Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
'WaterConservationinKeralaProspectsand
Challenges'
Organizedby
CentralGroundWaterBoard,Trivandrum,India
and
DeptofGeology,UniversityofKerala
21Mar2014
Proceedingsvolume
CentreforEnvironmentandDevelopment
Thozhuvancode,Thiruvananthapuram695013,India
Email:asknair@cedindia.org
Abstract
Waterresourceisofutmostimportantneedtolifesystemandacriticalworldasset.Itisthekeytosocio
economicpolitical development and quality of life in this universe. As the pressures of population and
economicactivitiesconvergeonthemanyfoldincreasedwaterrequirement,thewatersectorwilllargelyface
thechallengeofbridgingthedemandsupplygapworldover. Indiaisnoexceptionandisfacingaserious
waterresourceproblem.FuturisticstudiesrevealthatIndiaisexpectedtobecome'waterstressed'by2025and
'waterscarce'by2050.Inspiteofreceivinganaveragerainfallofaround3000mm,theStateofKeralaisalso
intheprocessofwaterstressedtowaterscarceincomingyearsatleastinfewblockpanchayathsinthe
state.Theincredibledroughtwhichhasbeenaffectingthestaterepeatedlyduringsummermonthsinthelast
fewyearsmayevenaggravatetheabovesituation.Henceitisimportantatthisstageto haveaneffective
Water Resource Management Plan for Water Security (WS) the reliable availability of an acceptable
quantity andquality ofwater for health, livelihoodsand production, coupledwithanacceptable level of
waterrelatedrisks"forKerala.Awatersecureworldintegratesaconcernfortheintrinsicvalueofwaterwith
aconcernforitsuseforhumansurvivalandwellbeing;harnesseswater'sproductivepowerandminimisesits
destructive force; addressing environmental protection and the negative effects of poor management;
concerned with ending fragmented responsibility for water and integrating water resources management
acrossallsectorsfinance,planning,agriculture,energy,tourism,industry,educationandhealth.Itisalso
truethatawatersecureworldreducespoverty,advanceseducationandincreaseslivingstandards;where
thereisanimprovedqualityoflifeforall,especiallyforthemostvulnerableusuallywomenandchildren
whobenefitmostfromgoodwatergovernance.Keralaisexperiencingunprecedentedeconomicandpopulation
growth, giving rise to increased water demand for industrial, municipal and irrigation uses, and for the
production of energy. Sustainability, health and quality of life require that water quality and important
aquaticecosystemhabitatsbeprotected. Managingaresourceofthisimportanceneedsalongtermvision
supportedbywellformulated,executableplannedseriesofactions.SustainableDrinkingWaterSupplyand
Sanitationforall2012;aprogramproposedbytheDepartmentofDrinkingWaterSupplyoftheMinistryof
Rural Development, Government of India, urgedto thedifferent StatesinIndiato examinethe format
designedbytheMinistryforthepreparationofaVillageWaterSecurityPlan(VWSP)andrespondback.
Thesamedocumentwasalsoputinthepublicdomainforexpressingsuggestionsfortheconcerned.However,
ithasbeenfoundthat,littleeffortshavebeenputbythedifferentStatesinIndiaforexaminingeventhe
formatdesignedbytheGovernmentofIndiaforitssubsequentrevisionanditsimplementation.Considering
theneedofthehour,thispaperproposeanoutlinetoevolveaWaterSecurityPlanforKerala2025tobe
executed in different phases, that will continue to support our sustainable growth, quality of life and
Introduction
Waterisaprimenaturalresource,abasichumanneedandapreciousnationalasset(National
WaterPolicy,2012). Itisbasictomanandhisenvironment. Itisneitherinfiniteasisthe
popularbeliefintropicalandhumidregionsnorshouldbetreatedasafreegiftofnature.Since
waterisessentialformanssurvivalandsocioeconomicbettermentaswellasformaintaining
sustainabilityintheprocessofdevelopment,itisimportantthatitisharnessedandmanagedin
anintegratedandequitablemannersoastomeetthedemandsofcompetingwaterusersand
water use sectors. There is a close relationship between water, people and livelihood.
Degradationanddepletionofwaterresourceswillaffectlifeandlivelihoodofallhumanbeing.
Apartfromdrinkingrequirement,waterisneededforbathing,washing,laundering,heatingand
airconditioning, irrigation , industrial processes, water power, steam power, fire protection,
disposalofwastes,fishing,swimming,boatingandotherrecreationalpurposes,fishandwildlife
propagation,navigationandforengineeringconstruction.Watercanthusbeconsideredasthe
most important raw material of civilization since without it man cannot live and industry
cannot operate. The Egyptians were the first people to record methods for treating water.
These records date back more than 1,500 years to 400 A.D. They indicate that the most
commonwaysofcleaningwaterwerebyboilingitoverafireheatingitinthesun,orbydipping
aheatedpieceofironintoit.Filteringboilingwaterthroughsandandgravelandthenallowing
ittocoolwasanothercommontreatmentmethod(Nairetal.,2009).
Water Resource Management (WRM) plays a pivotal role in the planning process.
Inspiteofreceivinganaveragerainfallofaround3000mm,theStatefacesshortageinwater
supply during the summer months. Water is one of the few natural resources which is
abundantly foundin the Stateof Kerala inthe form of a largechain ofbackwater bodies,
wetlands,riversandriverbasins,largenumberoftempletanks,ponds,dugwells,tubewells,
borewells,springsandlargenumberofsmallandbigreservoirs.However,thewaterlevelin
theriverslowerssubstantiallyforaboutsixmonthsinyearandlargenumberofwellsdryup
duringsummermonthswhichultimatelyresultsinafallinthegroundwatertable.Thesupply
anddemandofwaterfordifferentendusessuchas,drinkingwatersupply,sanitation,irrigation,
industries,powergeneration,fisheries,navigationandrecreationuseverincreasingduetothe
increaseinhumanandanimalpopulation.Thewaterwhichwasonceconsideredasafreegift
of nature has now become more and more scarce commodity. Hence it is important and
essentialtohaveamorescientificplanningforaproperareawiseutilisationofalltheavailable
waterresourcesandtheirsensiblemanagementatState/Districtlevel.Theannualyieldofthe
riverbasinsinthestateisfoundtobe78,401millioncubicmeters(MCM)ofwhich70,323
MCMisavailableforthestate.
Most of the Keralas rivers are perennial but with accompanying deficit during lean
seasons.Theannualutilisableyieldfrom44riversis49,286MCMformsabout70%ofthetotal
yieldwiththestatesharebeing87%isabout42,772MCM.ThegroundwaterpotentialofKerala
isverylowascomparedtothatofmanyotherstatesinthecountry.Keralahasareplenishable
groundwaterresourceof6,841MCM. Thenetgroundwateravailabilityoftheentirestateis
6,029BCMin200809(CGWB2012).InordertohaveaviableWaterResourceManagement,
WaterSecurityisthemostimportantandfirststeptobetaken.
WaterSecurity. WaterSecuritymaybedefinedas"thereliableavailabilityofanacceptable
quantityandqualityofwaterforhealth,livelihoodsandproduction,coupledwithanacceptable
levelofwaterrelatedrisks"(Anonwiki2012).Sustainabledevelopmentwillnotbeachieved
withoutawatersecureworld.Awatersecureworldintegratesaconcernfortheintrinsicvalue
ofwaterwithaconcernforitsuseforhumansurvivalandwellbeing.Awatersecureworld
harnesses water's productive power and minimises its destructive force. Water security also
WaterSecurityPlan(WSP). Waterbeingoneofourmostimportantresources,itseffective
managementcannotcompromiseonanyreasonasWaterManagementrestsundertheState
responsibility.Consideringtheneedofthehour,anoutlineofWSPisproposedsoastoevolvea
10yearWaterSecurityPlanforKeralatobeexecutedindifferentphases,thatwillcontinue
tosupportoursustainablegrowth,qualityoflifeandenvironmentnowandinfuture.
Inmanagingthedifferentwatersystemsinthestate,alongtermviewthatprojectsfuturewater
needsandevaluatesthemagainstpresentneedsandecologicalrequirementshelpsaplantobe
developed that ensures these multiple demands are met. This requires sitespecific and
comprehensivetechnicalevaluationsthatmightincludedeterminingthestatusofpresentwater
withdrawalsandinputs,anticipatedfuturewaterdemands,waterquality,cumulativeimpacts,
andecosystemhealth.Thisinformationcouldformabasisuponwhichobjectivesandstrategies
forfuturewateruseandcurrentmanagementdecisionscanbemade.Thismaybeparticularly
important in areas where water resources are vulnerable or subject to significant water use
pressuresduetogrowth. Manywatermanagementinitiatives,suchasimplementingsource
water protection plans or developing new infrastructure, take years to plan and complete.
Planningfor10yearsensurestheneedsoffuturegenerationsareconsideredandallowsforthe
time frame required for longterm water management initiatives. Citizens and Society will
benefit from better protection of wetlands, lakes, rivers, different typesof tanks andponds,
differenttypesofwells(dugwells,tubewellsandborewells),irrigationcanalsanddrinking
watersupplies.Thestatemusthaveitvisionforsuccessinmajorareaslike;SustainableWater
Supplies,SafeDrinkingWater,ProtectionofWater,SafeandSustainableWaterManagement
Infrastructure, Flood and Drought Mitigation, Reliable Data and Information, and Effective
GovernanceandEngagement.
TheWSPmusthaveaVisionandPrinciplestobefollowedalongwithgoalsandactions.Some
actionsmaybeshorttermandabletobeimplementedquickly,otherswillrequireconsultation,
researchandanalysis andwillbeimplemented overalongerperiod..Theplanwillsupport
innovationinapproachingwatermanagementchallenges.Bysettingdirectiontoensurelong
termwatersecurity,theplanwillhelpbuildapositivebusinessenvironmenttosupportKeralas
continuinggrowth.
