Environmental Pollution and Control

By Om Prakash Tenduwe
M.Tech (Mech Engg.)
From various online sources, M.N Rao and NPTEL
UNIT II
Environmental Pollution - Sources

Automobile Pollution
Automotive emissions in aggravating the air pollution and various causes of the genesis and exodus
of these pollutants have been identified and methods to control them have been outlined.
The three main types of automotive vehicles being used in our country are:
Passenger cars powered by four stroke gasoline engines
Motor cycles scooters and autorickshaws powered mostly by small two stroke engines,
Large buses and trucks powered mostly by four stroke diesel engines,
Emission from vehicles especially automobiles is responsible for about two third of air pollution in the
urban area. The major pollutants emitted by motor vehicles including CO, NOx, sulphur oxides, (SO), HC,
lead (Pb) and suspended particulate matter (SPM), have damaging effects on both human health and
ecology. The internal combustion engines need a mixture of air and fuel to burn and produce energy to
propel the vehicle. These burnt gases which come out of the exhaust are responsible for pollution. In petrol
engines, the gases comprise a mixture of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Oxides
of Nitrogen (NOx). If these gases are in excess quantities, vehicular pollution is caused. Emissions of Diesel
vehicles are the concentration of CO and unburnt HC in the diesel exhaust are rather low, both of which
are compensated by high concentration of NOx and CO2. There are smoke particles and oxygenated HC,
including aldehydes and odour-producing compounds.
Emissions from gasoline powered vehicles are generally classified as:
Exhaust emissions
Crank case emissions
Evaporative emissions
The amount of pollutants that an automobile emits depends on a number of factors including the
design and operation.
Diesel powered engines create relatively minor pollution problems compared to gasoline powered
ones.
The major problems of diesel engines are smoke and odor.
Combustion occurs when a fuel reacts with oxygen to give off heat and light.
*Air provides enough oxygen (~20% oxygen, ~80% nitrogen)
Fuels are typically made of carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons) Combustion accounts for 90% of
all airborne pollution
Air pollution can lead to lung problems and shorter life spans Link to Lung Attack activity
Fuel does not exist as a pure substance
varying hydrocarbon chains
* Jet and diesel fuel contain hydrocarbon chains of 12 to 20 carbons in length. Fuel oil contains
hydrocarbons 20 to 40 carbons long.
sulfur (S) nitrogen (N) oxygen (O)

The combustion process is NEVER complete and NEVER ideal. You will always get more than just
CO2 and H2O

Primary Emissions from Automobiles

Carbon monoxide (CO) 2) Carbon as soot or particulates
fuel (hydrocarbons) ) O)
Carbon monoxide (CO) a non-irritating (wont make you cough), colorless, tasteless, and odourless gas.
Source: rich combustion - too little air or too much gasoline
Environmental Effects
CO is POISIONOUS because it reduces the ability of blood to bring oxygen to the bodys cells and tissues.
Remember that oxygen is needed for the combustion that gives our bodies energy.
Nitrogen Oxide
Nitrogen oxide (NOx: mainly NO, NO2)
Source: lean combustion - too little gasoline or too much air
Environmental Effects:
NO2 is an component of acid rain
can damage trees and lakes
NOX reacts with other chemicals in sunlight to produce ozone smog (brownish haze)
Health Effects:
Lung damage Illnesses such as asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema (sicknesses caused by problems
with breathing passages and lungs)

Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulate Matter (PM) - small solids and liquids suspended in the air.
ex: Dust, Smoke, Soot
Source: burning of wood, diesel and other fuels by vehicles, power plants, and also agriculture.
Particulate Matter
-Health effects: Nose and throat irritation ,lung damage, bronchitis , early death
Environmental effects: main source of haze that reduces visibility, discolors clothes and furniture.

