SURFACE CHEMISTRY

By:
Aashrith Vennelakanti
EE15B002
Index
1 Introduction 3
2 Adsorption 3
2.1 Mechanisms of Adsorption 3
2.2 Differences between Physisorption and Chemisorption 4
2.3 Adsorption Isotherms The Freundlich Isotherm 4
2.4 Adsorption Isotherms The Langmuir Isotherm 5
2.5 Adsorption from Solution Phase 6
2.6 Applications of Adsorption 6
3 Catalysis 6
3.1 Adsorption Theory of Heterogenous Catalysis 7
3.2 Enzyme Catalysis 7
4 Colloids 8
4.1 Differences between Lyophilic and Lyophobic Sols 9
4.2 Multimolecular, Macromolecular and Associated Colloids 9
4.3 Preparation of Colloids 10
4.3.1 Chemical Methods 10
4.3.2 Bredig's Arc Method 10
4.3.3 Peptization 10
4.4 Purification of Colloids 11
4.4.1 Dialysis 11
4.4.2 Ultrafiltration 11
4.5 Properties of Colloids 11
4.5.1 Tyndall Effect 11
4.5.2 Brownian Movement 12
4.5.3 Charge on Colloidal Particles 12
4.5.4 Electrophoresis 13
4.5.5 Coagulation 13
4.6 Emulsions 14
4.7 Applications of Colloids 14
5 References 14
1 Introduction
Surface chemistry is the study of phenomena occuring on surfaces or interfaces (the
common boundary between two surfaces) such as corrosion, catalysis and crystallization.
We will study about the phenomenon of adsorption, types of adsorption, adsorption
isobars and isotherms in the next section.

2 Adsorption
Adsorption is the accumulation of molecular species at the surface, rather than in the bulk
of a solid or liquid (as in the case of absorption). The molecular species that gets
accumulated at the surface of the solid or liquid is called adsorbate and the solid or liquid
on whose surface the adsorbate gets accumulated i.e. adsorption happens, is called
adsorbent. The adsorbate is usually gaseous or liquid. The reverse process of adsorption is
called desorption.
Sorption is used to describe absorption and adsorption taking place simultaneously in a
system.

Adsorption and desorption of the

red particles (adsorbate) to and
from the yellow surface (adsorbent).

2.1 Mechanisms of Adsorption

Adsorption occurs due to the different environment the surface particles of the adsorbent
are having compared to the bulk. In the bulk, each particle is in equilibrium due to being
surrounded by similar particles. On the surface, the particles have residual attractive forces
because they are not completely surrounded by similar particles. The residual attractive
forces are responsible for adsorption. The extent of adsorption increases with increase in
surface area per unit mass at a given pressure and temperature.
Since adsorption involves the attraction of adsorbate to the surface of the adsorbent, heat
is released. Hence there is a decrease in enthalpy of the system i.e. H < 0. Also when
gaseous adsorbate is adsorbed on the adsorbent, the freedom of movement of adsorbate
molecules decreases. Hence the entropy of the system decreases i.e. S < 0. Therefore the
change in Gibbs free energy for adsorption, G = H TS, can be negative for sufficiently
high negative H as -TS is positive, making the process spontaneous. As adsorption
proceeds, H becomes less negative till it equals TS, making G = 0, which corresponds to
equilibrium.
There are mainly two types of gaseous adsorption on solid surfaces physisorption and
chemisorption. Physisorption is due to weak van der Waals' interactions between the
adsorbate and adsorbent whereas chemisorption is due to chemical interactions (ionic or
covalent bonds) between the adsorbate and adsorbent. Let us see the key differences
between the two types of adsorption in the following page.
2.2 Differences between Physisorption and Chemisorption
The key differences between physisorption and chemisorption are:
S.No Physisorption Chemisorption
1 Physisorption arises due to van der Waals' Chemisorption arises due to ionic or covalent
forces. bonds.
2 An adsorbent is not specific towards a An adsorbent is highly specific towards a
particular adsorbate(s). particular adsorbate(s).
3 Gases with higher critical temperature get Gases that can react with the adsorbent get
adsorbed more easily. adsorbed.
4 Physisorption is reversible. Chemisorption is irreversible.
5 Enthalpy of adsorption is low. Enthalpy of adsorption is high.
6 Lower temperatures favour physisorption. Higher temperatures favour chemisorption, till
Physisorption decreases with increase in a certain temperature. Chemisorption
temperature. increases with increase in temperature, until
the certain temperature, after which
chemisorption decreases with increase in
temperature.
7 No appreciable activation energy is High activation energy is sometimes needed
needed (physisorption is fast). (chemisorption is sometimes slow).
8 Physisorption can result in multiple layers Chemisorption always results in a single layer
(multimolecular layers) of adsorbate, (unimolecular layer) of adsorbate.
under high pressures.

