Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
The institution
198
Providing for effective teaching 199
)
cific planning and organizational techniques" (Davidson and Tesh 1997,<"^"'"v
177). Davidson and Tesh describe two types of organizational structure that ^ %&
are commonly found in schools and other kinds of organizations, rhft fTlfiCfv -t: ?
artistic model andJhejacgamc'model. The mechanistic model is a' bureau- "^ *
craScfapjjroach to organizing collective activities that stresses "the need for 5. - V
authority,hierargbiej^conrrcnrandan explicit chain of command" (David? ^ *
son and Tesh 1997, 178). Davidson and Tesh suggest that rnanjn'anguage-E^ -^
programs reflect this organizational model and cite the following examples.
1. Many programs value' specialization; that is, they prefer that teachers
specialize in one or two particular levels and skills. For example, a
teacher may be assigned level-three reading and level-three writing,
teaching those classes, and only those classes each term, and becoming
an expert in tiiose areas,
2. Many programs provide teachers not only with a course
curriculum, but also with a class"syllabus outlining which pages
and exercises are to be covered each day. The more detailed the
syllabus, the more uniformity there will be across each level in
the program. Administrators in large programs, in programs that
make use of graduate teaching assistants, or in multiple-site
programs may find this advantageous because jt.elirnv; nates
uncertainty in teaching performance resulglgllromjjdmdual djf-_
ferences, professional inexpenence,"bTthe absence of
propinquity."""""
3. Some programs have explicit chains of cornrnarid. All
communication in such programs is vertical. If moving upward,
the communication must pass through each superior in the chain
of command until it reaches the appropriate level. If moving
downward, it must pass through each subordinate in like
manner.
4. 200 Chapter 7
5. 4. Many programs have hiring, promotion, and dismissal policies that match
those of the mechanistic model. They hire based on professional
qualifications such as degree, field, length and type of professional ex-
perience, and letters of recommendation; they promote based on seniority,
program contributions, and professional achievements; and they terminate
only after due process has occurred.
6. (Davidson andTesh 1997, 179)
7. The organic model of organizational design, by comparison,
8. is one that maximizes flexibility and adaptability, encourages complete
confidence and trust between superior and subordinates, and taps a wide range of
human motivations to achieve organizational goals. Communication flows in all
directions, both vertically and laterally. Teamwork is substantial, and decision-
making and control functions are shared widely throughout the organization.
9. (Davidson and Tesh 1997,179)
10. Aspects of the organic model are also found in many language
programs. Davidson and Tesh cite the following examples:
14. mission has not been developed, nor has a plan to achieve it.
Teachers may be poorly motivated, poorly qualified, and on poor
employment terms. Staff turnover is high, and the reputation of the institute
low. Maintaining educational quality within a business environment is a
challenge for many private language schools. It is increasingly the case that
education is a business and the challenge is to meet educational objectives
and standards while at the same time meeting financial imperatives,
whether it be cost recovery or profit making. Being sound educationally and
sound financially are not necessarily mutually exclusive. The following kinds
of questions need to be addressed if an institution seeks to build quality and
effectiveness into its programs (Henry 1997,79):
1. How can we determine the quality of the language program?
2. How can we improve the quality of the language program?
3. What do we value most in the language program?
4. What type of curriculum best meets student needs?
5. What do we need to support the curriculum?
1. What kind of language proficiency testing is needed for accurate student
placement?
6. What qualities are we looking for in faculty?
15. In the following sections, we will examine some of the key
dimensions of quality and how quality can become a focus in a school or
language program.
17. What goals does the institution have? Does it exist to serve an
important educational purpose that provides die rationale for the range of
courses and services it offers? A useful format for articulating a school's
sense of mission is in the form of a mission statement Such a statement
should be developed collectively by those who have a commitmehCto the
success of the institution. Appendix 1 gives an example of a mission
statement for a university English department that was developed
collectively by its staff. Once it is developed, a mission statement can
serve as a reference point to assess proposals for new initiatives or
programs within an institution and to provide a basis for evaluation of its
performance over time.
* A SOUND CURRICULUM
* GOOD
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS " -
Writing about teaching: Teachers can keep a reflective diary or journal and
share it with colleagues.
Project work: Teachers can be given the opportunity to develop projects
such as classroom materials, videos, and odier teaching resources.
Action research: Teachers can conduct small-scale classroom research on
their teaching.
(Richards and Lockhart 1994)
The extent to which an institution provides such opportunities for
its teachers or encourages them to participate in such activities is a good
indicator of how it views its teachers.
Appendix 2 represents the efforts of a group of language schools
to articulate a philosophyof "Best Practice" that addresses many of these
issues.
EQUIPMENT
SUPPORT STAFF
TEACHING FACILITIES
Where does teaching take place and how adequate are teaching
facilities? In addition to classrooms, is there a multimedia lab or computer
lab, language lab, self-access center, and student reading room? What
impact do these facilities have on the quality of die program?
CLASS SIZE
The teachers
ORIENTATION
ADEQUATE MATERIALS
COURSE GUIDES
DIVISION OF RESPONSIBILITIES
FURTHER TRAINING
TEACHING RELEASE
MENTORS
FEEDBACK
Teachers need to be told when they are doing well and when there
are problems with their performance. Good teaching sometimes goes
unnoticed. In . the case of negative feedback, ways need to be found for
providing constructive and non-threatening feedback. Feedback"can be
face-to-face, in writing, or on the telephone, depending on the kind of
feedback it is.