AUTOMOBILE EMISSION
Various Emissions Emitted by Vehicles
Pollution from vehicles especially automobiles is responsible for about two third of air pollution in the
urban area. Main sources of emission from automobiles are as described below:

EXHAUST EMISSIONS
Automotive exhaust is the major source constituting about 60% of the total emission. Automobile exhaust
consists of wide range of pollutants from simple to carcinogenic substances such as (1) Hydrocarbons
(Unburnt), (2) Carbon monoxide, (3) Oxides of nitrogen (NOx), (4) Lead oxides, (5) Particulate matters
e.g. lead, carbon, alkaline earth compounds, iron oxide, tar, oil, mist (6) Traces of aldehydes, esters, ethers,
sulphur dioxide, peroxides, ketones benzene (C6H6), 1, 3 butadiene, Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH),
metal dust, asbestos fibre, dioxin, furon, ammonia, organic acids , chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) etc.
Hydrocarbons and CO appears in the exhaust gas products of incomplete combustion. Oxides of nitrogen
result from the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen contained in the combustion air at high temperature
prevailing during combustion. Further, many of these primary pollutants react with each other to form
secondary pollutants. Chief among these includes HC, CO, NOx when mixed with atmospheric water
vapours in the presence of sunlight form ozone and variety of complex organic gases and resultant
particulates known as Photochemical Smog.
The important exhaust emissions from a gasoline engine are
carbon monoxide,
unburnt hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxide and
 particulates.
Automobile manufactures have used two basic methods:
The first is to inject manifold near the exhaust valves, where exhaust gas temperature is
highest, thus inducing further oxidation of unoxidised or partially oxidised substances.
The second basic method is to design cylinders and adjust fuel-air ratio, spark timing and
other varaibles to reduce the amounts of hydrocarbons and CO

Devices and methods to control hydrocarbon emissions fall into three classes
Devices that modify engine operating conditions such as intake manifold vacum breakers,
carburation mixture improvers, throttle retraders,
Devices that Treat exhaust gases such as after burners, catalytic converters, absorbers and
filters
Use of modifies or alternate fuels.

CRANK CASE EMISSIONS

Crankcase Emission (also called running loss emissions) is unburnt or partially burned fuel components
that, under pressure, escape from the combustion chamber, pass the pistons and enter the crankcase. This
mixture is called blow-by. The main constituent of blow-by emission is HCs. If uncontrolled, it may
constitute 1325% of total emissions. Sincediesel engines compress only air, blow-by contain very low
levels of pollutants.

Crank case emissions consist of engine blow by which leaks past the piston mainly during the
compression stroke and of oil vapours generated into the crank case.

The gases mainly contain hydrocarbons and account nearly for 25% of the total hydrocarbon
emissions from a passenger car.
Emissions of hydrocarbons from the crank case of automobiles can be largely eliminated by the
positive crank case ventilation(PCV) systems.
These systems recycle crank case ventilation air and blowby gases to the engine intake instead of
venting them to the atmosphere.
EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS
Evaporative Emissions HC vapours, lost constantly and directly to the atmosphere due to volatile nature of
petrol, mainly from the fuel lines, fuel tank and carburettor depending upon fuel composition, engine
operating temperature and ambient temperature. Losses from the carburettor, called Hot Soak Emissions,
occur when a hot engine is stopped. It should be noted that, out of total emissions, which is much more in
case of petrol than diesel, 20-32% of the total emissions are due to evaporation losses, of which the HCs
happen to be the chief constituents.
It has been estimated that an average Indian passenger car would emit about 20kg of hydrocarbons
through evaporation annually.
It might also be dealt with by changing the properties of gasoline such as reducing the volatility of
fuel and replacing the C4 and C5 olefinic hydrocarbon in the fuel with the less reactive C4 and C5
paraffinic hydrocarbons.
Mechanical methods can also be used to control evaporative emissions.
The exhaust gas pollutants comprise of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and lead
compounds.
CONTROL OF EXHAUST EMISSIONS
Two main approaches to minimize exhaust emissions are:
Modifications in the engine design and operating variables.
Treatment of exhaust gases after emission from the engine.
The following modifications may help in cleaner exhaust
Use of leaner idle mixture
Use of leaner possible mixture and maximum spark retard compatible with good power
output and drivability.
Use of minimum valve-over-lap necessary
Pre-treatment of the mixture to improve vaporization and mixing of fuel with air.
Low quench combustion chambers
Piston and ring variables
Among the methods employed for the purpose are:
Use of narrow venturies to produce higher air speeds and better fuel atomisation
Provision of exhaust heated hot spots to vaporise the heavier liquid droplets in the airstream,
Use of exhaust het to pre heat the mixture at part loads
Use of automatic transmission
Special devices for reducing or cutting off fuel supply during deceleration.
Exhaust Treatment Devices:
Promotion of after burning of the pollutants by exhaust heat conservation, introduction of
additional air and by poviding sufficient volume to ensure adequate reaction time.
Use of catalytic convertors
Catalytic converters depend on the action of a catalyst containing certain exotic chemicals to
convert HC and CO emissions to their oxidised products.
How ever they have certain limitations:
Poisoning of catalyst by lead compounds in fuel
Deterioration with time
Pressure loss and noise problems
Other Methods:
Petrol Injection:
The petrol injection system provides the flexibility needed to meet the engine
requirements and eliminates the problem of mixture distribution altogether and hence
has lower levels of exhaust emissions and better specific fuel consumption.
Stratified Charge Engine:
It operates with very lean air petrol mixtures depending on a localised rich mixture
region near the spark plug to initiate combustion
SOURCES OF VEHICLE EMISSONS
Engine Crankcase Blow-by Fumes (20%) heating oil and burning of fuel that blows past piston rings
and into the crankcase.
Fuel Vapour (20%) chemicals that enter the air as fuel evaporate.
Engine Exhaust (60%)- blown out the tailpipe when engine burns a hydrocarbon based fuel.

