIONS FOR CORRECTIVE ACTION

The effectiveness, cost, and schedule impact of potential corrective actions should be
evaluated as a basis for a decision.
The options for corrective action evaluated may involve the repeat of one or more
segments of the analytical studies to evaluate options previously considered or more wide
ranging options not previously considered. Options may involve pulsation control to lower
levels, with different filtering options or added orifice resistance, or added/stiffened restraints,
calculated acceptance of higher than desired vibration, or (undesirably) some operational
restrictions (in speed, unloading, transition between conditions, etc.).
The options discussed in Section 4.8.3.5 will be relevant for torsional vibration control, if
needed.
4.12.2 IMPLEMENT CORRECTIVE ACTION

Once decided, the chosen corrective action needs to be implemented and expedited, and
after implementation, the effectiveness should be quantified through further testing.
Such corrective action, and the processes which lead to it, can impact schedule and
project costs. It should be recognized first that few large pipeline compressor installations go in
with no start-up and commissioning problems; some cost to tidy up problems should be a routine
part of the budget. However, if all the other guidelines are followed effectively, the problems,
which do occur at start-up, should be readily manageable.

4.13 LONGER TERM OPERATION
The hoped-for satisfactory operation should be monitored closely during the initial weeks
and months. Records of vibration levels should be monitored and recorded by handheld devices
or a continuous monitoring system. Performance related quantities, such as temperature rise
across the cylinders, should be recorded as a function of compression ratio. Any inconveniences
of operation or maintenance should be noted. Anchor bolts should be periodically checked for
frame, skid, crosshead guide supports, and driver.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their appreciation to GMRC for management and support of
this important project, and to the generous co-funders: Ariel, Cat, CSI, El Paso, Kinder Morgan,
for making it possible; to Danny Deffenbaugh for his support, encouragement, and endless
availability for project discussions; to Julia Valle who spent so many hours, through numerous
drafts, bringing this documents presentation up to its current, highly professional standard; and
to Ralph Harris, Robert McKee, William Hosek, Benjamin White, and Christine Scrivner of
SwRI who provided their insight, knowledge, and experience whenever asked.
Especially mentioned are members of the advisory committee for the project: Randy
Raymer (El Paso), William Elston (CSI), Tom Stephens (Ariel), David Krenek (Cat),
George McKinney (Augusta), and Stan Borrell (Kinder Morgan), whose unique, first hand,
knowledge and advice has been generously (and frequently) provided whenever requested.
The authors have also been helped immeasurably by many good and generous friends
from the supplier and end user sectors of the industry, including: Richard Frogge, Jim Schulte,
and Joe Moreland of Siemens; Bill Angus and Mark Brackett of Cat; Keith Burley, Mead Weil,
Jim Delaney, Greg Phillippi, Kriss McDonald, and Greg Lortie of Ariel; Jorge Torres, Steve
Bevers, Greg Evans, Rich Browning, Tom Foote, and Doug Schminke of Kinder Morgan;
Matt Peterson, Don Crusan, and Evan Wingate of Nisource; Robert Goodenough,
Harold Herrman, William Couch, Kevin Johnson, Doug Cotter, Mitchell Mauch, Sherry Carr,
Winston Johnson, and Tom Garvin of El Paso; Claus Langer, Dink Green, and Danny Hughes of
Sempra; Bruce Howerton and Paul Mohan of Williams Transco; Pete Harrington of CSI;
Les Moore, Brad Goodwin, Andy Drake, and Eric Payne of Centerpoint; Kenny Gilbert of
Dominion; Bob Rowan and Charlie Rowan of R.L. Rowan and Associates; Eric Amundsen,
Arnold Eisenstein, and Mark Treybig of Panhandle; Gary Tas and Dave Anderson of Dresser-
Rand; Aaron Merritt of Cooper; Jim Pitts of AGL; Whitey Shaffer of Energy Transfer Partners;
Joe Baker of GE/Gemini; Terry Parker of WPS; Brian Howes and Shelley Greenfield of Beta
Machinery Analysis; and Bill Lee of Questar. These individuals and others have taken the time
to bring focused experience and advice to the guidelines preparation, addressing all segments of
the complex mounting and installation process.