VisionWaterforcontinuedsustainablegrowth,qualityoflifeandenvironmentalwellbeing.
Principles:BasedonLongtermperspective,Waterforfuturegenerations,Integratedapproach
to water management, Public Private Partnership, Value of Water and Informed Riskbased
Management(AnonCanada2012):
Goal1:EnsurethesustainabilityofKeralassurfaceandgroundwatersuppliestosupport
opportunitiesforgrowthGrowthwillbringwithitanincreasingdemandforwaterandwater
servicestosatisfyourdomestic,agriculture,business,industry,environmental,recreation,and
powergenerationneeds.Waterconservationcanmoderatethisgrowingdemand,butadditional
infrastructuresuchasdams,weirs,checkdamsandirrigationchannelsmayalsoberequired.
Thekeytoensuringsustainabilitywillbethedevelopmentofanewapproachtowaterallocation
thatissupportedbylegislationifneeded.
Action Area 1.1 Efficient Use of Water: Managing water demand and use through
conservationpracticesisacriticalstrategytorelieveincreasedpressuresonsupplies.Efficiencies
can be achieved in a number of ways, including the implementation of appropriate pricing
strategies, establishment of sectorbased conservation targets (industrial, agriculture and
municipal)andthepromotionofnewpracticesandtechnologies.
ActionArea1.2NewWaterSupplyInfrastructure:Managingwaterdemandandusemaynot
fullyaddresstheneedsrelatedtoeconomicandpopulationgrowthinthestate.Additionalwater
infrastructure,includingnewreservoirs,pipelinesandcanalsmaybenecessarytosecurethe
water needed for growth. New infrastructure is costly to build and maintain, and requires
significant ongoingfunding.Longtermplanning is neededto anticipatewatersupplyneeds,
identifyoptionstomeetneedsanddesignandconstructnewinfrastructure.
Action Area 1.3 Framework for Water Allocation: Industrial, oil and gas, fertilisers and
irrigation expansion are important growth sectors and all rely on adequate and sustainable
watersupplies. Status ofvirtual water should becarefully considered bythesupply regime.
Thesedevelopmentopportunitiesplacedemandsonwaterresourcesandcanpotentiallyaffect
other uses, such as: municipal; recreational; power generation and ecological. This raises
challenging questions around setting water use priorities and understanding the tradeoffs
inherent in those decisions. Appropriate allocation rules are needed to achieve the desired
balanceofwatermanagementobjectives.Awaterallocationframeworkincludesconsideration
ofwateruseandassociatedworks,andcanaddresssuchissuesas:achievingandsustaining
optimaluseofwaterthatbestservesthepublicinterest;modern,resultsbasedapprovalsand
licensing;protecting ecosystemsandenvironmentalflows;andidentifying theusesthat best
servethepublicinterest(issuesregardingsupplyofwatertothepopulationinandaroundatthe
originalsourceofwater).
ActionArea1.4ClimateChangeAdaptation: Climatechangemodelssuggestthatextreme
events, including drought and flooding, could become more frequent and more severe. In
addition,timingofrunoff,changesinstreamflow,increasedevaporation,andimpactsinwater
Goal2:Ensuredrinkingwatersafetybyprotectingsuppliesfromthesourcetothetap
Drinkingwatersafetyinvolvesaseriesofsafeguardsalongthewatersupplyroutetopreventor
reducepotentialcontamination.Thekeyactionsinimprovingthesafetyofdrinkingwaterin
Keralaaregroundandsurfacesourcewaterprotectionandmonitoring,waterworksoperator
training, appropriate treatment processes and equipment, infrastructure maintenance and
inspection, drinking water quality monitoring, information management systems, and public
educationinitiatives.
ActionArea2.1PublicSystems:Themunicipalandotherpublicwatersystemshavebenefited
from improved regulatory and enforcement activities. However, meeting standards can be
difficult for some small communities and municipal water infrastructure requires ongoing
maintenanceandperiodicrenewal.Tocontinuetoimproveonthesafetyofdrinkingwater,the
keyelementsforconsiderationcouldinclude:soundwaterqualityandoperationalstandards
and advice; ongoing training and certification opportunities; a continued comprehensive
inspectionandauditpolicy;enhancedcompliancetoolsandenhancedsourcewaterprotection.
Goal3:Ensurewaterqualityandecosystemfunctionaresustained Watersuppliesareof
much greater value for all uses if water quality and ecosystem function are maintained.
Furthermore, source water protection is an essential component of drinking water safety.
Contaminationofsurfaceorgroundwater,degradationofecologicalhealthandfunction,and
lossofbiodiversitycomeswithrealeconomic,social,andenvironmentalcosts.Theseinclude
health risks, loss of recreational opportunity, loss of ecosystem services and biodiversity,
ecologicaldamage,reducedwatersupply, andincreasedwatertreatmentcosts.Localsource
water protection planning can be an effective approach to identify ways to achieve water
protection.
ActionArea3.1WaterQuality:Threatstowatercomefrompointsources,suchasindustrial
andmunicipaleffluentandcontaminatedsites,andnonpointsources,suchaslandusepractices
thatleadtothetransportationofsoil,pesticides,fertilizers,nutrientsandmanureintowater
bodies(mostlyriversandlakes)andtherebygroundwater.Waterqualityprotectionusually
bringslakesandstreamstomind.However,aquifersareavaluablepartofoursupplyandonce
contaminated,canbeverydifficulttorestore.Riskstoaquifersoccurinrechargeareas,where
contaminantscanmovedownwiththewater,andwhenhumanactivities,suchaswelldrilling,
breach the protective layers of clay that protect many aquifers. Applications of fertilizer,
chemicals and effluent discharge through septic fields on areas with limited barriers to the
aquifercreateriskofcontaminatingawatersupply. Failuretomaintainthequalityofwater
supplieswillplaceadditionalstressesonKeralasabilitytomeetthedemandsforwatercreated
byagrowingpopulationandeconomy.Ensuringtheprotectionofwaterqualitycaninclude
ActionArea3.2Wetlands: Wetlandsarebodiesofwaterthatcoverthesoilforaperiodof
timeduringthegrowingseason.Theirbenefitsvaryasafunctionoftheirlocationwithinthe
watershed,theirphysicalcharacteristics,areaanddepthandtheaveragelengthoftimethey
containwaterduringtheyear.Itiswellestablishedthattheycanbeimportanthabitatformany
differentplantsandanimals,andsupportmaintenanceofbiodiversity.Wetlandscanprovidea
meansofwaterstoragewhichcanprovidebenefitsduringdryperiodsandhelpreducerunoff
during moderate flood events. They can also provide water quality benefits and some are
effectiveatremovalofnutrients,sediment,metalsandpathogens.
ActionArea3.3EcosystemHealthandBiodiversityProtection:Waterandlanddevelopment
and management practices can have longterm consequences on aquatic ecosystems both
directly,byalteringbedsandshores, andindirectly, bymodifying naturalflow regimes and
waterlevels.Maintainingbiodiversity,fisherieshabitatandspeciesatriskmustbeconsidered
whenmakingdecisionsrelatingtowaterandlanduses.
Action Area 3.4 Local Source Water Protection Planning: The source water protection
planning process brings together communities, stakeholder groups and local governments to
developobjectivesandpotentialstrategiesfortheprotectionofwaterintheirlocalwatershedor
aquifer.Planningconductedbywatershedresidentscaninformtheirgramapanchayatsabout
localperspectivesonwaterrelatedlandmanagementissues.Planningalsoprovidescommittee
memberswithtechnicalinformationrelatedtowatermanagement,sourcewaterprotectionand
engages the public. Planning outcomes include locally led and collaborative initiatives to
improve water quality and the protection of water ecosystems. Water maps derived out of
Resourcemappingprogramareavailablewiththegramapanchayats,theplancommitteescan
effectivelyutilisethesameforthepurpose.
Goal4:EnsureinfrastructuresafetymeetswatersupplyandmanagementneedsDamsand
watersupplynetworkownedbythe governmentplayacentralroleinensuringasustainable
watersupplyandgenerationofpower.Muchofthisinfrastructureinthestateisagingand
requires rehabilitation; failure of these works could put property and human safety at risk.
Furthermore,competingwaterusesandmanagingfloodanddroughteventsmakesplanning
andmanaginginfrastructureoperationsacomplextask.
ActionArea4.1InfrastructureSafetyandMaintenance: Toensureadequatewatersupply
andpublicsafety,infrastructuremustbeofanadequatestandard,ingoodoperatingcondition.
TheKeralaWaterAuthority,CommandAreaDevelopmentAuthorities,DamSafetyAuthorityof
Kerala,PWDandotherorganisationsneedtoadoptrequiredstepsinthisregard.
Action Area 4.2 Infrastructure Benefits and Sustainable Operation: Many reservoirs,
particularly larger ones, are designed to provide an array of benefits including municipal,
industrial, irrigation water supply, hydropower generation, and recreational use and flood
control.However,someusesareinconflictwitheachotherandinappropriatelandusearound
reservoirscandetrimentallyrestrictoperatingoptions.Areservoiroperatingplandefineshow
the reservoir is best operated to meet the needs of various users, and addresses issues like
shorelineprotection,fisheriesandspeciesatrisk,habitatprotectionandhowtomanageflood
anddroughtevents.