CONTROL OF EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS

There are two sources of evaporative emissions viz., the fuel tank and the carburettor.
The principal factors governing tank emissions are:
Fuel volatility
Ambient temperature
Tank emissions
Carburettor emissions may be divided into two categories:
Running losses occurring during engine operation and
Hot soak losses occurring when the vehicle is parked.
CONTROL OF CRANK-CASE EMISSIONS
These consist of engine blowby gases, ventilation air and crank-case lubricant fumes.
For air pollution blowby is most important and the principal constituents in blowby gases are
hydrocarbons.
Designers are shifting crank-case exhaust vents from simple open ending to a feed back.
New engines equipped with this positive crank-case ventilation (PCV) system return crank-case
vapours through a vacuum valve, back to the downstream side of the carburettor.

ALTERNATIVES
(1) Electric car (2) Natural gas (3) Wankel Engine (4) Gas Turbine (5) Ammonia-fueled SI Engine
(6)Unleaded-gasoline Powered SI Engine
ALTERNATIVES FUELS
LPG CNG Bio-Diesel Blends Battery operated Hydrogen Solar operated
Engine Modification Related to Emission Control
Lower Compression Ratios
Use of unleaded gasoline that permits use of catalytic converters and burns completely to lower HC
emissions.
Lower combustion temperature = Lower NOx emissions.
Smaller Combustion Chamber Surface Volume
Reduce HC emissions.
Lowers the amount of heat dissipation out of the fuel mixture.
Reduce the chance of fuel condensation.
Reduce Quench Areas in the Combustion Chambers
Lower HC and CO emissions.
Quench areas- movement of piston too close to the cylinder head.
If too close, it tends to quench (put out) combustion and increase emissions due to unburned fuel.
Vehicle Emission Control System PCV (Positive Crankcase Ventilation System)
Uses engine vacuum to draw blow-by gases into the intake manifold for reburning in the combustion
chamber.

Vacuum or electronic controlled, mounted on the valve cover.

(1)At idle, high manifold vacuum pulls the plunger for minimum vapour flow (prevents a lean air-fuel
mixture). (2)During acceleration, intake manifold decreases. This allows the PCV valve to move to a
center position for maximum flow. (3)With engine off, a spring pushes the valve against its seat, closing
the valve. A backfire will also close the valve.
Evaporative Emission Control Systems (EVAP)
Prevents toxic fuel system vapours from entering the atmosphere.
Parts
Non-vented fuel tank cap prevents fuel vapours from entering the atmosphere.
Air Dome hump formed at the top of the tank for fuel expansion.
Charcoal Canister stores vapours when the engine is not running. - filled with active charcoal granules.
- charcoal is capable of absorbing fuel vapours.
Purge Line/Valve controls the flow of vapours from the canister to the intake manifold. - allows flow
when engine reaches operating temperature and is operating above idle speed.
Clean canister filter time to time.
PHOTOCHEMICAL AIR POLLUTION

