Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Author
A.S. Narang
Editor
Nalini Pant
CONTENTS
GLOSSARY 284-287
1
T HE beginning of Indias
independence on 15th of August
1947 was a great day in the long and
provided for a representative democracy
in a liberal framework. The main
characteristics of liberal democracy are:
eventful history of this ancient country. The government is formed by
The attainment of independence, elected representatives of citizens
however, was not an end in itself. It and is accountable and responsi-
was not only political freedom that ble to them.
the leaders of the freedom struggle More than one political parties com-
were fighting for, but also for
pete for political power.
the establishment of a new order of
society. The leaders had a vision for The competition for power is open
minimisation of economic and social and not secretive. It is through open
inequalities, removal of mass poverty, elections.
unemployment and underemployment, There are periodic elections based
restoration of human dignity, on universal adult franchise.
guarantee of civil rights, restoration of Pressure and other organised and
communal harmony and justice for all. unorganised groups are also
These hopes and expressions were allowed to operate in the system.
embodied in the Constitution of India They are also able to influence
which was adopted on 26th January, government decisions.
1950. The visions were largely
Civil liberties, such as freedom of
reflected through the Preamble to the
speech, religion and association,
Constitution and the parts dealing
with Fundamental Rights and etc. are guaranteed.
Directive Principles of State Policy. To There is separation of powers and
achieve the prescribed goals, the check by one over the other, e.g. control
framers of the Indian Consti- over the executive by legislature.
tution relied completely on the norms The above characteristics primarily
of democracy. refer to the aspects of a democratic form
You might have already studied that of government. Most political thinkers
framers of the Indian Constitution of the present age, however, agree that
2 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
over the world have been attracted There is also a considerable futuristic
by the successful working of a euphoria about the prospects of
system of popular democratic industrial, economic and technological
government based on adult franchise, progress. It is expected that by 2020,
guaranteed fundamental rights and India would be amongst the first 10
an independent judicial system. countries in terms of per capita income.
Successive general elections at It is also predicted that India would be
scheduled intervals and the peaceful the largest software developer in the
and relatively efficient manner in which world and its advances in space
they have been conducted, have technology would greatly enhance its
demonstrated that in spite of their potential for education, meteorology
poverty and widespread illiteracy, the and disaster management, etc. India is
people in general have proved the also playing an important role in
framers of the Constitution right. With world affairs.
every election, the base of democracy However, Indian democracy is
in India has got widened. This is flawed in many respects. India has not
particularly important in view of the been able to acquire a stable national
fact that in most of the countries which unity and the political system has not
attained independence after the Second been able to fulfil the aspirations of all
World War, democracy has been groups, sections, and classes. A vast
replaced by military dictatorship or majority of the Indian people are caught
one party system. In India, it has in the situation of abject poverty,
not only worked but has also illiteracy, and unemployment. More
provided a considerable amount of than 60 per cent of the Indian
political stability. population does not have access to
In social and economic fields also, the basic sanitation. There is almost a
country has made great strides. Fifty collapse of public health. The
years ago, the life expectancy for the population has increased more than
average Indian was 27 years. It is now three times since independence. Of
63 years. The literacy level at the dawn course, the Gross National Product
of independence was much less than (GDP) has increased four fold and in the
what it is today. Agricultural last decade alone per capita GDP has
breakthrough of the early seventies has doubled. But in view of increase in
not only made India self-sufficient in food population and concentration of benefits
but we now produce surplus. Milk in few hands this increase remains
production has gone up significantly. At insufficient. Result is about 50 per cent
the time of independence, country of all children below 5 years of age are
produced just 1362 MW of electricity; under weight and malnourished.
which is now over 10,000 MW. Industrial The reality of Indian society is the
production also has greatly diversified. fact that economic development has not
4 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
destroying their identities. Above all, adjust and evolve itself to conti-
a vast multi religious, multi ethnic nuously changing situations and
and multi cultural country has been circumstances. For that, it is
kept united. important to understand the existing
These achievements, however, are nature of system how it has been
facing serious challenges from the working, why and what aberrations
negative trends that have crept in over and problems have crept in, what
the years. There has been of late lessons can be learnt from the past
stagnancy and decay in the political experiences and what needs to be
field. Economic development remains done? The purpose of this book on
dissatisfactory. India is still far behind Indian democracy is to make you
the developed countries. Caste, aware of all these and to prepare you
communal and linguistic tensions are participate in the system as a proud
growing in such proportion that the citizen of a great ancient country and
unity of the country appears to be contribute effectively in the task of
threatened. Society is looking towards making corrections, and improvement.
younger generation with hope. They There is no doubt that with the efforts
have to understand that democracy of younger generation India
cannot be frozen into a static mould can look forward to emerging as a
adopted at one time. It has to adapt, great nation.
UNIT I
ELECTIONS IN INDIA
8 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
9
CHAPTER 1
Adult Franchise and
Electoral Participation
educational or economic status each elections have become one of the most
citizens value of vote is equal. central political processes in India.
Constitution, however, prescribes They are keenly contested and
certain conditions under which a citizen participated. During last 52 years of
becomes disqualified to be a voter. A the adoption of the Constitution, India
citizen having an unsound mind or has had thirteen general elections to the
having been punished for election Lok Sabha and various to the State
related offences comes under Legislative Assemblies. There had been
this category. democratic changes of governments,
The extension of political power both at the Centre and in States, several
(right to vote) to the common man of times through the electoral process.
India, is no doubt an important Though, during elections a number of
instrument of social justice. It may be aberrations and malpractices have crept
mentioned here that while even in many in, elections more or less have been
developed (Western) countries universal instrumental for peaceful change of
adult franchise developed in steps; in governments and expression of peoples
India, it was introduced right in the aspirations and protests.
beginning. Right to vote in India
was considered not only as an POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
essential mechanism for working of
Parliamentary democracy but also First general election was held in India in
as an instrument for achieving 1951-52 on the basis of adult suffrage.
socio-economic justice through This was a simultaneous election both for
peoples participation, accountable the Lok Sabha and all State Legislative
and responsible government and Assemblies. Second general election held
mobilisation of citizens participation in 1957 was also a simultaneous election.
in political process. It should also be In third general election in 1962, elections
kept in mind that apart from Lok Sabha for two State Assemblies i.e Kerala
and State Legislative Assemblies and Orissa could not be held
elections are also held for local self simultaneously with general election.
governance bodies like Municipal Similarly, in 1967, simultaneous elections
Committees and Corporations and could not be held in Nagaland and
Panchayati Raj Institutions, thus giving Pondichery along with fourth general
opportunity to voters to exercise their election to the Lok Sabha. After 1967,
control and choice at different levels. election to most of the assemblies had to
Elections are also held for the offices of be held separately from that of Lok
President and Vice-President of India; Sabha. Fifth general election for Lok
but in these citizens do not participate Sabha was held in 1971 and thereafter
directly, it is their representatives in general elections were held in 1977,
Parliament and Legislative Assemblies 1980, 1985, 1989, 1991, 1996, 1998
who vote in these elections. As a whole, and 1999.
12 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
and among the different States. The Institutions have in fact helped existing
voting pattern of the two differs on ruling classes in consolidating and
issues as well as on caste loyalties. legitimising their power by using caste
Rural voters are influenced more by in electoral politics. We will study in a
caste considerations, while in urban subsequent chapter various aspects of
areas issues are considered important. casteism in politics . Here, it is important
to note that in Indian electoral
Caste behaviour, particularly in rural areas,
In India, it has become a very important caste has become an important
factor to influence electoral behaviour. instrument of mobilisation, a channel
People, particularly in rural areas are of communication, representation
motivated to vote because of caste and leadership.
loyalties. There are direct and indirect
Religion
appeals by contestants on caste and
sub-caste lines. Earlier it was higher Like caste another factor that has been
castes that used to mobilise their used to mobilise voters has been
support base. During last two decades religion. In a country like India where
Scheduled Castes and Other Backward people are deeply religious minded,
Castes have been significantly leaders find it quite useful to identify
mobilised on caste basis. There had themselves with the people on the basis
also been reports of higher castes of their religious sentiments both in
intimidating or coercing lower castes to negative and positive terms and ask
vote according to their directions. In votes for them. In early years of
recent years, lower castes have become independence, some parties exploited
particularly active to react against such the apprehensions of minorities about
intimidation and consolidate and their safety and place in India in post
mobilise themselves to vote in partition conditions. Minorities,
accordance with their own choices. In therefore, chose parties keeping in view
this context an important development security of their religious identity and
is that leaders of all major parties and safety. These came to be known as
formations agree that the crucial dalit communal vote banks.
vote can make or break their fortunes.
Economic Factors
Some observers find a very positive
aspect of introduction of use of caste in In terms of economic factors, it is
elections in India. This, they find is expected that people with higher, middle
the transfer of authority from the higher and lower income groups vote
to the middle castes and also a move differently. Higher and middle income
towards empowerment of lower castes. groups are more concerned with the
The other view is that the Adult problems of the society, are more
Franchise and elected Panchayati Raj politically aware and conscious of the
16 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
political parties or identify themselves media has also started playing a very
with a party. They are thus long term effective role in influencing voters
supporters of parties and vote for them. choice. It is, therefore, very difficult to
In such cases voting is a manifestation describe the voting behaviour of a
of partnership, not a result of society in general. However, there are
calculation influenced by factors such some visible trends which point
as policies, personalities, campaigning towards the voting behaviour, of the
and media coverage. Party identification society in general and that of certain
in voting behavior was very strong in groups and individual voters in
the initial years of independence particular. Some of the important
patterns and trends in voting behaviour
because of peoples involvement in
are as given below:
freedom struggle and visions for a new
India. Now it is not that strong. Voters,
Voting for Parties
by and large prefer to vote on the basis
of their evaluation of parties from During the last thirteen General
election to election as also on the basis Elections it has emerged quite clearly
of other influences. Some long term that in general, Indian voters vote for
associations are still visible on the party rather than the individual
ideological, traditional and caste or candidates. One result of this is that in
communal basis. Political parties, spite of close social relations and
however, are unable to depend on influences, independent candidates are
these firm commitments. Most of generally not able to perform. With the
time, fortune of independent candidates
them, therefore, try to attract general
have been fading significantly.
voters using various techniques
It is observed that though the voters
mentioned above.
vote for the party and not the
candidates, yet they are influenced by
ELECTORAL BEHAVIOUR the personality and popularity of the
PATTERNS AND TRENDS leader of the party. In this respect
individual remains important. This, of
From the above discussion of the course, is true in several cases and it is
determinants of voting behaviour, it because of this that most parties do
becomes clear that voters decision does project the heroic images of their
not depend on any one factor. It is supreme leaders. A consequence of this
influenced by the social group she/he is that parties become dependent on
belongs to, her/his long term the image of leaders rather than their
association with political parties, programmes and ideologies.
understanding of issues involved in an
election, state of economy, prevailing Social Loyalties
social conditions, types of leaders While people in general vote for parties
leading the party, the party image, rather than individuals, it is found that
election campaign, etc. In addition, it is not only due to psychological or
18 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 2
Election Commission
and Election Procedure
Plurality System (First Past the Post) (i) Second Ballot System: In this
system there are single candidate
In this system country is divided into
constituencies and single choice voting,
single member territorial consti-
as in the first past the post system. To
tuencies, usually of equal size. Voters win on the first ballot, a candidate needs
select a single candidate, usually an overall majority of the votes cast. If
marking against the candidates name. no candidate gains a first ballot
A candidate who receives the highest majority, a second run off ballot is held
number of votes, may be less than even between the leading two candidates.
half the votes polled, is declared the This system is popular in France
winner. This system is easy to operate (ii) Alternative Vote System: In this
and establishes a clear link between system there are single member
representatives and constituencies. It constituencies. There is preferential
also allows governments to be formed voting. Voters rank the candidates in
that have a clear mandate from the order of preference i.e. 1 for their first
electorate, of course, on the basis of preference, 2 for their second
plurality of support amongst the preference, and so on. Winning
electorate. However, a number of candidates must gain minimum 50 per
shortcomings are pointed out in this cent of all the votes cast. Votes are
system. The system wastes many counted according to the first
votes, those cast for losing candidates. preference. If no candidate secures 50
It undermines the legitimacy of per cent in first preference, the candidate
government in so far as governments with least number of votes is eliminated
often enjoy only minority support. In and that candidates votes are
this system some social groups like redistributed according to the second
minorities may remain under - (or subsequent) preferences. This
represented. In spite of these limitations continues until one candidate has a
this system is quite popular in a number majority. This method is used in
of countries including the UK and India. Australia and some other countries
and for elections of President and
Vice-President in India.
The Majority System (Second
Ballot and Alternative Vote The Proportional Representation
Systems) System
The majority system requires that a The term proportional representation is
person declared winner in a single used to designate various electoral
member constituency wins by a clear devices based on the principle that
majority that is getting more than 50 parties should be represented in an
per cent votes. This can be obtained Assembly or Parliament in direct
by two methods: proportion to their overall electoral
26 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
same till then. This was done to check remained unchanged since 1971. It
the growth of population. It was feared is felt that reserved constituencies
that some States, to get more seats should keep on rotating to give wider
on the basis of large population might option to both SCs/STs and general
not take the task of family planning category candidates. It is hoped that
seriously. 91st Amendment of the before next General Elections
Constitution passed in 2002 has constituencies will be redrawn and we
extended this freeze of seats up to will have some balance in them.
2026. The year 2026 has been chosen,
because the population planners SYSTEM IN OPERATION
have projected that by that year the
population of India would stabilise It has already been explained that
and the country could hope to two major tasks in electoral process
have zero growth rate of are: (i) preparation and revision of
population thereafter. Accordingly, electoral rolls; and (ii) conduct of
next allocation of seats will be carried elections. The work of preparation
out on the basis of the population of of electoral roll is done by a
the country after 2026. Hence, the Statutory Officer designated as
number of seats in the Lok Sabha Electoral Registeration Officer under
would not change till then. This the supervision and control of
amendment, however, has made Election Commission. The Electoral
provisions of setting up of a Officer for the Assembly constituency
Delimitation Commission to readjust is designated by the Commission in
the constituencies. This is primarily consultation with the Government of
due to change in population patterns the State concerned. The Electoral
and migrations etc., constituencies Officer is assisted by one or more
have become quite unbalanced. Assistant Electoral Registeration
For, example, in some of the Officers. They are assisted by some
constituencies number of voters has officers at tehsil level. These officers
reached more than 25 lac, whereas in attend to the task of revision of the rolls
some others it is less than one lac. in addition to their administrative duties.
Another proposal before the The revisions are undertaken as and
Delimitation Commission is for when felt necessary. Any citizen who
rotation of reserved seats. As you attains the age of 18 years, or whose
know Constitution provides for name for some reason is not there in the
reservation of seats for Scheduled electoral roll can apply for inclusion of
Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The her/his name any time in the
constituencies reserved for Scheduled prescribed form for this purpose.
Casts and Scheduled Tribes have The updating of the Electoral Roll
30 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
can only be from either one of the might be ordered, results can be
Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes countermanded or other appropriate
as the case may be. decision delivered. Appeals can be
made in the Supreme Court.
POLLING Candidates thus elected constitute
After the process of nomination of the Lok Sabha or State Legislative
candidates is complete, a list of Assemblies as the case may be. The
contesting candidates is prepared by anti-defection law, passed in 1985,
the Returning Officer and ballot papers prevents MPs or MLAs elected as
containing names of candidates and candidates from one party forming or
their symbols. Voting is held on the joining a new party, unless they
days announced by the Election comprise more than one-third of the
Commission. Voting is by secret ballot. original party in the legislature. If a
Election Commission tries to ensure member leaves her/his party or joins
that there is a polling station within other party she/he ceases to be the
2 km of every voter, and no polling member of the legislature.
station should have to deal with more India is a parliamentary democracy.
than 1,200 voters. Some electors, The main process to run the democracy
including members of the armed forces is election. To be meaningful, elections
or government of India on duty can vote have to be regular, free and fair. The
by post also. Constitution of India on the one hand,
After the polling is over, the recognises the principle of universal
votes are counted under the adult suffrage, i.e. any citizen of or over
supervision of Returning Officers and the age of 18 can vote; and on the other,
Observers appointed by the Election makes the Election Commission,
Commission. After the counting of independent of Executive and
votes is over the Returning Officer Legislature to conduct and supervise
declares the names of the candidates elections. Elections in India are events
who have received the highest number involving political mobilisation and
of votes as elected. organisational complexity of an
amazing scale; yet the record of
ELECTION PETITION conducting free, fair and peaceful
If any elector or candidate feels that elections has so far been remarkable.
there has been malpractice during the However, in spite of reasonably high
election, she/he can file an election credibility of election process, the
petition. Election petitions are tried by present system has developed some
the High Court of the State involved, defects which need to be corrected
and if upheld, election of a candidate through reforms. This we will discuss
can be declared void, new elections in the next chapter.
32 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 3
Election Reforms
won. Election results, most of the time, the country. The multiplicity of parties
have shown that there has been an has been not only creating confusion
imbalance between the percentage of among the electorate, but also
votes polled and the number of seats administrative problems during
won. It has been pointed out that in elections because of large number of
almost all Lok Sabhas, the ruling party candidates. Added to this is, entry of
or ruling coalition had not secured even large number of independent
50 per cent of the votes polled. Any candidates in the fray because of limited
party securing about 30-35 per cent checks and restrictions on nominations.
of votes forms the government. It Such unprincipled, personality-
means that the government, in fact, is oriented proliferation of parties and of
formed with 18-21 per cent of voter independents contribute to post-
support. In earlier years even though electoral opportunistic coalitions and
opposition parties between themselves, unstable governments.
represented a major section of public
opinion, the composition of legislatures Escalating Costs and
remained a single party dominated one. Money Powers
Small parties in particular remain
Elections in India are a very costly affair
under-represented. For the same reason
for both who contest and who conduct.
various social groups, for example
In view of large size of constituencies,
minorities, do not get representation
large number of candidates contesting
proportionate to their population.
elections, behavior of political parties
Another aspect of this is that since, it is
and candidates, and such other factors,
the individual who has to win, more
the State has to spend enormous money
stress is laid on aspects like caste, etc., in
to conduct elections in a peaceful and
the selection of candidates by the parties.
orderly manner.
Merit is largely a causality in the selection
In the thirteenth General Elections,
of candidates.
government had to spend more than
Rs 850 crore only on Parliamentary
Multiplicity of Parties and
elections. With unstable governments,
Candidates
elections to Lok Sabha is no more
There is no comprehensive law governing limited to once in five years. Similarly,
political parties as such. Any party even a huge expenditure is incurred on
and with concentration in limited Assembly elections in States.
geographic area in plural system can More serious question is cost of
have chance of winning some seats. As elections for the candidates. Even if we
a result one of the problem country is do not take into account the misuse of
facing is steady and haphazard growth money power, a candidate or a party
of political parties. It is estimated that to campaign in a constituency, spread
more than 700 parties are operating in over a large geographical area and
ELECTION REFORMS 35
having more than 10 lac voters, has to Violence and Muscle Power
spend enormous money just to reach the Since winning of election has become
voters. Added to that is the phenomenon
an end in itself, in addition to money
of black money available with a large power, muscle power has also become
section of population. It was openly said an important factor. Muscle power i.e.
during the 1999 General Election that
engaging criminals, violence and
Rs 50 lac to one crore had to be spent by coercion, is used to force the voters to
a candidate standing for Parliamentary vote for particular candidates, or not
election. There is a law placing a
allowing the voters to vote, and for
maximum limit on expenditure. But it capturing the booth and casting bogus
has become meaningless. The huge votes. Reports of booth capturing,
expenditure incurred by candidates and
rigging and gun battles between rival
political parties have no relationship to gangs working on behalf of the
the ceiling prescribed under the law. The
candidates are now common.
hard reality is that huge unaccounted
funds may easily be used for political Criminalisation of Politics
activity, party organisation and election
campaigning. Such a money is given in The most significant outcome of the use
the hope of high returns. No body can of muscle power in election has been
pay hard earned, tax-paid money for that many local muscle men, and
political purposes. The candidates and criminals, whose services were earlier
political parties look to big money bags sought for extortion or vote-gathering,
for their funds to contest elections. This are now directly entering the fray and
in course of time triggers a chain reaction, are elected in the process. Former
leading to corruption at various levels. Election Commissioner G.V.G.