Goal5:Ensuremeasuresareinplacetoeffectivelyrespondtofloodsanddrought Floods
anddroughtarenaturaleventsthatwillcontinuetooccur.Theycancausesignificanthardship
Action Area 5.1 Flood Damage Prevention and Emergency Response in Developed Areas:
Floodscancausesignificant damagetoresidential, commercial,andmunicipalpropertyand
infrastructure. District level disaster Management authorities and flood mitigation units are
presentlylinkedwiththerespectivedistrictheadquarters,howevertheireffectiveinvolvementin
mitigationoffloodareyettobeproved.Thebestapproachtoflooddamagepreventionisto
mapfloodproneareasandkeepvulnerabledevelopmentsoutofthefloodplains.TheKerala
Government now has regulations that prevent building in flood plains. However, many
developments already exist in flood prone areas, emphasizing the need for forecasting,
emergencyresponseandfloodprotectionmeasures.ThePaddyBill(2008)specificallyaddress
theverysameproblems.
ActionArea5.2AgriculturalDrainageandFloodingDrainingagriculturallandcanimprove
theefficiencyoffarmingoperationsbyeliminatingobstaclesandallowinglandownerstogain
earlieraccessto theirfieldsactivitieswithsignificantandimmediateeconomicbenefitsto
farmers through the Padasekhara Samithy. During years with above average rainfall, large
areas of farmland can be flooded which have a significant economic impact on producers.
However, inappropriate and unorganized drainage can affect neighbouring landowners and
receivingwaterbodies.Therearecallsforgovernmenttorespondtounauthorizeddrainagewith
increasedenforcement. Thereisalackofunderstandingandappreciationoftheimpactsof
drainageandthebenefitsthataccruetothefarmerwhodrains. Potentialsolutionsinclude:
education; effective management options (including watershed and organized drainage
approachesandencouragingwetlandretentionandrestoration);toolsforconflictresolution;an
appropriateregulatoryandcomplianceframework;andincreasedenforcement.TheSecretary
andtheAgricultureOfficeravailableineachgramapanchayathofthestatemaybeentrusted
inkeepingawatchontheabovesaidissues.
Action Area 5.3 Drought Response: Drought is a recurring phenomenon and historic data
suggeststhatoverthepastseveralcenturiestherehavebeenanumberofdroughtsmoresevere
thananyexperiencedduringthelastcentury.TheMeteorologicalDepartmentthroughtheirfield
stationsinstatehaveamoisturemonitoringplan.Fromtheperspectiveofawaterstrategy,
approachestoreducetheconsequencesofhydrologicdroughtinclude:provisionofemergency
watersupplies;betterprivateandregionalwatersupplysystems;waterstorageinfrastructure;
efficient useandreuseof water; and effectivewaterrationing andsharingstrategies.These
activitiescouldformpartofacomprehensiveprovincialapproachtodrought.
Goal6:Ensureadequatewaterinformationisavailabletosupportdecisionmaking The
collectionandassessmentofdatacreatesfundamentalknowledgeaboutourwatercriticalto
understanding and addressing potential threats to water and supporting wise use of water.
Publicaccesstoinformationaboutavailablewatersupplies,floodanddroughtrisks,andother
priorityinformationaboutwateriscriticaltopublicsafetyandtopromotingunderstandingand
effectivedecisionmaking.Waterresearchwillbecriticaltoinnovationandincreasingourability
tosuccessfullymanagewater.
Action Area 6.1 Data Collection and Management Effective water management in the
provincerequiresustoidentifyimportantinformationrequirementsandthenstrategicallyand
ActionArea6.2CommunicationandInformationProvidingclientsandthepublicwitheasily
accessible information relatedto surfaceand ground watersupplies and qualitycan help in
development planning and decisionmaking. Information about effective land and water
management practices, water conservation and efficiency, and regulatory requirements can
optimize management of water and provide clients with the tools they need to optimize
economicopportunities.Effectiveemergencycommunicationisimportantforpublicsafetyand
damageprevention.
ActionArea6.3ResearchPartnershipsStrategicallyaimingresearchatkeygapsinourwater
resource knowledge will improve our ability to protect and reliably use water resources.
Examplesmayincludedeterminationofenvironmentalflowneeds,understandingofnutrient
loading, identification of critical wetlands, or understanding impacts of climate change.
Research can also lead to innovative approaches to address water management issues. A
researchpartnershipconsortiumofagenciesandinstitutions,suchastheCentralGroundWater
Board,StateGroundWaterDepartment,CWRDM,CESS,UniversitiesinKerala,KWA,Jalanidhi,
CCDUandothersmaybeformulatedsothat,easytransferofdataamongthesememberssoas
toenhanceresearch.TheongoingnationwideprojectonAquifermappingbytheMinistryof
WaterResourcesoftheGovernment ofIndiacanmakesignificantcontributionstowardsthe
WaterSecurityPlanforKeralaState.
ActionArea7.1ModernLegislation:Successfulwatermanagementrequiresthattheresource
beregulatedsimplyandeffectivelytoensuresustainabilitywhilemeetingtheneedsofusers.
WaterislargelyaStatesresponsibilityandStateWaterPolicymustevolveinconjunctionwith
thatoftheNationalWaterPolicy(2012). Ifrequirednewlegislationmaybeformulatedfor
addressingthepresentandpossiblefuturewatermanagementissues.Aneffectivecompliance
andenforcementapproachisneededtocomplementnewlegislation.Issuesonsharingwater
resourcesbetweenTamilNaduandKarnatakaneedstobesettledamicablyasandwhenthey
cropup.Jointcommitteemaybedesignedwellinadvance,sothattheissuescouldbesettledin
theadministrativelevelratherthansortinginthepoliticallevels.
ActionArea7.2StateGovernmentandCentralGovernmentCoordination:Largenumberof
StateGovernmentshavespecificneedbasedinterestandregulatoryrolerelatedtowatersector.
For example, in addition to core water management responsibilities like drinking water,
allocation,andwaterqualityprotection,waterisconsideredintheareasofresourceextraction,
agriculturalactivities,ruralandurbandevelopment,andtransportationinfrastructure.Kerala
State is largely responsible for protecting water resources and its management in the state.
Effectivemeansofcoordinationandcollaborationarecriticaltoaddressingtheseissues.
Action Area 7.4 Engagement with the Public and First Nations: Engaging citizens and
communities can improve water management decisions. An engaged citizenry makes better
waterstewards.Waterdevelopmentprojectsanddecisionshavethepotentialtohaveanegative
impactontreatyandaboriginalrights.
Conclusion
A draft on Water Security Plan for Kerala2025 has been proposed for debate, discussion,
modification and for an effective implementation, so the State of Kerala may not strave for
Waterincomingyears.IntegratedWatershedManagementProgramiscurrentlyinoperationon
allthe14districtsofKerala.SustainableDrinkingWaterSupplyandSanitationforall2012;a
programbytheDepartmentofDrinkingWaterSupplyoftheMinistryofRuralDevelopment,
GovernmentofIndia,proposedaVillageWaterSecurityPlan(VWSP).Itisveryimportantto
notethatalargenumberofgovernmentalagenciesareworkinginthewatersectorinKerala.
IftheGovernmentofKeralaconsiderWaterSecurityfortheStateasaseriousone,itcantake
necessarystepsforapossibleeffectivecoordinationwithalltheabovereferredagencies,foran
emergenceofWaterSecurityPlanforKeralaanditseffectiveimplementation. Ithasbeen
provedelsewherethatSustainableDevelopment(SD)willnotbeachievedintheabsenceofa
practicalWaterSecurityPlan.
Acknowledgements:Thematerialforthispaperhasbeenlargelydrawnfromdifferentwebsites
ofUNESCO,DFID,GEFandWaterSecuritystatuspapersfromdifferentcountries.Theauthor
sincerelythankallofthem.
References
Annon,(2012)NationalWaterPolicy,MinistryofWaterResources,GovernmentofIndia,21p.
Annon.(2012)DynamicGroundWaterresourcesofKerala(200809),CGWBandGWD,
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Annon.(2012)Watersecurity,Wikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia.
Annon. (2010)Water Security for India:Institute for Defence Studies & Analyses, New
Delhi,121p.
Annon.(2012)25yearwatersecurityplandocument,SaskatchewanWatershedAuthority,
Canada,30p.
Annon.(2012)WaterAtlas,CGWB,Thiruvananthapuram
Nair,A.S.K.(2009)PerspectivefordecentralisedwaterresourcesplanninginKerala,,Proc.
ofKeralaEnvironmentCongress,CED,Thiruvananthapuram,pp.127142.
Nair, A.S.K. (2009) A new scientific and management approach to water related natural
disasters,Proc.ofKeralaEnvironmentCongress,CED,Thiruvananthapuram,pp.143154.
Sandhya, S.N., Nanda Mohan, V. and Nair,A.S.K. (2009) Drinking water for
Thiruvananthapuram District, Proc. of Kerala Environment Congress, CED,
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ManywebsitesonWaterSecurityandrelatedtopics.
CoordinatorWetlandTechnicalUnit,KSCSTE
SasthraBhavan,Pattom,Thiruvananthapuram695004,India
Email:pharinarayanan@gmail.com
Abstract
Wetlands, whether manmade or natural, fresh water or brackish, play a vital role in maintaining the
environmentalsustainabilityoftheurbanareas.Thesewaterbodiesperformsignificantenvironmental,social
andeconomicfunctions,rangingfrombeingasourceofdrinkingwater,recharginggroundwater,andacting
as sponges to control flooding, supporting biodiversity and providing livelihoods. Despite knowing their
environmental,socialandeconomicsignificance,thesewaterbodiesarebeingcontinuouslyignoredandthe
netresultisitsdegradation.