Photochemical air pollution is pollution caused by the reaction of unsaturated and saturated hydrocarbons,
aromatics and aldehydes (emitted owing to the incomplete combustion of fuels) with light. It causes eye
irritation.
Photochemical smog forms when primary pollutants react with ultraviolet light to create a variety of toxic
and reactive compounds.
air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that
react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary
emissions to form photochemical smog
Photochemical (or photo-oxidant) pollution involves a series of complex phenomena leading to the
formation of ozone (O3) and other oxidising compounds (such as hydrogen peroxide, aldehydes,
peroxyacetyl nitrate or PAN) from primary pollutants, called precursors: nitrogen oxides (NOx), non-
methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), carbon monoxide (CO) and methane (CH4) and the
energy from solar ultra-violet (UV) radiation. This type of ozone-laden atmospheric pollution, often called
"smog", occurs in the lower layer of the atmosphere, called the troposphere, 0 to 8-10 km above the Earth's
surface. The estimated lifetime of ozone is about 22 days, but it is much shorter only 1 or 2 days in the
layer 0 to 2 km above the Earth's surface).Ozone and photochemical oxidants are secondary pollutants.
The chemical reactions involved are complex but can be represented fairly simply. In a polluted
atmosphere, they involve NO2 and NMVOCs as primary pollutants or precursors.
UV radiation dissociates NO2:
NO2 + h NO + O [a] at wavelengths < 430 nm
The atomic oxygen thus formed reacts with molecular oxygen to form ozone, which is a molecule
comprising 3 atoms of oxygen:
O + O2 O3 [b]
Ozone reacts with nitrogen monoxide to re-form NO2:
O3 + NO NO2 + O2 [c]
The NO is described as an "ozone sink", because it reduces ozone concentrations by consuming ozone.

Meteorological conditions that are favourable to high ozone concentrations include, in particular:
high air temperatures,
a low air moisture content,
long hours of sunlight,
high irradiation,
low synoptic wind speeds (large-scale winds as opposed to local winds).
Photochemical pollution is a characteristic phenomenon during anticyclone conditions in the
summer.
What is photochemical smog?
Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants that are formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) react to sunlight, creating a brown haze above cities. It tends to occur more often in
summer, because that is when we have the most sunlight. . Photochemical smog was first described in the
1950s. It is the chemical reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in the
atmosphere, which leaves airborne particles and ground-level ozone.
The photochemical smog is a typical form of pollution of all the main urban and industrial areas of the
world. It occurs in or near areas with a high traffic density, in the presence of specific climatic conditions
(no wind or weak winds, high temperatures, etc.), that cause the concentration of polluting gases to
increase and prevent them from dispersing. In these areas, the concentrations of some gases (tropospheric
ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate, VOC, nitrogen oxides, etc.) very often exceed the threshold values,
above which there are risks for human health, farming and natural vegetation.

This noxious mixture of air pollutants can include the following:

Aldehydes
Nitrogen oxides, such as nitrogen dioxide
Peroxyacyl nitrates
Tropospheric ozone
Volatile organic compounds
All of these harsh chemicals are usually highly reactive and oxidizing. Photochemical smog is therefore
considered to be a problem of modern industrialization. It is present in all modern cities, but it is more
common in cities with sunny, warm, dry climates and a large number of motor vehicles. [15] Because it
travels with the wind, it can affect sparsely populated areas as well.
Photochemical smog is a major contributor to air pollution. The word "smog" was originally coined as
a mixture of "smoke" and "fog" and was historically used to describe air pollution produced from the
burning of coal, which released smoke and sulfur dioxide. Nineteenth and 20th century London was
particularly well-known for this type of air pollution. The "Great Smog of 1952" was identified as the
cause of over 4,000 deaths in London. While air pollution caused by burning coal has become less
common, the combustion of fossil fuels continues to affect air quality.
Primary pollutants
The two major primary pollutants, nitrogen oxides and VOCs, combine to change in sunlight in a series
of chemical reactions, outlined below, to create what are known as secondary pollutants.

Secondary pollutants
The secondary pollutant that causes the most concern is the ozone that forms at ground level. While ozone
is produced naturally in the upper atmosphere, it is a dangerous substance when found at ground level.
Many other hazardous substances are also formed, such as peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).

What are the major sources of photochemical smog?

While nitrogen oxides and VOCs are produced biogenically (in nature), there are also major anthropogenic
(man-made) emissions of both. Natural emissions tend to be spread over large areas, reducing their effects,
but man-made emissions tend to be concentrated close to their source, such as a city.
Biogenic sources
In nature, bushfires, lightning and the microbial processes that occur in soil generate nitrogen oxides.
VOCs are produced from the evaporation of naturally-occurring compounds, such as terpenes, which are
the hydrocarbons in oils that make them burn. Eucalypts have also been found to release significant
amounts of these compounds.
Anthropogenic sources
Nitrogen oxides are produced mainly from the combustion of fossil fuels, particularly in power stations
and motor vehicles. VOCs are formed from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, from the evaporation
of solvents and fuels, and from burning plant mattersuch as backyard burning and wood-burning stoves.
In Adelaide in 2000, an estimated 66% of nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) came from motor vehicles, and
a further 20% from fuel combustion. Motor vehicles contributed 44% of VOC emissions, and area sources
including petrol and solvent evaporation contributed 33%.