It, therefore, becomes difficult for men of Krishnamurthy in 1997, released a
integrity and commitment to public sample profile of criminalisation of
service to contest elections. A careful politics as shown by the 1996 Lok
analysis shows that heredity and family Sabha elections. He found that nearly
connections are the commonest cause for 1,500 of the 13,952 candidates for the
entry into politics. This is closely followed Lok Sabha had a criminal record, which
by those who have large inherited or included cases of murder, dacoity, rape,
acquired wealth and who believe that theft and extortion. He also revealed
investment in politics is a good business. that 40 such candidates had won the
Money spent on elections is sought to be elections. On the basis of information
recovered through misuse of government received from district administrations
machinery, bribes, scams, etc. The the country, Krishnamurthy claimed
vicious role played by money power in that nearly 700 of the 4,072 members
deciding elections, thus, is one of the of the legislatures of 25 States and two
most critical problems facing the Union Territories were involved in
election system. criminal cases and their trial was
36 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
need electoral reforms urgently. In fact, hand there is deterioration in the value
the need for electoral reforms has been system, decline of political institutions
the subject of wide ranging debate right and emergence of a new brand of
from the First General Elections. politicians resulting in disturbing
Practically, every report of the Election factors and aberrations as discussed
Commission has contained reform above. Against this background the
proposals. Some reforms have been issue of electoral reforms received an
introduced also. These, however, have important place on national agenda.
been found quite insufficient. It is being In 1970, the Election Commission
felt that if electoral reforms are to be sent comprehensive proposals to the
meaningful, they should be all Ministry of Law on electoral reforms,
encompassing covering the full along with a draft bill to give effect to
spectrum. Ad hoc or piecemeal reforms those proposals. Thereafter, the Central
are not the right way of resolving the Government prepared a Bill to amend
problem. Before, discussing the the Representation of the Peoples
various proposals and suggestions for Acts, 1950 and 1951. It was
reforms, let us have a look at the history introduced in the Lok Sabha in
of electoral reforms and the changes December, 1973. When the House was
made so far. dissolved in January 1977, the Bill
lapsed. It is noteworthy that this bill
HISTORY OF ELECTORAL REFORMS did not incorporate many of the
important amendments suggested by
Most of the earlier suggestions for the Commission.
reforms, mainly related to changes In 1974, Jayaprakash Narayan had
in electoral procedure, were found launched a movement which later on
necessary after the experience came to be known as A movement for
of each general election. Such Total Revolution. One of the main
recommendations were made by the planks of this movement was electoral
Election Commission through its reform. On behalf of Citizens for
reports on general elections, brought Democracy, Jayaprakash Narayan
out after the completion of each general set up a committee under the
election. From the time of Fourth Chairmanship of V.M. Tarkunde, a
General Election in 1967, serious former judge of Bombay High Court.
deterioration in the standard electoral This committee after holding
norms became visible. Since then we discussions with representatives of a
see on the one hand growing maturity number of organisations in February
of the electorate, growth of viable 1975 produced a comprehensive set of
political parties, greater consciousness recommendations. Thereafter political
among candidates and citizens about parties, the media, concerned citizens,
their rights and a just change in social academicians and above all the Election
and economic order; and on the other Commission had taken up the issue
38 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
respectively. It has also been provided remaining term of House is less than
that the nomination of a candidate one year.
in a Parliamentary or Assembly Another change was made in 1997
constituency should be proposed by in the law for Presidential and Vice-
10 electors of the constituency, if the Presidential elections. According to this,
candidate has not been set by a number of proposers and seconders for
recognised National or State Party. contesting election to the office of the
Minimum interval between the last date President has been increased to fifty
for withdrawal and date of poll has been each in place of ten; number of electors
reduced to 14 days instead of 20 days; as proposers and seconders for
(iii) A candidate cannot contest election
contesting Vice-Presidential election
from more than two Parliamentary
has been increased to 20 each in place
or Assembly Constituencies;
of 5. The amount of security deposit has
(iv) Previously, the election in the
been increased to Rs 15,000 in place of
constituency was countermanded on
Rs 2,500 for both these offices.
the death of a candidate; now the
election will not be countermanded. If By another amendment in electoral
the deceased candidate, however, was law, provision has been made for voting
setup by a recognised National or State by certain class of persons through postal
Party, the party concerned will be given ballot. The provision has been made
an option to nominate another primarily to facilitate exercise of right of
candidate; (v) Going to a polling booth franchise by migrants from Kashmir.
or near a polling booth with any kind
of arms is now a cognizable offence SUGGESTIONS
punishable with imprisonment up to
From the above description of history
two years or with fine or with both;
of electoral reforms, it comes out that
(vi) All registered electors who are
various reports of committees on
employed in any business, trade,
industrial undertaking or any other Electoral Reforms, particularly the
establishment will be entitled to a paid Goswami Committee Report of 1990
holiday on the day of poll; (vii) No liquor and the Tarkunde Committee Report of
or other intoxicants shall be sold, given 1975 have so far not led to substantial
or distributed at any shop, eating changes in electoral system and law. It
place, hotel or any other place within a seems that political parties are
polling area during the period of 48 indifferent to electoral reforms. They
hours ending with the hour fixed for the hold periodic meetings to discuss the
conclusion of poll ; and (viii) By- issue, come up with some suggestions
elections to any House of Parliament or but end up with bringing in Parliament
a State Legislature will now be held some minor or ad hoc changes. In fact,
within six months of occurrence of the in some cases parties in the name of
vacancy except in case where the electoral reforms have tried to
40 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
would be more so because of proliferation suggested is that some way out needs
of political parties in the country. to be found in which there is some
In view of these problems a coloration between votes polled
suggestion has been made that, as in and seats won as also justice ensured
Germany, we may have direct elections to various sections of society
to 50 per cent of the seats from by securing their participation in
territorial constituencies, while the decision making.
remaining 50 per cent seats may be
filled in by list system. It has also been Curbing the Role of Money Power
suggested that the discrepancy between and State Funding
the electoral support and legislative It has already been mentioned that the
seats can partly be corrected by vicious role played by money power in
introduction of majority system, i.e. by deciding elections is one of the most
the stipulation that if no candidate in a critical problems facing the election
given constituency obtains 50 per cent system. The result is that contesting
of the valid votes, there should be an elections has become a costly affair,
immediate repolling between the top forcing common people to stay away
two. The final winner will represent at from the field. To improve the situation
least 50 per cent of the active electorate. three main proposals have been made.
This has the additional advantage that First, is with regard to control over
larger social coalitions shall replace the political parties. For this, it is suggested
narrow ones and contribute to the that the expenditure incurred by
process of social and political political parties should be brought
integration. Repolling will also have the within the ceiling of election expenses.
added advantage of reducing the Only the expenditure of the parties on
incidence of booth capturing because political education, without reference to
the candidates will realise their inability any particular constituency, should be
to influence the final outcome which exempted. Political parties must
requires a minimum of 50 per cent of function according to norms specified by
the votes polled. the Election Commission. They should
There are those who still think that maintain detailed accounts in which
the First Past the Post System is the best each item of receipt of money by way of
as it is simple, maintains direct relation subscription, donations, subsidy, etc.,
between voter and the legislator and and each item of expenditure should be
helps in providing stability. The only recorded. The accounts must be got
thing required is a movement towards audited by agencies specified by the
a two party system as in such system commission and made public. The
the winner candidate will get, if not, at Election Commission should be
least near to 50 per cent. empowered to examine the election
Needless to say, each system has returns on merit to satisfy itself that they
its plus and minus points. What is being are accurate and correct in all respects.
42 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
fixed to candidates from the less with the same immunity and
fortunate sections. The Commission protections as was available to the Chief
has observed that this mechanism of Election Commissioner under the
ensuring a minimum percentage of Constitution. In addition the
women candidates has apparently Commission has asked for an
worked well in the Northern European independent secretariat on the lines of
countries. The suggestion has the merit Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha Secretariat.
of not requiring Constitutional It has been suggested that the
amendment, eliminating current administrative expenditure of the
controversies, and going forward Commission and its secretariat should
with a simple amendment in the be charged from the consolidated fund
Representation of Peoples Act. It will of India, similar to the lines of Union
be for the political parties to decide the Public Service Commission (UPSC) and
percentage to be fixed. Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG).
It is pointed out that a fine tuned
Election Machinery and Election Commission, supported by
Management of Elections adequate and appropriate legislative
Apart from correcting the aberrations and administrative measures alone can
that have come to light or emerged in tackle the problems the system is facing.
the system it is also equally important In addition to strengthening of the
that independence and credibility of the Election Commission, the other
election machinery to conduct free and measures suggested include regular
fair elections may not only be and efficient preparation of Electoral
maintained but also be consolidated. rolls so that all eligible citizens are
For that purpose, suggestions have enrolled; issue of identity cards to voters
been made to assure the independence to check impersonation and rigging,
of the Commission and empower it use of electronic voting machines to
further to function as a meaningful check bogus voting and achieve
body. Election Commission itself has efficiency; compulsory voting to bring
urged to amend the Constitution to limit voters out of cynicism, rotation of
the strength of the Commission to three reserved seats to provide opportunities
members including the Chief Election to both general and SCs/STs
Commissioner. It is pointed out that candidates to contest elections from
any further increase in the size of the other constituencies, etc. There are
existing three member body would various proposals on issues of
make it unwieldy and hamper procedures and management. The
expeditious decision making for free purpose as a whole is to make elections
and fair elections. It has also been a process of electing peoples
suggested that the two Election representatives in a genuine democratic,
Commissioners should be provided transparent and meaningful way.
ELECTION REFORMS 47
EXERCISES
divided into (i) One party system; example in India the Congress party
(ii) Dominant party system; (iii) Two party enjoyed unbroken spell of power for
system; and (iv) Multi party system. about 30 years i.e. from 1947 to 1977.
After remaining in opposition for less
One party system than three years it again emerged as the
dominant party in 1980. It lost elections
By one party system is meant those
again in 1989. Therefore, it can be said
systems in which a single party enjoys
that dominant party system may not
a monopoly of power through the
be a continuous or permanent one.
exclusion of all other parties. This is
Another feature of dominant party
done either through constitution or by system is that there is competition
political means. In many countries, between factions within dominant party
particularly the communist countries, itself. Some times even the criticism
the constitution itself allows existence against government may come from
of only one party. In certain countries internal factions. But in general
though there is no legal restriction on opposition to government both from
formation of parties, the rulers in power factions and opposition parties remain
do not allow parties other than their weak and ineffective. Dominant party
own party to function by means of then may behave as one party system.
coercion and suppression or using This of course is not healthy for the
other legal and extra legal means. growth of democracy. Japan, India,
There may also be only one party South Africa and some other countries
because of conditions like anti-colonial provide examples of periods of
national movement or domination by a dominant party systems. In general the
very popular and charismatic leader. dominant systems are on the decline.
Power alternates between these two able to play an important role in the
parties; both are able to form formation of the government, keeping
government at one time or the other. the single largest party out of
In this, opposition is strong as it is government. Multi party systems
called the government in the waiting. in parliamentary democracies are
At one time two party system was blamed for producing weak and
considered the most desirable for unstable government with confused
parliamentary democracies as it accountability. On the other hand
provides both a stable government as supporters of multi party system say
well as a strong opposition. But of late that it is more representative and
it is being felt that the system restricts accountable. In coalitions governments
the ideological choices. Also the two have to work keeping in view the
equally matched parties in order to interests of various groups and sections
show each other down may start rather than the main support base of
behaving irresponsible by presenting one major party. The system also
too populist manifestos and formulate creates internal checks and balances
policies without consideration of within the government. Multi party
economic health of the country. system had been prevalent in Italy,
However, many observers still feel that Germany, France and Scandinavian
two party system is the best way of countries of the developed world. Some
reconciling responsiveness with order developing countries like India have
and representative government with also moved to this system after initial
effective government. The UK, the USA, years of dominant party system. In fact
Canada, Australia, etc. are the in most countries both dominant
countries cited as examples of two party system and two party system are on the
system. However, even in these decline and are being replaced by
countries the classical two party system multiparty systems.
is not there. Many a times a third or a
fourth party becomes significant PARTY SYSTEM IN INDIA
forcing the formation of a coalition
government. As in other representative democracies
in India also political parties are an
Multi Party System established part of political process.
However, unlike in the Wester n
A multi party system is that in which democracies where parties came into
more than two parties compete for existence as a result of introduction of
power reducing the chances of single representative election system, Indias
party winning the majority. There is no party system originated in the late
definite number of major political nineteenth century as a response to the
parties in the field. In fact in such British colonial rule and challenge.
systems, some times minor parties are During this period the party system on
56 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
and programmes, each with its own and regions and from various categories
organisational structure. In view of the of population. The reasons for Congress
peculiar historical background, domination included its existence since
complex socio-economic environment 1885, role played by it as a vanguard
and tasks of development the party of the national movement for freedom,
system that has emerged in India and its leaders like Mahatma Gandhi,
is developing does not neatly fit into Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and
generally prescribed one party, two others, and its wide organisational
party and multi party system. Yet network spread all over India.
certain characteristics of these Gradually with the elimination of these
systems can be identified in different factors and with spread of other
periods. Various phases can be parties, particularly at State level, the
described as: (i) One Party Dominance Congress domination began to decline.
Phase; (ii) Trends Toward Two Party This decline became quite evident in
System; (iii) Hegemonic Domination; 1967 General Election, when both the
and (iv) Multi Party System and number of seats it won and votes it
Coalition Era. polled declined. The Congress also lost
power in eight states. But in 1971
ONE PARTY DOMINANCE PHASE elections the party again emerged as the
dominant party. It was in 1977 that
As mentioned above right after after independence, for the first time
independence from the time of first Congress lost power in the Centre as
general election there were a large also in many States. It was thus the end
number of political parties. However, of first phase of party system that is the
up to 1977 Indian National Congress one party dominance.
was the dominant party. It was the
ruling party both at the Centre and TREND TOWARDS TWO PARTY
almost in all the States. In
Parliamentary elections though the
SYSTEM
Congress hardly won 50 per cent votes 1977 elections provided a major step
but the gap between Congress votes and towards party institutionalisation and
that of any other single party was quite possibilities of emergence of a two party
enormous. For example, in the first system. In these elections there was a
general elections while Congress polled substantial reduction in the number of
45 per cent votes, the next largest party candidates despite the increase in
Praja Socialist Party secured 10.60 per number of seats (there were 2,439
cent votes. Up to 1971 elections no candidates for 542 seats compared to
single party other than the Congress 2,784 for 518 seats in 1971). There was
crossed this limit of around 10 per cent significant increase in the number of
votes. The Congress was also the only straight contests. The number of clear
party that received votes from all States straight contests was 101. But if one
58 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
does not count for 1 or 2 independents early party system of Nehru era but also
seeking elections in a constituency, from that of the latter part of the pre-
besides the candidates of the rival emergency. First thing was that the
parties, the number of virtual straight dominant party now was identified with
contests were 279. Within this another the name of the leader (Indira) who had
noteworthy trend was the clear rejection become undisputed leader of the party.
of independent candidates. Though the The attitude of the ruling Congress
number of independent candidates was to the opposition parties also
highest in 1977, the number of those underwent a marked change. So long
who won was the lowest (7 out of 1,222). as the Congress was a dominant party
Finally, 75.8 per cent of the votes were and the only national force in the
cast in favour of only two parties namely country, the opposition was treated
the Janata and the Congress. with respect and it was able to emerge
As a result of this and victory of a as a force to reckon with at the state
non-Congress party at the Centre for and local levels. But after the successful
the first time many scholars and Janata challenge in 1977 and the split
observers opined that parliamentary in the Congress, the top leadership of
democracy in India had matured and the Congress had started feeling
a two party system was in the process. increasingly insecure and the party
The hope, however, was short lived. The became intolerant and exclusivist,
Janata Party which had come into unwilling to share power with
existence with the merger of four parties other parties.
rather than emerging a cohesive singly At the same time opposition parties
party, in its behaviour remained a also, after tasting power, having lost the
conglomeration of parties. Result was capacity to oppose Congress on moral
internal bickering and factionalism that grounds because of their behaviour as
not only became a major hindrance in a ruling party got engaged in politics of
its performance but also tarnished its confrontation. Some of them had also
image in public eyes. It ultimately led brought factors like caste in the
to an atmosphere that proved forefront and won significant support
conducive to its disintegration and on that basis in some states.
disillusionment of the voters. The party Thus, in 1980s the Congress(I)
could not remain together even for dominance in reality was not the
three years. dominance of one party all over India
and based on a type of politics of
THE HEGEMONIC DOMINANCE consensus. It was a hegemonic
dominance because of failure of
On the basis of 1980 elections, the national level non-Congress parties on
Indian party system was again back to the one hand and limited regional
one party dominant system. However, support bases of regional parties on the
it was now different not only from the other. In this hegemonic phase
POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEM 59
type of multi party system. Various which are not recognised as state
parties, however, are not of equal size parties because of lack of strength but
or equal spread. On the basis of are otherwise registered with the
strength and areas of functioning the Commission are called unrecognised
Election Commission of India registers registered parties. An exclusive symbol
parties as national parties and state is reserved for a national party
parties and unrecognised parties. throughout India. In the case of a state
According to the Election Symbols party a symbol is reserved for it in the
(Reservation and Allotment) order, State or States in which it is so
1968, a political party shall be treated recognised. It is obvious that there is
as a recognised political party in a State no permanent list of recognised parties.
if, and only if either of the conditions It is revised after every general election
specified in clause (A) or the conditions by the Election Commission in the light
specified in clause (B) are fulfilled. These of the criterion laid down. Let us now
are: (A) that such party (i) has been have a look at one of the important roles
engaged in political activity for a of political parties in a democratic
continuous period of five years; and system i.e. the role of opposition.
(ii) has at the general election to the
House of people in that State or to the ROLE OF OPPOSITION PARTIES
Legislative Assembly returned either
one member to the House of the People In the beginning of this chapter you
for every twenty-five members of that have read that the primary goal of a
House or any fraction of that number political party is to seek power, but in
elected from that State or at least one addition to that as a part of the task of
member to the Legislative Assembly of seeking power in democracies, political
that State for every thirty members of parties also perform other functions. In
the Assembly or any fraction of that this process a party which does not
number; (B) That the total number of acquire power during election, apart
votes polled by all the contesting from performing the functions of
candidates setup by such party at the governance, continues to perform all
general election in the State to the other functions as a political party
House of the People or to the Legislative including the role of opposition. As
Assembly is not less than four per cent opposition the party or parties, are
of the total number of valid votes polled expected to present themselves as an
by all the contesting candidates at such alternative government both by
general election in the State. challenging the governments policies
A Party fulfilling the conditions and measures between elections and by
either of (A) or (B) is recognised as a state offering themselves as potential
party. A political party recognised as governing parties at the election. For
state party at least in four states is this purpose the opposition keeps the
recognised as a national party. Parties government in check, provides to the
POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEM 61
people alternative policies and pro- the day is defeated on the floor of the
grammes, and keep them aware of the House or in general elections. That is
shortcomings in the performance of the why it is said that todays opposition is
government: its failures, the deviations tomorrows government and vice-versa.
from promises, misuse of power. In This system of government and
other words the opposition in addition opposition best functions in a two party
to provide alternatives, caters to the system where two parties are almost
need of providing checks and balances equal in strength and can replace each
to the ruling party by criticising it on other with a little change in vote
its excesses, lapses and acts of omission percentage. In multi party systems, in
and commission. To perform such a role many cases, the opposition parties are
it is important that opposition party/ more opposed to each other than to the
parties is/are strong, viable and party in power. It does not, however,
responsible both in quantity and mean that in a multi party system
quality. By quantity is meant that the opposition has no role or is not relevant.
opposition should have enough In a way the role of keeping check on
support that a small change in voters ruling party in such a case becomes
preference can bring it to power. By more important, because the ruling
quality is meant that people should party who is not much worried of defeat
have faith in the capacity and credibility because of a divided opposition may
of the opposition. tend to become irresponsible or
In view of such an important role, corrupt. Also it is not always that a multi
in many parliamentary democracies, party system is a one party dominant
opposition party is given an official system. Therefore, both the government
recognition. In Britain for instance, the and the opposition can be alliances or
opposition party has been officially group of parties thereby functioning as
recognised. There is as such Her/His regular government and opposition. In
majestys government and Her/His any case, opposition is a very important
majestys opposition. The leader of the factor in a democracy and needs to be
strong. At the same time in different
opposition is provided the same salary
situations and types of party systems
and privileges as that of a cabinet
the nature and role of opposition can
minister. His/her most special privilege
be different. Nevertheless, whatever the
and responsibility, however, is that
situation is, both the ruling party and
related to the possibility of being called
the opposition are expected to play their
at any time to constitute an alternative
respective roles with responsibility,
government. Therefore, she/he has at
honesty and with dignity.
all times to keep a shadow cabinet
ready so that at short notice the shadow
OPPOSITION IN INDIA
may be converted into a reality and can
take over the task of the government. In the early years of the Republic,
This can be either if the government of in spite of their weak and fragmented
62 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 5
National and State Parties
same time it was a fact that in 1977 fresh elections were held for the
elections support against Congress had Lok Sabha.
come largely from North India and more People of India, obviously felt
so from rural areas. Therefore, tilt of betrayed by the Janata Party and
Janata partys programme was towards therefore, in 1980 mid term polls voted
far ming classes. However, each against both the Janata Party and the
Constituent party was keen to Lok Dal. This brought Congress (I)
consolidate its own social base. Thus, back to power. Soon after the elections
in spite of merger various constituents there came another split. Most of the
in the Janata Party continued to work erstwhile Jan Sangh members along
as independent partners in a coalition. with some others left the Party to form
The differences between various Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP).
segments extended to a wide range of
political and economic issues. The JANATA DAL
Janata Party failed to evolve any
mechanism to regulate and harmonise Having lost two general elections in
the conflicting interests of various 1980 and 1984, some leaders among
lobbies and groups. This ultimately led non-Congress parties once again began
to open division and in less than three efforts for opposition unity. As a result
years in July 1979 the party got divided Janta Dal was born on 11 October,
into two. Most of the members of 1988, with the merger of Janata Party,
erstwhile Bhartiya Lok Dal and Socialist Lok Dal and Jan Morcha. In 1989
Party came out of Janata Party on the elections Janata Dal became a part
issue of dual membership and formed of National Front which has a
a new party named as Lok Dal. coalition of seven parties. Earlier some
Issue of dual membership meant congressmen including V.P. Singh had
whether a member of Janata Party can left the Congress on the issue of
be a member of another political corruption. They also became a part of
organisation. This was raised the National Front. After November
particularly in the context of erstwhile 1989 election, the National Front with
Jan Sangh members continuing to be the outside support of BJP and CPM
members of Rashtriya Swayam Sewak formed the government.