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No. 95-M59, American Concrete Institute (ACI) Materials Journal, September-October
1998.
26. Mandke, J. S. and A. J. Smalley, Parameter Studies for Enhanced Integrity of
Reciprocating Compressor Foundation Blocks, Technical Assessment No. TA 94-1, Gas
Machinery Research Council, 1994.
27. Mandke, J. S. and Troxler, P. J., Dynamics of Compressor Skids, Technical Report No.
TR 92-2, Pipeline and Compressor Research Council, March 1992.
28. Mandke, J. S. and Smalley, A. J., Foundation Thermoelastic Distortion, Technical
Report No. 89-3, Pipeline and Compressor Research Council, March 1990.
29. Pantermuehl, P. J., and Smalley, A. J., Compressor Anchor Bolt Design, Technical
Report No. TR 97-6, Gas Machinery Research Council, December 1997.
30. Pantermuehl, P. J., and Smalley, A. J., Friction Tests - Typical Chock Materials and
Cast Iron, Technical Report TR 98-1, Gas Machinery Research Council, December
1998.
31. Renfro, E. M., Machinery Foundations and Grouting, Adhesive Services Company,
Houston, Texas, 1985.
32. Richart, F. E., Jr., Hall, J. R., Jr. and Woods, R. D., Vibrations of Soils and
Foundations, Prentice-Hall, 1970.
33. Singhal, A. C., Wachel, J. C., and Szenasi, F. R., Computation of Natural Frequencies of
Compressor Foundations Supported on Different Soils, Technical Report No. 132,
Pipeline and Compressor Research Council, July 1969.

34. Singhal, A. C., Wachel, J. C., Szenasi, F. R. and Ajax, F. M., Frame Foundations and
Soil Dynamics, Technical Report No. 142, Pipeline and Compressor Research Council,
July 1970.
35. Smalley, A. J.; Mandke, J. S., Pantermuehl, P. J. and Drummond, R. D., Reciprocating
Compressor Foundations: Loading, Design Analysis, Monitoring & Repair, Technical
Assessment No. TA 93-1, Gas Machinery Research Council, 1993.
36. Smalley, A. J., Crankshaft Protection: Guidelines For Operators Of Slow Speed Integral
Engine/Compressors, Technical Report No. TR 97-1, Gas Machinery Research Council,
1997.
37. Smalley, A. J. and Pantermuehl, P. J., Foundation Guidelines, Technical Report No.
TR 97-2, Gas Machinery Research Council, 1997.
38. Smalley, A. J. and Pantermuehl, P. J., Friction Tests Typical Chock Materials and Cast
Iron, Technical Report No. TR 97-3, Gas Machinery Research Council, 1997.
39. Smalley, A. J., Epoxy Chock Material Creep Tests, Technical Report No. TR 97-5, Gas
Machinery Research Council, 1997.
40. Smalley, A. J. and Pantermuehl, P.J., Realistically Assessing Load Severity on Concrete
Foundations and Mounting Systems for Large Reciprocating Compressors, ACI
Structural Journal, 95, 774-779.
41. Smalley, A. J., Crankshaft Failure Survey, Report to Members of the Crankshaft
Failure Control Consortium (SwRI Project 04-6426), April 1995.


APPENDIX A EXPERIENCE BASE PRESENTED AS 13 TABLES
Code To Experience Base Entries
S Service
ID Installation Details
CC Capacity Control Method(s)
DE Problem or Observation Related to Design/Engineering
T Problem or Observation Related to Transportation
I Problem or Observation during installation
SC Problem or Observation Related to Startup & Commissioning
IO Problem or Observation Related to Initial Operation
EO Problem or Observation related to Extended Operation (3Yrs+)
CA Corrective Action
C Comment
R Recommendation
SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page A-1

