CH 6604 Materials Science and Technology

Dr. D. Balaji

Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
balajid@ssn.edu.in
OBJECTIVE:
To provide students with a strong foundation in
materials science with emphasis on the
fundamental scientific and engineering principles
which underlie the knowledge and implementation
of material structure, processing, properties, and
performance of all classes of materials used in
engineering systems.

OUTCOME:
At the end of this course, the students would
understand various material, their properties and
manufacturing methods.
 CH6604 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY LTPC
3 00 3
UNIT I INTRODUCTION 10
Structure Property relationship - Selection criteria and processes: General criteria of selection of
materials in process industries. Properties: Mechanical, Thermal, Physical, Chemical, Electrical,
Magnetic and Technological properties. Processing of Metals and Alloys- Casting, Hot and cold
rolling, Forging, Extrusion, Deep drawing.

UNIT II MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR 8

Elastic, An elastic and Viscoelastic Behaviour Introduction to Slip, Slip planes, Plastic
Deformation by Slip: Critical resolved shear stress, Mechanism of Creep, Creep Resistant
.Materials Fracture: Ductile and Brittle, Fatigue fracture, Griffiths theory, S-N curves, Fracture
toughness.

UNIT III PHASE DIAGRAMS AND PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 8

Gibbs Phase rule : Uniary and Binary phase diagrams , Al2CO3 - Cr2O3 , Pb-Sn, Ag-Pt and Iron-
Iron Carbide Phase Diagram Lever rule Invariant reactions- TTT diagrams Micro structural
changes Nucleation and growth Martensitic transformations Solidification and Crystallization
Glass transition Recrystallization and Grain growth

UNIT IV FERROUS, NON-FERROUS METALS AND COMPOSITES 10

Pig iron, Cast iron, Mild Steel-Manufacturing process, properties &, Applications Stainless steels,
Special Alloy steels-properties and uses; Heat treatment of plain-carbon steels Manufacturing
methods of Lead, Tin and Magnesium. Properties and applications in process industries. FRP-Fiber
Reinforced Plastics (FRP), manufacturing methods; Asphalt and Asphalt mixtures; Wood.

UNIT V NANOMATERIALS 9
Introduction to Nanotechnology- Zero Dimensional Nano Structures Nano particles One
.Dimensional Nano Structures- Nano wires and Nano rods Two Dimensional Nano Structures,
Films Special Nano Materials Nano Structures fabricated by Physical Techniques
Characterisation and Properties of Nano Materials Applications of Nano Structures.

TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
 Course Outcomes
On successful completion of this course, the student will be
able to
CO 1 : Knowledge on material properties and material
selection.
CO 2: Understanding mechanical behavior of materials.
CO 3: Understanding phase diagram and phase
transformation of materials
CO 4: Understanding the Properties, manufacturing
methods and applications of ferrous and non-ferrous
metals
CO 5: Knowledge on nanomaterial preparation, properties
and characterization.
 TEXT BOOKS

Khanna O P, Material Science and metallurgy Dhanpat

Rai Publications (1995)
Raghavan V, Materials and Engineering Prentice Hall of
India, Newdelhi (2006)
Materials Science & Engineering, Callisters
 UNIT I
Selection criteria and processes: General criteria
of selection of materials in process
industries.
Properties: Mechanical, Thermal, Chemical,
Electrical, Magnetic and
Technological properties.
Processing of metals and alloys-Casting-hot and
cold rolling, forging-extrusion-deep drawing.
Rocket
 Ammonia Reactor

Glass Reactor
 Science of Materials or Material Science
Material is something that consists of matter wide range of
metals and non-metals

Attempts to relate the properties of materials with their structure

at the electronic, atomic and micro levels
 Material Science

Materials science is based on the physics and chemistry of

the internal structure of the materials

Investigates relationships existing between the structure of

materials and their properties.

Concern with inter-disciplinary study of materials for

engineering and other practical purposes.

Deals with all material metal, ceramic, glasses, organic

plastics and polymers
 Material History
Advancements in materials, technology, and science create
continued advancement possibilities for each sector.

Advances

Development of better materials of Technology

Advancements
Greater Strength
Science
Lightness Advancements
Safety
Materials
Electrical conductivity Advancements

Resistance to corrosion
Resistance to heat
 Materials
Currently MatWeb Material Property Data website lists
over 76,000 individually unique materials
http://www.matweb.com
What materials are present in the classroom?
 Metallurgy
Metallurgy is the science and technology of metals.

Practice and Science of

Extracting metals from their ores.

Refining of crude metal

Production of alloys and the study of their constitution,

structure and properties.

Relationship of physical and mechanical properties to

thermal and mechanical treatment of metals and alloys.
 Engineering Materials

Material classification

a. Metals

i. Ferrous

ii. Non-ferrous

b. Ceramics

c. Organics

d. Composites

e. Semiconductors
 Metals
Metals are composed of elements which readily give up
electrons to provide a metallic bond and electrical
conductivity.

Distinguishing Characteristics
Good conductors of heat and electricity, lustre, hard,
shiny, reflect light, malleable, ductile, typically have one
to three valence electrons

Examples
 Metallic Materials
Distinguishing Characteristics
Pure metal elements
(Not commonly found or used)

Metal element compounds (alloy)

(Commonly used due to the engineered
properties of the compound)

Thermal and electrical conductors

Mechanical properties include
strength and plasticity
 Non Metals
Distinguishing Characteristics
Most are gases at room temperature
Solids are dull, brittle, and powdery;
electrons are tightly attracted and
restricted to one atom; poor conductors of
heat and electricity
 Metalloids
Distinguishing Characteristics
Possess both metallic and nonmetallic properties
Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and
tellurium.
Periodic Table of Elements

19
 Ceramic Materials
Distinguishing Characteristics
Compounds consisting of metal
and nonmetal elements
Thermal and electrical insulators

Mechanical properties include

high strength at high
temperatures and brittleness
 Ceramic Materials (Contd)
Applications
Clay Shaped, dried, and fired inorganic
material
Examples: Brick, tile, sewer pipe, chimney
flue, china, porcelain, etc.