Sangh (RSS) which they claimed was a Soon it became clear that both the
socio-cultural organisation and not a formation of Janata Dal and National
political one. In some, there were Front were negative considerations of
differences galore. As a consequent of defeating the Congress without any
the split the Janata Party government positive commitment to an ideology or
fell. With the support of Congress, Lok programme. Soon after coming to
Dal formed a new government. But this power there were factional pulls and
coalition also could not work for more pressures both in Janata Dal and
than six months and finally in 1980 National Front. In November 1990, a
68 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
sizeable chunk of members came Almost all splits in Janata Dal had
out of Janata Dal and formed been primarily on personality basis
Samajwadi Janata Party. In August rather than on any ideological
1992 Ajit Singh with his supporters left differences. Social base of various
Janata Dal to form Janata Dal (A). On splinter parties, that is Janata Dal,
21 June, 1994, another group of Rashtriya Janata Dal, Samajwadi
members came out of Janata Dal and Janata Party, etc. is the same as of other
formed Samta Party. Thus, by backward classes and Muslims. All
November 1995 Janata Dal stood much of them stand committed to a
reduced. It, however, continued to be socialist perspective, devolution and
a national party as also a ruling party decentralisation of power, rural
in two States Bihar and Karnataka. reconstruction, secularism and justice
In 1996 elections, no party gained to lower and backward castes. None of
majority. Bhartiya Janata Party them, however, has been able to create
emerged as the single largest party but a functional structure or broaden its
could not get the support of others. support base. All factions of Janata Dal
Hence, it failed to remain in power rely on regional caste based support
beyond 13 days. This situation again and are dominated by single
gave opportunity to Janata Dal to individuals. Each of these Janata
lead a coalition government with factions has a significant support in
the support of the Congress. The some States and regions; like Bihar,
government thus formed was known as Orissa, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, etc.
United Front government led by All efforts to unite them are proving
H.D. Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral failures due to personality clashes.
respectively. But, the United Front
Government, also could not survive BHARTIYA JANATA PARTY
beyond a year. Bhartiya Janata Party was founded in
Even before the fall of United Front April 1980 as a result of second split in
government, once again in 1997 there Janata Party. As already mentioned it
occurred another split in Janata Dal was mostly the members of erstwhile
and Rashtriya Janata Dal was formed. Bhartiya Jan Sangh who constituted
The process did not end here. In 1998 it the Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP).
got split once again when Biju Janata Bhartiya Jan Sangh was founded
Dal was formed. Needless to say each on 21 October, 1951, under the
split has weakened the Janata Dal presidentship of Dr Shyama Prasad
considerably. As a whole various Mukerjee. The objective of founding the
splinters like Rashtriya Janata Dal and Jan Sangh was rebuilding of India
Samajwadi party have become regional as a modern, democratic society in
parties. The two factions that is Janata accordance with religious precepts and
Dal (S) and Janata Dal (U) have been able four fundamentals of one country, one
to retain the status of national parties. nation, one culture and rule of law.
NATIONAL AND STATE PARTIES 69
from the Congress in 1939, on the issue the very first general elections the CPI
of double membership. The final break began contesting elections in the multi
with the Congress came with the Nazi party system. It got encouraged from
invasion of the Soviet Union. At that time the fact that compared to other
the CPI supported the British in Second opposition parties it received better
World War as a war against Fascism and support in the then situation of one
Nazism whereas Congress was preparing party dominant system. A historic
to launch the Quit India Movement. landmark was reached in 1957 when
After independence there emerged in the second general elections the
two factions within CPI on the basis of Communist party won an absolute
the assessment of the political system majority in Kerala and formed the
of independent India. One group felt government. This made clear the
that independence of India was not real. chances of assuming power by peaceful
It was a transfer of power in the means. But the central government in
framework of modified imperialistic 1959 dismissed the Communist Kerala
system. Therefore, there was need for government in spite of party enjoying
struggle under the leadership of CPI majority support. This gave chance to
and alliance with workers and radical elements to suggest that in the
peasants. It was called a tactic of the given system socialist reforms were not
united front from below. This was the so easy. By this time there also had
line given by the Soviet Union, the then started emerging conflict between India
leader of the International Communist and Communist China which finally
Movement. The other group was of the resulted in India-China War in 1962.
view that the transfer of power was real. The two factions in the CPI had different
Therefore, Nehru government needed to interpretations about this war. While
be supported as a part of alliance with the pro-Soviet group was clearly
nationalist forces. Soon the Soviet opposed to China the other group
position changed and the CPI was though not necessarily pro-China
advised to abandon the adventurist blamed both China and India for the
tactics and instead work for the creation conflict. Combination of all these factors
of a broad anti-feudal, and anti- finally led to the split in party in
imperialist front along with the 1964 when the more radical group
nationalist bourgeoisie. This gave the came out of CPI and formed CPI(M)
direction, to what is called, movement claiming itself to be the real Communist
towards Constitutional Communism. Party of India.
By Constitutional Communism is
meant to gain power by communists THE CPI
through elections rather than through
their traditional approach of snatching After the 1964 split, the CPI had no
power through revolution. Thus, from difficulty in following the Soviet line. The
72 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
main thrust of this line was that the CPI cancellation of loans taken by small
accepted to deal with what it regarded peasants, radical land reforms, including
as progressive nationalist section in fair wages to agricultural workers.
the Congress, the major vehicle of In foreign policy CPI favours
bourgeois nationalism. continuation of policy of non-alignment
It was in this context that the CPI and anti-imperialism and improvement
started assessing the Nehru of friendship with neighbouring
government and later supported Indira countries. The growing escalation of US
Gandhi and her supporters. It imperialism is viewed as a decisive
remained an ally of the Congress till impetus towards strengthening the
1977. Since then CPI started developing policy of non-alignment.
an anti-Congress line. On the issue of
communalism the CPI has become
CPI(M)
more critical of BJP. Since 1989, the The CPI(M)s position was that the CPI
CPI has been contesting elections as an was a revisionist party which had
ally of anti-Congress and anti-BJP left deviated from Leninism and has
and democratic front. But in its efforts renounced Marxism.
to achieve the goal of national The CPI(M) wanted to establish a
democracy the CPI had gone to the people s democracy. To attain this end
extent of joining the coalition it worked to develop Peoples
government at Centre in 1996. Democratic Front. This Front was to
In its programmes party favours be led by the working class. The chief
communal harmony, secularism, allies of the working class would be
agricultural labourers and the poor
prevention of misuse of religious places
peasants in the countryside. The middle
for disruptive activities. The CPI
peasants would be firm allies and even
expresses its commitment to work for
the rich peasants can be allies up to a
evolving a new and equitable international
point. The urban and other sections of
economic order, curbing monopoly
the petty bourgeoisie could also be
houses and trans - national giants, regarded as allies. The enemies of this
control over foreign trade; protection of anti-feudal, anti-imperialist revolution
small scale industries, cottage industries are the monopolists, the big
and artisans, strengthening the public bourgeoisie, and the imperialists.
distribution system, government take- The CPI(M), at the same time did not
over of wholesale trade in food grains; reject the Parliamentary path. It was
need based minimum wage to factory in view of this that in 1982 the CPI(M)
workers and others in the unorganised decided to work for a Broad anti-
sector; introducing social security authoritarian front including even the
measures and preventing lock-out of Bhartiya Janata Party. However, it
factories; effective workers participation reiterated at the same time that it will
in management of units in the public spend its energies to build left and
sector, crop insurance scheme; and democratic unity.
NATIONAL AND STATE PARTIES 73
Since 1992 there are certain The two communist parties have
visible changes in Partys strategic now moved together to build and
programmatic emphasis, but there is develop a left unity. Both the parties
no major change in the stand of the note a perceptible change in the
party on the basic ideological questions. international situation and threats of
While the anti-Congress edge of the neo-colonialism. Since 1984, both the
CPI(M) policy has not been diluted, it parties have been contesting elections
has sharpened its attack on the BJP. as part of Left Front, as also United
The party election manifestos on Front. The CPI(M) dominates that front
economic issues emphasise the need for and CPI occupies the number two
India to become self-dependent position. Their main emphasis at
economically and to escape from the present is that what India needs
clutches of the World Bank and the urgently is national secular democratic
International Monetary Fund (IMF). unity. The new US economic offensive
According to CPI(M) not only India is and the forces threatening national
losing control over its economy because integration are the main targets of their
of these but also Indias domestic and attack.
foreign policies are moulded by
As far as State Assemblies are
them. It is critical of liberalisation
concerned the two Communist parties
of economy, increasing inequalities
have done well in West Bengal, Kerala
and unemployment. It favours
and Tripura. In all these three States,
implementation of land reforms,
the two parties either singularly or
minimum wages, creation of jobs; and
jointly or in alliance with other parties
to achieve it all suggests demolition of
capitalist path of development. It have been able to form government. In
advocates nationalisation of textile and 1957 for the first time in the world a
jute industries and government take Communist party formed government
over of big factories, protection of after winning elections in a multi party
unorganised workers, adequate wages democratic system when CPI won
for farm labourers and the right to work. an absolute majority in Kerala. In
In view of some policies of CPI(M) West Bengal, the Left Front led by
as ruling party, particularly in CPI(M) is in power continuously for
West Bengal, the critics have called more than two decades.
the economic stand of the party As far as social base and
as paradoxical and hypocritical. membership is concerned there is
Paradoxical because the party has hardly any difference between the two
introduced economic liberalisation in Communist parties. They depend on
West Bengal in contravention of its the support of working class, the middle
political philosophy; hypocritical class and agricultural labour and small
because it has attempted to justify this peasants. Both are essentially middle
policy while retaining in theory its class parties, unable to draw much new
standard ideology. members from the younger generation.
74 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
times no single national party gets parties do not provide such flexibility.
majority in the Lok Sabha. In all the This provides another reason for
general elections to Lok Sabha from proliferation of regional parties. As a
1989 to 1999 this has been the whole regional parties are significant
situation. This has led not only to participants in parliamentary and
formation of coalition governments federal democratic system of India.
but also regional parties influencing Most of them have no separatist or
the process of governmental formation secessionist agenda. As already
and participating in it. This has both mentioned not all regional parties are
positive and negative effects. In cultural or regional based parties.
positive terms regional parties provide Some are definitely class and ideology
a check on centralisation of power, based. But in terms of support base
strengthening of federalism, fulfillment and role in politics it is the parties
of regional and cultural aspirations of representing specific regional or socio-
various sections of population thereby cultural interests that have emerged
helping in national integration, a important. The more successful
share in power to marginalised and regional parties have been AIADMK
deprived groups. In negative terms and DMK in Tamil Nadu, Shiromani
they cause instability of government, Akali Dal in Punjab, Telugu Desam
lack of unity and coherence for a in Andhra Pradesh, National
national government, encouragement Conference in Jammu and Kashmir,
to regional and sectorial forces, added Biju Janata Dal in Orissa, Kerala
role of caste and religion in politics. Congress and Muslim League in
Both these positive and negative Kerala. All these parties have formed
effects of regional parties are a natural governments in their respective States
process in a democratic system. In a several times either by themselves or
country of vast diversities, regional in coalition with others. Some of them
imbalances, concentration of have stronger roots among masses,
linguistic and ethnic groups in certain compared to some national parties. It
regions, along with failure of planning is because of this that with the decline
to create a national economy and of one party dominance, in several
balanced development growth, States actual and potential opposition
development of regional parties is and alternative to Congress has been
natural. In some countries with provided by regional parties. They
federal systems, national parties also now share power at the Central
themselves allow their state or government as partners of one or the
regional wings autonomy enough to other alliance or front. This processes
represent regional aspirations. In seems to be the pattern at least for the
India centrally controlled national near future.
78 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
EXERCISES
1. Mention the names and symbols of any three National Parties in India.
2. Briefly state the policies and programmes of Indian National Congress.
3. Explain the policies and programmes of Bhartiya Janata Party.
4. Bring out the significance of Bahujan Samaj Party in Indian politics.
5. Write Short notes on the following:
(i) Role of State/Regional Parties;
(ii) Janata Dal;
(iii) CPI and CPI(M)
79
CHAPTER 6
Formation of Public Opinion
mass media. Today, the individual is issues rather than on detailed policy
flooded with information from internet, items. In the fast developing and
radio, televisions, newspapers and changing times the government has to
magazines. This information shapes deal with unexpected events and crisis
and reshapes public opinion. that develop between elections. Also
Here, it may be made clear that both party in power does not remain
the articulation of views by experts or concerned only with the past election it
concerned intelligent sections of is very much concerned with the future
population or crystallised by the election also and for that it has to build
information and analysis provided by its image. In view of all these it is very
the media are not necessarily interest difficult for a government to ignore the
or value free. In fact critics point out public opinion. In fact some observers
selectivity in choice of information, data suggest that public opinion is one of
or analysis according to biases,
the three essential elements for
prejudices, beliefs, values and
the successful working of demo-
ideologies. That is why it is said that
cratic system, the other two being
public opinion is subject to possibilities
universal adult franchise and
of manipulation also. Many times,
representative institutions. Universal
under the influence of media or experts,
pubic favours or disfavours a policy adult franchise lays the foundation of
without realising that it may be against democratic participation, representative
public interest in general. Nevertheless, institutions provide for democratic
since public opinion is not permanent, recruitment and public opinion
there are possibilities of changes in that, ensures democratic communication.
particularly in democratic countries, Since, public opinion is considered
because of availability of information as an expression of the citizens in
from different sources and freedom of general, it is very difficult for the
expression of views by all. It is in view government to reject it outright. At the
of this that governments remain same time, it is also a fact that most of
concerned about public opinion. the times public opinion is a reflection
of populism and emotional outbursts
GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC OPINION rather than rational thinking or
In general, governments function on analysis. Therefore, it remains very
the basis of mandate received in difficult to succumb to public opinion
election. This means that a government all the times. For example, except in
is only justified in introducing policies cases of extreme emergencies like war,
for which it has an electoral mandate. how will public opinion favour taxation;
As you have read in chapters on but governments have to impose taxes.
elections and parties, while parties do Similarly, in view of long term national
publish election manifestoes, election interests and to fulfil international
campaigns tend to be fought on general commitments and for efficiency in
82 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
or dissatisfaction from its policies as also (ii) the public is informed, rather well
convey their expectations and aspirations. informed;
While in general, opinion polls have (iii) the public deliberates and reaches
been a useful instrument to find public rational conclusions;
opinion, they have always not been (iv) the rationally formulated opinions
correct. In countries like India there are tend to be held uniformally
various problems in conducting throughout the society;
objective and correct surveys. These (v) the public, having reached a
include large size of population, conclusion, would make its will
illiteracy, lack of awareness and known at the polls and elsewhere;
apprehensions among people about the (vi) the public will or at least general
purpose of surveys and therefore, the will be enacted into law;
tendency not to give correct information. (vii) the continued surveillance and
Also some critics point out that opinion constant criticism would ensure
polls are being used more to create the maintenance of an enlightened
public opinion then to gather and public opinion, and consequently,
report it. Political parties in particular a public policy based upon the
quite often criticise opinion polls of principles of social morality
deliberately favouring one or other and justice.
political party. In spite of all criticisms In a country like India where
the opinion polls and surveys are majority of the population is living in
becoming very popular and are being rural area, with widespread illiteracy
used by all, including governments, and poverty, society remaining
political parties, media and researchers fragmented on caste and community
as a useful method to understand and basis and under the influence of
analyse public opinion. traditional elite, the above men-
tioned factors become a difficult
LIMITATIONS OF PUBLIC OPINION proposition. Public opinion some-
times becomes more a means to
Even though public opinion is a very legitimise interests of ruling class
effective means of communication than a reflection of genuine public
between government and citizens, it is aspirations. With the spread of
also a tool for continuous check on education, opening of media, linkages
government, yet it has a limited use. being established between rural and
The use and role of public opinion rests urban areas and political awareness
on certain assumptions. These can be reaching marginalised sections of the
described as: society, public opinion is likely to
(i) the public is interested in the play more significant role in Indian
affairs of the government; democratic process.
FORMATION OF PUBLIC OPINION 85
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 7
Interest Groups
and Pressure Groups
Party of India. You have already read interests. The largest and more
that the origin of present day Bahujan important of these are trade and
Samaj Party (BSP) was from All India business groups, trade unions and
Backward and Minorities Communities farmers and peasant organisations.
Employees Federation.
Other type of identity groups are BUSINESS GROUPS
those which are engaged in assertion
of special status, superiority or Business and industry in any society
preference for their communities vis--vis is the most articulated and active
other communities. Jamat-I-Islami section in terms of protection of interests
among the Muslims, Rashtriya and influencing policy. In India they
Sawayamasevak Sangh (RSS) and started organising themselves during
Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) among colonial period itself. At that time while
Hindus, All India Sikh Students they were in favour of keeping
Federation among Sikhs, etc. are such themselves aloof from confrontation
groups. These groups are engaged not politics of the Congress led national
only in the welfare of their communities movement, nevertheless, they in many
but also in transfer of political ways supported the constructive
process according to their value activity of the Congress and cause of
systems. There are also various freedom. In independent India,
Language Associations promoting the business and industry had to work in
development of languages. the context of development policies and
planning. They had both opportunities
ASSOCIATIONAL OR PROFESSIONAL to grow and apprehensions of
restrictions because of licence and
GROUPS
control regimes envisaged in the then
Associational or Professional groups adopted mixed economy strategy.
are the ones that are formed by Therefore, they felt a strong need to
people who come together to organise to put pressure on the
pursue shared professional interests. government in their favour. As a result
They are sometimes also called various types of business and
protective or functional groups. Trade commercial associations, emerged at
unions, business associations, trade regional and national level. Important
associations, professional bodies, etc., among them are Chambers of
are prime examples of this type of Commerce and Industries and their
groups. Their unique character is federations like Confederation of Indian
derived from the fact that they represent Industries (CII) and Federation of
a section of society like workers, Indian Chambers of Commerce and
employers, consumers, etc. It can also Industry (FICCI). The FICCI today is the
be said that these groups are based on main spokesman of Indian capitalism
modern economic and vocational and big industry in particular.
90 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
quite a few successes in bettering their can divide Kisan Groups into two
economic and social conditions. The the farmers associations and
trade unions by their activities have peasant groups.
also helped in creating social and
political awareness among workers. FARMERS ASSOCIATIONS
Trade unions are still among the best
organised groups in the society. However, Farmers agitations have been in the news
the process of globalisation is posing a for the past several years. Since the late
serious challenge for the working class. 1970s, farmers have been organising
Trade unions therefore, have to themselves in associations and gaining
rejuvenate themselves in their new role prominence by focusing attention on
in emerging new economic system. higher prices for agricultural products,
lowering electricity rates, easier terms of
FARMERS AND PEASANT GROUPS credit for agricultural investment,
subsidies for fertilisers, etc. Important
It is well known that majority of Indias among these are the Bhartiya Kisan
population lives in villages and Indian Union in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and
economy remains basically an Punjab, the Shetkari Sangathan in
agricultural economy. At the time of Maharashtra, and the Karnataka Rajya
independence, it was essential to Ryota Sangh. At the centre of these is
improve the agricultural production on the discontentment of rich and middle
the one hand and introduce land level farmers.
reforms on the other. Various policies The roots of these farmers
and programmes starting with the movements can be traced to the
abolition of Zamindari system, limited expansion of the Green Revolution in
land reforms, green revolution, agricultural strategies and the
mobilisation of different sections of assertion of political power by rich
rural population in electoral polities peasants through mass mobilisation of
have aroused awareness and the peasantry under their leadership.
consciousness among rural people as These movements, in general, reflect
also created new groups with different new levels of politicisation among the
interests. These in turn have resulted middle level farmers, clamouring for
in the emergence of organised groups greater concessions and share in
and movements for protection and political parties. For quite some time,
consolidation of interests. Many these movements projected a non-
observers call these groups under a political image of theirs by staying away
common terminology of Kisan Groups from political parties and constitute a
or Agricultural movements. In fact, pressure group from outside. However,
there are no common kisan interests. of late they have realised that direct
These are different for different exercise of power may be more effective
categories. In a broader sense, we than indirect influence. So they have also
92 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
are the clearest examples of institutional one channel of influence. At the same
groups. Within groups we hear of IAS, time, methods vary from country to
IPS, IFS lobbies, etc. Similarly within country according to the nature of
military often there are reports of political system and type of society.
pressure from Army, Air force and Navy, Similarly, the nature of the group and
etc. for some preferences on certain the resources at its disposal are crucial
matters. Such groups are particularly determinants of its political strategy.
important in non-democratic regimes The resources include public support
where autonomous groups are for the groups goals, the size of its
generally suppressed. But they remain
membership, its financial strength and
active in democratic regimes also as a
organisational capacities, personal or
part of competition between elites. In
India also they are quite active though institutional links with governmental
their activities are not much public. bodies and personnel and political
They try to influence the policies with parties, etc.
regard to allocation of resources in the The various groups in India operate
areas of their preferences, for within the federal and parliamentary
importance to be given to their role, etc. nature of the polity. The interest groups
They indirectly also help other groups also approach the authorities
by supporting their cause. informally at the legislative as well as
party level. The methods they use for
AD HOC GROUPS the purpose include sending of
Finally, there are groups which come memoranda, personal deputations,
into existence to pressurise the organising social gathering with those
government for a specific objective at a in position of authority, lobbying with
time. Therefore, they remain active or the MPs and MLAs. Interest group
even organised only till that objective is pressure is sometimes exerted through
achieved. Examples of these include political parties. Relationship between
groups organised to get a railway political parties and trade unions is a
service in a city, getting a book or an typical example of this. Similarly, some
activity banned, opening of a school, youth groups are also openly
college or hospital, etc. Such groups associated with parties like National
can be very active for a short period. Students Union of India (NSUI) with
Some of these may survive and extend Congress and Akhil Bhartiya Vidyarthi
their activities as cause groups. Parishad (ABVP) with Bhartiya
Janata Party.