Below are the isobars (graph under constant pressure) of physisorption and chemisorption,
where x/m is the mass of adsorbate adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent.

2.3 Adsorption Isotherms The Freundlich Isotherm

The Freundlich isotherm gives a relation between the amount of gaseous adsorbate
adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent and the equilibrium pressure of the adsorbate. The
relation (called the Freundlich equation) is
x/m = kp1/n
where x/m is the mass of adsorbate adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent, p is the
equilibrium pressure of the adsorbate, n is a number greater than 1 and k is a constant of
 appropriate dimensions.
At low pressures, p1/n p, so the relation between x/m and p is approximately linear.
If we take logarithm on both sides of the Freundlich equation, we get
log(x/m) = log(k) + (log(p)/n)
Below is the graph for the above equation.

The graph of log(x/m) = log(k) + (log(p)/n)

is a straight line with slope 1/n and
vertical axis intercept log(k).

The Freundlich isotherm holds good over a limited range of pressure.

2.4 Adsorption Isotherms The Langmuir Isotherm

For obtaining the Langmuir isotherm at a particular temperature, one assumes the
adsorbate to be an ideal gas. The rate of adsorption is assumed to be proportional to the
fraction of surface area of the adsorbent that is not occupied by the adsorbate. Likewise,
the rate of desorption is assumed to be proportional to the fraction of surface area of the
adsorbent that is occupied by the adsorbate. Equilibrium is reached when the rate of
adsorption is equal to the rate of desorption. The equation concerning the equilibrium
between adsorption and desorption is
A(g) + B AB
where A is the adsorbate, B is the adsorbent and AB is A adsorbed on B. The rates of
adsorption, ra, and desorption, rd, are given by
ra = kaP(1 - )
rd = kd
where is the fraction of surface of adsorbent that is occupied by the adsorbate, P is the
pressure of A, ka and kd are the rate constants for adsorption and desorption respectively.
Adsorption is the forward reaction and desorption is the backward reaction.
At equilibrium, ra = rd. That is,
kaP(1 ) = kd
ka/kd = K = /(P(1 - )) (I)
where K is the equilibrium constant of the adsorption-desorption reaction.
Rearranging the terms in (I), we get
= KP/(1 + KP)
The above equation gives the Langmuir isotherm.
When KP << 1, then KP, which means that the extent of adsorption is approximately
proportional to the pressure. When KP >> 1, then 1, which means that almost all the
 surface of the adsorbent is occupied and the extent of adsorption is nearly independent of
pressure.

2.5 Adsorption from Solution Phase

Solids can adsorb solutes from solutions too. The extent of adsorption of the solute, like the
extent of physisorption of gases, increases with increase in surface area and decreases with
increase in temperature. Solute adsorption also depends on the concentration of the solute
in the solvent, and the nature of the adsorbent and the adsorbate.
The isotherm governing solute adsorption is similar to the Freundlich isotherm. The
concerning equation is
x/m = kC1/n
where C is the concentration of the solute in solution.

2.6 Applications of Adsorption

Adsorption has a number of applications. Some of them are listed below:
1. Charcoal can be used to adsorb remaining traces of air from a vessel evacuated by a
vacuum pump to achieve high vacuum.
2. Silica and aluminium gels are used for removing moisture and controlling humidity.
3. Heterogenous catalysis (discussed in next section) involves the reactants getting adsorbed
on the catalyst surface and increasing the rate of the reaction.
4. Inert gases can be separated by adsorption on coconut charcoal at different temperatures
due to the difference in degrees of adsorption of the gases on coconut charcoal.
5. There are a number of drugs that use adsorption to kill germs.