Introduction
Wetlandsaredefineddifferentlybycountriesintheirdomesticlegislations.Mostofthecountries
are given narrow interpretation to the definition in order to limit the ambit and scope of
protectiontowetlands.Accordingtomostwidespreaddefinitionwetlandsaredefinedas:"lands
transitionalbetweenterrestrialandaquaticecosystemswherethewatertableisusuallyator
nearthesurfaceorthelandiscoveredbyshallowwater".Thereare163contractingpartiesto
the Ramsar Convention. But there is no sufficient legislative protection available in many
countries to protect wetlands. The non protection of wetlands is mainly attributed to its
categorisationinlegislationsdifferentlyfromonecountrytoanothercountry.UndertheRamsar
ConventiononWetlands,"wetlands"aredefinedinArticles1.1and2.1asshownbelow:
Article1.1:
ForthepurposeofthisConventionwetlandsareareasofmarsh,fen,peatlandorwater,whether
naturalorartificial,permanentortemporary,withwaterthatisstaticorflowing,fresh,brackishor
salt,includingareasofmarinewaterthedepthofwhichatlowtidedoesnotexceedsixmetres.
Article2.1providesthatwetlands:
mayincorporateriparianandcoastalzonesadjacenttothewetlands,andislandsorbodiesof
marinewaterdeeperthansixmetresatlowtidelyingwithinthewetlands.
TheIndiandefinitionisasfollows:
The Kerala Conservation of Paddy land and Wetland Act, 2008 defines wetland in Section
2(XVII)as:wetlandmeanslandlyingbetweenterrestrialandaquaticsystems,wherethewater
tableisusuallyatornearthesurfaceorwhichiscoveredbyshallowwaterorcharacterizedbythe
presence of sluggishly moving or standing water, saturating the soil with water and includes
backwaters,estuary,fens,lagoon,mangroves,marshes,saltmarshandswampforestsbutdoesnot
includepaddylandsandrivers
LegalframeworkinIndia
The Indian Forest Act, 1927 was the most comprehensive, effective and oldest piece of
legislationenactedtoprotectenvironmentatthetimewhenenvironmentalproblemshadnot
assumedthreateningdimensionsastheyhavetoday.LatertheConstitution(42ndAmendment)
Act,1976markedthebeginningofanewmilestoneinthehistoryofenvironmentalprotectionin
India. Article 48A requires that The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environmentandtosafeguardtheforestsandwildlifeofthecountry.Art.51A(g)provides
that, it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural
environmentincludingforests,lakes,riversandwildlifeandtohavecompassionforliving
creatures. These two Articles direct the State and the citizens the duty not only to adopt
protectivemeasures,butalsotakestepstoimprovethealreadypollutedenvironmentandto
preserveandsafeguardtheforests,floraandfauna.
ThethreelistsUnion,StateandConcurrentListsdonotclearlymentionastowhowill
legislateformattersrelatingtothewetlands.AlthoughtheStateListconsistsofanumberof
itemslikepublichealthandsanitation,agriculture,watersupply,irrigationanddrainageand
fisheries,theUnionListisapparentlywithoutamentionoftheenvironment.Yet,theArticle253
empowerstheParliamenttolegislateforanyresidualmatterandtoimplementinternational
obligationsanddecisionstakenattheinternationalconference,associationetc.Forestryasa
subjectfindsmentionspecificallyintheConcurrentList.IntheConstitution,waterisamatter
includedinEntry17ofListIIi.e.StateList.Thewetlandsaremostlyconsideredaswaterbodies
andcomeundertheStateListandStateshavetheexclusivejurisdictionpasslegislationsupon
wetlandsinthefederalsystemofIndia.
Article51CoftheConstitutionprovidesthatfosterrespectforInternationalLawand
Treatyobligationsinthedealingsoforganizedpeoplewithoneanother.Article253ofthe
ConstitutionfurtherprovidesthatNotwithstandinganythingintheforegoingprovisionsofthis
Chapter,ParliamenthaspowertomakeanylawforthewholeoranypartoftheTerritoryof
Indiaforimplementinganytreaty,agreementorconventionwithanyothercountryorcountries
or any decision made at any International Conference, Association or Other body. Reading
thesetwoprovisionsoftheConstitutiontogethermakesitclearthatIndianParliamenthasthe
powertolegislateupontoimplementanytreatyobligationofthecountry.Thesepositionswere
widelydiscussedbytheIndianjudiciaryinmanycasesandcometotheconclusionthatThe
positive commitment of the State parties ignites legislative action at home but does not
automaticallymakethecovenantanenforceablepartoftheCorpusJurisofIndia.16 Itcanbe
concluded that sofar theUnion is not enacted a fullfledged law to implement the Ramsar
Convention at municipal level mainly due to the constraint under the Constitution. But the
Section3(1)SubjecttotheprovisionsofthisAct,theCentralGovernmentshallhavethepower
totakeallsuchmeasuresasitdeemsnecessaryorexpedientforthepurposeofprotectingand
improvingthequalityoftheenvironmentandpreventing,controllingandabatingenvironmental
pollution.Suchmeasuresmayinclude:
Section 3 (v) restrictions of areas in which industries, operations and processes or class of
industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or carried out subject to certain
safeguards.
TheGovernmentofIndianotifiedtheWetlands(ConservationandManagement)Rules2010
under Section 25 read with Section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Other
legislationscanalsobeusedfortheprotectionofwetlandsinthecountry.Someofthemareas
follows:
Wildlife(Protection)Act1972
Water(PreventionandControlofPollution)Act1974andRules1975
TerritorialWater,ContinentalShelf,ExclusiveEconomicZoneandotherMarineZones
Act1976
Forest(ConservationAct)1980
MaritimeZoneofIndia(Regulationandfishingbyforeignvessels)Act1980
Air(PreventionandControlofPollution)Act1981
Environmental(Protection)Act1986
Water(PreventionandControlofPollution)Cess(Amendment)Act,1991
EIAnotification1994/2006
CoastalZoneRegulationsNotification1991and2011
BiologicalDiversityAct,2002andtheBiodiversityRules,2004
Water(PreventionandControlofPollution)Cess(Amendment)Act,2003.
ScheduledTribesandOtherTraditionalForestDwellers(RecognitionofForestRights)
Act,2006.
Policiesfortheconservationofwaterbodies
Wetland(ConservationandManagement)Rules2010
In December 2010, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) notified the Wetlands
(ConservationandManagement)Rules,undertheEnvironmentProtectionActof1986.Thiswas
an attempt to fill a longstanding gap, as there was no specific legal mechanism to protect
freshwater or inland wetlands (unlike coasts, which have had a Coastal Regulation Zone
Notificationsince1991).
Thenotificationisintendedtoprotectfollowingwetlands
RamsarandWorldHeritageConventionsites.
Wetlands in ecologically sensitive areas, including protected areas, reserved forests,
wildlifehabitats,mangroves,coralsandcoralreefs,areasofoutstandingnaturalbeauty,
orhistorical/heritageareas,andareasrichingeneticdiversity.
WetlandsinUNESCOworldheritagesites.
Highaltitudewetlandsabove2,500metres,of5hectaresandmore.
Wetlandsbelowthiselevation,of500hectaresandmore.
Anyotherwetlandnotifiedforthepurpose.
ImplementingAgency.TheMinistryofEnvironmentForestsinGovernmentofIndiaisthenodal
agencyatNationallevelandDepartmentofEnvironmentisthenodaldepartmentintheState.
TheForestDeptwillbenodaldepartmentforprotectingwetlandsintheprotectedandforest
areas.
Overlappingprovisions. The wetlandswithintheprotectedareasofthe NationalParksand
Wildlife Sanctuaries shall be regulated by the provisions of Wildlife (protection) Act 1972.
ThoseintheprotectedornotifiedforestareasshallberegulatedbytheprovisionsofIndian
ForestAct1927,theforests(Conservation)Act1980andotherareasbyinvokingEnvironment
(Protection)Act1986.
TheCoastalRegulationZoneNotification
The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification which in fact imposes restrictions on industries,
operations and processes, wetland reclamation in the coastal zone areas. The provisions of
notificationregulatesotherdevelopmentalactivitiesandalsoprohibitsdestructionofmangrove
andotherfragileareas.500metresfromtheHighTideLineofsealandward,100mlandwardof
inlandwaterbodies,theareabetweentheHighTideLineandtheLowTideLineandupto12
nauticalmilesfromLTLtowardsseaand theentirewaterareaofatidalwaterbodysuchas
creek,river,estuary,etc.TheCRZhasbeenissuedwithoutimposinganyrestrictionsoffishing
activities.NotificationhasdeclaredmanyimportantwetalndsasCriticallyVulnerableCoastal
Area(CVCA).Vembanad,Sunderbansetc.
TheCRZareasarecategorisedasCRZI,CRZII,CRZIIIandCRZIV.TheCRZIare
EcologicallyimportantareasandtheareasbetweenLTLandHTL.TheCRZIIarethoseareas
otherthanCRZIinlegallydesignatedurbanlocalbodiesandwhicharedeveloped.Theareas
thatarenotmuchdevelopedandthoseareasinpanchayathsotherthanCRZIareCRZIII.The
waterbodyanditsbedarecategorisedasCRZIV.
TheCRZnotification2011hasprovidedspecialdispensationforthebackwaterislandsin
thestate.TheCRZlandwardoftheseislandsarehavingtheCRZlandwardonlyupto50mfrom
HTL. The clear procedures for obtaining CRZ approval with timelines have been stipulated
along with postclearance monitoring and enforcement mechanisms. The activities are
prohibitedorregulatedintheCRZarea.Thenodevelopmentzoneisbeingreducedfrom200
metresfromthehightidelineto100metresonlytomeetincreaseddemandsofhousingof
fishingandothertraditionalcoastalcommunities.