Refractory Designed to provide

acceptable mechanical or
chemical properties while at high
temperatures

Example: Space shuttle all-silica

insulating tiles
 Ceramic Materials
Applications
Electrical
Resistors Create desired voltage
drops and limit current
Thermistors Application of
heat regulates current flow
Rectifiers Allow current to
flow in one direction
Heating elements for furnaces
 Organic Materials
Polymeric materials composed of carbon
compounds.
Countless organic materials, natural,
synthetic or manufactured and based
chemically on carbon.

Distinguishing Characteristics
Light weight
Soft
Combustible
Ductile
Poor conductors of heat and electricity
 Polymeric Materials
Distinguishing Characteristics
Compounds consist of mostly
organic elements
Low density

Mechanical properties include

flexibility and elasticity
Polymeric Subgroups
Plastics
Elastomers
 Polymeric Materials
Plastics
Thermoplastic
Formed into a desired shape by
applying heat and pressure and
being cooled
May be heated and remolded
Thermosetting
Formed into a desired shape by
applying heat and pressure and
being cooled
May not be heated and remolded
 Polymeric Materials
Elastomers
Natural or synthetic material
Can be stretched 200 percent of their
length at room temperature and can
return quickly to original length after
force is released

Vulcanization
Chemical process used to form strong
bonds between adjacent polymers to
produce a tough, strong, hard rubber
(automobile tires)
 Composite Materials
Distinguishing Characteristics
Composed of more then one material
Designed to obtain desirable properties from each
individual material. Example: Fiberglass
 Composite Materials
Layer Composites Alternate
layers of materials bonded
together

Particulate Composites
Discrete particles of one
material surrounded by a matrix
of another material

Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Composed of continuous or
discontinuous fibers embedded
in a matrix of another material
 Semiconductors
Electrical properties Intermediate between the electrical
conductors and insulators.

Electrical characteristic is sensitive to presence of minute

impurity concentrations

Applications
Electronic and computer industries.
Selection criteria of materials in process industry

Engineering Requirements of material mean as what

is expected of from the material so that the same can
be successfully used for making engineering
components such a spanner, crankshaft etc.,

Engineer select the material that meets the process

demand to perform its functions successfully while in
use.
 Selection Criteria
Criteria of selection of optimum material:
What are the properties required?

What are the processing requirements & their implications

for the choice of materials?

What is the availability of material?

What is the cost?

Best performance for least mass

 Factors for Selection
Properties- to suit the function without failure
Reliability- degree of probability that the material will
remain stable enough to function in service for the
intended life of product without failure
Safety- No catastropic failure
Size, mass, shape etc
Environmental conditions
Availability
Disposability & Recyclability
Cost

Best performance for least mass

 Selection of Materials
Main Engineering Requirements
Fabrication requirements
Service requirements
Economic requirements
 Fabrication requirements

Material should be able to get shaped (Eg. Cast,

forged, formed, machined, sintered etc) and joined
(eg. Welded, brazed etc) easily.
Fabrication requirements relate themselves with
materials machinability, ductility, castability, heat-
treatability, weldability, etc
 Service requirements
Imply that the material selected for the purpose must
stand up to service demands, eg. Proper strength,
wear resistance, corrosion resistance etc.
 Economic requirements
Demand that the engineering part should be made
with minimum overall cost.
Minimum overall cost may be achieved by proper
selection of both technical and marketing variables.
Engineering properties of
Materials
 Property
A property can be defined as the behavior of the material
when an external stimuli or a constraints are applied.

Those stimuli or the constraint are in the form of

Forces
Temperature

A property of material is independent of its size and it

decides whether a material is suitable for an application
or not
 Our focus

External stimuli or
Property constraint
Mechanical properties Applied forces
-
Thermal properties - Temperature

Chemical properties Different reactive environments

Electrical properties Electrical field
Magnetic properties - Magnetic field
Technological Processing and application
environments
properties -
 Mechanical properties

Elasticity Ductility
Plastic deformability Malleability
Toughness Brittleness
Resilience Hardness
Tensile strength Fatigue
Yield strength Creep
Impact strength Wear resistance
The Stress-Strain curve
 1. Elasticity
Ability of mechanically stressed material to restore to its
original dimension on the removal of the applied stress.

The recovery from the distorting loads may be

Instantaneous
Partial
Delayed
Gradual

The instantaneous and complete restoration from the

deformation is referred to as perfect elasticity.

In the given curve the region O-A represent the elastic

behavior.
 2. Plasticity
Ability of material to be deformed permanently on an applied
stress which is enough to exceed the elastic limit.
This property indicates the ability of the material to be shaped
under the applied force.
The minimum stress required to induce a plastic deformation in
a material is called as its BOND STRENGTH.
Different plastic deformation mechanisms followed in crystalline
and amorphous materials.
Crystalline material slip of the crystallographic plane
Amorphous material slide of the individual or grouped
molecules
 3. Tensile strength
Tensile strength is the ratio of the maximum load to the
original cross sectional area.
The ultimate tensile strength refer to the force which is
required to break the material.
It measures the strength and
ductility of the material.
The tensile strength value will be
using as a standard for fixing the
working strength of the materials.
Universal testing machine and
dumbbell shaped specimens are
being used for estimation of these
property.
 4. Yield strength
Up on continuous application of stress, a material deforms as
the stress increases and at a particular point the deformation
suddenly increases without the proportional increment in the
stress. This point is known as Yield point.

Ability of the materials to

resist the plastic deformation
is known as Yield Strength.
Up to this point the material
exhibits a constant Youngs
modulus and will be elastic in
nature.
 5. Toughness
The ability of the material to absorb energy during plastic
deformation up to rupture especially on bending.
It is taken as an index for the material to asses its ability
to withstand the mechanical stresses with undergoing
the failure or a rupture.
The area under the
Stress-Strain curve up to
the fracture point indicates
the magnitude of the
Toughness.
 6. Resilience
Capacity to absorb energy when it is elastically deformed and
to release this energy upon unloading
Measured in terms of modulus of resilience.
Modulus of resilience : Strain energy per unit volume to be
required to stress a material from an unloaded point to the
yield point.
Similar property as of toughness but with in the elastic limit.
 7. Impact strength
These are the indices for the strength and toughness of the
material.
The capacity of a material to resist and absorb shock before
break or fail is known as Impact Strength of a material.