3 Catalysis
Catalysis is the process of changing the rate of a reaction by a foreign substance. The
foreign substance is termed catalyst and is qualitatively unchanged by the end of the
reaction. Catalysts can either increase or decrease the rate of a reaction. Positive catalysts
increase the rate whereas negative catalysts decrease the rate. Whenever one says
catalyst, one usually refers to a positive catalyst. One usually needs a small amount of
catalyst to accelerate a reaction. Catalysts may take part in a reaction, but must be
regenerated by the end of the reaction.
A promoter enhances a catalyst's activity, whereas a poison reduces a catalyst's activity. For
example, molybdenum acts as a promoter for iron which is used as a catalyst in the
preparation of ammonia (Haber's process).
There are two types of catalysis homogenous catalysis and heterogenous catalysis.
Homogenous catalysis has the reactants and the catalyst in the same phase whereas
heterogenous catalysis has the reactants and the catalysts in different phases.
Examples of homogenous catalysis are the oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide
with a nitrogen oxide as the catalyst and the acidic hydrolysis of an ester, where the acid is
the catalyst. The catalyst takes part in the reaction and gets regenerated by the end.
Examples of heterogenous catalysis are the production of ammonia from hydrogen and
nitrogen with iron as the catalyst, the oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide with
 platinum as the catalyst, and the hydrogenation of vegetable fats with finely divided nickel
as the catalyst.

3.1 Adsorption Theory of Heterogenous Catalysis

The old adsorption theory of catalysis stated that the reactants get adsorbed on the surface
of the catalyst, increasing the concentration of the reactants on the catalyst's surface,
increasing the rate of the reaction. Adsorption, being an exothermic process, releases heat
that would be utilized in the reaction.
The modern adsorption theory involves five steps. They are:
1. Diffusion of reactants to the surface of the catalyst.
2. Adsorption of reactant molecules on the surface of the catalyst.
3. Occurence of the reaction on the surface of the catalyst through the formation of an
intermediate.
4. Desorption of reaction product molecules from the surface of the catalyst, making the
catalyst's surface available for further reactions to occur.
5. Diffusion of product molecules away from the surface of the catalyst.
Below is a diagram representing an addition reaction between two molecules A and B by
the use of a catalyst that adsorbs A and B, forming an intermediate, forming the product
(AB), which desorbs from the surface of the catalyst.

3.2 Enzyme Catalysis

Enzymes are nitrogenous organic compounds which act as catalysts in various natural
processes. Enzymes are highly effective, and specific to one reaction. The effectiveness of
an enzyme increases as temperature increases till an optimum temperature is reached,
after which the effectiveness decreases as temperature increases. Enzymes are most active
at an optimum pH, which is usually between 5 7.
Enzymatic activity is increased in the presence of co-enzymes, like vitamins. Activators
are metal ions that increase the catalytic activity of enzymes when weakly bonded to them.
Enzymatic activity is reduced in the presence of inhibitors and poisons. Inhibitors and
poisons can often completely destroy the catalytic activity of an enzyme.
The mechanism of enzyme catalysis can be described with a lock-and-key model. The
enzyme has active centres which bind with the substrate (the reactant), forming an
activated complex, which decomposes to the products and the enzyme. Below is a diagram
describing the lock-and-key model of enzyme catalysis.
 Note that the activated
complex (enzyme/substrate
complex) first turns into an
enzyme/product complex
which then decomposes to the
product and the enzyme.

4 Colloids
Colloids are heterogenous systems which have two phases a phase consisting of very fine
particles called the dispersed phase which is dispersed in the other phase, which is called
the dispersion medium. The size of particles of the dispersed phase ranges from 1 to 1000
nm.
Colloids can be classified in three ways:
1. Based on the physical states of the dispersed phase and dispersion medium
2. Based on the interactions between the dispersed phase and dispersion medium
3. Type of particles of the dispersed phase.
Colloids can be classified based on the physical states of the dispersed phase and dispersion
medium. Gases do not form colloids with other gases as two gases when mixed form a
homogenous system. Below is a table listing the types of colloids along with their typical
names and some examples.
Dispersed Phase Dispersion Medium Type of Colloid Examples
Solid Solid Solid Sol Gemstones
Solid Liquid Sol Paints
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, Dust
Liquid Solid Gel Cheese, Jellies
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Mayonnaise, Butter
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, mist
Gas Solid Solid Sol Pumice
Gas Liquid Foam Froth, soap lather