Provisionsofotherrules
TheWildlifeProtectionAct,1972. Thisactprovidesfortheprotectionofwildanimals,birds
andplants.ThisActimposesprohibitiononhuntingofwildanimals,theiryoungonesaswellas
theireggsexceptwithpriorpermissionoftheChiefWildlifeWarden.Thisactsprohibitsthe
picking,uprooting,destroying,damaging,possessingofanyplantinaprotectedarea,except
withpriorpermissionoftheChiefWildlifeWarden.TheStategovernmentmaydeclareanyarea;
whichitconsiderstohaveadequateecological,faunal,geomorphological,naturalorzoological
significanceforthepurposeofprotecting,propagatingordevelopingwildlifeoritsenvironment;
tobeincludedinasanctuaryoraNationalPark.Nopersonshall,destroy,exploitorremoveany
wildlifefromaNationalParkandSanctuaryordestroyordamagethehabitatordepriveany
wildanimalorplantitshabitatwithinsuchNationalParkandSanctuary.Thusoffersprotection
Forest(Conservation)Act,1980.WithoutthepermissionoftheCentralgovernment,noState
government or any other authority can declare that any reserved forest shall cease to be
reserved,Issuepermitforuseofforestlandfornonforestpurpose,Assignanyforestlandor
portion thereof by way of lease or otherwise to any private person, authority, corporation,
agencyoranyotherorganization,notowned,managedorcontrolledbygovernment.Clearoff
naturaltreesfromaforestlandforthepurposeofreafforestation.Thewetlandintheforests
thusgetprotected.
TheBiologicalDiversityAct,2002. IndiaisasignatorytotheUnitedNationsConventionon
Biological Resources, 1992 and in accordance with that convention, brought into force The
BiologicalDiversityAct,2002.Thisactprohibitsbiodiversityrelatedactivitiesaswellastransfer
oftheresultsofresearchpertainingtobiodiversitytocertainpersons.Italsonecessitatesthe
approvalofNationalBiodiversityAuthoritybeforeapplyingforIntellectualPropertyRightson
products pertaining to biological diversity. This act emphasizes the establishment of
National/StateBiodiversityAuthoritytocarryoutvariousfunctionspertainingtotheAct,viz
guidelinesforapprovingcollection,researchandpatentspertainingtobiologicaldiversity.It
alsonotifiesthecentralgovernmentonthreatenedspecies.Thecentralgovernmenttodevelop
plans,programmesandstrategiesfortheconservation,managementandsustainableuseofthe
biodiversity.WheretheCentralGovernmenthasreasontobelievethatanyarearichinbiological
diversity, biological resources and their habitats is being threatened by overuse, abuse or
neglect, it shall issue directives to the concerned State Government to take immediate
ameliorativemeasures.
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. It is an Act to provide for the
preventionandcontrolofwaterpollutionandthemaintainingorrestoringofwholesomenessof
water.Tocarryoutthepurposesofthisact,theCentralandtheStategovernmentconstitutes
the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Board (SPCB)
respectively.Themainfunctionsofthepollutioncontrolboardsinclude:
Advicethegovernmentonanymatterconcerningthepreventionandcontrolofwater
pollution.
Encourage,conductandparticipateininvestigationsandresearchrelatingtoproblemsof
waterpollutionandprevention,controlorabatementofwaterpollution.
Laydownormodifystandardsonvariousparametersforthereleaseofeffluentsinto
streams.
Collect and examine effluent samples as well as examine the various treatment
proceduresundertakenbytheindustriesreleasingtheeffluent.
Examinethequalityofstreams.
Notifycertainindustriestoeitherstop,restrictormodifytheirproceduresifitfeelsthat
thepresentprocedureisdeterioratingthewaterqualityofstreams.
Establish orrecognize laboratories to perform its functions including theanalysis of
streamwaterqualityandtradeeffluents.
International convention for the protection of Birds, 1950. To abate the ever dwindling
numberofcertainbirdspecies(particularlythemigratoryones)aswellastheotherbirds,this
conventionwasmade.ThisisanamendmenttotheInternationalConventionfortheProtection
ofBirdsusefultoAgriculture,1902.Theobjectivesofthisconventioninclude:
Protection to all birds, their young ones and their eggs especially in their breeding
season.
Prohibithunting,killing,masscaptureorcaptivatingbirds,exceptthosecausingintense
damagetocropsorothercomponentsoftheecosystem,suchsothattheabovesaidcomponents
isinthedangerofextinction.
Adoptmeasurestoprohibitindustriesandotherprocessescausingcontaminationofair
andwaterthathasadverseeffectsonthesurvivalofbirds.
Adoptmeasurestoprohibitthedestructionofsuitablebreedinggroundsandthebird
habitatandalsoencouragethecreationofsuitablelandandwaterhabitatforthebirds.
Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992. The main objectives of this convention are the
conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and
equitablesharingofbenefitsarisingoutoftheutilizationofgeneticresources.Inaccordance
withthisconvention,eachcontractingpartyshall
Identifyplacessupportingimmensebiologicaldiversity.
Monitor through sampling or other means the components of biological diversity
identifiedandstrivefortheconservationofthosecomponentsrequiringurgentattention.
Exsituconservation.Eachcontractingpartyshallestablishfacilitiesforexsituconservationand
forresearchonplants,animalsandmicroorganisms,especiallythethreatenedspecies,augment
theirnumberandtakestepsfortheirreintroductionintheirownnaturalhabitat.
StateLevelLegalFramework
TheKeralaConservationofPaddyLandandWetlandAct,2008.TheKeralagovernmenthas
introducedtheKeralaConservationofPaddyLandandWetlandAct,2008andrulestheron.This
actisProhibitsconversionorreclamationofpaddyland(onandfromthedateofcommencement
ofthisAct,theowner,occupierorthepersonincustodyofanypaddylandshallnotundertake
anyactivityfortheconversionorreclamationofsuchpaddylandexceptinaccordancewiththe
provisionsofthisAct).
The Kerala Protection of River banks and regulation of removal of Sand Act 2001. The
Governmenthasenactedthislawtoprotectriverbanksandriverbedsfromlargescaledredging
ofriversandandtoprotecttheirbiophysicalenvironmentsystemandregulatetheremovalof
riversand.Thislawhascanbeappliedinprotectingthewetlandsofthestate.
TheKeralaIrrigationandwaterConservationAct2003. Thisactprovidestheprovisionsfor
conservationofwaterinwatercoursesandregulateswaterwithdrawal.
TheKeralaInlandFisheriesandAquacultureAct.2010
This law relates to the inland fishery sector in the State and to provide the sustainable
development,management,conservation,propagation,protection,exploitationandutilisationof
the inland fishery sector and to promote the social fisheries and to regulate and control
responsible aquaculture activities and to ensure the safety of livelihood and to protect the
traditional rights of the fishermen and to ensure the availability of nutritious fish and food
securitytothepeopleandformattersconnectedtherewithorincidentalthereto.
Thetable1liststhesectionsapplicabletowetlandsinthevariouslaws
Table1.SectionsapplicabletoWetlandsinthevariouslaws
Regulatedactivities
Withdrawalofwater,diversionorinterruptionofsources
Treatedeffluentdischargesindustrial/domestic/agrochemical.
Plyingofmotorizedboats
Dredging
ConstructionofBoatjetties
Aquaculture/horticulturewithinthewetlandetc.
6 DeclarationofCoastal Prohibitedactivities:
stretchesasCRZ, SettingupofnewindustriesandexpansionofexistingindustriesintheCRZ.
1991/2011 Dischargeofuntreatedwastesandeffluentsfromindustries,citiesortownsand
otherhumansettlements.
Dumpingofcityortownwasteforthepurposesoflandfilling.
Landreclamationanddisturbingthenaturalcourseofseawater.
Miningofsands,rocksandothersubstratamaterials,exceptthoserareminerals
notavailableoutsidetheCRZareasandexplorationandextractionofOilandNatural
Gas.
Harvestingordrawalofgroundwaterandconstructionofmechanismsthereof
within200mofHTL;inthe200mto500mzoneitshallbepermittedonlywhendone
manuallythroughordinarywells.
AnyconstructionactivitybetweentheLowTideLineandHighTideLine.
14 TheKeralaInland providethesustainabledevelopment,management,conservation,propagation,
Fisheriesand protection,exploitationandutilisationoftheinlandfisherysectorandtopromotethe
AquacultureAct.2010 socialfisheriesandtoregulateandcontrolresponsibleaquacultureactivities
V.Kunhambu,N.Vinayachandran,T.S.AnithaShyam,MiniChandran&P.Nandakumaran *
CentralGroundWaterBoard,KeralaRegion,Thiruvananthapuram695004,India
Email:pnkm62@gmail.com
Abstract
Water is not only an essential element for our survival but is also an important vehicle for economic
development of the Nation. Although water is a renewable resource, its reserve in nature is limited and
therefore, wehavetoplanforitssustainabledevelopmentandefficientmanagementsothatthegrowing
demandsofrisingpopulation,expandingindustriesandrapidurbanizationareadequatelymet.
NATIONALWATERPOLICY
WaterisastatesubjectaspertheconstitutionofIndia.The objectiveoftheNationalWater
Policyistotakecognizanceoftheexistingsituation,toproposeaframeworkforcreationofa
systemoflawsandinstitutionsandforaplanofactionwithaunifiednationalperspectiveon
whichvariousstatescanformulatetheirownStateWaterPolicyrealizingthegroundtruths
whichvariesfromstatetostate.NationalWaterPolicyofIndiawasadoptedinSeptember,1987.