What Causes Photochemical Smog?

The components of photochemical smog were established during the 1950s. This type of air pollution is
formed through the reaction of solar radiation with airborne pollutants like nitrogen oxides and volatile
organic compounds. These compounds, which are called primary pollutants, are often introduced into the
atmosphere through automobile emissions and industrial processes. Ultraviolet light can split nitrogen
dioxide into nitric oxide and monatomic oxygen; this monatomic oxygen can then react with oxygen gas
to form ozone. Products like ozone, aldehydes, and peroxyacetyl nitrates are called secondary pollutants.
The mixture of these primary and secondary pollutants forms photochemical smog.
Both the primary and secondary pollutants in photochemical smog are highly reactive. These oxidizing
compounds have been linked to a variety of negative health outcomes; ozone, for example, is known to
irritate the lungs. Smog is a particular health danger in some of the world's sunniest and most populated
cities, such as Los Angeles; Los Angeles is typically sunny, and the sun reacts with the chemicals produced
by cars and other industrial processes. Smog can also affect areas of the country that are sunny less
frequently, such as New York City. In fact, most major cities have problems with smog and air pollution.
Photochemical smog is composed of primary and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants include
nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds as a result of industrial processes, while secondary
pollutants are created through the reaction of primary pollutants with ultraviolet light.

FORMATION OF PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG

Certain conditions are required for the formation of photochemical smog:
(a) Ultraviolet Light; (b) Hydrocarbons; (c) Nitrogen oxides
Other conditions include:
The deleterious effects of automotive pollutants include toxic effects of CO and lead compounds and the
formation of photochemical smog.
The chief culprits in the smog dilemma are the volumetrically lower concentrations of unburnt or partially
burnt hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides.
The necessary conditions for smog formation are:
Sufficient quantity and concentration of unburnt hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the
atmosphere
Stagnant atmospheric conditions produced by meteorological thermal inversions
Strong sunlight.

Generation Mechanism: Three ingredients required:

Ultraviolet Light

Hydrocarbons

Nitrogen oxides
 The
significance of the presence of the VOCs in these last two reactions is paramount. Ozone is normally consumed by
nitric oxide, as in reaction 3. However, when VOCs are present, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are consumed as
in reactions 4 and 5, allowing the build up of ground level ozone.
Chemistry of smog formation
Photochemical smog is one of the most important and obvious air pollutants. An important role in the air
pollution chemistry, especially in the formation of ozone is played by nitrogen oxides, NOxwhich stands for a
group of compounds such as nitric oxide (NO), dinitrogen trioxide, (N2O3),and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). These
compounds, along with other hazardous gases, are emitted when coal is burned in power plants and industrial
boilers for the generation of power, and from automobiles. Most of the NOx emitted from combustion is nitric
oxide, formed according to the following reaction.
N2 + O2 = 2NO
The high temperatures (3000o F to 4000oF) which are maintained in the combustion favor the formation
of NO. However, the following reactions can also take place in the furnace, in the stack, or later, in the
atmosphere:
2NO + O2 = 2NO2
NO2 + NO = N2O3
2NO2 = N2O4
3NO2 + H2O = 2HNO3 + NO
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) reacts with hydrocarbons which are present in the atmosphere to form aldehydes
and ketones through photochemical reactions. It also can react with oxygen in the presence of sunlight to
give nitric oxide and ozone:
NO2 + O2 = NO + O3