Based on the interactions between the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium,
colloidal sols can be classified into lyophilic (liquid loving) sols and lyophobic (liquid hating)
sols. Lyophilic sols can be reconstituted by adding the dispersion medium to the dispersed
phase, after the two phases are separated. Hence lyophilic sols are reversible. Lyophobic
sols cannot be reconstituted by adding the dispersion medium to the dispersed phase; they
must be prepared by unconventional methods. Hence lyophobic sols are irreversible. The
key differences between lyophilic and lyophobic sols are given in the next page.
4.1 Differences between Lyophilic and Lyophobic Sols
Below are the key differences between lyophilic and lyophobic sols.
S. No Lyophilic Sols Lyophobic Sols
1 Lyophilic sols are reversible. Lyophobic sols are irreversible.
2 They are easy to prepare, by simply adding They must be prepared by unconventional
the dispersion medium to the dispersed methods.
phase.
3 They are relatively stable as there are forces They are less stable due to lack of
of attraction between the dispersion interactions between the dispersion
medium and dispersed phase. medium and dispersed phase.
4 They have higher viscosity than that of the They have nearly the same viscosity as that
dispersion medium. of the dispersion medium.
5 They have lower surface tension than that They have nearly the same surface tension
of the dispersion medium. as that of the dispersion medium.
6 Examples are sols of gelatin, gum and Examples are sols of As2S3, gold, and
starch. Fe(OH)3.

4.2 Multimolecular, Macromolecular and Associated Colloids

Colloids can be classified on the basis of the type of particles of the dispersed phase, into
three types multimolecular, macromolecular and associated colloids.
1. Multimolecular Colloids: The dispersed phase consists of particles that are formed by the
aggregation of a large number atoms or smaller molecules. For example, a gold sol contains
particles of various sizes, formed by the aggregation of gold atoms.
2. Macromolecular Colloids: The dispersed phase consists of large molecules whose size is
between 1 nm and 1000 nm (the colloidal range). For example, the sol of starch dispersed
in water is a macromolecular colloid.
3. Associated Colloids (Micelles): Some molecules that are electrolytes at low concentrations
aggregate and form particles called micelles whose size is in the colloidal range when
present in higher concentrations. The dispersed phase of associated colloids consists of
micelles. Micelles form only at a temperature higher than a particular temperature called
Kraft temperature (Tk) and above a particular concentration called critical micelle
concentration (CMC). On dilution of the colloid, micelles turn back into ions.
The cleansing action of soaps and detergents is due to micelle formation. Soap is sodium or
potassium salts of fatty acids like stearic acid. A soap molecule may be represented by
RCOO-Na+, where R is an alkyl group. Soap dissolved in water dissociates to RCOO - and Na+.
The RCOO- anion consists of a hydrophobic alkyl group 'R' (non-polar tail) and a
hydrophilic COO- group (polar-ionic head).
The RCOO- ions have their polar head closer to water and their non-polar tail away from
water. At CMC, the ions aggregate into a spherical shape in such a way that the alkyl tails
point towards the centre of the sphere and the COO- groups point away from the centre
and on the surface of the sphere.
Soaps clean by forming micelles around oil droplets on dirty surfaces and pulling them into
water, with each micelle consisting of the hydrophobic tails pointing into the droplet and
 the hydrophilic heads pointing out of the droplet. As the hydrophilic heads point out of the
droplet, they can interact with water molecules and pull the droplet into water and remove
it from the dirty surface.

The cleansing action of soap

is described pictorially on the
left half on the image and the
structure of a soap micelle on
the right half.

4.3 Preparation of Colloids

Here are some methods of preparation of colloids.

4.3.1 Chemical Methods

Colloids can be prepared by the formation of molecules by reactions like double
decomposition, oxidation, reduction or hydrolysis. The molecules formed aggregate to form
sols.
SO2 + 2H2S 3S(sol) + 2H2O
2AuCl3 + 3HCHO + 3H2O 2Au(sol) + 3HCOOH + 6HCl
FeCl3 + 3H2O Fe(OH)3(sol) + 3HCl

4.3.2 Bredig's Arc Method

Lyophobic metal sols like gold and silver sols can be prepared by Bredig's arc method. This
method involves passing an electric arc between electrodes of the metal whose sol is to be
formed. The electric arc disperses some of the metal from the electrodes by vapourization,
after which the vapourized metal condenses to form particles of colloidal size.

Bredig's arc method.

4.3.3 Peptization
Peptization is the method of converting a precipitate into a colloidal sol by shaking it with
dispersion medium in the presence of a small amount of electrolyte. During peptization,
the precipitate adsorbs some of the ions of the electrolyte on its surface. This causes
 development of opposing charges on the precipitate, causing it to break down into particles
of colloidal size.