Itisemphasizedthatwaterisascarceandpreciousnationalresourcetobeplanned,developed,
conservedandmanagedassuch,andonanintegratedandenvironmentallysoundbasis,keeping
inviewthesocioeconomicaspectsandneedsoftheStates.Itisoneofthemostcrucialelements
in developmentalplanning. As the country hasentered the 21st century, efforts to develop,
conserve,utiliseandmanagethisimportantresourceinasustainablemanner,havetobeguided
bythenationalperspective. Itissignificanttonotethatthenumberofissuesandchallenges
have emerged in the development and management of the water resources. Therefore, the
NationalWaterPolicy(1987)hasbeenreviewedandupdatedasNationalWaterPolicy(2002)
with additionalemphasiseon: (1)Nonconventionalmethodsforutilisationofwatersuchas
throughinterbasintransfers,artificialrechargeofgroundwateranddesalinationofbrackishor
seawateraswellastraditionalwaterconservationpracticeslikerainwaterharvesting,including
rooftop rainwater harvesting, need to be practiced to further increase the utilisable water
resources.Promotionoffrontierresearchanddevelopment,inafocusedmanner,and(2)Water
resourcesdevelopmentandmanagementwillhavetobeplannedforahydrologicalunitsuchas
drainagebasinasawholeorforasubbasin,multisectorally,takingintoaccountsurfaceand
ground water for sustainable use incorporating quantity and quality aspects as well as
environmental considerations. Allindividualdevelopmentalprojectsandproposalsshouldbe
formulatedandconsideredwithintheframeworkofsuchanoverallplankeepinginviewthe
existingagreements/awardsforabasinorasubbasinsothatthebestpossiblecombinationof
optionscanbeselectedandsustained.
DraftNationalWaterPolicy2012
The present scenario of water resources and their management in India hasgivenriseto
severalconcernsandgovernmentofIndiafeltthenecessityforsuitablerevisionofitsNational
* RegionalDirector,CGWB,Keralaregion
Tabe.1:comparisonofprovisionsofNationalwaterpolicies1987,2002anddraftnational
waterpolicy(2012).
GroundWaterDevelopment
Therapiddevelopmentofgroundwaterresourcesforvariedusagehascontributedinexpansion
ofirrigatedagriculture,overalleconomicdevelopmentandinimprovingthequalityoflifein
India.Groundwater,whichisthesourcefor morethan85percentofruraldomesticwater
requirements,50percentofurbanwaterrequirementsandmorethan50percentofirrigation
requirementsofthecountry,isdepletingfastinmanyareasduetoitslargescalewithdrawalfor
various sectors. The ground water development with time has changed the hydrogeological
regimeandasaresultnaturalrechargecomponentshavealteredtoagreatextent.Asperlatest
ground water resource estimation as on 31 st March, 2009, the stage of groundwater
developmentofthecountryisworkedouttobearound61%.Outofthe5842assessmentunits,
802unitshavebeencategorizedasOverexploited,169asCriticaland523unitsasSemi
Critical.Thereare71salineunitsand4277Safeunits.Theannualreplenishablegroundwater
resourceis431BCMandnetgroundwateravailabilityis396BCM.Thetotalannualground
waterdraftis243BCMandbalancegroundwaterresourcesavailableforfurtherdevelopmentis
153BCM.
GROUNDWATERRESOURCEESTIMATIONOFKERALA,ASONMARCH2009
TheoccurrenceandavailabilityofgroundwaterinKeralavaryconsiderablyfromplacetoplace
withinthestatedependingontheprevailingclimatic,geomorphologicalandhydrogeological
conditions. About 88 percent of the total geographical area of the State is underlain by
crystallinerocksdevoidofanyprimaryporosity,withlimitedgroundwaterprospects.Inthe
alluvial formations having multipleaquifer systems, quality is sometimesa constraint in the
optimal development of available resources. Increasing population, rapid urbanization and
industrialization has resulted in increasing use of ground water resources over the last few
decades inthe State. Judiciousand planned development of ground water and its scientific
managementhavebecomenecessarytoensurelongtermsustainabilityofthispreciousnatural
resource in Kerala. The dynamic ground water resources of the State are being periodically
assessedby the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), jointly withthe State Ground Water
DepartmentandotherCentralGovernmentaswellasStateGovernmentagencies,accordingto
themethodologyrecommendedbytheGroundwaterEstimationCommitteeconstitutedbyGovt.
fromtimetotime.
CategorizationofAssessmentUnits
Theunitsofassessmentarecategorizedforgroundwaterdevelopmentbasedontwocriteriaviz.
(a)stageofgroundwaterdevelopmentand(b)longtermtrendofpreandpostmonsoonwater
levels. There are four categories based on the above norms (1) Safe areas which have
groundwaterpotentialfordevelopment;(2)SemiCriticalareaswherecautiousgroundwater
developmentisrecommended.(3)Criticalareasand(4)OverExploitedareaswherethere
shouldbeintensivemonitoringandevaluationandfuturegroundwaterdevelopmentbelinked
with water conservation measures and micro level studies. The details of criteria for
categorizationofassessmentunitsaregiveninTable2.
Table2:CriteriaforCategorizationofAssessmentUnits
1 <=70% No No Safe
Yes/No No/Yes Tobereassessed
2 >70%and<=90% No No Safe
Yes/No No/Yes SemiCritical
3 >90%and<=100% No No Tobereassessed
Yes/No No/Yes SemiCritical
4 >100% No No Tobereassessed
Yes/No No/Yes OverExploited
TheTotalAnnualGroundWaterAvailabilityinKeralaStatehasbeencomputedas6.620Billion
CubicMetre(BCM).Rainfallrechargeaccountsforabout 82 percentoftheannualrecharge,
withtheremaindercontributedbyothersources.Thedetailsofthecomputationsareprovided
inTable3.
Table3:SummaryofMajorComponentsofDynamicGroundWaterResourcesofKerala(AsinMarch2009)
Sl. AssessmentUnit/District Net Annual Existing Gross Stageof
No. Ground Water Ground Water Draft Ground Water
Availability forAlluses(Ha.m) Development(%)
(Ha.m)
GroundwaterdraftinKeralaismainlyfordomesticandirrigationuses.Inviewofthenon
availabilityofdataonthenumberofwellsbeingusedfordomesticpurposes,thegroundwater
draftfordomesticuseshasbeencomputedblockwiseonthebasisof2001population,projected
Fig.1:StatusofNetGroundWaterAvailability&GroundWaterDraft
StageofGroundWaterDevelopment
Thestageofgroundwaterdevelopmentofassessmentunits,computedastheratioofExisting
GrossGroundWaterDraftforallusesandtheNetAnnualGroundWaterAvailabilityisofthe
orderof 47 percent for theState of Kerala asa whole. The average stage of ground water
development is the highest in Kasargod district (71%) and the lowest in Wayanad district
(17%).
CategorizationofAssessmentUnits
TheAssessmentunitshavebeencategorizedasOverexploited,Critical,Semicriticalor
SafeonthebasisofStageofGroundWaterDevelopmentandthelongtermdeclineofaverage
ground water levels in the observations wells in the assessment unit, as per the criteria
suggestedinGEC1997methodology.IncaseswheretheWaterLevelFluctuation(WLF)method
has been used for computation of ground water recharge during monsoon season, the
assessmentunitshavebeencategorizedstrictlyasperthenorms.Declineofgroundwaterlevels
of15cmperyearormorehasbeenconsideredsignificantintheStatewhilecategorizingthe
blocks. However, in such units where the monsoon recharge has been computed by adhoc
methodonaccountofthewaterleveldatanotbeingrepresentative,categorizationhasbeen
doneprimarilyonthebasisofstageofdevelopmentandtheexistinggroundsituation.Outof
152assessedunitsintheState,ChitturblockofPalakkaddistricthasbeencategorizedasOver
Fig.2:CategorizationofBlocksinKerala(AsinMarch2009)
CGWBINITIATIVESONARTIFICIALRECHARGETOGROUNDWATERRESOURCES
AManualonArtificialRechargeofGroundWaterprovidingdetailedguidelinesoninvestigative
techniquesforselectionofsites,planninganddesignofartificialrechargestructures,monitoring
and economic evaluation of artificial recharge schemes was brought out by Central Ground
WaterBoardin1994.Italsoincluded2elaboratecasestudiesandfieldexamplesofartificial
rechargeschemesfromdifferentpartsoftheworld.Themanualhasbeenusedextensivelyfor
NATIONALPERSPECTIVEPLANFORRECHARGETOGROUNDWATER
CentralGroundWaterBoard(CGWB)preparedaNationalPerspectivePlanforRechargeto
GroundWaterbyutilizingSurplusMonsoonRunoffin1996.Theavailabilityofnoncommitted
surplusmonsoonrunoffin20RiverBasinsofthecountrywasanalysedvisavisthesubsurface
availablespaceunderdifferenthydrogeologicalsituationsforsaturatingthevadosezoneto3m
belowgroundlevel.Itwasestimatedthatitispossibletostore21.4M.ha.mofsurplusmonsoon
runoffingroundwaterreservoir,outofwhich16.05M.ha.mcanbeutilized.Theplanpresented
a conceptual framework for utilization of surplus monsoon runoff for artificial recharge of
groundwater.
CGWBhadpreparedaMasterPlanforArtificialRechargetoGroundWaterearlierinthe
year2002.TheMasterPlanenvisagedthenumberofartificialrechargeandwaterconservation
structuresinthecountryas39lakhatanestimatedcostofRs.24,500crores.Basedonthe
above,variousStateAgenciesandCGWBhavetakenuptheconstructionofartificialrecharge
structures on a large scale under State/Central sector scheme. The details of demonstrative
artificialrechargestudiestakenupbyCGWBduringdifferentfiveyearplansarefurnishedin
tablebelow(Table.4).
Table4:ArtificialRechargeStudiestakenbyCGWBduringdifferentFiveYearPlans
PLAN STATUS COST
(Rs.Cr.)