This property having close relation

with structure of the material.
Izod or Charpy test will estimate
the above property of the
materials.
 8. Ductility
The ability of the material to undergo deformation under
tension without rupture.
It is an important property when deep drawing processes
of the materials as concern.
It is normally given in terms of
Percentage elongation.
Percentage area reduction.
 9. Malleability
This is termed as the ability of
the material to deform under the
compressive stress.
The ability of the material to be
formed by hammering or rolling
is basically called as
Malleability.
It is considered as a
compressive property.
 10. Brittleness
The property of the material that
breaks even without a little
deformation is known as Brittleness
If a material breaks on loading
without undergoing a deformation
greater than 5% in 50 mm gauge
wire is considered to be brittle
This property is closely related to
the internal micro structure of the
material considered.
 11. Hardness
Hardness is the property of a
material to resist permanent
indentation.
Rockwell, Vickers, or Brinell are
some of the methods of testing.
Rockwell is the one most
frequently used.
For harder materials, hardness
is indicated by a Rockwell "C"
number.
For softer materials Rockwell
"B" number is used.
 12. Fatigue
This is the failure of the material under
dynamic cyclic loading even if the applied
load is lesser than the materials maximum
tensile strength.
Fatigue fracture is progressive.
In engineering applications the materials
should have higher fatigue resistance.
 13. Creep
It is the time dependent permanent
deformation of a material when it is
subjected to a constant load.
It can be influenced by the
temperature changes.
Higher creep resistant materials are
expected to be used in the
engineering applications.
 14. Wear resistance
Wear is the unintentional removal of
the material from the material
surface.
Wear resistance is the property of
the material to resist the above.
The types of material wearing
Adhesive wear
Abrasive wear
 Factors affecting the mechanical
properties
1. The constituents present in the material
2. The grain size
3. Crystal imperfections
4. Excessive cold working (strain hardening)
5. Manufacturing defects
 Chemical properties
Most of the engineering materials, when they come in
contact with other substances with which they can react,
tend to suffer from chemical deterioration; this
necessitates the study of chemical property of materials.

The important chemical properties

Hygroscopic nature
Surface energy
Reactivity
Corrosion resistance
 1. Hygroscopic nature
Hygroscopic nature is the ability of a substance to attract
water molecules from the surrounding environment
through either absorption or adsorption.

Materials such as calcium chloride and silica gel absorb

water readily so that they are used as drying agents.
 2. Surface energy
Surface energy quantifies the disruption of
intermolecular bonds that occurs when a surface is
created.

The surface energy may therefore be defined as the

excess energy at the surface of a material compared to
the bulk.
 3. Reactivity
Reactivity then refers to the rate at which a chemical substance
tends to undergo a chemical reaction in time.
In pure compounds, reactivity is regulated by the physical
properties of the sample.
For example higher specific surface area increases its reactivity
that increases its reactivity.
In impure compounds, the reactivity is also affected by the
inclusion of contaminants.
In crystalline compounds, the
crystalline form can also affect
reactivity.
Reactivity is primarily due to the
sub-atomic properties of the
compound.
 Thermal properties
The response of a material on the application of heat is
known as a thermal property.
They important thermal properties are,
Heat capacity
Specific heat
Thermal expansion
Melting point
Thermal conductivity
Thermal shock resistance
Thermal stability
Thermal diffusivity
Glass transition temperature
 1. Heat capacity
It is the ability of the material to absorb heat from the external
surroundings.
It is represented by amount of heat required to increase its
temperature by one degree centigrade.

Specific heat capacity is the amount

of heat required to increase the
temperature of one kg of substance
by one degree centigrade.
Heat capacity has units as J/mol-K
or Cal/mol-K.
Heat capacity is not an intrinsic
property i.e. it changes with material
volume/mass.
 2. Thermal expansion
The tendency of the material to expand
on increase in temperature.
Measured in terms of coefficient of
thermal expansion.
The coefficient of (linear) thermal
expansion can be defined as the amount
of expansion in a unit length of the solid
material per 10C increase in temperature.
 3. Melting point
The temperature at which the a solid
changes to liquid.
At this temperature the solid state will be
in equilibrium with its liquid state.
Atomic bonding of the material having a
significant effect on melting point of the
substance.
The melting point will have a following
order of
Covalent > Ionic > Metallic > Molecular
Diamond is the martial with a perfect
Covalent bond and processes the
highest melting point (3550 o C)
 4. Thermal conductivity
The ability of the material to convey heat energy through
the material in a direction of higher temperature to lower
temperature by conduction.
The thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as
the amount of heat energy conducted per unit time per
unit length of material when the temperature difference
existing between the two ends of uniform cross section
of the material is 1oC.
 5. Thermal shock resistance
A thermal shock is the condition of the
material when it is subjected to severe
and sudden changes in temperature
caused either by change in the external
environment or by internal heat
generation.
The ability of the material to withstand
a thermal shock condition is known as
thermal shock resistance.
A ductile material is more resistive to
the thermal shock as compared to a
brittle material of comparable strength.
Thermal fatigue also will be occurring
in the materials as there is cyclic
changes in the temperature.
 6. Thermal stability
Various thermal conditions can affect the material in various
ways.
It may be phase change, micro structural change or thermal
stress related dimensional change.
The dimensional change can be of a thermal expansion,
thermal contraction ( in some cases), an internal stress or
associated volume change with phase change.
All these conditions can induce a residual stress in the
material. The material with high thermal stability will be
resisting the deformation due to the residual stress without
undergoing a permanent deformation.
 Failures due to low thermal
stability
Thermal cracking
Quench cracking
Spalling
 7. Heat resistance
The thermal stability mainly refers only to the mechanical
deformation and related failures of the material whereas
the heat resistance is a very general term refers to the all
properties of the material to remain stable under all
different thermal conditions.
The temperature at which major changes occurring in
structure or the material is known as transition or
transformation point or level.
Important requirement is its higher melting and boiling
point above the service temperature.
The maximum service temperature in a plastic material is
widely used as the indicator of heat resistance for the
plastics.
 8. Thermal diffusivity
The thermal diffusivity is a measure of the transient heat
flow through a material.
In heat transfer analysis, thermal diffusivity is
the thermal conductivity divided by density and specific
heat capacity at constant pressure.
It measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal
energy relative to its ability to store thermal energy
 9. Glass transition temperature
The glass transition temperature, or Tg is an important
property of polymers. The glass transition temperature is a
temperature range which marks a change in
mechanical behavior.
Above the glass transition temperature a polymer will behave
like a ductile solid or highly viscous liquid.
Below Tg the material will behave as a brittle solid.
Depending on the desired properties materials may be used
both above and below their glass transition temperature.
 Electrical properties
The important electrical properties of the materials are;
Electrical Resistivity
Electrical Conductivity
Temperature coefficient of resistance
Dielectric strength
Thermoelectricity
Miscellaneous electrical properties
Electrochemical phenomena
Electro physical effects
Electro mechanical effects
 Electrical resistance
The electrical resistance: Ability of the material to impede or
resist the flow of electric current through the same.