HOW GROUPS ACT In order to gain governmental
The methods by which pressure groups attention and redress, some groups
seek to influence the process of often resort to mass demonstrations,
government are many. A group hartals, strikes and civil disobedience.
generally, does not confine to a single This is particularly true of the interest
strategy or try to influence through just groups of the students, teachers,
94 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
EXERCISES
advancement across the world. People terms of per capita income, India was
of India, therefore were looking for among the poorest countries of the
rapid socio-economic development and world. Not only this, the distribution of
transformation. In this chapter, we will income tended to be too unequal
discuss what this development meant, meaning thereby a large section of
what were the goals and expectations population was very poor.
from it and what strategy and India in various respects was
mechanism was adopted to achieve this. economically dependent on the
But it is important for us to have a advanced countries. Its exports
glimpse of the state of Indian economy consisted chiefly of primary products
and society at the time of independence. and went mainly to markets in the
advanced countries, especially Britain,
SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF INDIA whereas the imports consisted chiefly of
goods that were obtained from the
ON THE EVE OF INDEPENDENCE
advanced countries. It also showed a
At the time of independence, India had marked deficit in the balance of trade.
a population of about 30.5 crore, Furthermore, there remained a
of which more than 82 per cent lived substantial degree of foreign ownership
in villages. Understandably, the Indian or control of domestic resources. Finally,
economy was agriculture based the country was characterised by a
economy. More than 72 per cent pronounced economic dualism. A
of Indias work force was dependent modern, foreign oriented, largely
on agriculture. Mining, factory capitalist sector could be found in a few
establishments and various types of major urban centres and around
cottage, village and small enterprises important sources of raw material, while
engaged about 11 per cent of work the rest of the country remained
force. The organised industry employed dominated by a more traditional, wholly
only about 2 per cent, a figure lower indigenous, largely pre-capitalist sector.
than the number of administrative Within the ambit of an overall
workers. This type of economic backwardness, Indian economy was
structure obviously meant very low characterised by widespread regional
productivity and high incidence of imbalances. As the colonial rulers did
poverty. The national income of India not bother about the balanced
in 1950-51 was estimated to be Rs economic development, inter-state and
8,853 crore which meant annual inter-district disparities were quite
average per capita income of Rs 265. sharp. There were differences in the
Comparable per capita income in levels of per capita income and
Britain, United States, Japan, France consumption, literacy, medical
and Australia were Rs 3,598, Rs 8, 840, and health facilities, population
Rs 870, Rs 3, 280 and Rs 4,340 growth, infrastructure development,
respectively. It clearly shows that in employment opportunities and so on.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING IN INDIA 101
most effective way. For this was should be carried out and propose the
established a Planning Commission on allocation of resources for due
15 March, 1950. completion of each stage.
(iv) Indication of Requisites:
PLANNING COMMISSION Another function of the Commission
is to indicate the factors which
Planning Commission was established are tending to retard economic
as a multi member body with Prime development, and determine the
Minister as its chairman and a full time conditions which, in view of the current
Vice-Chairman. The Vice-Chairman is social and political situation, should
given the status of a Cabinet Minister. be established for the successful
There is no fixed number of members. execution of the plan.
In general, Planning Commission (v) Determination of Machinery for
consists of eight to ten members. These Execution: The Commission has to
members are given the status equal to determine the nature of the machinery
that of minister of State. In addition, which will be necessary for securing
Planning Commission also has an successful implementation of each
elaborate organisational structure stage of the plan in all its aspects.
consisting of advisors, and support (vi) Plan Appraisal: An important
staff. The order establishing the function of the Commission is to
Planning Commission has defined its appraise, from time to time, the
specific functions as follows: progress achieved in the execution of
(i) Assessment of Resources: The each of the Plan and recommend the
Commission makes an assessment of adjustment of the policy and measures
all material, capital and human that such appraisal may show to be
resources of the country including necessary.
technical personnel, and investigate the (vii) To Render Advice: Finally the
possibilities of augmenting such of Planning Commission has been asked
those resources as are found to be to make such interim or ancillary
deficient in relation to the nations recommendations as appear to be
requirements. appropriate either for facilitating
(ii) Plan Formulation: The Commi- the discharge of duties assigned
ssion is expected to formulate plans for to it; or in consideration or the
the most effective and balanced prevailing economic conditions,
utilisation of the countrys resources. current policies, measures and
(iii) Defining Stages of Imple- development programmes or on
mentation: The Planning Commission examination of such specific problems
has to define, on determination of as may be referred to it by Central and
priorities, the stages in which the plan State governments.
106 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
economy and development. It, however, private sector. The Planning would seek
does not mean rejection of the need for to better the quality of life on all fronts
determination of goals of development by the end of Eleventh Five -Year Plan.
and providing necessary path and This, of course will need serious efforts
guidance for that. Also in a democracy and renewed energies. Unfortunately,
State remains under tremendous the experience so far has not been that
pressure of voters and therefore, cannot much encouraging.
completely neglect their demands and
aspirations. Hence, even in the new DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING AN
economic environment, economic ASSESSMENT
planning continues to be an important
factor determining the strategies for From the above discussion it brings
public investment, besides providing out that Planning was adopted to
guidelines for channelising private transfer the poor, backward and under
sector investment in desired directions. developed social order into a
In this context process of long-term prosperous independent developed
planning continues in India. However, modern society based on the ideas of
from Eighth Plan onwards, there is balanced growth, justice, equity and
change in the concept of economic equality. For that purpose, so far we
planning. Now onwards, it is stated had completed Nine Five Year Plans. All
that, the role of planning will largely of them have consistently placed
be indicative. In other words, plan will emphasis on the attainment of the
not be used to direct investable objectives of self-reliance, social justice,
resources according to the priorities industrialisation, modernisation and
fixed by the government, irrespective of economic growth. Further in the age
the signals given by market forces. The of globalisation and liberalisation
Preamble to the Plan Document on the emphasis has shifted in favour of
Ninth Five -Year Plan (1997-2002) providing incentives and facilities to the
states that the objective of the plan is to private sector and attracting foreign
focus on growth with social justice and investment within the framework of
equity. The participation of public and achieving growth with social justice.
private sectors and all tiers of Once we review the results of last
government in this process is, therefore, over 50 years of planned development
vital. The Approach paper to Tenth we can on the positive side say that
Plan (2002-2007) approved by National India has many achievements to its
Development Council in September credit. The overall volume of industrial
2001 indicates that in future the role production had increased more than
of government and the public sector will four fold by the mid seventies. New
be confined to social sector while branches of the mining and processing
infrastructure development and industries, including metallurgy and
industrial development will be left to the heavy engineering have been created in
110 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 9
Multi Level Planning and
Role of District Development Agencies
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 10
Development of Weaker Sections : Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes
During the course of history there Scheduled Castes, tribes are people
had been emerging voices against the belonging to tribes or tribal
caste system. Religious and social communities specified in the list of such
reformers have been raising voices tribes as per Article 342 of the
against it and for its abolition. Religious Constitution. Scheduled Tribes are
movements like Budhism, Jainism, weaker sections not in terms of caste.
Sikhism and Bhakti movement in They are the people who have been living
general had rejected the social and in remote forest areas and hill tracks
ritual justification of this caste system as tribes without any access to modern
and oppression. The system, however, socio-economic inputs. It is difficult to
has remained. During British colonial define the tribal peoples of India in
period with the arrival of western liberal terms of any single set of formal criteria.
values and rise of socio-religious reform They are popularly believed to
movements the question of caste constitute the aboriginal element in
discrimination came to the forefront. Indian society. But most tribals share
Within lower caste people themselves certain common features like, nature
there emerged a consiousness and of rurality, illiteracy, economic
awareness about their plight and backwardness, and social deprivation.
demand for change. Dr B.R. Ambedkar Historically, one of the principal feature
and Mahatma Gandhi, in particular, of the tribal population has been its
though in different ways, had brought ecological, economic and social
up the issue of caste discrimination in isolation. For centuries, the tribal
a significant way. British colonial people have been confined to hills and
government, for various reasons had forests. This isolation has left definite
began formulating some policies impression on their social systems. It
including those of reservations, for has also given them, in spite of wide
these castes. The national movement cultural variations, a common destiny
made the issue of Scheduled Castes in the Indian society.
upliftment part of its agenda. As such Like Scheduled Castes, it was
at the time of independence, there was during British colonial rule that there
both a demand and commitment for emerged a tribal consciousness. Here,
SCs welfare and development. The the reason was little different. As
government, therefore, took up the task mentioned above for centuries tribal
of SCs welfare right from the time of areas had remained unconnected with
enactment of the Constitution. the mainland and mainstream.
Therefore, they were outside the
SCHEDULED TRIBES effective control of state and state laws.
They had their own economy, tribal
Another social category economically, laws and customs. It was during
socially and politically marginalised is British rule that with the extension of
that of Scheduled Tribes. Legally like administration all over and laying of
122 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
railways, roads, etc. that tribal areas as citizens with the objective of
came under direct administrative promoting their educational and
control. Along with administrators, economic interests and removing social
traders, money lenders and disabilities.
entrepreneurs also reached tribal areas. Article 17 of the Constitution
Tribals were deprived of their land and abolishes untouchability and forbids its
autonomy. In many cases there started practice in any form. The untouchability
tribal revolts. There also emerged (offences) Act was passed in 1955. Its
among national movement leaders and scope was enlarged and its penal
British administration a concern for provisions were made more stringent by
protection and welfare of tribal people. amending it in 1976. It was renamed
as Protection of Civil Right Act. In 1989,
WELFARE OF SCHEDULED CASTES another Act called Scheduled Castes and
AND SCHEDULED TRIBES Scheduled T ribes (Prevention of
Atrocities) was passed.
From the above it becomes clear While Article 17 of Fundamental
that the Scheduled Castes and Rights abolishes untouchability,
Scheduled Tribes have been the most Articles 14, 15 and 16 establish
disadvantaged and neglected people in principles of equality and social justice.
Indian society. As mentioned in the Article 14 proclaims equality before law
beginning, the situation and needs were and equal protection of law for all.
acknowledged by the framers of the Article 15(1) prohibits discrimination on
Constitution themselves. Thus, on the grounds of race, caste, sex, religion or
one hand Constitution of India itself place of birth. Article 16(1) further
prescribed certain protective measures, provides equality of opportunity to all.
safeguards and welfare measures for These two articles apart from
these sections and on the other hand proclaiming every one equal also gives
successive Five-Year Plans have also power to the State for making special
regarded the welfare of SCs and STs as provisions for SCs and STs.
a major objective of development policy. Apart from the protective
In addition, both the Union and State discrimination clauses in the
governments have taken up specific Constitution, the Directive Principles of
steps and launched various schemes the State Policy may be considered as
and programmes for their improvement. mechanism for realising the goal of
social justice and social transformation
Constitutional Provisions in the direction of just society. Articles
The Constitution prescribes protection 38 and 46 specifically aim at securing
and safeguards for Scheduled Castes social justice to the deprived sections
and Scheduled Tribes as also of other of the population. Apart from these
weaker sections either specially or by Articles, provisions have been made for
way of insisting on their general rights reservation of seats for SCs and STs in
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS 123
linguistic traditions and values, and this blacklash is not crushed with that
unconcerned with their expectations heavy hand as it is required. Infact, in
end up as exploiters of tribals rather many cases there is connivance of police
than their protectors. and other authorities in such cases of
The problems of administrative oppression.
apathy and lack of funds is very much Thus, in spite of Article 17 of the
linked with problems in planning itself. Constitution, untouchability offences
The planning in general has been Act and Protection of Civil Rights Act
lopsided, piecemeal and middle class untouchability is practiced openly in
or even elite oriented rather than mass many places not only in villages but
oriented. At the political level decisions also in cities. All this is resulting in
are taken more keeping in view the alienation of those groups and
immediate concern for votes and note emergence of T ribal and dalit
the long-term visions. One result of this movements. These movements are
is while law has established using both constitutional and extra-
commissions, and enacted laws for constitutional methods to seek justice
preventing untouchability and other thereby posing new issues in Indias
offences against SCs and STs, these political process.
provisions lack teeth and an effective
machinery for imparting justice. WELFARE OF OTHER BACKWARD
Particularly in case of Scheduled
CLASSES (OBCS)
Tribes, planners have not appreciated
the tribal culture, language, religion, In India apart from Scheduled Castes
customs and land rights. They, and Scheduled Tribes, there are other
therefore, formulate plans with their weaker sections, who are economically,
own assumptions and as parts of socially and educationally backward.
national plans. They are known as Other Backward
A serious matter that has emerged Classes. Article 340 of the Constitution
during last decade or so with regard to empowers the government to appoint a
status of SCs and STs is upper caste Commission to investigate into the
backlash in some areas. Reacting to conditions of Other Backward Classes
emerging consciousness among these and make recommendations.
castes and their struggle for rights in It is necessary to make it clear
some rural areas upper castes have that the Constitution uses words
begun coercing them violently Backward Class. It means not just
including killing the activists and any backward person, but a group of
raping the women. In some cases this people having general characteristics
violence is being committed by of backwardness. Constitution,
organised groups like Ranveer Sena in however, does not specify which
Bihar. In view of the nature and groups constitute backward classes.
orientation of bureaucracy and police, The Government had appointed two
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS 127
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 11
Development of Weaker Sections : Women
age of children are not abused and Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act
that citizens are not forced by 1971, the Equal Remuneration Act
economic necessity to enter 1976, the Child Marriage Restraint
vocations unsuited to their age or (Amendment) Act 1978, and the
strength (Article 39); Criminal Law (Second Amendment
(iv) Make provisions for just and Act) 1985, the Dowry Prohibition
humane conditions of work and (Amendment) Act 1984.
maternity relief. In addition to enactment of laws
Apart from these negative and positive by the Legislature, the Judiciary also
obligations on the state, the Constitution has been interpreting some existing
also (after the 42nd Amendment 1976) laws in more favourable ways for
imposes a fundamental duty on all women. In a landmark judgement in
citizens, to renounce practices derogatory November 1995 the Supreme Court
to the dignity of women (Article 51A). As gave the widow and daughter of a
mentioned earlier the Constitution of India deceased equal right to property left
has also granted universal franchise. by him. Judiciarys decision in cases
Thus, women has equality both in right like Shah Bano and others have also
to vote and contest elections. been important in terms of judicial
activism to reform the Muslim
WELFARE AND DEVELOPMENT personal laws.
POLICIES Welfare Schemes
Efforts for welfare and development for Apart from enactment of laws efforts
women have been initiated at two levels. have also been made to formulate and
One is enactment of laws and second is implement programmes and plans
formulation of welfare schemes and for providing access to women
projects. in education, skill development,
employment, fulfillment of special
The Laws necessities, gender sensitisation, etc.
Enactment of laws means using law as Womens welfare and development has
an instrument for change and also been a part of Five-Year Plans.
development. In this context in last 50 The Government of India in 1953
years or so many laws have been established a Central Social Welfare
enacted with a view to remove Board with a nationwide programme
disparities and provide conditions for of grants in aid, for promoting
welfare. Some of the important laws welfare and development services
that have been passed by the for women, children and under
Parliament are: Special Marriage Act privileged groups. The Board has its
1954, the Hindu Marriage act 1955, the State counterparts.
Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act A separate department of women
1956, Dowry Prohibition Act 1961, and child development was setup at the
134 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
* The composition of Rajya Sabha changes every two years. The figures of Rajya Sabha have
been picked up only for those years which allow comparison with Lok Sabha. The average for
Rajya Sabha is based on these years only.
Source: CSDS Data Unit, Delhi
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAKER SECTIONS : WOMEN 137
initiated to bring about economic self- women as well as of men in all fields:
reliance through employment, income the under nationalisation of the
generation, education, skill training potential of approximately half the
and other developmental programmes. population is a serious obstacle to
To back them up, the State has also social and economic development. It is
passed many laws. In fact, India ranks time for both men and women to come
as the country with the maximum out of myths, imposed traditions and
amount of social legislation for women. false notions of superiority of sex
Let us not forget that the full and and join hands for a more happy and
complete development of any country harmonious personal family and
requires the maximum participation of social life.
EXERCISES
UNIT IV
CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES TO
INDIAN DEMOCRACY
CHAPTER 12
Inequality
Social and Economic
state governments have enacted come from this group, which indicate
various legislations in favour of the a kind of occupational continuity.
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes Some work in most dehumanised
and other economically and and degraded conditions. According
educationally backward classes. to government records over 800,000
Specific schemes, and programmes persons are employed as manual
have been launched for their welfare. scavengers. Even if a middle class has
As a result of all these, there have come emerged among the SCs due to the
some changes in the status of measure of reservation policy, they
Scheduled Castes. Some of them have do not enjoy the same amount of
found ways of moving upward both at honour and prestige associated with
socio-cultural as well as political level. their achieved status as enjoyed by
But as a whole the real benefits of the members of higher castes.
Constitutional provisions and welfare As far as literacy rate is concerned,
schemes have not reached to the most in respect of SC/ST, they are far
needy and deprived persons. behind the general population. The
Though the Constitution has enrolment ratio and dropout rate
abolished untouchability, it still in schools among SC students have
continues in various parts of the been quite negative as compared
country. The masses of SCs continue to the general students. Dropout
to toil, mainly as the service class for rate of SC girl children is up to
their survival. They are by and large 75 per cent.
landless labourers. They are mostly Added to all this is the fact of
engaged in menial jobs with little atrocities against Scheduled Castes.
control over resources such as The police records suggest that while
land, forest and water. The land the decennial general crime rate has
reforms, the legal measures to attempt come down, the atrocities or the
redistribution of land resources, have incidence of violence against SCs has
not been implemented. increased. One of the reasons for
The emergence of a minuscule increasing violence against them is
minority among Scheduled Castes the rising awakening among them
on account of socio-economic about their rights and intolerance of
transformation and reservation policy the same by certain sections of upper
is symbolic of empowerment. The castes. While Scheduled Castes are
representation of SCs and STs in the slowly trying to recover from such
Central Government Services speaks disabilities, their social mobility is
of facts. As seen in Table 12.1, it is hampered because of structural
quite clear that they are mainly problems and mindsets. May be, it
employed in Group C and Group D will take some time to come out of
services. More than fifty per cent of this social thinking. This is also true
the Safai Karamcharis (sweepers) of the Scheduled Tribes as well.
INEQUALITY : SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC 145
Notes: 1. NSP stands for non-scheduled population and general includes all the population.
2.When the percentage of literacy for the years 1971 and 1981 has been calculated by
dividing the literates by the total population, inclusive of the children in the age-group of
0-4, in 1991, the same has been calculated in exclusion of the children in the age-group
of 0-6.
Source: B.S. Bhargava and Avinash Samal Protective Discrimination and Development of Scheduled
Castes: An Alternative Model for Good Governance Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol.
XLIV, No.3, Annual Issue, 1998.
146 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
INEQUALITIES AND POLITICS voting act is not isolated from the socio-
economic setting. Since, they are in
Dr B.R. Ambedkar in his final address
majority, properly organised and
in the Constituent Assembly on 25
mobilised they can radically alter the
November, 1949, observed:
election results. Therefore, the vested
On the social plane, we have in India a
society based on the principles of graded interests have to manipulate the
inequality which means elevation of some elections to negate their democratic
and degradation of other. On the economic outcome. The crude ways for that
plane we have a society in which there are are to increase the role of money
some who have immense wealth as against and muscle power, to whip up
many who live in abject poverty. On the 26th
January 1950, we are going to enter into a
communalism and casteism and use
life of contradictions. In politics we will have violence in elections. The ruling classes,
equality and in social and economic life we in their own interests encourage
will have inequality. In politics we will be religiosity, fundamentalism and
recognising the principle of one man one vote obscurantism. If social and economic
and one vote one value. In our social and inequalities are not reduced, social
economic life, we shall by reason of our social
and economic structure, continue to deny tensions and political violence are likely
the principle of one man one value. How long to increase.
shall we continue to live this life of India inherited a society full of
contradiction? How long shall we continue inequalities, both social and economic.
to deny equality in our social and economic Caste has been a great factor in
life? If we continue to deny it for long, we
creating and maintaining both social
will do so by putting our political democracy
in peril. We must remove this contradiction and economic inequality. Nature of
at the earliest possible moment or else those property, relations and mechanisms of
who suffer from inequality will blow up the production introduced and developed
structure of political democracy. by British colonial administration
These words of Dr Ambedkar, it increased these inequalities as also
seems, our planners and policy makers produced new types of inequalities.
did not take seriously. Result is, ever Independent India adopted a
increasing social tensions and democratic system to change this.
aberrations in democracy. It is the vast There was a Constitution with plenty
ocean of poverty stricken humanity, of promises. A process of planned
especially in the rural areas that development was initiated.
constitutes the electorate. Poor, It seems that although consti-
illiterate, with a sense of belonging only tutional provisions and legal texts exist
to the caste or community and with no to abolish untouchability and to
access to proper communication, this protect the members of the Scheduled
enormous human wave is driven to the Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and
polling station. They can affect the although social and educational
course of change. During various policies have been adopted to improve
elections they have proved that their the situation of SCs and STs and to
INEQUALITY : SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC 151
protect them from abuses, widespread their voting power for their
discrimination against them and the amelioration. The unresponsiveness of
relative impunity of those who abuse the economic system to the basic needs
them continues. Similarly, in spite of of the poor makes them desperate and
Ninth Five-Year Plans having been drives them to blind opposition of the
completed and various schemes to system. They are attracted by
alleviate poverty been launched and fundamentalist, communalist and
implemented, about one third of terrorist groups. Both Social and
population lives below poverty line, that Economic inequality thus are a great
is having not enough to eat two times a threat to the survival of democracy,
day. There are many others who do not stability of the system and unity and
have access to required hygiene, health integrity of the country. These need to
care, education, housing and clothing, be tackled on priority basis and in all
etc. In addition, gaps between rich and seriousness. Development should not
poor are increasing. At the same time be seen as mere increase in national
introduction of democracy, and income or production. It has to be seen
elections and flow of information world in the fulfilment of at least minimum
over has brought awareness among the needs of all and creating a just
deprived and the poor. They tend to use social order.