Table A-1. Experience Base Table
Phone/
Installation Written Entry Code
W Mainline Transportation S
2 8535 HP Motor Drive
Recips Ratio 1.13 to 1.55 (1.37 Avg); 720 RPM Fixed; 49% Utilization (2004) OC
2 7525 Gas Engine
Drive Recips Ratio 1.12 to 1.6 (1.29 Avg); 575 to 775 RPM; 45% Utilization (2004) OC
2 7700 Gas Engine
Drve Recips Ratio 1.05 to 1.42 (1.27 Avg); 575 to 775 RPM; 30% Utilization (2004) OC
2 8400 HP Motor Drive
Recips Ratio 1.14 to 1.45 (1.29 Avg); 720 RPM Fixed; 81% Utilization (2004) OC
Skid Mounted Driver & Compressor; Driver & Compressor on Steel Shims & Sole Plates & Anchor Bolted
to Skid; Skid Anchor Bolted & Grouted to Foundation; Pulsation Bottles & Piping Foundation Mounted with
Anchor Bolts; Pockets & Deactivators for Capacity Control ID
Pockets & Deactivators CC
Poor alignment of Compressor & Driver Assemblies I
Concerns about % of Grout Contact Under Skid I
Skid Installations not Level to Earth I
Several Skid Anchor Bolts not Properly Torqued upon installation I
Several pulsation bottle Anchor Bolts not Properly Torqued upon installation I
Several Anchor Bolt Torque tubes installed without top washer & Bottom Spherical Washer I
One Skid supported on some jack bolts -> alignment Issues I
High Vibrations Required Adding Orifices in each Compressor Nozzle SC, CA
Pulsation Bottles had to be modified because of higher than predicted stresses SC, CA
Bracing added between S-Bottles on Opposite Sides to Address a Vibration Mode SC, CA
Speed Restrictions imposed on engine drives to avoid Vibrations in certain Load steps SC, CA
Rod Reversal Issues requiredCrosshead Pin Re-Design IO
Loose Skid to Foundation Anchor Bolts; Broken Bottle Anchor Bolts IO
All Compressor & Drivers Re-aligned to reduce Crankshaft Stresses CA
Replaced Multiple thickness shims with solid shims CA
Bracing (Welded Plate) added to Anchor Bolt Torque Tubes on compressors & Electric Motors CA
Washers added to Avoid Anchor Bolt Torque Tubes Pulling into Bottom of Skid CA
Spherical washers added to Compressor & Motr Anchor Bolts to reduce Bending during Torquing CA
Long Term Concerns with elevated Vibration Levels on equipment & attached items EO
Ability to hold proper alignment of compressor & driver on skid is a concenr & is being monitored EO
Over Time 1+ Coupling Failures occurred; as yet undiagnosed EO
Traditional Foundation would potentially eliminate alignment issues & Provide more robust anchoring C&R

Table A-2. Experience Base Table (Continued)
Phone/
Cat 3612-JGK6 W Mainline Transmission S
Used existing foundation for LSV 12/JM-4 block mounted Compressor; new unit skid mounted on 36" I-
Beams & Concrete Filled Compressor Pedestal; Engine mounting incorporates Vibracon hardware with
Compressor grouted & Considered Stationary; Single stage unit; individual Bank Suction Scrubbers
mounted on independent skid bolted to foundation & main skid; Existing gas pipe modified to adapt to new
interconnects. ID
850 to 1000 RPM; Ratio 1.3 to 1.5; 44% Average Utilization from 8/04 to 6/05 OC
2 HE Unloaders; 4 Fixed Clearance Pockets CC
Existing Building & Infrastructure imposd size & height limits on Design DE
Had to Remove Engine to Transport T
At the onset Ingested Contaminants from existing header SC
Undersized Loading Bypass SC
Noted Suction Lateral Vibration & Small Piping Failures SC
Excess small Piping vibration & Subsequent Failures; Removed all unnecessary small piping, valves etc.; IO
Experienced Several RTD Failures on Compressor Lube Oil Piping
SwRI ran pulsation & spectral vibration with piping mods & pulsation bottle restraints recommended
Added bracing to dump lines IO
First Application of 13" CN compressor Cylinders; Cylinders have long indicator passages making it
impossible to analyze compressor cylinder performance due to channel resonance IO
Historically skid mounted units were applied to separable compressor packages, generally in the
gathering/processing arena. These types of project were generally short term and relatively low
horsepower =/< 1000. Such units were skid mounted to be hauled on oil field trucks and then tail
boarded onto the foundation. Economic factors lead to the advent of skid mounted units
considering installation and commissioning factors. Skid mounted units could be readily moved
and retrofit to meet new site specifications. C
As the demise of the integral horsepower market, demands increased on the high speed side.
Vendors applied what is now deemed an acceptable mounting practice which has roots in the oil
field with a different class of equipment. C
Now with units in 3, 4, to 10K HP range considerations are in order to review what has become
an accepted practice. Things to consider for application of this new class of equipment:
CG&Mass; Transfer of Forces; reduce Mech. Jts; 20 Year Term; Frequency bands; Pulsation;
Appurtenances & Mounting; Thermal growth; Maintenance Access; Frame Flexure; Loading &
Deactivation C&R
Larger HP units need to be installed on a foundation, providing for adequate mass and energy
transferal. As with skid mounted units these units could be mocked up in a fabrication facility
and then transferred to the location to be reassembled on a permanent foundation. R