The electrical resistance is proportional to the ratio of area to

the length of the material
The unit for measuring the above
property is ohm ().
R L/A
R is the resistance of the
material.
L is the length of the material.
A is the cross sectional area of
the material.
The proportionality constant is known as
Electrical Resistivity of the material.
 Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity also known as resistivity, specific
electrical resistance, or volume resistivity, quantifies how
strongly a given material opposes the flow of electric current.
A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows the
movement of electric charge.
Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter .
The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm metre ( m).
As an example, if a 1m1m1m solid cube of material has
sheet contacts on two opposite faces, and the resistance
between these contacts is 1, then the resistivity of the
material is 1 m.
= RA/L
 Temperature coefficient of
resistance.
This is employed to indicate the variation of resistivity
with respect to the temperature

It has the unit of inverse of temperature.

It can be given by,

T = (R 0 - R)/ (T-T o)Ro

Where Ro is the resistivity at the reference temperature, To.

R is the resistivity at the measured temperature, T.
 Electrical conductivity
The conductivity (or specific conductance) of a
material is a measure of its ability to conduct electricity in
terms of the flow of electrons.
It is the reciprocal of Specific Resistivity.
When an electrical potential difference is placed across a
conductor, its movable charges flow giving rise to an
electric current.
The conductivity is defined as the ratio of the current
density J to the electric field strength E
 Electrical conductivity
So it can be given as;
s= J/E
Where s is the electrical conductivity of the material.
J is the electrical current density.
E is the electric field strength.

The unit used for the measurement is

ohm-1 m-1 (-1m-1) or Siemens m-1.

As far as electrical conductivity as concern, many materials

exhibits anisotropic nature.
Solid elements classified based on conductivities as
a. Conductor (3 Valence electron)
b. Semiconductor and
c. Insulator (No Valence electron)
 Temperature dependence of
conductivity.
There is a strong dependence of conductivity of
materials on temperature.
These are inversely proportional in metals.
In semiconductors the conductivity increases as the
temperature increases.
Up to range of temperature, it can be considered as
directly proportional or linear.
 Dielectric strength
The dielectric strength of a material is
the maximum electric field
strength that it can withstand
intrinsically without breaking
down, i.e., without
experiencing failure of its insulating
properties.
The material with high dielectric
strength is considered to be an
insulator.
 Factors affecting Dielectric
strength
It decreases slightly with increased sample thickness.
It decreases with increased operating temperature.
It decreases with increased frequency.
For gases (e.g. nitrogen, sulfur hexafluoride) it normally
decreases with increased humidity.
For air, dielectric strength increases slightly as humidity
increases
It depends up on the type of the material and the type of the
electrodes is being used for the application of the electric
field.
 4. Thermoelectricity
This forms the basics of the
working of a thermocouple.
A junction formed by two
dissimilar material is
heated, a small electrical
potential in the milli voltage
range is produced. This is
known as thermoelectric
effect.
 Magnetic properties
The study of the magnetic properties are important
because the science of magnetism explains many
aspects of structure and behavior of matter.
Ex. Transformer
The important magnetic properties are;
Permeability
Coercive force
Hysteresis
Super conductivity
Curie point
 1. Magnetic Permeability
This measures the relative ease of with which the magnetism
will develop within a material or it is the degree of the
magnetization developed by the material on the application of
a magnetic field.
Magnetic Permeability()

It is the ratio of magnetic induction (B) to the intensity of

magnetizing field (H)

= B/H

Paramagnetic materials have a permeability more than one.

Example: aluminium, platinum, chromium, manganese, copper
sulphate, crown glass

Diamagnetic materials have a permeability less than one.

Example: bismuth, antimony, copper, gold, quartz, mercury,
water, alcohol, air, hydrogen.

The commonly used unit for the magnetic permeability is

henrys/m.
 2. Hysteresis
External magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic
material such as iron, the atomic dipoles align
themselves with it.

Even when the field is removed, part of the alignment will

be retained. That means the material has
become magnetized.

Once magnetized, the magnet will stay magnetized

indefinitely. To demagnetize it requires heat or a
magnetic field in the opposite direction. This property is
known as the magnetic hysteresis.
 The relationship between field
strength H and magnetization M is
not linear in such materials which
are having hysteresis.
If the relationship
between H and B is plotted for
increasing levels of field
strength, B follows the initial
magnetization curve. This curve
increases rapidly at first and then
approaches an asymptote called
magnetic saturation.
 If the magnetic field is now
reduced monotonically, a
different curve will be followed.
At zero field strength, the
magnetization is offset from the
origin by an amount called
the remanence.
If the H-M relationship is plotted
for all strengths of applied
magnetic field the result is a
hysteresis loop called the main
loop. The width of the middle
section is twice the coercivity of
the material.
 3. Coercive force

This is the opposing

magnetizing force which is
necessary to remove the
previous magnetization or
the residual magnetization.

This force will be small for

the magnetically soft
materials.
 4. Superconductivity
The state at which the abrupt drop in
electrical resistance of certain
materials become zero at certain
critical temperatures.