VOCs + NOx + Sunlight Photochemical smog

The NO NO2 O3 Photochemical reaction sequence: Consider some of the important

reactions involving NOx without the complications associated with the added
hydrocarbons. We can begin with the formation of NO during combustion
N2 + O2 2NO
The nitric oxide thus emitted can be oxidized to NO2:
2NO + O2 2NO2
If sunlight is available, a photon with the right amount of energy can decompose NO2 in a
process called photolysis.
NO2 + hv NO + O
Where, h represents a photon (with wavelength < 0.39 m). The freed atomic oxygen
(O) can then combine with diatomic oxygen (O2) to form ozone (O3):
O + O2 +M O3 + M
Where, M represents a molecule whose presence is necessary to absorb excess energy from
the reaction. Without M, the ozone would have too much energy to be stable, and it would
dissociate back to O and O2.
Ozone can then convert NO back to NO2:
O3 + NO NO2 + O2
The diagram suggests that we might expect NO concentrations to rise as early
morning traffic emits its load of NO. As the morning progresses, we would expect to see a
drop in NO and rise in NO2 as NO gets converted to NO2. As the suns intensity increases
toward noon, the rate of photolysis of NO2 increases; thus NO2 begins to drop while O3
rises. Ozone is so effective in its reaction with NO. NO concentrations do not rise as long
as O3 is present in the atmosphere throughout the afternoon even if NO are emitted by the
available sources.

Fig. Simplified atmospheric nitrogen photolytic cycle

Hydrocarbons and NOx: A multitude of organic chemicals are introduced to the atmosphere by burning
of fuels, evaporation of volatiles and production by chemical reactions. Atoms or molecules with an odd
number of electrons, are called free radicals. Having an odd number of electrons means that one electron is
not being used as a bonding electron to other atoms. Free radicals tend to be very reactive, and they are
very important in the study of air pollution. The alkanes are hydrocarbons in which each carbon forms
single bonds with other atoms. The alkane series is the familiar sequence: methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6),
propane (C3H8) (CnH2n+2). If one of the hydrogen is removed from an alkane, the result in free radical is
called an alkyl. The alkyls then form a series beginning with methyl (CH3), ethyl (C2H5 ) and so on. We
could represent an alkyl with the generation expression CnH2n+1, but it is more convenient to call it simply
R. Another important key to understanding atmospheric organic chemistry is the hydroxyl radical OH,
which is formed when atomic oxygen reacts with water.
O + H2O 2OH
The OH radical is extremely reactive, and its atmospheric concentration is so low to be detected.
Nevertheless, it plays a key role in many reactions, including the oxidations of NO2 to nitric acid and CO
to CO2.
OH + NO2 HNO3
OH + CO CO2 + H
EFFECTS OF PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
Photochemical smog can have an effect on the environment, on peoples health and even on various materials.
The main visible effect is the brown haze that can be seen above many cities. The brown tinge is caused by very
small liquid and solid particles scattering the light.
Plants
Chemicals such as nitrogen oxides, ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) can have harmful effects on
plants. These substances can reduce or even stop growth in plants by reducing photosynthesis. Ozone,
even in small quantities, can achieve this, but PAN is even more toxic to plants than ozone.
Effects on human health
Ozone
Cause acute respiratory problems
Aggravate asthma
Cause temporary decreases in lung function in healthy adults
Lead to hospital admissions and emergency room visits
Impair the body's immune system
Peroxyacetylnitrate (PANs)
Respiratory and eye irritants
Mutagenic- causing skin cancer
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Global warming- Methane
Carcinogenic- benzene
Form Ozone

The biggest concern about photochemical smog is the effect it has on peoples health. The effects of the major
primary and secondary pollutants in smog are given in Table 1.

Materials
Ozone can damage various compounds. It can cause the cracking of rubber, the reduction in tensile strength
of textiles, fading of dyed fibres and cracking of paint.
Ozones potential to damage artworks and books is of cultural importance, and some museums and libraries
have taken steps to minimise this effect.
CONTROLLING THE FORMATION OF PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
Photochemical ozone concentrations can be decreased by reduction in hydrocarbon and other VOC
emissions and by
reduction in NOx. But there is a non-linear (and sometimes inverse) dependence of ozone production on
precursor emissions have developed models to predict ozone concentrations and their response to different
control measures. But there are problems with the variability in place and time of source and sink terms,
with the transport and age of the air sample and with the formulation and detailed kinetics of the
chemistry must assess the impact of a mixture of anthropogenic VOCs with widely different reactivitys
must evaluate that impact in relation to ozone produced by biogenic hydrocarbons. Lean burning engines
reduce NOx, but create more CO and Hydrocarbons.
Catalytic Converters: 3 Way Catalysts