Phone/
900 RPM, 4200 HP
Motor-JGC6 W Mainline Transportation SC
Compressor & Motor are Skid Mounted & Skid is Anchor Bolted to a Concrete Mat approximately 18
inches thick; D-Bottles supported by Wdges & Straps; Suction Bottle unsupported ID
Head End Deactivators CC
900 RPM; Ratio 1.267 (750 to 950); 98% utilization; OC
To Save Money we did no do a Torsional Vibration Study before Installation DE
Suction Nozzle Cracked in Gusset Welds IO

Suction & Discharge Bottles did not fit properly & Nozzle flange Bolt Holes had to be drilled Out Oversize
to line up I
Considerable Force from a Back Hoe & Dozer needed to pull on bottle Flange to make up the Joint I
After 1 Year Motor Shaft Fractured due to torsional fatigue; After Torsional Study Inertia Rings installed on
Crankshaft to detune IO, CA
2 additional Pipe Supports installed on Suction and Discharge Piping. IO, CA
Unit was found to be out of alignment & was regrouted on the skid IO, CA
The next Year 2 suction bottle nozzles cracked in the gusset welds; bottles were removed & repaired IO, CA
"So Far So Good" EO

Should not have allowed improper fitting Suction & Discharge Bottle to be installed (Should have been
sent back to Vendor & repaired. R
Initial Alignment should have bee verified by Company Inspector before releasing installation contractor R
Should not have attempted to commission unit without torsional vibration study R
7000 HP Motor Drive
JGC6 P Successful Installation Confirmed by Follow-Up Site O&M Contact I
Motors Shipped Separate; Disassembled Cylinders & Primary Bottles T
Single Point of Contact w/Packager Helps, streamlines, reduces cost C
Cat 3616 & Below should be Skid Mounted; R
You have to do the Engineering & Program Mgmt Right! DE

Phone/
5,000 HP Motor - JGC6 P Skid-Mounted ID
Lateral Line S
720 RPM OC
Forced Packager to use one shop Torsional/Pulsation Study DE
Used Geislinger Damper Coupling DE
Specified Reduced Speed (720 not 900 RPM) DE
No Significant Problems SC
No Significant Problems SC
Cat 3616 - JGC or D? P Prefer Convenience, Shop Environment, Specific Packager Experience for Skid Mount C
Have to Separate Skid & Engine to Transport T
For 8,000 HP unit would return to Installation methods for Large Integrals C
4,000 Motor-HOS P Need Better Access; have to stand on D-Bottle for S-Valve Maintenance IO
Need Better Communications - Engineering to Operations C
S-Bottle Cracking Around Nozzle-No Cyl. Support or way to add IO
Regular Failure of fasteners; High Cost of Maintenance IO
Recent Motor Bar Cracking IO
General P Have to add Bracing on almost Every 6 Throw C
Need to Address Cylinder End Support for Vertical Issues C
Would Like Comparable Bids from Packagers for 20 Year Project Life C
General P Anything over a Cat 3616 should be Block Mounted R
General P Need Guidelines which stop Vibration of our High Speed Separables C
Have Mounted some units on Compacted Gravel - "Not Again!" R
Cat 3608-Ariel JGD4 P Terrible Vibration Problems - Due to Unsatisfactory Skid Construction I
Cannot make it through a Shift without Something Breaking IO
Cat 3612 W Mainline Transportation S
3757 HP Skid Mounted ID
1000 RPM Ratio 1.4; Utilization 16.075% (2003) OC
RPM and Volume Pockets CC
Inlet Filter Collapsed during Commissioning - Compressor damage SC
Continuing PLC problems in Engine Panels EO
High Frequency Vibrations caused fittings & Piping to loosen;Bolted back down with rubber under fittings, SC &
pipe, etc. CA
Mounting Decisions would not have influenced any problems C