REWARDS
HELPLINES
REVIEW
MONITORING
OBSERVATION
SHARED PLANNING
Evaluating teaching
If a program seeks to provide quality teaching, it is essential that
teachers' performance be regularly reviewed. This involves the development
of an appraisal system. An appraisal system may have several different
purposes:
to reward teachers for good performance
to help identify needs for further training
to reinforce the need for continuous staff development
to help improve teaching
to provide a basis for contract renewal and promotion
to demonstrate an interest in teachers' performance and development
The purpose of the appraisal will determine the type of
appraisal that is carried out.
Providing for effective teaching 221
VIEWS OF LEARNING
needs analyst
collaborator and team member
peer tutor -
How happy are learners with the roles expected of them? Will, they
need any special orientation or training in order to carry out these roles
effectively?
LEARNING STYLES
MOTIVATION
1.
How would you characterize the organizational culture and
structure of a language teaching institution you are familiar with?
To what extent is the organizational culture a positive one, in your
opinion?
2. Consider a teaching context that you are familiar with. What
factors in the school or institution create positive support for
good teaching? What factors do not? Suggest three changes that
you think would improve the quality of the teaching.
3. To what extent is a concern for quality reflected in the practices of your
4. 226 Chapter 7
1. Institution
PHYSICAL FACILITIES
2. Staff
TEACHING STAFF
A quality language centre:
employs teachers who have internationally recognised
qualifications in language teaching;
recognises that the number of contact hours, preparation hours and
office presence of teachers directly influence teacher
effectiveness;
ensures equal opportunity regarding all aspects of employment,
including the possibility of job security of employment; and
provides support in the form of administrative systems, office
space, telephones, duplicating facilities (with clear guidelines
about copyright laws), and space for professional development
seminars and workshops.
SUPPORT STAFF
A quality language centre recognises the vital role that non-
teaching staff play in supporting training activities and contributing to the
quality of the service provided to clients.
STAFF
DEVELOPMENT A quality
language centre:
actively supports and engages in continuing staff development for
all employees. There is continuous, ongoing in-service training,
using a range of learning modes conducted by members of staff
as well as by invited trainers from outside;
keeps to a minimum the number of under-trained teaching staff
and support staff. There is a plan in place to ensure that staff
development opportunities are made available as appropriate;
supports membership in professional organisations, attendance at
workshops and conferences, and participation in professional
activities outside the workplace; and
- engages in and/or encourages research on various aspects of ELT
by staff.
3. Program management
CURRICULUM
A quality language centre:
designs and implements curricula that are informed by an
analysis of
learner needs and the assessment of the learners' levels of proficiency;
230 Chapter 7
4, Resources
A quality language centre:
* provides instructional materials to facilitate successful language
learning. These resources are up-to-date and accessible to all
teachers and include print materials, video tape recorders and
cassettes, audio tape recorders and cassettes, as well as a range
of realia;
* recognises the contribution that computerised language
instruction and self-access resources make to effective language
learning and wherever possible aims to provide such resources;
" -
* maintains a resource collection of relevant books, journals and
other materials which is easily accessible to teachers and
students; and
documents procedures for die selection, evaluation, purchase and
upkeep
of equipment and materials and ensures that all concerned are actively in
volved in decision-making related to these matters.
Providing for effective teaching 231
I.
PREPARATION Degree
to which ...
II. PRESENTATION
III. EXECUTION/METHODS
IV. PERSONAL
CHARACTERISTICS
V. TEACHER/STUDENT
-----------------------------------------------Class:
Date:
-
242 Chapter 7
1* 2 3 E NA
Lesson structure
1.1 Varieties of activities
1 2 3 E NA
Feedback to students
5.1 Encouraging, praising, motivating
students
5.2 Standard of correctness in accuracy
work
5.3 Self-correction fay students, peer-
correction
5.4 Avoidance of correction during
fluency work (communication)
(other)
Points to I. 2.
improve before next self-
evaluation
244 Chapter 7
__________________________________________Staff Member:
__________________________________________Course Tide:
_________Yean 19 - Semester..
TEACHING
1 2 - 3 4 5 6
7
Very poor Poor Acceptable Very good
Excellent
Providing for effective
COURSE 9. How do you rate die content (topics, skills, etc.) of this
course?
12 3 4 5 6 7
Not useful Very useful
10. How do you rate the course materials (textbook, readings, etc.) in this
course?
12 3 4 5 6 7
Not useful Very useful
___________________________________________Observer
Module No.:
Comments:
2. Appropriacy of materials
How appropriate were the classroom activities to achieve the aims and
objectives?
How effectively was the content presented? Was the
material/content too much or too little for the lesson?
Comments:
Providing for effective teaching 247
Comments:
Comm,ents;
Comments:
248 Chapter 7
Comments:
8. Effectiveness
Was the lesson effective? Why or why not?
Comments;
4
Providing for effective teaching 249
References
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Roberts, J. 1998. Language teacher education. London; Arnold.
Richards, J. C. 1998. Beyond training. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C, and C. Lockhart. 1994. Reflective teaching in second language classrooms. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Stoller, E 1997. The catalyst for change and innovation. In Chiistison and Stoller 1997. 33-48.
TESOL- 1986a. TESOL's manual for self study. "Washington, DC: TESOL.
TESOL. 1986b. The TESOL core standards for language and professional preparation programs. Washington, DC: TESOL.
University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). 1996. Cambridge integrated language teaching
schemes: Certificate in English language leaching to adults. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). 1998. Syllabus and assessment guidelines for course
tutors and assessors. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.