4.4 Purification of Colloids

Colloids can be purified with various methods. Some are outlined below.

4.4.1 Dialysis
Dialysis can be described as the process of removal of a dissolved substance by means of
diffusion through a suitable membrane. One can use a cellophane sheet or an animal
membrane to remove ionic impurities from a colloid. Dialysis can be sped up by applying an
electric field if the dissolved impurity is an electrolyte. Such a process is called
electrodialysis. The apparatus for dialysis and electrodialysis are given below.

Dialysis (left) and electrodialysis (right).

Crystalloid here refers to the ions.
Prolonged dialysis can cause the colloid to become unstable and become a precipitate.

4.4.2 Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration is the method of purifying colloids by the use of special filters which do not
let colloidal particles go through, as normal filters let colloidal particles through. The pores
in a normal filter can be reduced by impregnating them with colloidion solution, which
make them block colloidal particles.

4.5 Properties of Colloids

Below are some important properties of colloids.

4.5.1 Tyndall Effect

The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light by colloids. When a beam of light is passed
through a colloidal solution and is viewed at right angles to the direction of the light beam,
then a cone of light is observed, which is termed as the Tyndall cone. Tyndall effect is
observed appreciably if the diameter of the dispersed particles is not much smaller than
the wavelength of light passed and the refractive indices of the dispersed phase and the
dispersion medium differ greatly in magnitude. The difference between the refractive
indices of the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium of a lyophilic sols is very small;
hence they show little Tyndall effect. In contrast, the difference between the refractive
indices of the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium of a lyophilic sols is
comparatively larger; hence they show considerable Tyndall effect. On the next page is an
image showing the Tyndall effect in a colloidal solution.
 The Tyndall effect observed in a
colloidal solution.

4.5.2 Brownian Movement

Brownian movement is the continuous zig-zag movement of colloidal particles in the
dispersion medium. The movement is independent of the nature of the colloid but is
dependent on size of colloidal particles and viscosity of the solution. Smaller the size and
lower the viscosity, faster the motion.
Brownian movement has been explained to be due to unequal bombardment of the
particles by the molecules of the dispersion medium. The brownian movement is
responsible for the stability of sols by not letting the colloidal particles to settle.

4.5.3 Charge on Colloidal Particles

Colloidal particles often have charge on them either positive or negative. Below is a table
giving a list of some colloids with the nature of charge on the colloidal particles.
Positively Charged Negatively Charged
Hydrated metallic oxides. E.g. Al2O3.xH2O, Metals. E.g. Gold, Silver, Platinum sols.
Cr2O3.xH2O, Fe2O3.xH2O.

Basic dyestuffs. E.g. Methylene Blue sol Metallic Sulphides. E.g. As2S3, Sb2S3, CdS sols

Haemoglobin. Acidic dyestuffs. E.g. Eosin, Congo Red sols.

Oxides. E.g. TiO2 sol. Sols of starch, gum, gelatin, clay, etc.

The charge on colloidal particles can be explained by preferential adsorption. The sol gains
a positive or negative charge by preferentially adsorbing positive or negative ions.
For example, adding KI to AgNO3 creates an AgI sol with positive charge due to adsorption
of Ag+ ions (AgI/Ag+), whereas adding AgNO3 to KI creates an AgI sol with negative charge
due to adsorption of I- ions (AgI/I-).
After acquiring a positive or negative charge by preferential adsorption, the layer of ions
formed by the adsorption attracts the counter ion present in the medium, forming a second
layer. In the case of AgI sol, it can be either AgI/Ag+I- or AgI/I-K+. The first layer of ions is
called the fixed layer and the second layer the diffused layer and together they are called
the Helmholtz electric double layer. The fixed layer is firmly attached to the colloidal
 particles whereas the diffused layer is free to move. The potential difference between the
fixed layer and diffused layer is called the electrokinetic potential or the zeta potential.
Due to the presence of equal and similar charges on the surface of colloidal particles, there
is some stability due to the repulsive interactions between the charged particles, hence
preventing the colloidal particles from precipitating or aggregating.

4.5.4 Electrophoresis
Electrophoresis is the movement of charged colloidal particles towards the cathode or
anode if an electric field or potential is applied between the two electrodes. Positively
charged colloidal particles move towards the cathode and negatively charged colloidal
particles move towards the anode. If electrophoresis is prevented by some means, then the
dispersion medium will move in the electric field; the process is called electroosmosis.