The present strategy is to reduce vehicle emissions by catalytic conversion of the exhaust gases typical
converters consist of a layer of precious-metal (such as Pt or Rh) coated on an alumina substrate acts as a
3-way catalyst to convert:
1. NO to N2
2. CO to CO2
3. Hydrocarbons to CO2 + H2O
Conversion efficiency near 90% is possible for all three gases. But only if the air-to-fuel ratio is kept within
strict limits (14.7 - 0.1):1 to maintain the correct ratio, an O2 sensor is often provided in the exhaust flow
with a feedback control signal to the fuel metering device.
Diesel
The emissions of unburned hydrocarbon and CO are markedly better from diesel-powered cars NOx
emissions are only marginally worse than those from gas cars with efficient catalytic converters however,
they have increased particle emissions.
Biodiesel
Recently, biofuels have been the focus of attention as a possible means of reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and noxious urban emissions from transport.
Hydrogen and Electricity
H-powered and electric vehicles are cleaner on the road. H2 produces water, and electric cars have no
emissions at all however, the pollution audit must include emissions due to the generation of the H2 or of
the electricity.
Lifestyle Changes
Small decreases in legal speed limits not only conserve fuel, but significantly reduce NOx emissions with
a negligible increase in hydrocarbon. Increased uses of public transportation also reduce photochemical
smog.
Polycyclic Aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
PAHs are caused by incomplete combustion anthropogenic sources include motor vehicles, (both diesel
and gas), stationary power plants (coal and oil), domestic (coal and wood burning, tobacco smoke), as well
as deliberate biomass burning. The compounds are ubiquitous in the atmosphere a small contribution to the
atmospheric load of PAHs may come from natural sources such as forest fires or volcanoes, but the
predominant sources are anthropogenic important due to their impact on human health.
Air pollution from Thermal power stations
Thermal power stations are facilities in which the energy content of an energy carrier, i.e., a fuel, can be
converted into either electricity or electricity and heat. The type of power plant employed depends on the
source of energy and the type of energy being produced. Possible energy sources include:
fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products and natural gas
residual and waste materials such as domestic and industrial refuse and fuel made from recovered oil
fissionable material

Power generation (public electricity & heat production) is by far the largest industry for global SO2
emissions. Power plants require large amounts of energy for their operations. This use of energy by power
plants produces emissions of a whole cocktail of air pollutants including greenhouse gases (causing global
warming) and non-greenhouse gases. It is worth singling out coal as the dirtiest fossil fuel of all it is still
widely used as a source of energy by power plants. Coal combustion is a very serious source of sulphur
dioxide emissions. But in addition to that, it produces a number of greenhouse gases and other waste
products such as arsenic, lead, mercury etc. Industry (manufacturing industries & construction) is the
second biggest source of sulphur dioxide emissions globally. It involves the use of energy for the
manufacture of industrial products (ex., iron, steel etc) as well as consumer goods, which releases SO2 into
the atmosphere. Power generation is indeed another top producer of nitrogen emissions. For example, in
the US power plants are responsible for about a quarter of all nitrogen oxides emitted in the country every
year. While rainforest destruction is much better known for being one of the largest causes of carbon dioxide
emissions, it (alongside savannah fires) is also a significant source of nitrogen dioxide. Most of
deforestation is now taking place in tropical
countries where rainforests are routinely cleared for a number of reasons, ex. cattle ranching, crop
plantations

Thermal power plants can be designed for different fuel sectors in the interest of greater fueling flexibility
and/or higher efficiency one example being a combination power plant with a gas turbine running on natural
gas and an oil or coal-fired steam generator feeding a steam turbine.
Renewable sources of energy such as wood and other forms of biomass are not dealt with here, as they are
the subject of a separate environmental brief. Nuclear thermal power plants have also been omitted from
this catalogue. The frame of reference concentrates extensively on fossil fuelled power plants, in particular
types using coal and petroleum products, the present and near future use of which is of eminent importance
in most developing countries. With regard to hydropower, the reader is referred to the environmental brief
Large scale Hydraulic Engineering. As far as the form of energy being generated is concerned, there are
three main types of thermal power stations:
condensing power plants used exclusively for generating electricity
steam or hot water producing heating stations for domestic or industrial purposes
district heating power stations, or cogenerating plants, for the simultaneous generation of electricity and
available heat.
It is important to note that, for economic reasons, process heat and heat for heating purposes should only
be generated in close proximity to the users. For thermal outputs ranging from 50 to 100 MW, the distance
between the power plant and the user should not exceed 2 to 5 km. Conversely, electricity can be
economically transmitted over very substantial distances environmental brief Power Transmission and
Distribution.
The unit power ratings of fossil fuelled thermal power plants range from a few hundred kW (diesel stations)
to more than 1000 MW (oil and coal fired stations). In many countries, preference is given to unit ratings
of 200-300 MW el with deference to power system stability. The better the boundary conditions, the higher
the achievable capacities.