At this temperature the material

become a perfect diamagnetic material
except at the surface (about 50nm
depth) is called Meissner effect.

Eg: Al, Pb, Sn, W, Ti, Nb-Ti Alloy etc

They are getting into the
superconductive behavior when their
temperature is lowered.
 5. Curie point
The temperature at which certain magnetic
materials undergo a sharp change in their
magnetic properties.
 Physical properties
Physical properties are employed to describe a material
under conditions in which external forces are not
concerned.
Physical properties include
i) Dimensions size & shape
ii) Appearance
iii) Density
iv) Colour
v) Melting point
vi) Porosity
vii) Structure etc.,
 Technological properties

Castability
Machinability
Weldability
Solderability
Workability / formability
 Castability Imperfection

Castability is that complex property

of a metal or alloy which allows it,
when molten, to fill a mould so as to
give a flawless casting. It depends
on many factors and cannot be
determined simply by one test.
Viscosity plays an important role.
Castability increases linearly with
temperature above the melting
point.
The shrinkage of the metal in the
mould on solidification and cooling is
also of importance: it depends on
the coefficient of expansion of the
metal, the casting temperature and
the nature of the mould.
 Machinability
Machinability is a complex property
A material is considered as easy to
machine if it can be machined by a given
tool with little energy and at high speed,
without unduly reducing the life of the
tool, and the result is a finished surface,
smooth and within the required tolerance.
An increase in the cutting rate means a decrease in the life of
the tool, as a result of the increased heat and wear that then
occur. On the other hand, the life of the tool can be
increased by a good choice of coolant and tool material.
The roughness of the finished surface depends on the
material, on the machining conditions, the form and finishing
of the cutting tool, and very largely on the stability of the
machine.
 The accuracy of machining depends not
only on the quality of the tool machine,
but also on the form of the built-up
cutting edge, which is largely influenced
by the nature of the material to be
machined.

Machinability index is determined by

comparing the Machinability of a given
material under specified conditions with
that of a much-used material arbitrarily
taken as standard. If this standard
material is given an index of 100, the
index of the material in question can be
expressed as a percentage of this.
 Weldability
Weldability is the capacity of a material
to be welded under the fabrication
conditions imposed into a specific
suitably designed structure and to
perform satisfactorily in the intended
service.
This implies that a metal with good
Weldability can be welded readily so as
to perform satisfactorily in the fabricated
structure.
Weldability depends upon the welding process employed, the
material and the form in which it must be welded, as well as
on the nature of the added weld material
 Poor Weldability manifests itself by brittle fractures as a result
of the stresses produced in the material by heating and
cooling this effect is found in particular in the electrical are
welding of insufficiently tough materials.

Poor Weldability can also give microcracks in the weld; of

importance in this connection are the qualities of the electrode
material and of the welding process. Cracks next to (and
alongside) the weld are also a sign of unsatisfactory welding.
The formation of such crack is strongly influenced by the
thickness of the plate being welded, and also depends on the
welding process.

Good Weldability means that the weld is free from pores, slag
inclusions, cracks and hard patches or zones and has
properties that differ very little from those of the material being
welded.
 Solderability
The solderability of a material is determined by the purity
of its surface and by the choice of solder and flux.
Solders are classified as soft solders and hard solders
Soft solders have a relatively low melting point and
consist mainly of lead tin alloys.
Hard solders have a considerably higher melting point,
so that it is generally impossible to use them with an
electric soldering iron.
Hard solders include the silver solders, which are alloys
of silver, copper and zinc.
When brass is used as the filler the process is termed as
brazing instead of hard soldering.
 Workability / Formability
The workability of a metal is much too broad a subject. It must
be considered separately for such processes as hot and cold
forging, rolling, drawing or extruding and also for deep drawing,
spinning or hobbing.

1
The nature of forming process determines the properties
required to give a particular metal good workability.
These properties are closely related to the atomic structure of
the metal in question.
 Taxonomy of Metals
Metal Alloys

Adapted from
Ferrous Nonferrous Fig. 11.1,
Callister 7e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt% C
3-4.5wt%C

T(C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite
d
cementite
1400 L
g+L Adapted from Fig. 9.24,Callister 7e.
1200 g 1148C L+Fe3C (Fig. 9.24 adapted from Binary Alloy
austenite Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Eutectic: Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
1000 4.30
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
g+Fe3C 1990.)
a800 727C Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 a+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
Co , wt% C
(Fe)
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4wt% C

heat austenitic
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
 Ferrous alloys
Plain carbon steels
Alloy steels
Stainless steels
Cast irons
 Low-carbon steels

Contain less than 0.25%C

Not very responsive to heat treatments
soft, weak, tough and ductile
Machinable, weldable, not expensive
YS~275 MPa, TS~415-550MPa, 25% el.
 High strength low alloy steels
(HSLA steels)
Contain alloying elements such as
Cu, V, Ni, Mo in combined
concentrations of >10 wt%
Stronger than plain low-C steels
Ductile, formable and machinable
 Medium-carbon steels

Contain 0.25-0.60 wt.% carbon

Can be heat-treated but only in thin
sections
Stronger than low-C steels but less
ductile and less tough
Good wear resistance
Railway wheels & tracks, gears
 High carbon steels

0.60 -1.4 wt.% C

Hardest, strongest, least ductile of all steels
Almost always used in tempered condition
Especially wear resistant
Form hard and wear resistant carbides with alloying
elements
Used in cutting tools, dies, knives, razors, springs and
high strength wires
 Stainless steels
Highly resistant to corrosion in many environments
Predominant alloying element is at least 11%
Chromium
Corrosion resistance may be enhanced by Ni and Mo
additions
4 classes: ferritic, austenitic, martensitic and
precipitation-hardening
Used at high temperatures (upto ~ 1000C) and severe
environments
Gas turbines, steam boilers, aircraft, missiles
 Cast irons
Theoretically contains > 2.14 wt.% carbon
Usually contains between 3.0-4.5 wt.% C, hence
very brittle
Also 1-3 wt.% silicon
Since they become liquid easily between 1150 C
and 1300 C, they can be easily cast
Inexpensive
Machinable, wear resistant
4 types: gray cast iron, nodular cast iron, white
cast iron, malleable cast iron
 Nonferrous alloys
Aluminum alloys
Copper alloys
Magesnium alloys
Nickel alloys
Titanium alloys
Refractory metals
Superalloys
 Aluminum alloys
Low density - 2.7 gm/cc
High electrical and thermal
conductivities
High ductility
Low melting point and strengths
Cast or wrought
Temper designation
 Copper alloys
Soft, ductile, difficult to machine
Highly resistant to corrosion
Excellent electrical & thermal conductivity
Can be alloyed to improve hardness
Cold worked to get the maximum hardness
Cu-Zn = brass; Cu-X = bronzes
 Magnesium alloys