Phone/
Cat 3616 (4445 HP) W Mainline Transportation S
800 to 1000 RPM; Ratio 1.2 to 1.4; Utilization 67.5% OC
Volume Pockets CC
Very bad Pulsations; Orifice Plates Installed to dampen Vibrations; -> Decreased Compressor Efficiency SC
High rate of Compressor Valve Failures; IO
Problems Not Due to Mounting C
Cat 3616 (4750 HP) W Mainline Transportation S
800 to 1000 RPM; ratio 1.1 to 1.5; Utilization 90% OC
RPM, Volume Pockets, and Head End Deactivation CC
Package checked at fab Shop - Compressor frame not in alignment on skid; shipped with Frame not
premanently aligned; Skid Grouted in Place, then frame was precision aligned P&I
Initial Start-up was vibration Free SC
No problems Reported during initial or extended operation IO

Phone/
8000 HP Nominal W Main Line Transportation S
Synch Motor Drive 720 RPM; ratio 1.1 to 1.5; Utilization 90% OC
2 Units at each of 2
stations Compressor & Driver are Mounted on a common skid ID
Contractor did not adequately level the skid during initial Installation; compresssor frames were mounted
on skids using soft foot to check for alignment I
Units had higher than expected vibration and pulsation. Much of the vibration has been tied to
bottle design. Infinite step capacity control also contributes to high vibration. SC
It took considerable time to identify and understand the vibration patterns and how to operate
around the worst conditions. IO
All units have been realigned on the skids. The units have been aligned so that the crank shaft is
straight, but the frame is not necessarily level. EO, CA
Could any of the problems encountered have been influenced by the choice of Mounting*, or
mitigated by a different mounting approach? - No. Even though these units are skid mounted,
the size dictated that the final installation had to occur on site. The skid, driver and compressor
frame were all shipped separately to the location and final assembly occurred on site. Lesson
learned, any skid mounted unit, whether mounted in the shop or on site, the frame must be
properly aligned on site. Soft foot is not an acceptable method. The skid design must provide a
means of making precision alignment adjustments of the frame in the field. Provisions for
mounting bolt stretch must be provided to achieve proper clamping forces. C
Two of these units have had the pulsation bottles replaced. During the replacement, the
compressor frame was precision aligned and leveled. It is too soon to reach conclusions, but
early indications are that the new bottle design has greatly reduced vibrations on the unit. Piping,
frame, and skid vibrations are at much lower levels than the initial installation. EO

Phone/
8000 HP Nominal Mainline Transportation S

Wartsila 18V34SG gas
Engine Drive Compressor & Driver Mounted on common skid ID
2 Units at each of 3
stations 575-775 RPM; ratio 1.1. to 1.5; Utilization 90% OC
RPM; Volume Pockets; Head End Cylinder deactivation CC
Contractor did not adequately level the skid during initial Installation; compresssor frames were mounted
on skids using soft foot to check for alignment I
Units had higher than expected vibration and pulsation. Much of the vibration has been tied to
bottle design. SC
It took considerable time to identify and understand the vibration patterns and how to operate
around the worst conditions. IO
All units have been realigned on the skids. The units have been aligned so that the crank shaft is
straight, but the frame is not necessarily level. EO, CA
Could any of the problems encountered have been influenced by the choice of Mounting, or
mitigated by a different mounting approach? - No. Even though these units are skid mounted,
the size dictated that the final installation had to occur on site. The skid, driver and compressor
frame were all shipped separately to the location and final assembly occurred on site. Lesson
learned, any skid mounted unit, whether mounted in the shop or on site, the frame must be
properly aligned on site. Soft foot is not an acceptable method. The skid design must provide a
means of making precision alignment adjustments of the frame in the field. Provisions for
mounting bolt stretch must be provided to achieve proper clamping forces. C&R