EXERCISES
1. What do you understand by the terms Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes?
2. Explain the Constitutional provisions provided to ensure equality to Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
3. Describe the extent of Poverty in India. What programmes have been undertaken
to alleviate poverty?
4. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Poverty line;
(ii) Preferential treatment;
(iii) Democracy and Equality;
(iv) Inequalities and Polities.
152 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
CHAPTER 13
Education and Illiteracy
is about 76 per cent and that of females also literate, because, as the document
is about 54 per cent. While in on Challenges of Education-1985,
comparison to 1947 this seems to be a mentioned, if adequate measures are
big achievement, but in terms of not taken for the spread of education,
promises, needs and expectations the chasm of economic disabilities,
much more is required. In 2001, out regional imbalances and social injustice
of 83.88 crore of people in the over will widen further resulting in building
seven year age group 26.84 crore were up disintegrative tendencies.
illiterate and 3.8 crore children were out In spite of pivotal importance of
of schools. This is the highest number education for social and economic
of illiterates in any single country in the development and poor state of literacy
world. Of course reason for this is India at the time of independence, in the initial
being second highest populated years of planning the required
country. Yet it is a matter of concern. seriousness was not shown towards
While the world is talking of 10-12 years elementary education and spread of
of education for all, India continues to literacy. While elimination of illiteracy
struggle with five years of primary was expressed as one of the major
schooling. To understand that we can concerns of the government, resources
have a look at the efforts made for were allocated more for higher education
attaining universal literacy and than to primary education. Hence, in
problems we face. the early years not much progress could
be made in the direction of achieving
TOWARDS LITERACY higher rates of literacy. As can be seen
from Table 13.1, literacy rate increased
The importance and necessity of to 28.30 per cent in 1961, 34.45 per
education for democracy, development cent in 1971 and 43.57 per cent in
and human dignity was appreciated by 1981. In other words even after more
the framers of the Constitution than 30 years of independence literacy
themselves. Hence, through Article 45 rate was not 50 per cent. Kothari
in chapter on the Directive Principles Commission on Education (1964-66)
they embarked upon the State that it which studied the problems of education
shall endeavor to provide, within a in India traced the causes for failure to
period of one decade from the achieve universalisation of education to
commencement of the Constitution, for lack of adequate resources, tremendous
free and compulsory education for all increase in population, resistance to
until they complete the age of fourteen education of girls, general poverty of
years. So it was expected that by 1960 the people and illiteracy and apathy
all children between the age of six and of parents.
fourteen years will be in schools. The Many education experts do not
question was not merely of bringing agree with these causes in totality.
children to school but making adults According to them various studies have
154 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
Source: JBG Tilak and MV Vergese, Financing of Education in India (Paris, UNESCO, 1991).
four times, then doubled itself in the had been able to exert on the
next 25 years. As Table 13.2 shows, government. J.P. Naik, Member
the annual growth rate of enrolment in Secretary of the Education Commission
higher education outpaced the rate at in India wrote in 1965, the largest
which elementary education was beneficiaries of our system of education
growing. This was true of institutional are boys, the people of urban areas, and
expansion too, especially in the 1960s. the middle and the upper classes:
EDUCATION AND ILLITERACY 155
Table 13.2 : Growth of Education (average annual growth rate in per cent)
Enrolment
Institutions
Source: JBG Tilak and MV Vergese, Financing of Education in India (Paris, UNESCO, 1991).
agencies. Evening Schools are opened, During the last ten years 574
children are engaged in studying by districts out of 597 districts in the
other means also. country have already been covered by
the literacy campaigns. The creditable
ADULT EDUCATION performance of the National Literacy
The National Policy of Education also Mission received international
envisages that illiteracy should be recognition when it was awarded the
eradicated at all levels particularly in UNESCO Noma Literacy Prize for 1999.
the 15-35 age group. The Programme The National Literacy Mission was
of Action stipulated that about 8 crore revitalised with the approval of the
adult illiterates in the age group 15-35 Union government on 30 September,
would be taught. Later the programme 1999. The Missions goal is to attain
aimed to impart functional literacy to total literacy by 2005. The Mission
10 crore adult illiterates by 1997. To seeks to achieve this by imparting
achieve these targets, the major functional literacy to non-literates in the
strategies include reorganisation and 15-35 age group. The focus of the
strengthening of the existing schemes campaign now is on the four major
of adult education, launching of mass Hindi speaking and literacy backward
programmes of functional literacy, States of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
organisation of various programmes of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Some
continuing education, strengthening States like Kerala and Mizoram have
technical resource system, etc. for made significant progress in achieving
eradication of illiteracy. literacy rates. According to 2001
census it is 90.92 per cent in Kerala
and 88.49 per cent in Mizoram whereas
NATIONAL LITERACY MISSION
in Bihar it is 47.53 per cent and
Realising that the eradication of Jharkhand 54.33 per cent. As already
illiteracy from a vast country like India mentioned, percentage of the literacy in
is beset with several social and the country as a whole is 65.38. A
economic hurdles, a National Literacy special programme for women was
Mission was set up on 5 May 1988, to launched in 1989. It is called Mahila
impart a new sense of urgency and Samakhya (education for womens
seriousness to adult education. After Quality). The programme aims at
the success of the area specific, time creating an environment for women to
bound, voluntary based campaign seek knowledge and information with
approach first in Kottayam city and a view to bringing about a change in
then in Ernakulum district in Kerala in their perception about themselves and
1990, the National Literacy Mission had that of the society. It is being
accepted the literacy campaigns as the implemented in about 6,877 villages in
dominant strategy for eradication of 51 districts of eight States namely Uttar
illiteracy. Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra
EDUCATION AND ILLITERACY 159
Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, Madhya 1990, India along with 155 other
Pradesh and Kerala. countries committed itself to universal
primary education and halve the adult
ACHIEVEMENTS illiteracy rate by 2000. But in 2001 we
had about 26 crore illiterates that is
The above mentioned schemes and more than 30 per cent of above 7 years
programmes have brought some of age are as yet illiterate. Added to this
improvements in the literacy situation is also a fact that majority are those who
of India. Particularly during the decade are enrolled in schools are not getting
1991-2001 performance has been quality education. For success
significant. As already mentioned the of democracy and development
literacy rate has risen to 65.38 per cent. universalisation of elementary
75.85 for males and 54.16 for females. education not only means universal
The female literacy rate has increased facilities, universal enrolment and
by about 10 percentage points during universal retention, but also universal
1981-91 but by almost 15 percentage quality of teaching and learning.
points during 1991-2001. The most Education is one of the most
outstanding increases in female literacy important prerequisites not only for
rates during 1991-2001 have been successful working of a democratic
recorded in Backward States: system but also to achieve the goals of
Chhatisgarh from 27.5 per cent to 52.4 personal, social, political and cultural
per cent, Rajasthan from 20.4 to 44.3 development. In any welfare state,
per cent, Madhya Pradesh from 29.4 provision of elementary education to all
to 50.3 per cent, and Orissa from 34.7 is a must.
to 51 per cent. It can therefore be said This goal of universal elementary
that the literacy campaigns have education means universal provision of
definitely achieved success in large facilities, universal enrolment and
scale through community and social universal retention. Universal provision
mobilisation, increasing school of facilities, however, may not
enrolment, enhancing awareness on necessarily ensure universal enrolment
issues of social and gender equity. At and universal enrolment may not
the same time it is true that as yet we guarantee universal retention. What is
are quite behind the targets we therefore important is policies and
have fixed. programmes to take care of all these
The Constitution envisaged free and aspects. Framers of the Constitution
compulsory education for children embarked upon the government to
between 6-14 age-group by 1961. work to attain these goals in the nearest
This goal has been getting postponed possible time. Indias literacy rate has
again and again. Even NEP postponed increased from 18.33 per cent at the
it to 1995. At the World Conference on time of independence to 65.38 per cent
Education for all held in Thailand in in 2001. This is not a mean
160 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
EXERCISES
1. Explain the importance of education for democracy. What was the status of
literacy in India at the time of independence ?
2. What do you understand by Universalisation of Elementary Education? Mention
any five programmes started in India in this regard.
3. Write short notes on the following :
(i) New Education Policy;
(ii) Non-Formal Education;
(iii) National Literacy Mission;
(iv) Adult Education.
161
CHAPTER 14
Regional Imbalances: Regionalism,
Linguism and Separatism
been confined to relatively small areas. this, on the one hand there have
Thus, the disparities in socio-economic developed interests, particularly in
conditions of the people have been rural areas of developed States, and on
increasing both within and between the other sectoral conflicts. Both these
different regions of the country. are encouraging regionalism in
developed States. For example, in areas
REGIONAL IMBALANCES where Green Revolution was
AND REGIONALISM introduced and has been successful, the
new rich farmers class has become
Existence and continuation of regional economically and politically important.
inequalities both among States and They are now interested in perpetuating
within States create the feeling the concessions and facilities which
of neglect, deprivation and of were given to them. In spite of
discrimination. In a country which is agriculture having become quite
multi ethnic and multi religious, with profitable they want subsidies to
groups concentrated in states or continue and income not to be
regions, these disparities also become taxed. These rich farmers in such
cause of social conflicts leading to States provide major social basis
political and administrative problems. of regional parties.
In any case regional imbalances are a Another aspect of imbalanced
major cause of regionalism in India in development is that because of
many ways. The movements for creation development only in limited areas, the
of separate States in Jharkhand area work force from other States and areas,
of Bihar and West Bengal, Uttaranchal keep on flocking to the developed areas
and Chattisgarh in Uttar Pradesh and in search of job and employment.
Madhya Pradesh were because of Continuous large scale arrival of
underdevelopment of these regions in industrial labour from South India and
those States and a feeling of deprivation other parts to Bombay, from Bihar and
and exploitation among people. Finally, Orissa to Calcutta and agricultural
these areas were constituted as separate labour from eastern UP and Bihar to
States in 2001. Similar movements are Punjab, for example, are creating two
going on in Telengana region of types of tensions. First, it affects the
Andhra Pradesh, Vidarbha region of cultural harmony of those areas by
Maharashtra, Darjeeling region of West creating apprehensions among the
Bengal and in some other regions. linguistic and cultural groups about
Apart from sense of deprivation in their position. Second, it generates ill
the neglected States or regions there feeling in the local work force, who
also are grievances due to sectoral either are unable to get jobs or in view
imbalances in States like lack of of migratory labours willingness to
industrial development along with work at lower rates become unable to
agricultural development. Because of bargain effectively with the local
REGIONAL IMBALANCES : REGIONALISM, LINGUISM AND SEPARATISM 165
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 15
Communalism,
Casteism and Political Violence
and rule policy. The same has been consolidation of communal identities.
continued by vested interests after No doubt, the pioneers of the Indian
independence using various factors. Let National Movement were great men and
us have a look at these. hoped to develop political nationalism
to secure political ends, irrespective of
COLONIAL LEGACY religious differences. In an age of
rationality, enlightenment and socio-
As is well known, British administration religious reform movements, they
was interested in exploitation of India wanted to keep religion strictly at
and not in its welfare. Reaction to this personal level and away from political
was emergence and growth of principles. But some of them perhaps
nationalism posing a serious threat to in their enthusiasm, could not realise
continuation of colonial rule. It served the methods they were using for
the colonial administration to divide and mobilising people. For instance, in the
rule. They, therefore, nurtured and nineteenth century, one stream of
promoted religious differences. They first Indian nationalism acquired a historical
projected social and cultural variations dimension derived from a reformulated
and then promoted political divisions by view of Hindu past. There was an
playing up rival social, economic and emergence of militant nationalist
political claims of Hindus, Muslims, stream supported by leaders like
tribals and lower castes. The communal Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat
award, separate electorates, recognition Rai. The Ganpati festival and Shivaji
of communal demands, etc., can be festival started by Tilak to mobilise the
taken up as examples of this policy. masses against the colonial rulers,
In fact, the type of politics approved, though were not intended to be against
tolerated and encouraged by the British Muslims, but in the historical context
imperialism was only communal they alienated themselves as they could
politics. It is in this historical context not take an active part in these festivals.
that communalism came to acquire the Another factor was that the national
meaning of being opposed to national leaders adopted the policy of bringing
identity, of being against secularisation unity from above. Whenever there was
process, of being too narrowly and a question of differences on certain
negatively attached to ones own issues concerning religion, only the top
religious community and use of religion leaders, not necessarily representatives
for political purposes. of communities, were consulted. The
Response to colonial rule was national leaders thought that every
nationalism and national movement. community in India was homogeneous
Unfortunately, it could not counter the and well-knit and the communal
British policy of divide and rule. Rather, leadership was the authentic
in some ways it also became spokesmen of the problems of the
instrumental, though unconsciously, in community. Masses were never
176 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
taken into confidence. This method committed. These were also required for
encouraged communal leaders to keep strengthening of democracy and
their communities in belligerent achieving a rapid development.
mood and make use of that to bargain Framers of the Constitution, therefore,
their own positions. The real concern rightly decided to establish India as a
of these leaders was not welfare of their secular State. It meant respect for all
communities but protection of their religions and tolerance of all faiths, no
own vested power and political State religion and support or favour to
interests. any religion by the State. Along with
As such, both the policies of British secularism were adopted democracy
colonial administration and failure of and a commitment to economic
national movement to counter that on development. It was expected that in a
a firm social and secular basis, helped secular democratic set up government
consolidating communal, caste, tribal and people would get involved in
and linguistic identities. Most serious economic development collectively,
consequence of this was the partition thereby building a new Indian society.
of India and its aftermath in What was expected was a new political
independent India. culture based on full respect for human
liberty, justice and equality.
COMMUNALISM IN INDEPENDENT INDIA
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CAUSES
At the time of independence, as a result
of British colonial policies and other As you have already studied, at the time
factors mentioned above, there was an of independence resources were limited
atmosphere of various religious, and expectations were very high. In this
linguistic, caste and cultural groups situation planning was introduced to
having gone into narrow sectarian maintain a balanced development. But
loyalties. In this situation, the partition the planning could not achieve the
of the country on religious basis and desired goals as a whole. Soon, there
consequent violence had surcharged emerged a competition for limited
the communal situation. Various resources. In this competition the
minorities were feeling a bit insecure vested interests found an easy way to
and worried about their future position mobilise people on caste, communal
in independent India. The new and regional basis to demand better
government, and the framers of the share. The propertied and ruling
Constitution were very much classes found religion and religiosity
concerned for unity and integrity of the most useful for reinforcing their
country, sense of security to all its hegemony, their ideological dominance
citizens, and maintenance of social and social control over the common
harmony. All these were the values to people. It may be mentioned here
which National Movement was that no religious community is a
COMMUNALISM, CASTEISM AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE 177
and ensure safety to all section of the various ways. As in the case of
society. Political, religious or other communalism, at the time of
compulsions should not be allowed to independence it was expected that with
come in on the way of this. Educational the adoption of parliamentary
system must be reconstructed to democracy, industrialisation and
emphasise the composite nature of our modernisation, the narrow, parochial
culture and inculcate secular and influence of caste in society would go
scientific temper among young away. But like religion, in practice,
students. We have to realise that caste appeals, caste mobilisation, caste
communalism hinders social and violence and caste-based parties have
economic change, which is so essential increased. Why and how it has
for all of us. Therefore, if political process happened and what are its
is not decommunalised then our consequences for our social and
democracy itself is likely to perish. political process? Let us have a look at
Alternative to democracy is fascism or that. For a proper understanding of the
dictatorship. The history of many problem it is first necessary to know
countries is a proof that Fascism and what is meant by caste.
dictatorship are good neither for
majority nor for minorities. CASTE AND CASTE SYSTEM
CASTEISM While the phenomena of caste is the
most important characteristic of Hindu
It has been pointed out in the beginning society, no precise definition of caste is
of this chapter that along with available. Though, there are some
communalism, casteism is another linkages of caste with varna system but
serious challenge that Indias the two are not the same. Caste is
democratic process is facing at this usually a localised group having a
juncture. We often hear and read in traditional hereditary association
newspapers the frequent instances of with an occupation. The principle
caste confrontations, leading even to of birth forms the exclusive basis
violence and deaths. The issue of of membership in a caste group.
reservations in services and educational Accordingly, ones profession or
institutions on caste basis, raises a occupation is assigned on the basis of
storm every now and then. At election ones birth in a caste and not on the
times newspapers are full of caste basis of ones liking. A caste group has
analysis of constituencies, parties also restricted rules regarding food and
selecting candidates on caste basis and marriage. One may marry or carry on
castes providing support basis to close relations only within ones own
parties. Fact of the situation is that caste caste group. In view of closeness of
is playing the most significant role in the system all members of the
Indian politics at all levels and in same caste are supposed to be
180 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
treated alike. Caste system also Thus, during colonial period the
envisages vertical differentiations caste system began to acquire new
between castes creating a hierarchy on identities and dimensions. It
the basis of superiority and inferiority. undermined the vocational basis of
Some castes are considered low and caste, its economic rationality, its
polluting to the extent of being interactional restrictions and its spatial
considered untouchables. In this sense and political isolation. However, the grip
of hierarchical stratification of society of caste system on society did not
based on division and gradation of change much. Caste continued to
labour, caste also implies inequality persist as the main identity mark in
and contains elements of exploitation Hindu society. In this dual context of
and oppression. The system is further caste-based society and changing
divided into sub-castes. Thus, there dimension of caste mobility in
are jatis and upjatis (castes and independent India, caste became an
sub-castes). important political resource.
government having failed to ameliorate During the election, local caste leaders,
their conditions, these castes are trying with influence over their fraternity are
to assert by influencing election results. mobilised with promises of rewards for
One report of 1989 elections in Bihar support by various party candidates.
recorded What is important is that By consciously encouraging caste
hundreds of thousands of dalits were loyalties in elections, cabinet formations
able to cast their votes for the first time and other political appointments, the
resisting all threats to their lives. This parties and leadership have
has given them a new izzat, and, in the strengthened caste identities. Caste has
process, the already declining feudal become an instrument of bargaining in
order in Bihar has been given another politics because caste arithmetic has
severe jolt. At the same time, to been used as the basis of political
maintain their power upper caste legitimacy. Thus, caste identities have
landowners are using all possible been solidified because a new
means to perpetuate the system. Thus, consciousness has been created by
caste considerations become important political leaders that caste is a very
in electoral calculations with the result important bargaining factor in
that booth capturing and rigging of capturing the party machine, seats in
ballots are resorted to. In many parts legislatures or positions in cabinets.
of constituencies where the scheduled Results of this role of caste in politics
castes and lower caste and poor form in general and in elections in particular
nearly 40 per cent of electorate, they are are also caste conflicts, caste violence and
at times not allowed to reach the polling caste wars. The society stands
stations. The electoral strategies of fragmented and divided. Socio-economic,
political parties have further national and civic issues in elections do
strengthened caste identities and not matter. Political parties rather than
loyalties. relying on their performance and
Political parties work on the programmes, look for caste supports and
basis of the demographic map power brokers. This has sharpened social
of parliamentary and assembly cleavages. Caste vs caste politics does not
constituencies and base their strategy make politics competitive as is required
of nomination of candidates and in democracy. Democratic political
mobilisation of voters on the calculation culture is based on the spirit of
of possible caste coalitions. Since, no accommodation of diversities; but
one caste is absolutely dominant in any casteism, like communalism, is based on
large parliamentary or assembly social exclusionism.
constituency, political parties seek to
manipulate coalitions of castes and VIOLENCE
direct their electoral campaign towards
mobilising the people as Brahamins, The most aggressive manifestation,
Jats, Kammas, Reddies, Rajputs, etc. of communalism, casteism, and
COMMUNALISM, CASTEISM AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE 183
compete against each other; they adopt used for reforming the society. The
aggressive methods of imposing government should deal with
their ideology. communal and divisive forces with a
Use of violence in communal and firm hand. Political parties should fight
caste politics has given legitimacy to elections and exercise political power on
violence and crime in politics. the basis of an ideological perspective,
The Election Commissioner G.V.G. of course, taking care of social, cultural
Krishnamurthy, has gone on record to and linguistic interests of various
say that the situation is threatening to communities in India. However, the
degenerate into a government of State apparatus should be insulated
the criminals, for the criminals, by from communal or caste feelings.
the criminals. We have to understand that the real
Such a sorry state of affairs cannot purposes of communal and caste
be allowed to continue for long. The politics is to keep us divided. Masses
doctrines of liberty, equality, fraternity, are religious minded but not communal.
social justice, secularism, fair play and Hence, the educated and the conscious
rule of law, enshrined in our have to protect them from falling prey
Constitution have to percolate into our to communal forces. Communal and
daily lives. The government, the political caste sentiments are bound to lose their
parties and citizens all must play their strength in India with the growth of
role in the fight against these democratic and humanistic values. We
challenges. It should be recognised that in India are in a desperate need to
politics should be kept free from ills of make a new beginning. With firm
the social environment, and should be determination we can do this.
EXERCISE
1. Explain the causes and factors for the emergence and development of
Communalism in India.
2. Describe the role of Caste in electoral politics of India.
3. What are the factors responsible for emergence of violence in Indian politics?
What threat it poses to democracy?
4. How can communalism be curbed?
5. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Casteism;
(ii) Terrorism.