Lowest density of all structural metals= 1.7 gm/cc

Relatively soft and low elastic modulus (45 GPa)
Have to be heated to be deformation processed
Burns easily in the molten and powder states
Susceptible to corrosion in marine environments
Competing with plastics
 Nickel alloys
Quite ductile and formable
Highly corrosion resistant, especially at
high temperature
Essential part of austenitic stainless steels
Used in pumps, valves in seawater and
petroleum environments
 Titanium alloys

Low density, high melting point

High specific strength and elastic modulus
superior corrosion resistance in many
environments
Absorb interstitials at high temperatures
Highly reactive with other materials and hence
non-conventional processing techniques have
been developed
Highly used in aerospace applications
 Refractory metals
These are extremely high melting metals
Nb, Ta, Mo, W
Very high strengths and hardness
Very high elastic modulus
W alloys used in x-ray tubes, filaments
Ta & Mo used with stainless steels for corrosion
resistance
Ta is virtually immune to all environments below
150C
 Casting

Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Pouring molten metal into a
mold shaped after the part
to be produced, allowing it
to harden, and removing it
from the mold
 Introduction
- Can be used to create complex internal and external part
geometries

- Some casting processes can produce parts to net shape (no

further manufacturing operations are required)

- Can produce very large parts (cast parts weighing over 100 tons
have been made)

- Can be used with any metal that can be heated to its liquid phase

- Some types of casting are suited to mass production

Examples of Cast Parts

Crank handle formed by casting; some areas

were machined and assembled after casting
Examples of Cast Parts

C-clamps formed by casting

(left) and machining (right)
Examples of Cast Parts

Complex part formed by casting

Courtesy of Toth Industries
Forms of Casting
and Terminology
 Introduction
Requirements:
- Mold cavity with desired shape and size
- Melting process to provide molten metal
- Pouring process to introduce the metal into the mold
- Solidification process controlled to prevent defects
- Ability to remove the casting from the mold
- Cleaning, finishing and inspection operations
 Casting Terminology
Flask
The box containing the mold
Cope
The top half of any part of a 2-part mold
Drag
The bottom half of any part of a 2-part mold
Core
A shape inserted into the mold to form internal cavities
Core Print
A region used to support the core
 Casting Terminology
Mold Cavity
The hollow mold area in which metal solidifies into the part
Riser
An extra cavity to store additional metal to prevent shrinkage
Gating System
Channels used to deliver metal into the mold cavity
Pouring Cup
The part of the gating system that receives poured metal
Sprue
Vertical channel
Runners
Horizontal channels
 Casting Terminology
Parting Line / Parting Surface
Interface that separates the cope and drag of a 2-part
mold
Draft
Taper on a pattern or casting that allows removal from
the mold
Core Box
Mold or die used to produce cores
Casting
The process and product of solidifying metal in a mold
 Cooling Rate
Rapid cooling produces equiaxed
(roughly round) grains

Slow cooling towards the interior forms

long columnar grains that grow
towards the center
 Metal Solidification
Dendrites
Tree-like structures that form during the solidification of alloys

Slow cooling rates produce dendrites with larger branch spacing;

faster cooling rates produce finer spacing; very fast cooling rates
produce no dendrites or grains
 Fluidity of Molten Metal
Mold design
The design and size of the sprue, runners, and risers affect fluidity

Mold material and surface

Thermal conductivity and roughness decrease fluidity

Superheating
The temperature increment above the melting point increases
fluidity

Pouring
Lower pouring rates decrease fluidity because of faster cooling

Heat transfer
Affects the viscosity of the metal
 Heat Transfer
The metal that solidifies first is at the
wall of the mold; this solid layer
thickens as time passes

Shrinkage during cooling can change

the part dimensions and sometimes
cause cracking; it is caused by the
metals thermal expansion properties
and the phase change between liquid
and solid.
Heat Transfer
 Casting Defects
A.Metallic Projections
B.Cavities
C.Discontinuities
D.Defective surface
E. Incomplete Casting
F. Incorrect dimensions or shape
G.Inclusions
 Casting Defects
Porosity may be caused by shrinkage and/or gases

Thin sections solidify faster than thick sections; therefore

the molten metal cannot be supplied to thick regions
that are solidifying

Gases become less soluble in a metal as it cools and

solidifies, causing it to be expelled and sometimes form
or expand porosity
 Summary
Casting involves melting metal and
allowing it to solidify in the desired
shape

Casting allows the creation of parts

that would be difficult or
uneconomical to make by machining
1) COLD WORKING
Plastic deformation which is carried out in a temperature region and over a time interval such
that the strain hardening is not relieved is called cold working.

Some Cold Working Processes:

Cold rolling
Cold forging
Cold extrusion
Bending
Drawing
Shearing
Reason for Cold Working:
Provides better surface finish and dimensional precision.
 The advantages of cold working are

A better surface finish may be achieved

Dimensional accuracy can be excellent because the work is not

hot so it doesn't shrink on cooling; also the low temperatures
mean the tools such as dies and rollers can last a long time
without wearing out.

Usually there is no problem with oxidative effects such as scale

formation. In fact, cold rolling (for example) can make such scale
come off the surface of a previously hot-worked object.

Controlled amounts of cold work may be introduced.

Effect of cold working on tensile strength, hardness, ductility and grain size. (The
curve below ductility represents the change in grain size)
 As with hot working, the grain structure of the material is made to
follow the deformation direction, which can be good for the
strength of the final product.