VIII Maharashtra,Karnataka,AndhraPradesh,Delhi,Kerala,Madhya 3.23
(199297) Pradesh,TamilNadu,WestBengal&Chandigarh(TotalStates/UT9)
IX AndhraPradesh,ArunachalPradesh,Assam,Andaman&Nicobar,Bihar,Chandigarh, 33.10
(19972002) Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka,
Kerala,Lakshadweep,MadhyaPradesh,Maharashtra,Meghalaya,Mizoram,Nagaland,
Delhi,Odisha,Punjab,Rajasthan,TamilNadu,UttarPradesh,UttarakhandandWest
Bengal(TotalStates/UT27)
X AndhraPradesh,Karnataka,MadhyaPradesh&TamilNadu(TotalStates4) 5.60
(20022007)
XI AndhraPradesh,ArunachalPradesh,Bihar,Chhattisgarh,Chandigarh,Delhi,Gujarat, 99.87
(20072012) Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &Kashmir, Jharkhand, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
MadhyaPradesh,Nagaland,Odisha,Punjab,Rajasthan,TamilNadu,UttarPradeshand
WestBengal(TotalStates/UT21)
Table5:ArtificialRechargeSchemesimplementedbyCGWBinKerala&U.TofLakshadweep
S. Location StructureandYear District Implementingagency Cost(Rs)
No
1 Odakkali SubsurfaceDam(1988) Ernakulam CGWB(SIDAProject) N.A
Incorporatingtheactualprogressmadeinthetargetsupto201011andalsoreassessingthe
newareasofrechargetomakeuseoftheexperiencealreadygainedandtheinputreceivedfrom
theimpactassessmentofselectschemesexecutedbyCentralGroundWaterBoardthroughstate
agencies under central sector and centrally sponsored schemes Problems that may arise in
coastalandhardrockaquifersandoverdevelopmentinisolatedpocketsinSafeblocksarealso
tobeaddressedincomingyears.Thegroundwaterqualityissuesalsoneedtobefocusedon
new areas of integrated approach in rain water harvesting and recharge to ground water.
Consideringthis,somechangesinthemethodologyinartificialrechargeareproposed.
Based on theexperience gained underdemonstrative artificial recharge program and
artificial recharge to ground water through dug well scheme, the need for identification of
specificnewareasindifferentStatesforadditionalartificialrechargetogroundwaterwasfelt.
To implement schemes in an effective manner, statewise presentation of the base data on
existingrechargestructuresandproposalsinthepipeline isrequired.Also, thefeasibilityof
diverting flood water or surplus run off from rainfall from one region to another region is
examined.Thenewguidelinesfortakinguprechargeschemeswithoutaffectingtheexisting
surfacewaterstoragestructuresarealsoenvisagedItisdecidedtoreviseandupdatetheMaster
Plan of Artificial Recharge (2002) as on March 2011 The Chairman, CGWB, constituted a
CommitteetopreparenewguidelinesforrevisionofMasterPlanforartificialrechargetoground
water for the country and the Committee submitted the report in September 2008. The
committeerecommendedbroadguidelinesforselectionofpriorityareas,schemesfordifferent
agroclimaticareasanduseoftransportedwaterforrecharge,creationofdatabaseonexisting
rechargestructuresforplanninganynewschemesinagiventimeandotherrecommendations.
ThedemandsidemanagementofgroundwaterresourceswasgivenstressbytheCommittee.
Basedontherecommendations oftheCommittee,thepresentrevisedMasterPlanis
preparedonthebasisofhydrogeologicalparametersandhydrologicaldatabaseavailablefor
eachState.Theidentificationoffeasibleareasforartificialrechargetogroundwaterwasmade
onthebasisofdepthanddecliningtrendofgroundwaterlevels.Thedecadalaveragedepthto
waterlevelforpostmonsoonperiodwastakentoestimatethesubsurfacestoragespacefor
rechargeandvolumeofwaterneededtosaturatethevadosezoneto3mbelowgroundlevel.
Thequantificationofsurplusmonsoonrunoffwasmadefortheidentifiedareas/subbasins.The
computationsforsurfacewateravailabletoharnessineachidentifiedareasweremadetoplan
thefeasibilityofdifferentartificialrechargestructures.Basedonthehydrogeologicalsituationof
eachofthestatesthefeasiblenumberofdifferentartificialrechargestructuresandtheircost
estimatesweremade.
Atotalareaofabout9,41,541sq.km.hasbeenidentifiedinvariouspartsofcountry
whereartificialrechargetogroundwaterisfeasible.ThisalsoincludeshillyterrainofJammu
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, North Eastern States & Islands where the
structuresareproposedtoimprovethesustainabilityofspringsandfreshwater.
Itisestimatedthatannuallyabout85,565MCMofsurplusrunoffistobeharnessedto
augmentthegroundwater.Mostofthebasinsofthecountry,particularlyinPeninsularIndia
are having marginal/negligible surplus runoff, where considerable space in underground
reservoirsisavailable.Hence,surplusrunoffisnotavailableforrechargetogroundwaterin
variousareas,whichotherwiseneedartificialrecharge.ThesurplusrunoffavailableinNorth
EasternStates,HimachalPradeshandIslandsisveryhighandduetolimitedspaceavailable
undergroundforrecharge,thesurplusrunoffcalculationisnotseparatelygiven.However,for
thestabilizationofspringsandimprovingthegroundwaterscenarioinexistinglocalizedground
water extraction areas, few recharge structures are identified and will be executed by
consideringthelocalgroundslopeandvulnerabilityoflandslides,etc.intheseareas.
Inruralareas,suitablestructureslikepercolationtanks,checkdams,nalabunds,gully
plugs,gabionstructuresetc.andsubsurfacetechniquesofrechargeshaft,wellrechargeetc.
DUGWELLRECHARGESCHEME
A separate scheme on Dug well recharge was prepared for Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh,Karnataka,Maharashtra,RajasthanandAndhraPradeshstatesatanestimatedcostof
Rs. 1871 crores covering 4.455 Million irrigation dug wells covering 1155 blocks in seven
participatingstates.TheSchemeisbeingimplementedthroughNABARD,CGWBandidentified
nodal agencies in the state. Under this scheme, farmers were given fund directly for the
constructionofrechargepitsnearthedugwellatanaveragecostofRs4000/whichvaries
fromRs.3600/(Maharashtra)toRs.5700/(AndhraPradesh).AsonMarch2012,1,14,205dug
wellrechargestructureswerecompletedunderthisscheme.TheearlierMasterPlanpreparedby
theGovernmentofIndiaalsoneedsupdatingofphysicalandfinancialtargetstoaccountthe
executedworkandtoarriveatabaseforfurtherimplementationwiththeinvolvementofstate
andotherstakeholdersatgrassrootlevel.
TherevisedMasterplanforartificialrecharge(2011)envisagesschemesforrecharging
about 1520 MCM of water in Kerala (Table.6). The cost of implementation of the artificial
rechargeschemesincludingrooftoprainwaterharvestingsystemsinthestateofKeralaworks
outasRs.5914.Cr.
AWARENESS&CAPACITYBUILDING
Awarenesscreationandcapacitybuildingofstakeholdersarealsoanintegralpartsofwater
conservationendeavours. TheCentralGroundWaterBoard,KeralaRegion,organizedvarious
activitiesundertheaegisoftheInformationEducationandCommunicationprogramofMinistry
ofWaterResources,Government ofIndia. ThevariousactivitiesincludeWaterManagement
Training Programmes, Mass awareness programmes etc on conservation and protection of
ground water resources, Workshops, World Water Week Celebrations, Display Boards/
Hoardingsonwaterconservationatvarious Railwaystations, Distributionofcalanderswith
themeofwaterconservation aswellas distributionof Bookletsonwaterconservationand
artificialrecharge.ThePaintingCompetitionisbeingorganizedforcreatingawarenessamong
school children on the importance of conservation & efficient use of water. As part of this
programme , CGWB, Kerala Region has been conducting School and State Level Painting
Competitionforthestudentsof4 th 5th &6th StandardofKeralaandU.TofLakshadweepfor
spreading awareness on Water conservation among the school students 2010 as per the
guidelinesofMinistryofWaterResources,Govt.ofIndia.Morethan1.5lakhstudentsof4 th, 5th
and 6th Class students from Kerala have participated in event so far. Ministry of Water
Resources,Govt.ofIndiahasalsoinstitutedannualawardnamelyGroundWaterAugmentation
AwardandNationalWaterAward toencourageadoptionof innovativepracticesofground
water augmentation by rain water harvesting and artificial recharge, promoting water use
efficiency,recyclingandreuseofwaterandcreatingawarenessthroughpeopleparticipation,
disseminationoftechnicalinformationrelatedgroundwaterintheformofreport,mapsand
alsothroughthewebsite.
DeptofGeology,UniversityofKerala,Kariavattom
Trivandrum695581,India
Email:shajigeology@gmail.com
Abstract
Geologically 85% of the Kerala state is underlain by crystalline rocks of Archaean age comprising the
charnockitekhondalite suite, hornblende gneisses and older migmatites forming the basement gneisses,
followedbyhighgradeschistsandgneissesoftheWayanadSargurGroupandlowgradeDharwarschists.
Intrusiveslikedolerite,gabbro,granitesandpegmatiteveinsarealsonoticedinallformations.TheUpper
Tertiary formationsinclude the Warkali, Quilon,Vaikom, Alleppey formations. The SubRecent to Recent
formationsincludethecoastalsands,teris,lagoonaldeposits,alluviumandlateriteofdifferentgenerations.