UNIT V
INDIA AND THE WORLD
CHAPTER 16
Foreign Policy of India
Determinants and Basic Principles
Maldives, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan and these values has to be a part and parcel
Sri Lanka have common borders with of our foreign policy. Also, during
India which is the biggest and the national movement, the sense of Indias
largest of all these countries. Therefore, national identity related to its territorial
there are expectations from it as well as boundaries has been evolved.
apprehensions of its dominance. Protection of territorial Indian identity
Similarly, India and China are not only i.e. unity and integrity of India are our
two most populous countries of the prime concerns.
world but also have potentials to emerge
as great powers. Two such bordering Demands of Economic Development
countries in view of commonality of The economic development of India has
interests can enter into cooperation or been of such an urgent need that
conflict depending on various situations policy-makers were right to use foreign
including the decisions taken by their policy as a tool to further the
leaderships. In such a geographical developmental process. Foreign policy
situation Super Powers, too, have has an impact on the economic
interests in India and her relationship development of an underdeveloped
with her neighbours. country. It may help to secure foreign
aid for economic development. It may
National Philosophy and Identity encourage or discourage the flow of
During her national movement for foreign private capital. It may through
freedom certain values and foreign trade policies and trade
commitments emerged which, in a way, agreements, promote or retard exports
have become a part of our national with their impact on balance of
philosophy. Indias freedom movement payments as well as economic growth,
was unique in the sense that while it and it may also through encouraging
strived to achieve freedom for the joint industrial ventures with parties in
country, it was also responsive to the other developing countries, give an
currents and cross-currents of impetus to increase production in order
international relations. Under the to establish the industrial unity.
leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, the In this context working for world
Indian National Congress passed a peace and avoiding conflicts were
variety of resolutions expressing its essential for Indias economic
views on the problems of the world. development. War not only diverts
Indias commitment to world peace, funds from development to defence but
anti-colonial struggle, opposition to also effects foreign trade with
racism, commitment to democracy, neighbouring countries and foreign aid
freedom, secularism and peaceful both of which are essential for
coexistence are certain important values development. Further, in a bipolar
which came out from our freedom world to receive aid as well as maintain
struggle. Promotion and protection of its sovereignty, India had to formulate
192 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
nationalism in Asia and Africa, the been changes and new developments,
emergence of China and Japan; the rise some even drastic. India, thus,
of Fascism in Europe; role of the USA established certain basic characteristics
in world affairs; October Revolution of of its foreign policy after independence
Russia establishing communist states which are still there. At the same time,
and process of decolonisation. The there have been changes from time to
Indian National Congress in its sessions time. A particular drastic change in
in 1926, 1927 and 1928 had adopted international affairs was the
resolutions against imperialism, in disintegration of Soviet Union and
support of liberation struggles and for collapse of Communism in East
strengthening of bonds of solidarity European countries in early 1990s.
with the people of Asia and Africa. In Related to this has been the process of
the given international scene India, with globalisation. These events have made
its size and history, was expected to be almost all countries, particularly,
in the forefront of issues facing colonial developed countries to have a fresh look
and newly independent countries. at their foreign policies and relations.
Indias foreign policy was to be We can have a look both at the basic
determined accordingly. characteristic of Indias foreign policy
The above description of deter - its continuity and changes in it.
minants of Indias foreign policy makes
it clear that Indias foreign policy was FOREIGN POLICY OF INDIA : BASIC
to be a projection of the values which
PRINCIPLES
we have inherited through the
centuries and during our national As mentioned above, even before Indias
movement as well as our present independence the leaders involved in
concerns. Like colonial powers and the national movement had started
developed countries India was not tied taking interest and present the vision
to the concepts of a foreign policy of Indias foreign policy. Jawaharlal
designed to safeguard overseas Nehru in particular took a very active
possessions, investments, carving out interest. The Indian National Congress
areas of influence and establishing in 1927 established its Foreign Affairs
domination over others. Indias first department with Jawaharlal Nehru as
concern was to safeguard its its main spokesman. In 1946,
independence . She had equal interest assuming office as Prime Minister and
in the maintenance and safeguarding incharge of foreign affairs department
international peace as an essential in the interim government, he made a
condition of her economic, social and clear declaration about future foreign
political development. These concerns policy. He said we shall take full part
remain relevant even today. At the same in international conferences as a free
time during last 55 years there had also nation with our own policy and not
194 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
tension by means of solving problems period after the end of Second World
on the negotiating table, by means of War, it was felt that ar ms race
the growing international cooperation represents a waste of resources, a
in different spheres; cultural and diversion of the economy away from its
scientific contacts, extending trade and humanitarian purposes, a hindrance to
business contacts, exchanging views, national development and a threat to
experience and information. democratic process. It also impedes
Accordingly, India has been insisting relations between countries affecting
on peaceful methods to solve all the volume and direction of exchanges,
problems. It also tried to maintain diminishing the role of cooperation
friendly relations with all countries among states and efforts towards
without considerations of differences in building a just international order.
ideologies and political systems. Its Therefore, from the very beginning,
message has been peace, peaceful India has advocated the prohibition of
development, peaceful cooperation, nuclear weapons and check on the
peaceful coexistence and struggle proliferation of all kinds of weapons in
for peace. the United Nations and other forums.
In general, a major objective of Indias
SUPPORT FOR UNITED NATIONS foreign policy has been comprehensive
As pointed out above Indias concern disarmament. In a subsequent chapter
for international peace was not a we will discuss in detail Indias position
negative or passive one but a positive and the role it has been playing towards
and constructive one. Peace meant not arms control and disarmament.
only avoidance of war, but also
reduction of tension and if possible end OPPOSITION TO COLONIALISM
of Cold War. For this India considered IMPERIALISM AND RACISM
United Nations as an effective and As has already been mentioned that
desirable agency. As such, India Indias vision about foreign policy and
decided to give unqualified and active world affairs had emerged as a part of
support and allegiance to the United its struggle for liberation from colonial
Nations. In a subsequent chapter we rule. In that leadership saw its own
will discuss Indias role in the UN and movement as a part of struggle against
its various activities therein. colonial domination and the entire
imperialist system of oppression and
DISARMAMENT discrimination. Cause of liberation of
Another essential concern for peace in subject peoples and the elimination of
Indias foreign policy has been arms racial discrimination, therefore, became
control, disarmament and related important objectives of Indias foreign
matters. In the context of arms race that policy. In fact anti-imperialism and anti-
began with speed during the Cold War colonialism has been a matter of faith
196 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
with Indias foreign policy. Similarly, it colonialism and for their economic
has been aimed at opposition to all forms development. India had formulated this
of racial discrimination. India firmly vision even before independence . It is,
believes that racialism is one of the therefore, not surprising that India
sources of conflict in the world and a became the venue of the first forum of
threat to international peace. Therefore, liberated nations. Representatives of 28
India, at various forums has strongly countries met in New Delhi in March
formulated, defended and elaborated the 1947 at the conference on regional
ideals of freedom for all, elimination of cooperation among the Asian
racism and racial discrimination and Countries. Another conference of the
opposition to imperialism in all its forms. independent states also met in New
In chapter on India and UN, we will Delhi in 1949. As you will read, India
discuss in detail Indias contributions played a leading role in the
towards these. It can, however, be establishment of Non-Alignment
mentioned here that the continuity and Movement (NAM) as a forum of newly
the consistency with which this cause independent countries to maintain their
has been supported by India freedom in foreign affairs by keeping
throughout, has brought her independent of power blocs and also for
an unprecedented prestige and cooperation among themselves. India
dignity, particularly among the has consistently been working for
developing countries. meaningful cooperation among
developing countries. We will study
COOPERATION AMONG DEVELOPING more about it in chapter on India and
the UN.
COUNTRIES
India thus, relied on three main
The major task for India as also for principles: non-alignment, peace and
other newly liberated countries was that friendship with all countries. India
of nation building and development. In needed the friendship of both Eastern
the given situation and international and Western powers. It disliked any
atmosphere of unbearable inequality interference from outside and realised
and exploitation established by that keeping the big powers out of the
colonialism and imperialism this was a region was a vital pre-condition of
very difficult task for any country political autonomy and national
individually. Moreover the developed reconstruction. Following this line of
Western world was not in a mood to approach, Nehrus interest was in
concede their position of domination. mobilising support and assistance of
India, therefore, firmly believed in the the rich nations of the world for Indias
necessity of cooperation and solidarity economic growth. Further he was in
among developing countries of Asia- favour of avoiding conflict with Super
Africa and Latin America both for Powers. He laid emphasis on cultivating
the purposes of struggle against the friendship of the emerging countries
FOREIGN POLICY OF INDIA : DETERMINANTS AND BASIC PRINCIPLES 197
and in speaking authoritatively on their States, generally, do not take sides even
behalf on various Councils of the world. in disputes and differences of opinion
between other states. Therefore, the
NON-ALIGNMENT term neutrality is basically connected
with war or war like situations. Non-
Peace, freedom from colonialism, racial
alignment on the other hand, is
equality and non-alignment with
concerned both in war and peace
military blocs, emerged as main planks
situations and in fact is more relevant
of independent Indias foreign policy.
in peace.
Nehru, the architect of non-alignment
Non-alignment is a condition of non-
himself said, I have not originated non-
involvement in tensions and potential
alignment, it is a policy inherent in the
conflicts between military alliances and
circumstances of India, in the
power blocs. Neutrality as a concept, a
conditioning of the Indian mind during
term and a situation emerged in the
the struggle for freedom and inherent
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
in the very circumstances of the world
The newly liberated countries of Asia
today.
and Africa, led by India, Egypt, Syria,
When we say that India follows
Indonesia and Ghana together with
policy of non-alignment, it means that
Yugoslavia, refused to fall in line with
(i) India has no military alliances with
one power bloc or another. They
countries of either block; (ii) India has
considered the situation of bi-polarity
an independent approach to foreign
irrelevant to their own economic
policy; and (iii) India attempts to
development and social change. They
maintain friendly relations with all
refused to be tied down in needless big
countries.
power conflicts. Therefore, they began
to take independent position in the
NON-ALIGNMENT AND NEUTRALITY United Nations on several world issues,
Non-alignment is perceived by some by refusing to get aligned with one big
observers as neutrality. Jawaharlal power or the other.
Nehru attempted to remove the Therefore, while neutrality is a
confusion by observing that neutrality negative concept, in the sense that it seeks
as a policy has little meaning except in to avoid taking sides in war, non-
time of war. alignment is a positive concept which on
When we say that non-alignment the one hand, refutes alignments and
means to remain independent of blocs, subordination to big powers, and on the
it gives an impression of remaining other, affirms positive commitment to an
neutral. Neutrality and non-alignment independent foreign policy, and to major
infact, are two different concepts. The concerns like peace in the world,
term neutrality in international law cooperation between States based on
refers to a situation in which a state equality and justice, and economic
does not take any side in a war. Neutral development for greater human welfare.
198 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
In broad terms it can be said that was exposed in a short border war with
there are three essential features or China in 1962. At the same time efforts
elements of Indias foreign policy. First, for disarmament notwithstanding
the entire exercise of foreign policy as nuclear weapons proliferation was
Jawaharlal Nehru himself conceived going on. At Indias own borders, China
was to safeguard Indias decision- in 1966 tested its own nuclear device.
making autonomy, to obtain some All these developments shook Indian
additional importance for India and to confidence. Prime Minister Jawaharlal
be heard in the comity of nations about Nehru himself, after Chinese aggression,
Indias views on issues vital to her. This had to express ultimately the task of
is the fundamental and basic element any countrys foreign policy is to protect
in the foreign policy of India. its integrity. This is the first test of any
Second, important element was that countrys foreign policy and it if cannot
India should cooperate with other achieve this then it is a failure.
similarly emerging developing countries In view of Chinese aggression, India
for mutual benefit. It was believed that had to take western assistance for its
by reinforcing the independence of enhanced defence needs. It entered into
these emerging nations, India shall be bilateral agreements with the USA and
reinforcing its own independence . Britain for purchase and production of
The third, element of Indias foreign arms. Though it did not discard non-
policy was cooperation at the world level. alignment, doubts were raised about
It means that India as a non-aligned its ideological commitment. After
country, should not get involved or be Nehrus death in 1964, hostilities with
entangled in the politics of the big Pakistan in 1965, increasing friendship
powers and yet maintain good working between China and Pakistan, nuclear
relations with all of them without development in China, idealism in
sacrificing her national independence . foreign policy had to be further watered
down.
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN POLICY During 1960s and 1970s as a
result of emerging America-China-
India not only adopted the policy of Pakistan alliance, increased arms race,
non-alignment for itself but also became developments in East Bengal
a founder member of Non-Aligned (Bangladesh), dumping of armaments
Movement (NAM). The three basic in Middle East by great powers, world
elements of its foreign policy remained wide military alliance and struggle
intact. But at times the emphasis on between the USA and USSR in the
non-alignment and peaceful Indian Ocean region, Indias strategic
coexistence, brought in a sense of position came under further pressure.
pacificism in foreign policy. As a result These external environments and
not much attention was given to defence domestic developments made India to
and military capabilities. This weakness tilt towards USSR for its strategic
FOREIGN POLICY OF INDIA : DETERMINANTS AND BASIC PRINCIPLES 199
needs. In August 1971 India signed a continuing to adhere to the basic policy
twenty-year treaty of friendship and of non-alignment and friendship. At the
cooperation with Soviet Union. It was same time taking pragmatic decisions
not a mutual security treaty; it was an in accordance with countrys specific
agreement for consultation. It, however, requirements of development and
raised many doubts, within and defence were the basic tenets of Indias
outside, about the genuineness of non- foreign policy.
alignment. It was more so because in
the prevailing circumstances it was ERA OF GLOBALISATION
alleged to be intended as a deterrent to
Pakistan and China. From the late 1980s world started
Even with the change of government changing very rapidly. It was a period
at centre in 1977, (the new Janata Party of critical times in international
government did not envisage any relations. It was the time when the
change in the basic tenets of our foreign super power rivalry got almost
policy). The Janata government eliminated. Disintegration and collapse
declared itself in favour of genuine non- of Soviet Union and East European
alignment, good neighbourly relations, countries had changed both the
friendship with all, peaceful settlement ideological and procedural aspects of
of international disputes and international relations. Establishment
disarmament. of united Germany, emergence of
During 1980s, India more or less, European Union, end of apartheid in
continued its policy and relations with South Africa and emergence of peace
other countries on the principles of and environmental movements world
sovereign equality, mutual respect and over all have brought new actors and
non-interference in the international roles in international relations and
affairs. However, there was now more politics. Though, the Cold War
emphasis on maintaining Indias considered to have been ended, there
dignity, self-respect and national had emerged new areas of conflicts and
interest. It can be said that non- tensions. The processes of globalisation
alignment was balanced with was bringing new dimensions in
pragmatism. India, like many other relations between states and role of
countries, entered into bilateral and international organisations. Division of
multilateral agreements rather than labour and opening of national and
simply harping upon Afro-Asian regional markets to increasing world
solidarity. There also was move towards trade, and transfer of investments and
regional cooperation and therefore, technology became the order of the day.
establishment of South Asian In this situation it became clear that
Association for Regional cooperation one cannot remain mired in the past.
(SAARC). In general, during 1980s The emerging new international
there were enough indications of India order is now being viewed differently by
200 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
different observers. One view is that the nationally and internationally. These
world has become unipolar in which the phenomena had become international.
USA has become the single most Terrorist attacks in USA on 11
important power. It could act September, 2001, had brought new
unilaterally without any fear of its dimensions in international politics and
actions being challenged. The other international relations. New types of
view is that after the collapse of equations and alliances are emerging
bipolarity in the process of evolution either to combat international terrorism
emerged a polycentric world where or establish new types of hegemonies
major players are the USA, European in view of such phenomena. These are
Union, Japan, China and Russia. Some very significant factors affecting Indias
speculate whether India too would be foreign policy.
a major actor in international decision- In the changed situation, India
making or not. has recognised the need to develop
Hence, a different division of the more pragmatic and wide-ranging
world has come into sharper focus. international relationship. Indias major
Whereas, earlier, it was essentially strategic focus has been on her
ideological between the capitalist neighbourhood in particular China and
West and Communist/Socialist Pakistan. In the aftermath of the cold
East now the division is between the war and with the advent of Indias
rich North and poor South. The economic reforms and looking for
disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union foreign capital investment, there is
has also led to a situation where the marked willingness to improve relations
bulk of aid and trade is now being with the USA. At the same time, India
concentrated on the countries of now seems to be desirous to gain for it
Eastern Europe. Hence, countries like what it sees as the countrys rightful
India have to look for alternatives to aid place in the world consistent with its
and development. Foreign policy, size and capability. India has not only
therefore, has to take care of trade and tested nuclear devices but also has
commerce, negotiations with taken a tough position on the
multilateral agencies, participation in Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
new organisations like World Trade insisting on linking this to a time bound
Organisation (WTO), etc. In this new framework for universal nuclear
world order ideology is becoming less disarmament. India continues to refuse
important. to sign the CTBT and the Non-
Another development that the world Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in their
has been witnessing for the last two present form, arguing that these
decades is that of resurgence of sub- treaties discriminate against her and
nationalism, religious and ethnic serve principally the interests of the
fundamentalism, and terrorism. India recognised western nuclear states. It is
is facing these challenges both pointed out that in the new world order
FOREIGN POLICY OF INDIA : DETERMINANTS AND BASIC PRINCIPLES 201
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 17
India and Her Neighbours
Nepal, Sri Lanka, China, Bangladesh and Pakistan
G.P. Koirala on his visit to India in recent years Pakistan Inter Services
December 1991 assured that Nepal was Intelligence (ISI) activities against India
no longer dependent on China to meet from Nepal have also been reported.
its security concerns. The Treaties of Government of Nepal has helped to curb
Trade and Transit were amended in such hostile activities by cooperating
1993 and further extended for five years with India as and when such co-
in March 2002. operation has been sought. In view of
In 1994, King of Nepal visited India closeness but vast differences in size and
and Prime Minister of India visited population in respective political
Kathmandu. The first ever communist systems some aberrations in the
Prime Minister of Nepal, Manmohan relations do emerge occasionally. King
Adhikari visited India twice within a Birendra and his family members were
period of six months in 1995. The two assassinated in early 2002, anti-India
governments signed in February 1996 demonstrations and other provocations
a treaty concerning the Integrated could have created tensions. But the
Development of River Projects in Nepal. two governments behaved in a
India and Nepal are also cooperating responsible manner. Again at the
well in South Asian Association for dismissal of democratic government in
Regional Cooperation (SAARC). October 2002 by King Gyanendra,
In general, Indo-Nepal relations India preferred not to interfere in the
have remained cordial. There have been internal affairs of that country, despite
occasional changes in the parameters its preference for democracy. Both India
primarily due to Nepals internal and Nepal share security concerns.
domestic situation, particularly Both have to appreciate each others
differences between forces supporting priorities and domestic constraints for
democracy and monarchy, as also a better relationship.
external pressures, like that of China.
Learning from the sore experiences of
INDIA AND SRI LANKA
the early sixties, India has been
extremely cautious in avoiding offence Sri Lanka, a small island in the middle
to the Monarchs political sensitivities. of Indian Ocean, is another country
India has never been hesitant or shy in which apart from geographical
fulfilling its obligations towards Nepal. proximity to India, has bonds of
The open border regime between the cultural and traditional affinity with it
two countries is unique in the world. for more than four thousand years.
Today, it is estimated that about six Almost the entire population of Sri
million Nepalese are in India and Lanka including its two major ethnic
millions of Indians have settled in Nepal. groups, the Sinhalese and Tamils,
The open border system is also migrated at one time or the other from
sometimes used by criminals, India. The Sinhalese consisting of about
smugglers and underground gangs. In 74 per cent of population trace their
INDIA AND HER NEIGHBOURS 207
ancestors to Aryans from eastern India. interests of India. However, at the same
Almost all of them have embraced time Western powers and Chinese
Buddhism and have gradually interest in Sri Lanka have also been
developed roots in different parts of the influencing its relations with India.
island and got assimilated with the Though part of South Asian region, Sri
indigenous inhabitants. The Tamils Lanka is geographically close only to
who constitute about 18 per cent of the India and, therefore, is not affected
population are mostly Hindus and, much by the bilateral developments of
trace their roots to Dravidians of Tamil other countries.
Nadu. In fact there are two groups of In view of the above factors India-
Tamils. One who have been in Lanka Sri Lanka relations have generally, been
for long and are as much indigenous cordial. After independence Sri Lanka
to the island as the Sinhalese are. The also followed the policy of non-
other, known as Indian Tamils, are the alignment and declared six cardinal
descendants of the Tamil plantation principles of its foreign policy:
workers who went to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) (i) Friendship with all nations;
under British patronage to provide the (ii) Peaceful Coexistence; (iii) Greater
much needed labour for the regional cooperation; (iv) Freedom to
development of coffee, tea and rubber take decisions on national and
plantation. international matters; (v) Support for
Sri Lanka had been a colony since national independence movements in
Seventeenth century first of Portugese, countries still under colonial influence
then of Dutch and finally the and domination; and (vi) Championship
British. It attained independence on of the cause of disarmament.