Strength and hardness are increased, although at the expense of

ductility.

OH & S problems related to working near hot metal are

eliminated.

There is a limit to how much cold work can be done on a given

piece of metal. See the discussion above about accumulation of
damage in the form of piled up dislocations.

Higher forces are required to produce a given deformation, which

means we need heavily built, strong forming machines .
 HOT WORKING

Hot working refers to the process where metals are defromed above their
recrystallizaton tempereture and strain hardening does not occur.Hot
working performed at elevated tempreature.However is hot working at
room temperature because of its low melting temperature.

Hot ingots
 Some Hot Working Processes:
Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Hot drawing
Pipe welding
Piercing

Reason for Hot Working:

At elevated temperatures, metals weaken and become

more ductile.
The most important continuous hot working processes
 The advantages of hot working are
Lower working forces to produce a given shape, which means the machines
involved don't have to be as strong, which means they can be built more
cheaply;

The possibility of producing a very dramatic shape change in a single

working step, without causing large amounts of internal stress, cracks or
cold working;

Sometimes hot working can be combined with a casting process so that

metal is cast and then immediately hot worked. This saves money because
we don't have to pay for the energy to reheat the metal.

Hot working tends to break up large crystals in the metal and can produce
a favourable alignment of elongated crystals

Hot working can remove some kinds of defects that occur in cast metals. It
can close gas pockets (bubbles) or voids in a cast billet; and it may also
break up non-metallic slag which can sometimes get caught in the melt
(inclusions).
 The main problems,

If the recrystallisation temperature of the worked metal is high

e.g. if we are talking about steel, specialised methods are needed
to protect the machines that work the metal. The working
processes are also dangerous to human operators and very
unpleasant to work near.

The surface finish of hot worked steel tends to be pretty crude

because ;

the dies or rollers wear quite rapidly

there is a lot of dimensional change as the worked object cools
there is the constant annoying problem of scale formation on the
surface of the hot steel.
 Forging

Forging is manufacturing process where metal is pressed,

pounded or squeezed under great pressure into high strength
parts known as forgings. The process is normally (but not
always) performed hot by preheating the metal to a desired
temperature before it is worked. It is important to note that the
forging process is entirely different from the casting (or
foundry) process, as metal used to make forged parts is never
melted and poured (as in the casting process).
 Types of Forging
Hand forging :- Hand forging is emplayed only to shape

a small number of light forgings chiefly in repair shops.

Hammer forgings :- Usually used for small item forging.

Press forging :- Usually used for heavy item forging.

Machine forging :- For medium sized and large articles

requiring very heavy blows.

Drop forging :- For mass production of identical parts.

160
161
Most open die forgings are produced on flat dies. Round swaging dies and
V dies also are used in pairs or with a flat die. Operations performed
on open die presses include:

Drawing out or reducing the cross-section of an ingot or billet to

lengthen it.
Upsetting or reducing the length of an ingot or billet to a larger
diameter.
Upsetting, drawing out, and piercing--processes sometimes combined
with forging over a mandrel for forging rough-contoured rings.
 Forged Products
In automotive applications, forged components are commonly found
at points of shock and stress. Forged automobile components include
connecting rods, crankshafts, wheel spindles, axle beams, pistons,
gears, and steering arms.

Forgings are also used in helicopters, piston-engine planes,

commercial jets, and supersonic military aircraft. Many aircraft are
"designed around" forgings and contain more than 450 structural
forgings, including hundreds of forged engine parts.

"Forged" is the mark of quality in hand tools and hardware. Pliers,

hammers, sledgers, wrenches, garden implements, and surgical tools
are almost always produced through forging.

164
165
 Blanking
Blanking is cutting up a large sheet of stock into smaller pieces
suitable for the next operation in stamping, such as drawing and
forming. Often this is combined with piercing.
Blanking can be as simple as a cookie cutter type die to produce
prototype parts, or high speed dies that run at 1000+ strokes per
minute, running coil stock which has been slit to a specified width.
For production parts, the final configuration of the drawn or formed
shape needs to be established before the blank die can be built-since
the blank size and the slit width size needs to be established precisely.
 Piercing

Piercing is the operation of cutting internal features (holes or slots) in stock.

Piercing can also be combined with other operations such as lance and form
(to make a small feature such as tab), pierce and extrude (to make an
extruded hole). All these operations can be combined with blanking.

Piercing of all the holes is best done together to ensure good hole-to-hole
tolerance and part repeatability. However if the material distorts, the method
described below can be done.

When there are large numbers of holes, in a tight pitch, there could be
distortions, due to the high amount of tension on the upper surface due to
stretching and compression on the bottom surface. This causes the material
not to lay flat. This can be avoided/lessened by staggering the piercing of the
holes. Holes are punched in a staggered pattern; then the other holes are
punched in the alternate staggered pattern.
 Rolling
Aluminium is first passed through a hot rolling mill and then transferred
to a cold rolling mill.

Hot rolling mils:

Prior to rolling the aluminium is in
the form of an ingot which can be
up to 600mm thick. This ingot is
then heated to around 500C and
passed several times through the
hot rolling mill. This gradually
reduces the thickness of the metal
to around 6mm.
This thinner aluminium is then
coiled and transported to the cold
rolling mill for further processing.

168
 Rolling
Cold rolling mils:
There are various types of cold
rolling mill, and they produce
various types of rolled product,
with thicknesses as low as
0.05mm. In general the type of
product depends on the alloy
used, the rolling deformation
and thermal treatment used in
the process as well as careful
adjustments to the mechanics
and chemistry of the process.
Rolling mills are controlled by
very precise mechanisms and
measuring systems.

169
Rolling is a fabricating process in which the metal, plastic, paper,
glass, etc. is passed through a pair (or pairs) of rolls. There are
two types of rolling process, flat and profile rolling. In flat
rolling the final shape of the product is either classed as sheet
(typically thickness less than 3 mm, also called "strip") or plate
(typically thickness more than 3 mm).