4.5.5 Coagulation
Coagulation is the process of converting colloidal particles into precipitate. The stability of
lyophobic sols is due to the charge present on the colloidal particles. If the charge on the
colloidal particles is removed, then the particles aggregate and settle down to form a
precipitate. Coagulation can be achieved in several ways:
1. By electrophoresis: The colloidal particles move towards oppositely charged electrodes and
get dispersed and precipitated.
2. By mixing two oppositely charges sols (mutual coagulation): Mixing two oppositely
charged sols neutralizes the charges on them and as a result, they precipitate either
partially or completely.
3. By boiling: When a sol is boiled, the adsorbed layer is disturbed due to increased collisions
with the molecules of the dispersion medium. This reduces the charge on the particles, and
ultimately precipitates them out.
4. By addition of electrolytes: Adding an excess of electrolyte to a sol precipitates out the
colloidal particles. Colloidal particles interact with ions of opposite charge, neutralizing the
colloidal particles and causing coagulation. Negative ions coagulate positively charged sols
and positive ions coagulate negatively charged sols.
Generally, the greater the charge on the coagulating ion, greater its coagulating power. This
is known as Hardy-Schulze rule. For example, for the coagulation of a negatively charged
sol, the coagulating power is in the order Al3+ > Fe2+ > K+, and for the coagulation of a
positively charged sol, the coagulating power is of the order PO43- > SO42- > Cl-.
The coagulating power is also called flocculating power. Flocculation is the process of
converting colloidal particles to flaky aggregates called flocs.
Lyophilic sols can be coagulated after removing the charge on and the solvation of the
colloidal particles. This can be done by first using a suitable solvent to destroy the dispersed
phase-dispersion medium interactions and then using an electrolyte to remove the charge
on the colloidal particles.
Protection of Colloids and Gold Number
Lyophilic sols are more stable than lyophobic sols and can be used to protect the latter from
coagulation by forming a layer around lyophobic particles.
 The Gold Number gives a measure of the protective power of a lyophilic sol. It is defined as
the minimum amount of protective colloid in milligrams, that is to be added to a 10 ml of
standard gold sol (0.0053% gold) to just protect it from coagulation by the addition of 1 ml
of 10% NaCl solution. The lower the Gold Number, the higher the protective power. The
order of protective power of some lyophilic colloids is as follows: Gelatin > Haemoglobin >
Gum Arabic > Starch.

4.6 Emulsions
An emulsion is a liquid-liquid colloid i.e. the dispersion of finely divided droplets of one
liquid in the other. An emulsion is obtained by shaking a mixture of two partially miscible or
immiscible liquids. Generally one of the liquids is water. There are two types of emulsions, if
water is one of the liquids:
1. Oil-in-water (O/W): This emulsion has oil (any liquid other than water) as the dispersed
phase and water as the dispersion medium. Examples are mayonnaise and milk.
2. Water-in-oil (W/O): This emulsion has water as the dispersed phase and oil as the
dispersion medium. An example is butter, an emulsion of water in butterfat.
An emulsifier is used to stabilize oil-in-water emulsions, which generally separate into two
immiscible layers on standing. The emulsifier forms an interfacial film between suspended
particles and the medium. Emulsifiers can be used to stabilize water-in-oil emulsions as
well. Examples of emulsifiers for O/W emulsions are proteins, gums and natural and
synthetic soaps, and for W/O emulsions, heavy metal salts of fatty acids, long chain alcohols
and lampblack.
Emulsions can be diluted with any amount of dispersion medium, but on addition of
dispersed phase, they separate into two layers. The droplets in emulsions are usually
negatively charged and can be precipitated by electrolytes.

4.7 Applications of Colloids

Colloids have applications in various fields. Some of them are below:
1. Several medicines are in colloidal form so that they can be more easily absorbed by body
tissues.
2. A colloidal solution of silver bromide in gelatin is applied on glass plates, celluloid films or
paper to form sensitive plates in photography.
3. Rubber is obtained by the coagulation of latex which is a colloidal solution of negatively
charged rubber particles.
4. Impure water obtained from natural sources containing colloidal impurities can be purified
by the addition of alum that coagulates the impurities.
5. Paints, inks, synthetic plastics, rubber, graphite lubricants, cement and other industrial
products are all colloids.
6. A Cottrell precipitator is used to precipitate solid particles of carbon, arsenic and dust from
smoke.

5 References
1. NCERT Chemistry Textbook for Class XII
2. The Internet