Thecrystallinerocksaremadeupofthehighlydecomposedweatheredzoneorpartlyweatheredandfractured
rockformshallowaquifers.Thickweatheredzoneisseenalongthemidlandareabeneaththelaterites.Inthe
hill ranges thin weathered zone is seen along topographic lows andareaswith gentle slope. Exploratory
drillinginthecrystallineformationscarriedoutbyCentralGroundWaterBoardhasindicatedoccurrenceof
potentialfracturesatdepthsrangingbetween60and175m.bglwithwellyieldsvaryingfromdry(nil)to
asmuchas35lps. InCharnockitesandhornblendebiotitegneisses,theyieldseemstobemorethanthe
khondalitegroupofrocks.InTrivandrumdistricttherocksarehighlyfracturedbutthefracturesarefilled
withsecondaryclayminerals.Hencetherechargetothedeeperaquifersislimited.Thisisoneofthemain
reasonsforthebaseflowofgroundwaterintheregion.Thisishastobeminimizedandthefracturescanbe
cleanedandopenedwithatechniquecalledhydrofracturing.
Hydrofracturing
Hydrofracturingisarecenttechniquethatisusedtoimprovesecondaryporosityinhardrock
strata.Hydrofracturingisaprocesswherebyhydraulicpressureisappliedtoanisolatedzoneof
borewellstoinitiateandpropagatefracturesandextendexistingfractures.Thewaterunder
highpressurebreakupthefissurescleansawayclogging andleadstoabetter contactwith
adjacent water bearing strata. The yield of the bore well is improved. In hydro fracturing,
verticalfracturesareinitiated whichinterconnectsaquifersatdifferentlevelsinaddition to
extension of existing fractures. This leads to better conditions for artificial recharge. The
techniquemaybeappliedatborewellsiteslocatedinhardcrystallinerockorothermassive
consolidatedstrataincludingmetamorphicandsedimentaryformations.Generally,aborewell
givingloworpooryieldistreated,butthetechniquecanalsobenefitotherwells.Aprocedure
designed to increase the amount of water in existing dry and low yield water wells.
Hydrofracturingisawelldevelopmentprocessthatinvolvesinjectingwaterunderhighpressure
intoabedrockformationviathewell.Thisisintendedtoincreasethesizeandextentofexisting
bedrockfractures,pumpingwaterintothosefracturesatpressuresashighas45000psiandflow
rates as high as 300 liters per minute, this cleans out the fractures and allows them to
interconnectwithnearbywaterbearingfractures.Ahydrofracturingmachine,whichworksat
Bangalore,isshowninfigure1.
Process
Theprocedureinvolvestheinstallationofaninflatablepacker(Figure2)whichisplacedinthe
wellboreatleast50feetbelowthewellcasinganddriveshoesealandatleast60feetbelow
ground surface to insure that the process does not break the seal or allow surface water
contaminants to enter the well. The packer is inflated or locked into position and water is
pumpedthroughthepackerunderpressure.Mostapplicationsrequirebetween500and2000
poundspersquareinch(psi)pressureandinsomecases4500psipressuremaybeneededin
tightrockformations.
Fig2Inflatablepacker
Summary
NationalCentreforEarthScienceStudies
MinistryofEarthSciences,GovernmentofIndia
Akkulam,Thiruvananthapuram695031,India
Email:dssbabu@gmail.com
Abstract
Whilesurfacewaterflowissignificantlyregulatedbytheconstructionofweirs,checkdamsand
multipurposedamsofdifferentdimensionsallalongthestate,noefforthasbeentakenseriouslyto
estimate the annual loss of subsurface flow and also to control its discharge to sea. In fact,
multifariousriverflowrecordersarefittedinthedrainagenetworktomeasurethedischargesona
seasonalbasis.Ontheotherhand,theextensiveopenwellandtubewellwatertablemeasurements
donotallowustocalculatethetotalvolumeofgroundwaterthatisflowingthroughaparticular
area,asaquifermappingworkhasnotbeencompleted.Thisisparticularlytrueinthecaseof
coastalaquifers.HencethematterneedsurgentattentionofhydrogeologistssinceKeralasunique
topographicalconstraintsdoaffectthegroundwaterreservesalso,asinthecaseofsurfacerunoff.
ThesoilmoisturereflectancemapofKeralacoastalzonepreparedusingsummersignalvalueshas
shown that there are potential zones favourable for groundwater discharge to sea during dry
seasons.Threesuchzonescouldbeidentifiedwithintheshallowaquiferhorizonusing IRSLISSIII
data.BasedonthewetnessfactorofsoilinterpretedfromMIRspectralvalues,thepermanentlywet
coastalsegmentscouldbedemarcated.Sincecloudfreedataarenotnormallyavailableformostof
themonthsinthecaseofSWIndiancoast,successiveanalysesonchangesinsoilmoisturecontent
couldnotbecarriedout.However,itisassumedthattheanalyzeddataofpremonsoonsummer
periodindicatesthestabilizedandlowestpositionofwatertableinthatareaandbelowwhich
saturated state of soil moisture exists throughout the year. The release of groundwater to sea
(submarinegroundwaterdischarge)normallytakesplacealongfractures,unconformities,limestone
crevassesandsandstoneporosities.Geologically,suchfavourablezonesdooccuralongtheKerala
coastal zone at many places. Subsequent to the delineation of potential zones of probable
groundwater discharge through satellite data, hydrogeological surveys, topographic surveys and
water table measurements were resorted to ascertain the geometry of discharge zone along the
beach.Combinationofapparentresistivityandselfpotentialprovidesinferredlithologicallayersas
wellasthicknessofwaterbearingformationsatthelandwardsideofinvestigatedsites. Insitu
Radonmeasurementsintheseabottomwatersamplesofferssignaturesofgroundwaterdischarge
sitesatthemarineside.Thenetannualseawarddischargeofgroundwaterwascomputedusing
modellingtechniquesappliedtoshallowaquiferunits.Itisadvocatedthatasystematicapproachis
necessary along the coastal zone of Kerala to identify and demarcate favourable zones of
groundwaterdischargestosea.Further,aneffectiveflowcontrolmechanismshouldbeenforcedby
installingadequatenumberofsubsurfacedykesonallthefeasiblesitesintheupstreamside.This
canbetakenupwiththehelpofconcernedLSGbodiesasinthecaseofwatershedmanagement
options,whichareinvogue,atmanypartsofthestate.
NationalCentreforEarthScienceStudies
MinistryofEarthSciences,GovernmentofIndia
Akkulam,Thiruvananthapuram695031,India
Email:drdpadmalal@gmail.com
Waterisavitalresourceforthesustenanceoflife.Itisanindispensibleresourceforagriculture,
industriesandalmostalltheotherhumanactivities.Ensuringuninterruptedfreshwatersupplyis
oneofthegreatestchallengesofthemodernworld.Beinglimitedinquantity,freshwaterresource
bothsurfaceandsubsurfaceneedstobewiselyconservedandcautiouslymanagedforthebenefitof
thepresentandfuturegenerations.Withvaryingdegreesofsuccessmankindhavecorrectedthe
imbalanceinavailabilityofwaterbystoringinreservoirsandalsochannellingtowaterscarce
areas.Atthesametime,waterpollutionfromindustry,agricultureandurbancentresmakesthe
situationcomplexasthequalityandquantityoffreshwaterresourcesareoftencriticallyaffectedby
humaninterference.Reportsrevealthatinferiorqualitywaterisoftenusedtomeetthefreshwater
demandinmanypartsoftheworld.Indiaisnotanexception.Thequalityofsurfaceandsubsurface
water is a function of both natural influences and human activities. In the absence of human
influences,waterqualitywouldsolelybedeterminedbythenaturalprocessesweatheringofcrustal
rocks,atmosphericfallouts,leachingoforganicmatterandnutrientsfromsoil,hydrologicalfactors
thatleadtorunoff,andbiologicalprocessesinthelivingworld.Itisnowwidelyacceptedthatwater
managementpracticesmustbeintegratedonriverbasinscaleforachievingdesirableresults.And,
eachwatersourceinthebasinshouldbemonitoredwithutmostcareandprecisionforlayingdown
strategiesforitseffectiveconservationandmanagement.
Thewaterrelatedissuesareverycriticalindenselypopulatedareasofdevelopingeconomies
likeKerala.Althoughthestatereceivesheavyrainfall(~3000mm),itsdistributioniserraticboth
spatiallyandseasonally.Storingwaterinsurfaceaswellassubsurfacereservoirsofnaturaland/or
manmadeformsis,perhaps,theonlysolutiontoovercomethiscrisis.Unfortunately,theincreased
humaninterferencesinthepast34decadesresultedfromrapideconomicgrowthhassignificantly
deterioratedthecapabilityofmostofoursurfaceandsubsurfacestorages.Asaresultmanyofthe
traditionalwatersourceslikewells,springsetc.,startedshowinglowyields,especiallyinsummer
months.Therisingincidencesofwaterbornediseasesareindicativeoftheeverworseningwater
qualityproblemsinthestate.Theproblemswillbecomplicatedfurtherasthestateisundergoing
rapidurbanizationandeconomicdevelopments.Thepresenttrendofclimatechangewillalsohave
adecisiveroleindeterminingthequalityandquantityofthefreshwaterresourcesinthestate.
Itistruethatthefreshwateravailabilityofacountryoraregionremainsalmostconstant.
Butaspopulationincreases,thepercapitaavailabilityofwaterdecreases.Analysisoftheavailable
datarevealsthatduringthelast100years,thepercapitawateravailabilityinIndiahasdecreased
by4timeswhilethatofKeralaby5times.Atthesametime,thedemandofwaterhasincreased
exponentiallyovertheyears.Itisestimatedthatthedemandoffreshwaterinthestatewas1026
millionlitresin1901,whichincreasedabout5times(5342millionlitres)in2011.Aunitlandof
Keralareceives2.5timesmorerainfallthanthenationalaverage.Atthesametime,thesameland
unithastosupport3.6timesmorepopulation,inadditiontosatisfyingtherequirementsofarich
biologicalstockoftheregion.Allthesereiteratetheneedforcarefulmonitoring,planning,wise
use/managementandconservationofourfreshwatersources.