In profile rolling, the final product may be a round rod or other

shaped bar such as a structural section (beam, channel, joist
etc). Rolling is also classified according to the temperature of
the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its
recrystallization temperature then the process is termed as hot
rolling, If the temperature of metal is below its recrystallization
temperature the process is termed as cold rolling.
171
Extrusion and Drawing
of Metals
WHAT is DRAWING?

Drawing is an operation in which the cross-section of solid

rod, wire or tubing is reduced or changed in shape by pulling
it through a die.

The principle of this procedure consist of reducing the

thickness of a pointed ,tapered wire by drawing it through a
conical opening in a tool made of a hard material.The wire
will take shape of the hole.
 Drawing improves strength and hardness when these
properties are to be developed by cold work and not by
subsequent heat treatment

Where is it used?

This process is widely used for the production of

thicker walled seamless tubes and cylinders
therefore; shafts, spindles, and small pistons and as
the raw material for fasteners such as rivets, bolts,
screws.
 DRAWING TOOLS

The most important tool in the drawing process is without

doubt the drawplate.This consist of a plate of high grade
steel into which similar shaped holes have been placed
whose size in evenly reduced from one hole to another.

The most common drawplate have round holes and are used
to reduce the size of round wire.

Drawing wire with the draw tongs drawbench

How such a drawplate hole is made
Deep Drawing
Deep drawing and pressing involve a combination of bending
and stretching.The simplest example of this process involves the
fabrication of a cup from a circular sheet blank.
For deep drawing operations the quality of strip required should
be non-directional and of the correct combination of hardness
and grain size for the tooling .
 Extrusion Introduction
Extrusion A material is pushed or drawn through a die
of the desired cross-section. Any solid or hollow
cross-section may be produced by extrusion, which
can create essentially semi-finished parts. The metal
can forcing through a die in the same direction or
opposite direction.
Parts have constant cross-section
Typical Products of Extrusion Sliding Doors, tubing
having various cross-sections, structural and
architectural shapes and door and window frames.
 Extrusions

Fig : Extrusions and

examples of
products made
by sectioning
off extrusions.
 Extruded products

Typical products made by extrusion are railings for

sliding doors, tubing having carious cross-sections,
structural and architectural shapes, and door and
windows frames.
Extruded products
 The Extrusion Process

Types of Extrusion :
Direct Extrusion (or) Forward Extrusion Billet is
placed in a chamber and forced through a die opening by a
hydraulically-driven ram or pressing stem.

Indirect Extrusion Die moves towards the billet.

Hydrostatic Extrusion The billet is smaller in diameter

that the chamber, which is filled with a fluid, and the
pressure is transmitted to the billet by a ram.

Extrusion Ratio = Ao/Af

Ao cross-sectional area of the billet
Af - cross-sectional area of extruded product
 Direct extrusion: A metal
billet is located into a
container, and a ram
compresses the material,
forcing it to flow through
one or more openings in a
die at the opposite end of
the container.

Indirect extrusion: The die

is mounted to the ram
rather than at the opposite
end of the container. One
advantage of the indirect
extrusion process is that
there is no friction, during
the process, between the
billet and the container
liner.
 Direct
Extrusion

Fig : Schematic illustration of direct extrusion process

 Types of
Extrusion

Fig : Types of Extrusion (a)

indirect (b) hydrostatic
(c) lateral
Hot Extrusion
Done at an elevated temperature to keep the material from work hardening
and to make it easier to push the material through the die.
Done on horizontal hydraulic presses that range from 250 to 12,000 tons.
Biggest disadvantage of this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep.
Typical parts produced by extrusions are trim parts used in automotive and
construction applications, window frame members, railings, aircraft structural
parts.
 Hot Extrusion
Extrusion is carried out at elevated temperatures
for metals and alloys that do not have sufficient
ductility at room temperature, or in order to reduce
the forces required.
 Die Design and Die
Materials

Fig : (a) An extruded 6063-T6 aluminum ladder lock for aluminum extension ladders. This
parts is 8mm thick and is sawed from the extrusion, (b)-(d) Components of various
dies for extruding intricate hollow shapes.
 Cold Extrusion

Cold extrusion is performed at temperatures significantly

below the melting temperature of the alloy being deformed,
and generally at room temperature.
The process can be used for most materials, provided that
sufficiently robust machinery can be designed.
Products of cold extrusion include aluminium cans, collapsible
tubes and gear blanks.
 Cold Extrusion
Combination of operations, such as direct and indirect extrusion
and forging.
Advantages :
Improved mechanical properties
Good control of dimensional tolerances
Improved surface finish
Elimination of the need for billet heating;

Fig : Two examples of

cold extrusion.
Thin arrows
indicate the
direction of metal
flow during
extrusion.
 The advantages of cold extrusion are:

No oxidation takes place

Good mechanical properties due to severe cold working
as long as the temperatures created are below the re-
crystallization temperature
Good surface finish with the use of proper lubricants
 Impact Extrusion
Similar to indirect extrusion
Punch descends rapidly on the blank, which is extruded
backward

Fig : Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process. The

extruded parts are stripped by the use of a stripper plate,
because they tend to stick to the punch.
 Examples of Impact Extrusion

Fig : (a) Two examples of products made by impact extrusion. These parts may also be
made by casting, by forging, or by machining; the choice of process depends on the
dimensions and the materials involved and on the properties desires. Economic
considerations are also important in final process selection. (b) and (c) Impact
extrusion of a collapsible tube by the Hooker process.
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
The pressure required for extrusion is supplied through and
incompressible fluid medium surrounding the billet
Usually carried at room temperature, typically using vegetable oils as
the fluid
Brittle materials are extruded generally by this method
It increases ductility of the material
It has complex nature of the tooling

Fig : General view of a

9-MN (1000-ton)
hydraulic-extrusion
press.
 Extrusion Defects
1. Surface cracking.
2. Pipe.
3. Internal Cracking

Fig : (a) Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless the products are
inspected, such internal defects may remain undetected, and later cause failure of the part
in service. This defect can also develop in the drawing of rod, of wire, and of tubes. (b)
Schematic illustration of rigid and plastic zones in extrusion. The tendency toward chevron
cracking increases if the two plastic zones do not meet. Note that the plastic zone can be
made larger either by decreasing the die angel or by increasing the reduction in cross-
section (or both).