4 February, 1948. Though small Sri Thus, in the early years India and
Lanka is strategically quite important. Sri Lanka saw similarity of visions and
It is the main connecting link to the air interests. Both the countries expressed
passage from West Asia to Australia, similarity of opinion on various
New Zealand and East Asia. Its position inter national crises. However,
on a major highway in the international developments during 1960s and 1970s
air and ocean trade route as well as its brought some changes in their
physical closeness to India makes it perception. Sri Lanka adopted an
important for world powers. In the increasingly neutral posture in respect
hands of inimical powers Sri Lanka can of Chinese aggression on India as also
gravely endanger Indias security. So, Indo-Pak wars of 1965 and 1971. In
Indias interest in Sri Lanka have been 1971, deep suspicious were aroused in
both economic and strategic. Being India over the extension of landing and
small and weak with limited military refuelling facilities by Sri Lanka to
potential and lying within Indias Pakistani planes flying to and from East
periphery, it is difficult for Sri Lanka to Pakistan. In fact with the change in the
pursue a foreign policy opposed to the regional balance of power and creation
208 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka had developed By 1977 there was a tilt in their
some apprehensions against India. Sri demand which turned into demanding
Lanka was afraid of coming close to separation. The agitation for separation
India and Soviet Union as reflected by gradually started taking militant shape.
the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Rise of militancy, specially among the
1971. Sri Lanka began to cultivate more youth, was for various factors. These
friendly relations with the USA, China were (i) the disenchantment of the Tamil
and Pakistan. But there was no hostility youth with parliamentary democracy
against India. The outbreak of ethnic as was practiced in Sri Lanka
violence in Sri Lanka in early 1980, which meant the rule by Sinhalese
however, brought the relations between majority; (ii) their intense pride in
India and Sri Lanka to their bottom Tamil language and Tamil culture;
rock. (iii) lack of employment opportunities
coupled with discrimination in
ETHNIC CONFLICT AND INDIA SRI admission to educational institutions
and recruitment to jobs; (iv) their
LANKA RELATIONS
disenchantment with the traditional
As mentioned in the beginning, about leadership who were willing to
18 per cent of Sri Lankan population compromise on Tamil rights; (v) their
consists of Tamil migrants from belief and commitment that only violent
India. A large number of Tamilian struggle would enable them to achieve
population, particularly of Sri Lankan their goal; and (vi) only a separate state
Tamils, are concentrated in northern of Tamil Eelam would provide security
and eastern provinces and districts. After and safety to Tamils. With these
independence, Sri Lanka started perceptions from a small number in
creating a new State on the basis of early 1980s the number of Tamil
language and religion of majority militants began to increase in large
community that is Sinhalese. The Tamils numbers and in 1983 got organised
naturally resented these. They were in under Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
favour of federalism in Sri Lanka. From (LTTE). In view of geographical contiguity
1970s, Sri Lankan government also of Tamil Nadu and the sympathy of
introduced reservations for Sinhalese in Tamils, LTTE was able to get support
admission to the universities and from some Tamil groups in India. Indian
recruitment to government services. government while committed to
Another aspect of discrimination was upholding the unity and integrity of Sri
the land colonisation of traditional Tamil Lanka favoured a peaceful solution. It
homelands in the eastern province by was also concerned with the arrival of
Sinhalese population. Tamil refugees from Sri Lanka.
In view of the above, the Tamils Immediately after 1983, violent
started demanding a federal state. They upsurges brought India-Sri Lanka
started peaceful agitation for the same. relations under cloud. Sri Lanka looked
INDIA AND HER NEIGHBOURS 209
for assistance from countries like the which is the only means of achieving
UK, the USA, Israel, Pakistan, etc. The a lasting peace.
Western countries, however, advised Sri For quite some time now the two
Lanka to use good offices of India to find countries are working towards
an amicable solution. This resulted in strengthening bilateral relations in all
India-Sri Lanka accord signed between fields of mutual interest, especially in
two countries in July 1987. Indian the economic sector. In recent years top
Peace Keeping Forces (IPKF) were sent leaders of India and Sri Lanka have
to Sri Lanka to restore normalcy. This, visited each other on several occasions.
however, became controversial. Indian In September 2002, Sri Lanka started
forces received criticism from both negotiating with LTTE for a peaceful
sides. By some it was alleged that they settlement. India was taken into
were fighting against Tamils, while some confidence. In joint statements India
in Sri Lanka looked upon this as and Sri Lanka had agreed that global
interference in Sri Lankas internal terrorism is a threat to international
affairs. In general sending of IPKF to Sri peace and security. They agree that
Lanka did not prove useful. They were terrorist acts cannot be justified on
called back and by March 1990 they political, ethnic, religious, social or
were completely out of Sri Lanka. In economic grounds. It seems that India
1991, during Lok Sabha election and Sri Lanka are aiming at
campaign, former Prime Minister of maintaining close, cordial and
India, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated cooperative relations, building on the
allegedly by LTTE militants. Although considerable legacy of historic links,
India had taken positive measures to common culture, shared commitment
ensure that Indian territory was not to democracy and a general orientation
used for anti-Sri Lanka forces but towards non-alignment.
suspicions remain. India also has
banned LTTE as a terrorist outfit.
INDIA AND CHINA
Since 1991 after the assassination
of Rajiv Gandhi in India and Sri Lankan Among Indias neighbours a great
presidential candidate Gamini power and a big country is China. India
Dissanayake a better understanding and China not only share a border of
between the two countries emerged on more than 4,000 km but both are
the handling of ethnic violence and ancient civilisations and have
terrorism. Towards this, Indias policy relationship with each other for
toward Sri Lanka consists of three thousands of years. Buddhism arrived
fold commitment (i) to the unity, in China from India in A.D. 65 . Over
sovereignty and territorial integrity of the next 4-5 centuries, hundreds of
Sri Lanka; (ii) to the restoration of Chinese scholars visited India to learn
lasting peace in Sri Lanka; and Buddhism. Among the more well
(iii) to a peaceful, political process known Chinese scholars who visited
210 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
seemed that from 1958 to 1975 China two countries. Immediate outcome of
looked at India as its major geostrategic this was that in 1976, the two countries
rival and was bent upon keeping restored ambassadorial level relations
India down. after 15 years.
In 1976-1977 other developments
TOWARDS NORMALISATION in the two countries further paved
the way for normalisation of relations.
From the above it becomes clear that Hardliner Mao Ze dong, the supreme
the relationship between China and leader of China, died in 1976. In 1977,
India has been ambivalent. On the one India for the first time a non-Congress
hand, the two nations sought good party that is Janata Party came to power
relations in the early years of cold war at the Centre. As explained elsewhere
when developing and non-aligned to establish its credibility, one of the
countries were keen to keep their policy of Janata governments was to
distance from super-power politics. On improve relations with neighbouring
the other hand, both India and China countries. Thus, in February 1979
being the only regional powers of size External Affairs Minister, Atal Bihari
looked like rivals. China was in Vajpayee visited China. India and China
confrontation both with Western and had resumed trade in 1978. Indira
Soviet powers and had been expressing Gandhi, when back to power in 1980,
strong views on most international continued the initiatives taken by the
issues. The situation, however, started Janata government. She met the then
changing from 1975 onwards. Chinese premier Hu Kuo-feng in
According to Jagat S. Mehta, China May 1980 at Belgrade, during President
perhaps perceived that India had Titos funeral. After 1961 it was the
emerged politically self-confident and first meeting between the two
economically resilient after the countries at this level. There after
Bangladesh crisis even in the face of the several rounds of talks at different
US-China tilt towards Pakistan. At the levels took place between the two
same time Chinas own position was countries, though differences on
being recognised in the international boundary issues persisted.
community. It was officially admitted The visit of Prime Minister Rajiv
into the United Nations including the Gandhi to China in 1988 marked the
Security Council in 1971 by replacing resumption of political dialogue at the
Taiwan. It has already been mentioned highest level. The two sides decided to set
that India has consistently followed the up a Joint Working Group to discuss the
one-China policy, despite ups and boundary question. Since then President
downs in bilateral relations. Both India Venkataraman visited China in 1992,
and China started talking on the theme Prime Minister Narasimha Rao in 1993,
of traditional friendship between the and the then Vice-President K.R.
INDIA AND HER NEIGHBOURS 213
Narayanan in 1994. From the Chinese global dominance of the United States.
side, Premier Lipeng visited India in 1991 India also has much to gain from
and president Jiang Zemin in 1996. cooperation with China. A settled border
Once again in 1998 there came a with China would facilitate the
temporary set back when India tested stabilisation of the troubled north-
nuclear bomb, and gave Chinese threat eastern region in Indias domestic
as one of the reasons. China joined the politics and reduce opportunities for
consensus among the Permanent mischief in its external relations with
Members of the Security Council and Bhutan and Nepal. It will also help in
the G-8 countries condemning the dealing with Pakistan. It may be
tests. In fact, China had been the most mentioned here that China was not
strident critic of Indias nuclear policy happy with Pakistans incursion into
in the interim. The trip to China by Kargil in 1999.
Indian Foreign Minister in June 1999 In the new historical and objective
helped reduce the bitterness. Chinas situation China and India have entered
anger about Indias nuclear tests a new stage of relationship. In the
seemed to have subsided, top level visits words of former President of India K.R.
were back on track and both sides Narayanan. We have a very good
seemed determined to work towards a opportunity for exchange of goods and
more positive relationship. Thus, on the ideas. We have real opportunity to put
occasion of the 50th anniversary of the technical content in our ancient
establishment of diplomatic relations cultural friendship. And in Chinese
between the two countries, the Premier Zhus words, as the two
President of India, Shri K.R. Narayanan largest developing countries in the
paid a state visit to China in May-June world, India and China shoulder
2000. Li Peng Chairman of the Standing important responsibilities for
Committee of the National Peoples maintaining peace, stability and
Congress visited India in January 2001. prosperity in Asia. It is in this spirit
In January 2002, Chinese Premier Zhu that India and China are moving ahead
Rongji paid an official visit to India. in different areas of bilateral relations
During these visits leaders have such as trade, cultural exchanges,
stressed that India and China do not security and foreign office dialogues,
consider each other as a threat and science and technology cooperation
would like to maintain good and efforts to resolve border disputes
neighbourly and friendly relations. For also. India has made it clear that it
China, with its economic reforms and seeks friendly, cooperative, good
development, Indias fast-growing neighbourly and mutually beneficial
domestic market is important. A strong relations with China on the basis of
Indian ally could also create a powerful Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence
regional axis to counterbalance the jointly enunciated by India and China
214 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
signed. Although there existed some communal forces which were initially
differences with India, they were not opposed to independence of
considered significant enough. Bangladesh and had supported the
The forces inimical to national Pakistan occupation army. The other
liberation struggle were also present pillar of support was ultra-leftist pro-
in Bangladesh. Immediately after Chinese elements which were highly
independence, these forces started critical of Indias role in liberation
launching anti-India tirade. Sheikh and branded it as an expansionist
Mujibar Rehman took certain power eager to grab Bangladesh.
measures to curb anti-India Internationally the support came from
propaganda. In 1974 Indo-Bangladesh the Islamic world, the Western powers
border agreement was signed. Steps and China, all of whom at that time were
were taken to resolve Ganga-water critical of India. In such a situation Zia-
dispute and the related problems Ur-Rahman went with projection of
concerning the Farakkha barrage India as the enemy of independence and
constructed in India to augment water territorial integrity of Bangladesh.
supply into the river Hoogly. There was Thus, during the period of Zia-Ur-
an interim agreement on water sharing. Rehman, bilateral problems with India
Talks were also initiated regarding the became more complicated and hostile
exchange of areas in each others postures did not help to sort out
territories. Thus, bilateral problems differences in perceptions. There were,
between the two countries were however, some changes when Janata
discussed in an atmosphere of utmost Party came to power in India in 1977.
friendship and despite attempts by The Janata government, as with Nepal
anti-India forces to exploit these and Pakistan, adopted a soft attitude
problems for creating anti-India even towards military regime in
hysteria, these were not allowed to go Bangladesh. An interim agreement on
beyond manageable limits. sharing Ganga waters during
On 15 August, 1975, the creator of lean months was signed between the
Bangladesh Sheikh Mujibar Rehman two countries. However, other
along with his entire family except two disputes emerged.
daughters (who were abroad) were Zia-Ur-Rehman was also assas-
assassinated, in a coup by some army sinated in 1981. After a short interval
officers. As already mentioned there of few months, Lt. General H.M. Ershad
were anti-India forces in Bangladesh. staged a bloodless coup and established
With the assassination of Mujibar his own military dictatorship in the
Rehman these forces became vocal and country. Under Ershad anti-India and
in some cases hysterical. General Zia- anti-Soviet Union plank was
Ur-Rehman who took over power was maintained. Political changes in India
to consolidate his position. Naturally, and the return of Indira Gandhi to
he received support from reactionary power, though not welcome to the
216 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
have stared at each other. India has assets, and accession of princely states,
consistently sought peaceful, cordial including Kashmir.
and friendly relations with Pakistan. At India with a long history and
times some of the Pakistani leaders also nationalist movement behind it,
have desired and attempted for such adopted a foreign policy based on
relations, but certain historical factors, principles of non-alignment, friendship
differences between political systems of and cooperation. Pakistan with no
the two countries, internal political socio-cultural differences with India
situation of Pakistan, the geo-political had to justify its establishment as a
settings and ideological differences so separate nation. For this religion, that
far have kept the two at logger heads. is Islam, was considered to be the basis
To understand the nature of Indo-Pak of its political structure. Pakistans
relations, it is important to know some rulers felt that other factors were not
historical and geographical factors that probably as much important for its
determine the relations between the two. sustenance as Islam. Therefore,
Pakistans foreign policy primarily was
HISTORICAL AND GEOPOLITICAL based on pan-Islamism. Rulers of
Pakistan also believed that India has
FACTORS
not accepted the reality of partition.
Indias history as a society and polity They, therefore, looked towards India
is thousands of years old whereas with suspicion and viewed every action
Pakistans existence is only from 1947. of India as a design against the very
It has no monumental and historical existence of Pakistan. An obvious
legacies and traditions separate from consequence of this view point has been
India. Being a result of separation from anti-Indianism. The Pakistani ruling
India half of Pakistans land frontier is elite has always raised the bogey of anti-
with India. As a pre-independence Indianism so as to sustain their
orientation of foreign policy while India interests in the domestic politics of the
was formulating a vision in the context country.
of its future role in Inter national Another important factor of
community, Pakistans heritage was difference between India and Pakistan
aspirations, and expressions of has been consolidation of democracy in
Muslim League since its emergence in India and dominant role of army in
1906. It was manifested in their Pakistan. Pakistans self assumed
two-nation theory, and communal rivalry with India, need to acquire
apprehensions. Added to all these stability, legitimacy, and recognition,
historical factors to influence Indo-Pak and desire to provide a leadership to
relations were communal holocaust and the Islamic countries have created a
displacement of population during desire to accumulate power and
partition, disputes over the partition of demonstrate it. This has shifted centre
218 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
of power from its people to the finally broke down because of dispute
military establishment. Neither the over Kashmir. It will be appropriate for
Parliamentary nor the Presidential you to know the background of this issue.
forms of government, which were Before independence, Jammu and
experimented, could bring stability in Kashmir was one of the 584 princely
the country. After 1953 the military has states. It was ruled by Maharaja Hari
been playing a dominant role in the Singh. In accordance with the
politics of the country and there have conditions of the partition of British
been various experiments to confer India, rulers of princely states were
legitimacy on the military dictatorships. given the right to determine which state
to join India or Pakistan, or to remain
PARTITION AND INDO-PAK independent. The Maharaja of Kashmir
RELATIONS decided to remain independent.
Pakistani leadership motivated with
Immediately after partition, the issues the approach of two-nation theory was
which created irritants between the two of the view that in view of 77 per cent of
countries were transfer of military its population being Muslim, Jammu and
assets, sharing of river waters of Indus Kashmir should join Pakistan. After
river basin, division of cash balance of Maharajas declaration of independence,
undivided India and so on. on 3 September, 1947 there started tribal
With regard to river waters, partition intrusions and border raids from
of India left three rivers in Punjab Pakistan. The government of Kashmir
Ravi, Sutlej and Beas mainly flowing in protested to the Prime Minister of
India and Indus, Jhelum and Chenab Pakistan. However, four days after the
mostly flowing in Pakistan. India could complaint on the night of 20-21 October,
have used all the water creating 1947 India assessed the position of
problems for Pakistan. It, however, Pakistan as provocative and direct
agreed to supply water to Pakistan from support to aggression, aimed at
these rivers. An agreement on water occupying Kashmir. On 24 October
sharing was concluded on 19 Maharaja of Kashmir himself appealed
September 1961 and was signed by to India for help. Indias leadership stated
Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru and that such help could only be rendered
President Ayub Khan which was on condition of integration of Kashmir
described as a memorable event with India. On 26 October Maharaja Hari
towards normalisation of relations Singh sent a letter to Lord Mountbatten,
between the two countries. then Governor General of India about his
decision to join India. Indian troops were
THE KASHMIR ISSUE air -dashed to Kashmir. The troops
stopped the advancing Pakistani
Various efforts made between India and infiltrators but the war continued for
Pakistan to establish friendly relations 14 months.
INDIA AND HER NEIGHBOURS 219
That is Hindus and Muslims are two relations. When India was partitioned
nations. Indias stand on the other on the basis of religion, Eastern wing
hand is that India is a multi religious, was carved out of Bengal which was
multi cultural, secular state. While more than 1,500 km away from western
Pakistan may be a Muslim majority wing (present Pakistan).
State, India has a very large Muslim Though people of both the wings
population as well. In fact Muslim were Muslims, they differed from each
population, over 12 crore, is more than other culturally and linguistically.
in any other country except Indonesia. Imposition of Urdu was totally
It is more than Pakistan. It is not only unacceptable to them. The differences
in Kashmir that a non-Hindu religion had continued and East-Pakistan
is in majority but in several other States population had felt neglected. In
also it is so. Therefore India has never December 1971 elections Awami
accepted the idea of religious basis of League led by Shiekh Mujibur Rehman
the State. At the time of partition also won majority. Rather than accepting
it had rejected the two-nations theory the democratic verdict of election and
totally. Yet, as stated in the beginning, allowing Sheikh Mujibur Rehman to
for Pakistan compulsions of identity become Prime Minister, President
crisis, internal instability, its desire to Yahya Khan arrested and detained him.
be the leader of Islamic world and an This led to widespread protests and
anti-India mindset forces the Kashmir violence. Pakistan security forces let
issue to be seen in communal terms and loose a reign of terror. People started
kept alive in one form or the other. running towards India. By March
Unfortunately, it has become so serious 1971 about a crore of East Pakistanis
that all efforts for peaceful relations had crossed over to India as refugees.
between the two countries which are so Under tremendous suppression
essential for trade and commerce and by Pakistani Security forces people
development have so far failed. Some of of Bangladesh began looking for
these efforts are discussed below. independence as the only way
out. Thus on 12 April, 1971 the
BANGLADESH WAR AND SHIMLA Awami League leadership declared
independence from Pakistan and
AGREEMENT
establishment of Bangladesh. At that
The most serious internal crisis that time no country including India
Pakistan faced after its creation in 1947 recognised Bangladesh. Pakistans
was the upsurge in East Pakistan (now massacre of people continued and so
Bangladesh) a direct challenge to the also influx of refugees to India. Seeing
two-nations theory of Muslim League. the situation becoming worse, India was
The consequences of this crisis became compelled to intervene and finally on
a vital and vitiating factor in Indo-Pak 4 December, 1971, Pakistan waged a
222 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
his willingness to talk to India. For that system. In India the defence forces are
purpose he came to India and fully under the control of the civilian
participated in Summit meeting with and political authorities. In Pakistan
Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee at on the other hand, they seem to
Agra. Whole world was looking at Agra constitute an empire within an empire,
Summit with great hopes. The summit perhaps autonomous in decision-
failed because the core issue for making. It is time for India and
Pakistan was Kashmir. India was Pakistan to come out from skirmishes
prepared to discuss Kashmir subject to and to address of real issues of
Pakistans commitment to end its human development, but the ray of
support and encouragement to hope is bleak.
terrorism. It is obvious that in its foreign policy,
Since Agra Summit, relations apart from general vision, the immediate
between India and Pakistan have neighbours have the first claim on its
continued to worsen. Terrorist attack attention. The relations with Nepal, Sri
on Indian Parliament in December Lanka, China, Bangladesh and
2001 and Pakistan continued Pakistan are of paramount importance
involvement in Kashmir has made India to India. Indias security, vital interests
refuse to talk to it. After 11 September, and well being are intimately tied up
2001 events in the USA and with the fate and future of this region.
international war against terrorism, India, therefore, has tried to maintain
Pakistan has accepted the fact that the peaceful and cordial relations with
terrorists are using its territory, though them. However, the differences in size,
has denied its own support to them. It potentialities and ideological
has promised to the world to keep itself preferences have quite often caused
away from support or abetment to some frictions also, particularly in
terrorism. It however, keeps on relations with China and Pakistan.
expressing its moral and political While in recent years there has been
support to the terrorists whom they tremendous improvement in India-
allege are fightings for freedom of China relations, the relations with
Kashmir. It seems that internal political Pakistan have further worsened. India
contradictions of Pakistan are so remains interested in peaceful
complicated that politicians there have coexistence and development of the
to remain engaged in politics of one- region. Of course it has to take note of
up-manship in respect of India. fears and susceptibilities of smaller
The basic problem in restoration countries and its strategic interests in
of friendly relations between the two relation to China. It is expected that in
countries is that while for over 55 the post-cold war era there will be a new
years India has been a vigorously perspective on regional cooperation and
functioning democratic State, Pakistan further improvement in relations
still is in search of an identity and among neighbours.
INDIA AND HER NEIGHBOURS 225
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 18
Indias Relations with USA and Russia
relations with Soviet Union were of They, therefore, did not share Western
special significance. The importance countrys apprehensions about
attached to them cut across party lines. communist expansionist designs.