Phone/
Ariel JGV6 Storage S
2 Stages; 9.75 & 6.5" bore on stages 1 & 2; 563 to 750 RPM; Ratio Varies - generally 1.4 to 2.3
Cat G16CM34 Drive per stage; Utilization expected 25% OC
Operate to match compressed volumes with nominated volumes; using RPM, Clearance Pockets,
8180 HP at 77F Suction pressure set points CC
Engine manufactured in Rostock Germany; Some language difficulties with prints, manuals, etc.
7670 HP at 104F US Cat Support pretty good P
Shipping from Germany must be well cooordinated with appropriate allowances for ocean &
customs transit time T
No significant problems. The engine was shipped from Rostock Germany to New Iberia, La via
LASH barge, then trucked from Port of Iberia to the job site. T
Significant engineering studies performed by Tech Transfer to ensure foundation, mounting, sole
plates, and other mounting issues were properly designed. The unit is not operational at this
writing so there has been no physical verification of the adequacy of the design. DE
Installation is ongoing. No significant issues with installation to date other than the Geislinger
coupling had to be machined in the field to provide clearance for Caterpillar flywheel mounting
bolts. I
Startup & Commissioning not complete as of this writing SC
Added Comments after Commissioning: There are many skid mounted units in our industry with
marginal torsional, vibration, and pulsation characteristics which often result in long term headaches for
the operator. The block mounted Cat/Ariel installed at JISH appears to be a very stable unit that should
cause little trouble during the operating life of the unit. Vibrations and resulting shaking forces are certainly
within acceptable levels. Adequately designed and sized pulsation bottles and secondary volume bottles
have resulted in good pulsation response. The driver is mounted on vibracons so I am interested in how
they perform over the long haul time will tell. C
I think the extreme service of 700 psi suction and 3325 discharge conditions would be difficult for a skid
mounted unit not to mention the need to ship the driver and compressor as separate pieces to be
installed on a skid in the field. Adequately designed pulsation bottles and volume bottles might be more
difficult on a skid mount. I think the block mount will result in a better installation for the long haul than a
skid mount for this size unit.. C

Phone/
4500 HP Reliance
Motor driven Ariel JGD6 P "Complex"; Storage; Market Flow Transportation; or Combination S
1200 RPM (Fixed); single and 2 stage Operation (See Figure) OC
Pocket Unloaders CC
A shim pack coupling was used between Driver and Compressor ID
Foundation block was mounted on a thick (3 Foot) concrete sub-floor; Block about 33 feet long & 14 foot
wide at widest under compressor; 10 feet wide under motor and 9 feet wide near end; Block height varied
between 2'6" and 3'4" to achieve same level senterlines of motr and compressor. ID
Compressor and motor mounted on a common skid; skid in 3 sections; center section under the
compressor filled with concrete; included holes through the concrete to assure grout flow to space
between skid concrete and block; the entire skid was grouted to the block ID
Skid I-beams were 2'6" tall; Motor also had a 7" platform. ID
Suction Bottles had extra weight and length abd required extra support; were supported off the concrete
block - as were the discharge bottles ID
Skid was set below floor grade; IE they had a grade floor at the level of top of skid ID
Mounting design Objective was to get skid, block & sub-floor stiff enough to transfer loads DE
SwRI did pulsation & Mechanical Vibration study and piping thrermal study DE
Serious Torsional Problems; failing oil pump drives at end of shaft; Ariel worked hard to solve problems
and went well out of their way; they came up with a modified chain drive for the oil pumps SC&CA
Other Minor Vibration Problems; but expect that such minor things will require tuning on most installations SC
To control suction side vibration they ended up tieing the suction bottle suppoprts on the two sides
together with a brace. SC&CA
Ran into rod reversal problems and associated bearing failures as a result of transitioning between
operating states; have learned how to operate around these problems IO
A cearer definition is needed for the content of a torsional study to avoid the problems experienced C&R
With such a complex operation it is necessary to consider not just steady operating condiitons, but how to
transition between them and avoid such problems as rod reversal C&R
With this complex a system & operation not having the added complexity of a VFD or infinite step
unloaders was a benefit C&R