Environmental impacts and protective measures

The environmental consequences of any given plant are both plant and Site dependent. Thermal power
stations can impact the environment in different ways and at different locations. A typical thermal power
plant is likely to comprise the following principal components:
facilities for preparing and storing working materials
facilities for burning fuel and generating steam
facilities for generating electricity and available heat
facilities for treating exhaust gases and solid and liquid residues
cooling facilities
a thermal power plant is reduced to a block diagram showing the most likely material inputs,
outputs and environmentally relevant flows of material.

Table 1 Potential emissions from thermal power plants

The main environmentally relevant effects of a thermal power plant derive from the combustion process and its
particulate and gaseous emissions. As a rule of thumb, the environmental impacts of thermal power plants, i.e.,
pollution, spatial requirements and residues, tend to increase in severity for gas, light fuel oil, heavy fuel oil and coal,
in that order.

Air pollution from power plants

The particulate and noxious gas emissions from thermal power plants primarily and directly pollute the air.
Eventually, the particulate emissions and, for the most part, the noxious gases and any atmospheric transformation
products that may have formed (e.g., NO2 and nitrate from NO) fall to earth either by way of precipitation or dry
deposition, thereby imposing a burden on the water and/or soil, with resultant potential damage to flora and fauna.
Depending on the fuel employed (type, composition, calorific value) and the type of combustion (e.g., dry or slagtap
firing), given amounts of pollutants (particulates, heavy metals, SOx, NOx, CO, CO2, HCl, HF, organic compounds)
become entrained in the exhaust gases. Table 2 shows the potential concentration ranges of different emissions for
various fuels in facilities devoid of fluegas emission control measures.
The ranges quoted in table 2 for oxides of sulfur relate to differences in fuel specific sulfur content, whereas many
countries use large quantities of indigenous fuels like lignite with comparatively low calorific values and high sulphur
contents. Such a combination naturally produces relatively high SOx concentrations in the (untreated) flue gas. The
lesser part of the NOx concentrations derives from the nitrogen content of the fuel (fuel NOx). The major share results
from the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen at combustion temperatures exceeding 1200C (thermal NOx).
Consequently, high combustion temperatures go hand in hand with relatively high NOx emission levels. Appropriate
combustion engineering measures that are relatively inexpensive for new plants can keep the emissions at the lower
end of the respective range. However, care must be taken to ensure that a high quality of combustion is maintained.
Otherwise, excessive combustion engineering measures aimed at reducing NOx emissions could result in a
disproportionate increase in other emissions, e.g., carbon monoxide and combustible (unburned) hydrocarbons. In
general, CO2 emissions are mainly limited by controlling the burnout process such as to minimize the discharge of
CO and the escape of combustible hydrocarbons. Unlike particulates, SO2, NOx and halogen compounds, CO and
combustible hydrocarbons effectively defy retentive measures. Combustible hydrocarbons in particular include
numerous chemical substances that can cause toxicological problems, e.g. benzpyrene. Plants fueled with coal or
heavy fuel oil also emit small amounts of hydrogen chloride and hydrofluoric acid (HCl and HF) ranging from 50 to
300 mg/mSTP. As a rule, the concentrations stay well below the SO2 levels and respond favorably to desulfurization
processes, by which they are reduced even more than S2.
There are many combustion stage and post combustion alternatives for use in reducing air pollution from thermal
power plants. for example, sketches out an integral set of DeNOx, particulate control
And desulfurization measures for the flue gas of a steam generating facility. The various measures are individually
described in the following subsections.

Dust control
Dust control for power plants can be based on ordinary and multiple cyclone separators and electrostatic precipitators
or fabric filters with the order of mention corresponding to their respective separation efficiencies: from 60 % 70 %
for cyclone separators to >99 % for electrostatic precipitators and fabric filters. To be sure, the cost of the various
options rises disproportionately for increasing separation efficiency. The separation efficiency of electrostatic filters
depends on the number of consecutive fields. Like fabric filters, they can achieve extremely low residual emission
levels, i.e., about 50 and 30 mg/mSTP, respectively. The drawback of cyclone separators is that they tend to eliminate
coarse particles much more efficiently than respirable and, hence, toxicologically critical micro particles. Fabric
filters are very good at separating out fine dust and its accumulated heavy metals.