Phone/
General P If you install medium or high speed compression for mainline you have to do it right C&R
(Panel of Experts) Skid Mounting has benefits: It gets as much as possible done in a shop with a single point of contact C&R
With Block Mounting you have to do much more in the field & Organize people to do it C&R
Separables have narow frames - the skid spreads the footprint so the concrete has a better ability to
handle the dynamic loads without high tensile stresses C&R
Even if you do block Mount you need a "Mini-Skid" for the Oil System C&R
The panel's past Experience in the 1980s with block mounting high speed separables says do not do it
again C&R
Also never skid Mount an integral! R
The skid needs to be filled with 5,000 or 6,000 PSI grout; with this weight you start to approach the
characteristics of a concrete block C&R
The skid needs to be wide enough to spread the load C
Put the skid (and discharge Bottles) below floor grade; this combines floor mass with the skid mass; it
also gives you a floor level at or near the height of the top of the skid C&R
You need to allow for a good size crane for future maintenance & lifting of heavy components C&R
The decision whether to put bottles on the skid or separately support them is situation specific C

Phone/
3608-JGD4 SwRI Mainline S
Skid Mounted; Skid grouted to concrete block; Woods Form-Flex Coupling; ID
D-Bottles on Skid; Compressor on High Pedestal as result; heavy I-beam Structure spanning 2 cylinders
to which stiff guide suports are mounted ID
Head End Supports for Cylinders, bolted to skid, no anchor bolts ID
Bottle wedges small and not directly under nozles
Engine has 3 feet per side (using middle foot option); each foot on Vibracons sitting on unwelded plate -
led to a soft foot apparently from plate wobble ID
High Vertical Vibrations developed on several cylinders - over 1.3 IPS IO
Engine frame vibrating Horizontally to 0.78 IPS near midel foot IO
Replaced wedges with stouter wedges directly under nozzles and clamps; More Wider Clamps;
Essentially eliminated high vertical Vibration of Cylinders CA
Made Engine Support plates one per Vibracon; elimi nated soft foot and cut vibrations in half CA
3616-JGU6 SwRI Mainline; Ps=900 Pd=1100 PSIG; 850 to 1000 RPM S

Skid Mounted; Skid main beams grouted to concrete block ID
Outriggers extending outwards from main beams have long unsupported spans ID
3 chamber primary suction bottle - free standing ID
4 Chamber Discharge bottle - mounted off main skid, but with no clamps ID
High pulsations in nozzles - to 74 PSI suction and 63 psi discharge SC
High Vibrations on Bottles and piping to 2 Ips or more SC
512 microstrain measured on piping - exceeds SwRI criterion where failues have been observed by factor
of 2.5 SC
New Pulsation Analysis performed by SwRI - led to modifications including 4 Chamber suction bottle CA
Rugged Structural support added for 4 Chamber Suction bottle CA
Clamps added to discharge botttle CA
Vibrations reduced - worst case 0.67 IPS on suction lateral

Phone/
Various-1 W Grout Voids were found from installation on a unit which exhibited High Vibrations I
After removing unit & regorituing the unit performed fine CA
Suction Pulsation Bottle Vibration led to cracking; Bottle wall thickness met pressure requirements, but
Various-2 W was too thin from structural considerations SC
A thicker walled bottle solved the problem CA
Various-3 W Vibrations occurred on a unit which had been studied for pulsations SC
The problem turned out to be single acting operation which had not been considered in Study SC
High Vibrations have occurred because needed bottle suppoprts called for and supplied by the packager
Various-4 W were not installed or were allowed to become loose I
Wrong Assumptions made about compressor and cylinder Configuration in absence of data led to high
Various-5 W vibration of compressor manifold system and cylinders. DE
Addition of a very heavy crosshead guide support cured the problem CA
Various-6 W High Vibration I

Loosening of Hold Down Bolts I
Loosening of Other Structural fasteners I
Other Consequential Damage I
Cause: Improper alignment of frame, guides, cylinders, and C
Neglect of Thermal Expansion and Overhung weight Deflections C

Phone/
5 Units, each 3616-JGD6 P Mainline with input from 5 Pipelines (See Diagram Below) S
Skid Mounted; Skid grouted on Substantial Concrete Block; D-Bottles off skid and robustly mounted on
Block ID
Compressor Mounted on Low Pedestal - leading to Low CG ID
Block is 5' 6" thick; skid was mounted on the Block and grouted in place with 4 foot anchor bolts; The skid
from CSI was filled with Concrete & weighed over 200,000 Lb ID
Pulsation Analysis by SwRI; Skid & Foundation design by Tech Transfer ID
Primary & Secondary pulsation filter Bottles on Suction and Discharge ID
Secondary Bottles very Robustly Mounted to Specially Designed Suppport Structure ID
Little or no problems occureed with this installation. Some Bolt Holes had to be ovalized in secondary
bottle mounting clamps to accommodate motion SC
Photographs of Installation used to illustrate various Skid Mounting Recommendadtions in Sec 2 C
Uncompromising attention to details & interfaces by End User's Project Engineer and Packager led to
successful installation C


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SYSTEMS MOUNTING

GUIDELINES FOR SEPARABLE

SwRI Project No. 18.12083.01.401

Gas Machinery Research Council

SwRI Project No. 18.12083.01.401

Gas Machinery Research Council

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page ii

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................. ii

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page iv

1.4.4Growth of the Skid Mounted Packaged Compressor ...................................... 8

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page v

2.3.6 Vertical Vessel Weight and Inertia Forces..................................................... 33

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page vi

End User Responsibility .............................................................................. 118

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page vii

4.7.1Overview and Basic Requirements ............................................................. 167

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page viii

4.10.9 Adjust Wedges Under Discharge Bottles with the Operating

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page ix

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page x

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xi

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xii

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xiii

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xiv

Figure 4-38 Schematic of Alternative Adjustable Mount Patent Pending (Courtesy

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xv

Table 2-1 Typical Compressor Heights From Under-Surface of Feet to Crankshaft

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xvi

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page xvii

This document has four main sections:

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page 1

1.2 SCOPE OF GUIDELINES

1.3 DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page 2

1.3.4 THE PACKAGER

1.3.5 INTEGRAL ENGINE COMPRESSOR

1.3.6 HIGH SPEED DRIVER WITH LOW SPEED SEPARABLE COMPRESSOR

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page 3

1.3.8 ANCHOR BOLTS

1.3.9 CANISTER BOLT

1.3.11 MOUNTING PLATE

1.3.12 SOLE PLATE

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page 4

1.3.15 CROSSHEAD GUIDE

1.3.16 CROSSHEAD GUIDE SUPPORT

1.3.18 GROUT BOX

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page 5

1.3.22 DOUBLE SPHERICAL WASHER

1.3.23 GROUT EXPANSION JOINT

1.3.24 TWO-PIECE ANCHOR BOLT

1.3.25 GROUT HEAD BOX

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page 6

1.3.27 PRECISION SHIMS

1.3.28 HEAD END SUPPORT

1.4 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1.4.1 SLOW SPEED COMPRESSORS

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page 7

1.4.2 THE CURRENT CHOICE OF MEDIUM AND HIGH SPEED COMPRESSORS

1.4.3 PERFORMANCE IMPLICATIONS

1.4.4 GROWTH OF THE SKID MOUNTED PACKAGED COMPRESSOR

SwRI Project 18.12083.01.401 Page 8

1.4.5 STANDARDS FOR PACKAGED COMPRESSION EQUIPMENT