There was a national consensus on the At the time of independence, the
need for a strong and stable relationship expectation was for development of
with the USSR. This seems to be relationship of cooperation between the
continuing from both sides, though two countries, irrespective of differences
there are some changes on certain of ideologies. Hope was strengthened
accounts in view of post cold war with Soviet Union formally recognising
situation. In the new foreign policy India as a sovereign State in April 1947,
concept released by Russian Federation that is four months before its
on 10 July, 2000, it has been stated that independence, and establishment of
one of the crucial directions in the diplomatic relations. However, at the
Russian foreign policy in Asia will be to time of Indias independence Soviet
develop friendly relations with the Union was under control of Stalin, who
leading States including India. To was very rigid in his approach which
understand the nature of these included the perception that all those
relationships between India and Russia who were not communists were against
it is necessary to know the origin and the Soviet Union. Indias joining
development of relations with the Commonwealth after independence was
erstwhile Soviet Union. projected as Indias pro-western policy.
Similarly, Indias adoption of non-
INDO-SOVIET RELATIONS alignment and its independent stand on
certain issues at that time did not
Soviet Union came into existence in please Soviet Union. As such, in 1947
1917 as a result of Russian Revolution Soviet Union was quite skeptical about
based on Marxian-Socialist ideology. Indias independence and its future
In accordance with the socialist identity.
ideology, right from the beginning, The situation, however, started
Soviet Union condemned colonialism changing from 1953 onwards. With the
and supported freedom struggles end of Stalin era new Soviet leadership
including that of India. The process of began to look towards newly
planning adopted by Soviet Union independent Afro-Asian countries as
made it a developed and a powerful its natural allies. It, therefore,
State within a few years. Indias leaders appreciated Indias non-alignment.
fighting against British imperialism, Soviet leadership realised that India
and facing the consequences of was not suffering from any perceived
capitalist oppression were obviously threat of the spread of communism.
appreciative of both the Soviet support In fact, India was resisting the
for its freedom struggle and the expansion of Western influence into
achievements that country had made. Asian region if it threatened self-
234 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
India and the erstwhile Soviet Union. has been recognised by the
This treaty proved to be a deterrent and international community as the
the USA did not intervene in the War. successor State of USSR. It means
The 1971 treaty was the first political rights and commitments of the USSR
treaty concluded by India with one of are now that of Russia. India also has
the Super powers. Many critics recognised the 15 Republics as
observed that it was a deviation from sovereign States and expressed its
non-alignment, but given the situation desire to establish friendly and
and Americas direct threat, perhaps it cooperative relations with all. Its special
was essential. In India the treaty was interest, however, remain with Russia.
universally hailed. Hence, now onwards Both India and Russian federation
Indo-Soviet relations continued to have expressed the hope and
develop under all governments in India. commitment to maintain time-tested
So much so that even at the time of traditional relations between the two
clear indications of collapse of Soviet countries. However, in the early years
Union, the 1971 treaty, which was of 1990s there were some constraints.
signed for 20 years, was renewed for Among the Russian leaderships there
another two decades in August 1991. were three main trends with regard to
In general, India-Soviet Union Indo-Russian relations; (i) Proponents
relations were based on mutual benefit of traditional ties were pleading for a
and certain common visions about policy based on continuity; (ii) There
international politics. Both believed in were exponents of building new types
national freedom and social equality, of relations, devoid of any ideological
support to national liberation preconception; (iii) There were blind
movements and fight against supporter of the US course, intending
colonialism, racial discrimination and to give strategic character to the US -
oppression as a matter of principle. Of Russian relations and thus keen to
course the military and strategic overlook the value of Indo-Russian ties.
interests of both the countries played a It seems that both the leadership and
pivotal role in determining these elite in the two countries were
relations. The same in many ways still influenced by all the three trends partly.
continues as India-Russia Relations. Therefore, in the first two years of
establishment of Russia the traditional
INDIA-RUSSIA RELATIONS warmth in the bilateral relations of the
two countries was not visible. However,
By December 1991 not only the starting with the visit of President Yeltsin
Communist system in Soviet Union of Russia to India in 1993, renewal of
collapsed but it also got disintegrated old ties became pronounced.
into 15 independent Republics. All During the period 1994-96, several
these States have been recognised as high-level visits were exchanged
sovereign States. Russian Federation between the two countries. India was
236 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
countries for expanded economic During the Stalin years, the USSR
relations in future. The two countries preferred to keep its distance from India
thus can look forward to better avenues as it considered Nehrus India to be a
for a wide range of trade and commerce reactionary state beholdened to Britain
activities. Leaders of both the countries and the US. From Khrushchev till early
have clearly indicated that they want years of Gorbachev, on the other hand
to restore their relationship to its earlier relations were warm with close
high pedestal. Of course in the fast economic and military ties. The end of
changing international situation the cold war and a prolonged period of
nothing is certain; but at least for the economic anarchy brought with it a
present, the relations between India certain cooling of relations between
and Russia are poised for revival of the Russia and India with Yeltsin tending
traditional Indo-Soviet friendship. to follow the US lead. But now, with
Indo-Soviet/Russian relations US-Russia relations entering a new
could be summed up, as Siddharath and potentially unstable phase,
Vardarajan observes, in the following Moscow is anxious to renew its
phases: friendship with New Delhi.
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 19
India and the United Nations
of Indias foreign policy totally with the million people lived under colonial rule.
collective goals of the UN Charter. Now, this is almost over. India was in
Hence, a strong and effective United the forefront of the struggle against
Nations was in harmony with Indias colonialism, apartheid, and racial
national and larger interests. India, discrimination a struggle that has
therefore, starting as a founding transformed the lives of millions of
member of the UN has travelled a long persons in Africa and Asia.
way since independence and has The provisions of the Charter on
earned a formidable reputation for its Non-Self Governing Territories were
versatile experience and contributions given a new thrust when the UN
in the UN activities. adopted the landmark declaration of
You have already read that not only 1960 on the Granting of independence
the visions of Indias foreign policy were to colonial countries and peoples. The
similar to the goals set by the UN but declaration solemnly proclaimed the
also the Constitution of India through necessity of bringing to a complete and
Article 51 in the Chapter on Directive unconditional end colonialism in all its
Principles of State Policy directs the forms and manifestations. The following
government to promote international year, the special committee on the
peace and seek peaceful settlement of Implementation of the Declaration on
international disputes. Indias record in Decolonisation was established to
the UN, particularly in earlier decades, study, investigate and recommend
bears out that the positions India took action for ending colonialism. India was
on all key issues had been those which appointed the first Chairman of the
helped strengthening the United Nations Decolonisation Committee. As a
as a non-partisan and effective member of the committee of 24, India
organisation free from domination by has ceaselessly struggled for an end to
any single power or group of powers. We colonialism. India also took up the
can see this by looking at Indias specific decolonisation issue in Trusteeship
role in some of the major activities of the Committee, the Special Committee on
UN during all these years. Non-Self Governing Territories. It also
sponsored and supported numerous
STRUGGLE AGAINST COLONIALISM resolutions in the UN on decolonisation.
India has raised this issue also at Non-
In the frame work of pronounced goals Aligned and Commonwealth meetings.
of the UN charter for promoting and In the early years, it took up the cause
encouraging respect for human rights of Indonesian freedom. It sought to
and fundamental freedoms for all, protect the interest of the Arabs by
the UN also strives for freedom taking a clear stand on the division of
from colonialism, racialism and Palestine. India played a significant role
discrimination. In 1945, when the UN in the freedom of the French colonies of
Charter was signed, more than 750 Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. Indias
INDIA AND THE UNITED NATIONS 241
excellence of the Indian troops has won provided one infantry battalion and
universal admiration. India has taken supporting staff until ICC was wound
part in the UN peace - keeping up in 1970.
operations in four continents. Its most The UN faced one of its worst crises
significant contribution has been in when war between the government and
maintaining peace and stability in the secessionist forces broke out in
Africa and Asia. It has demonstrated its Congo in 1960. The UN operation in
unique capacity of sustaining large Congo, was unique in many ways. The
troops and commitments over operation involved heavy casualties. It
prolonged periods. India is ranked as was also for the first time that the UN
the second largest troop contributing undertook an operation in an intra-
country to the UN. India has also state rather an inter-state conflict. The
offered one brigade of troops to the UN operation upheld the national unity
stand-by arrangements. and territorial integrity of Congo. The
India provided a paramedical unit performance of Indian troops was
to facilitate withdrawal of the sick distinguished by their discipline, self-
and the wounded in Korea. After restraint and humanitarian concern.
announcement of ceasefire in Korea Indian Army provided a Force
in 1953, India was appointed the Commander and observers for the
Chairman of the Neutral Nations Observer Mission in Yemen in 1960.
Repatriation Commission. One brigade India also participated in the UN
of the Indian Army participated in the operation in Cyprus. The UN set up a
operation in Korea, authorised by the Military Observer Group to monitor the
UN General Assembly. situation on Iran-Iraq border. Following
India also contributed to peace in the end of the Gulf War, the UN
the Middle East. The United Nations established an Iraq-Kuwait Observer
Emergency Force (UNEF) was there in Mission. UN operation in Namibia is also
1956 following cessation of hostilities considered one of the significant success
between Egypt and Israel. India stories of the United Nations. In this case
provided an infantry battalion which again, the Force Commander was an
accounted for the bulk of the UN force. Indian officer. Indian military observers
For over 11 years, from 1956 to 1967, in Namibia were responsible for the
more than 12,000 Indian troops took smooth withdrawal of foreign troops,
part in UNEF. elections and subsequent handing over
Pursuant to the Geneva Accord, an of the authority to the government. In
International Control Commission (ICC) Mozambique the UN helped to restore
for Indo-China was set up in 1954. peace and conduct elections. Here also,
India was the Chairman of the India provided a big contingent of
Commission, which implemented staff officers, independent headquarters,
ceasefire agreement between Vietnam, and engineers. The operation ended
Laos, Cambodia and France. India successfully.
INDIA AND THE UNITED NATIONS 243
groups have begin to meet and act independent nations. In due course of
separately on various issues. On certain time, with the emergence of new states
issues they still remain together. In the as a result of decolonisation, the
context of globalisation, countries are membership of the UN kept on
also preferring bilateral agreements increasing. At present it is 190. The last
with developed industrialised country to join the UN as a member in
countries. But it is increasingly 2002 is Switzerland. With the inclusion
becoming clear that various processes of the new nations underdeveloped,
of globalisation, at present, are being poor and suppressed for years, there
directed by developed countries to also have come up new issues,
promote their own economic and challenges and aspirations. It is,
political interests. Recent WTO therefore, felt that the United Nations
negotiations in July 2002 at Doha requires reforms and improvements in
prominently manifested differences its working.
between the developed and developing There is a demand that UN should
countries. Similar is the case with the be more democratised. In the situation
issue of democratisation and reforms of of the new political realities and
the United Nations. Importance of Afro- challenges of global economic
Asian unity and their collective voice in development, it should become a forum
the UN, therefore, is important. India for all peoples and nations; it should
understands this and her role as a leader be more representative of the world and
in that has been recognised by all. its diversities and emerging aspirations.
In any case, reform and improvements
REFORM PROCESS OF UNITED are an intrinsic part of any organisation
NATIONS which has to serve the purpose in
changing environment. The United
At its inception, after the Second World Nations is no exception.
War the United Nations had 51 founder India supports a strengthened and
member countries, mostly from reformed United Nations with its various
Europe, North America and other organs functioning within their
independent countries. The main mandates in accordance with the UN
concern of the UN at that time was Charter. It supports an enhanced role
maintenance of peace, collective for the United Nations in the
security and elimination of situations development of various fields. India
which lead to the devastating World firmly believes that this development
Wars. Besides these, the UN was faced should be in conformity with the UNs
with the task of decolonisation and agenda which is an indispensable
elimination of discrimination based or prerequisite to the maintenance of
race, religion, region, etc. But, as it international peace and security.
is generally observed that it was India actively supported the creation
primarily an organisation of developed of the UN development programme,
INDIA AND THE UNITED NATIONS 245
opinion that in the changed situation reform and these must be carried out
and circumstances, the UN needs at the earliest and with consensus.
EXERCISES
1. Describe the main objective for which the United Nations stand. How far they
have been realised?
2. Examine the role of India in the United Nations.
3. What do you understand by peace-keeping operations? Describe the role played
by India in these.
4. Why a demand for reforms in the Security Council is being made? What reforms
are being suggested?
5. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Veto power;
(ii) Afro-Asian Solidarity;
(iii) Security Council;
(iv) Secretary General of the United Nations;
(v) International Court of Justice.
248 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
CHAPTER 20
India and South Asian Association
of Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
of economy. In this context, felt that in keeping with the view that
operationalisation of the South Asian the government should have people-
Preferential Trading Arrangement to-people contact; some concrete steps
(SAPTA) has evoked much interest. should be taken to facilitate tourism
Movement now is towards achievement in the region, including facilities for
of South Asian Free T rade Area limited convertibility of national
(SAFTA). We will discuss this in detail a currencies for tourists from SAARC
bit later. Let us first have a look at Indias countries; A South Asian Broadcasting
role in SAARC. Programme covering both radio and
In all the activities of SAARC Indias television should be launched; The
participation and contribution has been Heads of State or Government
significant. Certain aspects of Indias emphasised that in view of the
relations within the subcontinent are importance they attach to students,
conducted through SAARC. India scholars and researchers in their
developed many international treaties countries should have ready access to
along with SAARC, and was the source reliable and up-to-date information on
of many of those ideas, some of which technical, scientific and developmental
are: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, matters. This need could be met by a
Climate Change, Endangered SAARC Documentation Centre as the
Species, Environmental Modification, repository of such information; it was
Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, also felt that it is essential to promote
Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer increasing cross-fertilisation of ideas
Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical through greater interaction among
Timber, Wetlands, Desertification, etc. students, scholars and academics in
These treaties were implemented by the SAARC countries. The Heads of the
other nations as well on the guidelines State or Government, therefore,
of India. The Indian contribution to directed that a concerted programme
SAARC was significant when its of exchange of scholars be formulated
representatives were chosen as the and action taken for an early
chairpersons for two big events in institution of SAARC scholarships,
SAARC, one of which was Agricultural SAARC Fellowships and SAARC
programme (including forestry), and the Chairs; it was stressed that the
other one being the Science and idealism of youth must be harnessed
Technology (Energy Development) for regional cooperative programme. It
Programme. New Delhi hosted meetings was also decided that an Organised
for various programmes like Volunteers Programme be established
Environment (1992 and 1997) and in SAARC under which volunteers
commerce (1996). The second SAARC from one country would be able to
summit was also held in Bangalore on work in other countries in the
17 November, 1986. Some important fields of agriculture and forestry
outcomes of this summit were: it was extension work.
254 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
The eighth summit of SAARC was Thus, New Delhi was a major help to
held in New Delhi on 4 may, 1995. The SAARC and without India, the
Heads of State or Government community would have not been as
expressed their satisfaction on the profited as it had been.
achievements of the First Decade of
SAARC and resolved to celebrate its SAARC ECONOMIC COOPERATION
completion of the First Decade both in AND INDIA (SAPTA AND SAFTA)
the individual Member States and
collectively. They endorsed the proposal Cooperation in core areas of economic
of the Council of Ministers to convene a cooperation among SAARC countries is
Commemorative Session of the Council fairly recent. South Asia as a region is
on the theme SAARC Vision for the economically quite underdeveloped.
Second Decade to identify the areas on Nearly 1/5th of the worlds population
which SAARC should focus in its lives in South Asia which is only 2.7
Second Decade. They reaffirmed their per cent of the worlds land surface. All
commitment to the eradication of the economies of the region are
poverty in South Asia, preferably by the predominantly rural and agricultural.
year 2002 AD through an agenda of The countries of this region are among
action. They thus declared 1995 as the the poorest in the world. The share of
SAARC Year of Poverty Eradication. South Asia in world trade continues to
The SAARC meet noted that be insignificant. India from the
subsequent to the signing of the beginning has been insisting on free
Framework agreement on SAARC trade among SAARC countries. In this
Preferential Trading Arrangement direction, the first step was taken in
(SAPTA) during their Seventh Summit 1995 with the agreement on creation
in Dhaka in April 1993, the first round of South Asian Preferential Trade
of trade negotiations to exchange trade Agreement (SAPTA).
concessions among Member States has
been completed. They directed that all SAPTA
necessary steps should be taken to Though necessity for cooperation in
facilitate ratification by all Member trade among neighbouring countries
States and operationalise SAPTA by the have always been felt, the decade of
end of 1995 as mandated. The eighth 1990s gave it added importance. By this
summit was the most significant as all time with the emergence of new regional
the major topics were discussed in it, trading blocks across the world, the
including the rights of women, children, South Asian countries were faced with
disabled, etc. The literacy issue was a tight position on the export front. Also,
taken up and many developments were trading within SAARC region had
introduced in it. become necessary as aid flow to this
The SAARC Development Centre region was slowing down. With this
found its way in New Delhi in May 1994. background, initiative for preferential
INDIA AND SAARC 255
Regional arrangements are also population, and 78 per cent of its Gross
being considered for intra-regional National Product. Its armed forces
investment promotion and protection, account for about 50 per cent of the
and avoidance of double taxation. A regions total armed strength. India
SAARC visa Exemption Scheme was shares borders with all other six
initiated in 1988 with a view to promote countries. Thus being the largest
closer and frequent contacts among the nation, economy wise, area wise and
people of the SAARC region which population wise, India has the potential
became operational from 1 March , to contribute the most and provide
1992. The scheme has been leadership to the organisation. But the
progressively expanded to cover nature of conflicts in the region,
twenty-one categories of persons particularly India-Pakistan, also
eligible for visa free travel in the SAARC creates apprehensions among smaller
region. Thus, the organisation, with countries about domination by India.
some built-in problems and diversity In view of this, India has been playing
of interest among member countries, is a very cautious role. It has contributed
moving ahead to achieve it aims. significantly in all the activities of
From the above discussion SAARC but has not tried to behave as
it becomes clear that while a leader of the organisation. Needless
regional cooperation through regional to say conflictual relationship between
organisation has been coming up in a India and Pakistan is one of the major
significant way in various parts of the bottleneck in the development of
world, in South Asia it began quite late. SAARC. India has taken several steps
It was only in 1985 that SAARC was and made suggestions to keep the
established as an organisation for developmental issues separate from
cooperation in the region. The goals of political. Changes in the international
SAARC have been kept development political and economic situation
oriented. Conscious efforts have been demand a greater cooperation among
made to entertain modest aims, the countries of the region. There are
excluding more or less contentions and certain positive developments which
bilateral issues. SAARC also suffers raise hope for a better cooperation
from built-in contradictions, conflict among SAARC counties. Most
among States, diversity of problems, important of these is a realisation
differences in security perceptions and among the people of all the countries
absence of required political thrust. that peace, harmonious coexistence
Indias position in SAARC is unique. and cooperation are a must to survive
It accounts for 72 per cent of the with dignity in the present day
regions area, 77 per cent of its competitive and fast moving world.
INDIA AND SAARC 257
EXERCISES
1. Describe the background and efforts made for the establishment of South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
2. What are objectives and principles of SAARC?
3. What important activities SAARC has taken up during its existence? What has
been Indias role in them?
4. What is the importance of cooperation in core economic areas? What lead
India has taken towards such a cooperation in the region.
5. Write short notes on the following:
(i) Second SAARC Summit (1986);
(ii) Eighth SAARC Summit (1995);
(iii) SAPTA;
(iv) SAFTA.
258 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
CHAPTER 21
Indias Role in Non-Aligned Movement
(ii) The country concerned should treatment for our people wherever they may
be consistently supporting go, and we cannot accept any discrimination
against them. We believe that peace and
the movements for national
freedom are indivisible and the denial of
independence. freedom anywhere must endanger freedom
(iii) The country should not be elsewhere and lead to conflict and war.
a member of any multilateral It is quite clear that Nehru was
military alliance concluded in the articulating the ideas of decolonisation,
context of Great Power conflicts. national independence, non-bloc
(iv) If a country has a bilateral military politics, peaceful coexistence,
agreement with a great power or eradication of racialism and the need
is a member of a regional defence for the developing countries to play an
pact, the agreement or pact should active role in international affairs. It was
not be one deliberately concluded at the initiative of Jawaharlal Nehru
in the context of great power that India became the venue of the first
conflicts. forum of the liberated nations, when
(v) If it has conceded military bases representatives of 28 countries met in
to a foreign power, the concession New Delhi in March 1947 (before formal
should not have been made in the declaration of independence of India) at
context of great power conflicts. the Conference on Regional Cooperation
among the Asian Countries known as
ORIGIN OF NAM AND INDIAS ROLE Asian Relations Conference. At this
Though as a formal organised Conference Bandaranaike from Sri
movement NAM started with the Lanka, both by the force of his
holding of the Belgrade Summit of Non- conviction and under the influence of
Aligned countries in 1961, its seeds Nehrus ideas, declared: I am
were sown by India, particularly by convinced, and we all hope that this
Jawaharlal Nehru even before conference will lay the foundation of a
attainment of Indias independence. It broader cooperation between the free
was in the broadcast made by and equal States in Asia, lighting not
Jawaharlal Nehru on 7 September, only for their nations future, but also
1946, a week after the Indian in the name of humanity, peace and
Provisional government was formed. progress.
Nehru said: The Asian Relation Conference thus
We propose, as far as possible, to keep can truly be called the foundation stone
away from the power politics of groups, for NAM. Nehru who had organised this
aligned against one another, which have led Conference observed: For too long we
in the past two world wars and which may of Asia have been petitioners in the
again lead to disasters on an even vaster scale.
We seek no domination over others and we Western Courts and Chancelleries. That
claim no privileged position over other people. story now must belong to the past. We
But we do claim equal and honourable propose to stand on our own feet and
260 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
to cooperate with all others who are taken clear and definite positions on
prepared to cooperate with us. We do the problems facing mankind. Despite
not intend to be the play-thing of their different perspectives, the
others. countries represented at the Bandung
Conference arrived at a common
BANDUNG CONFERENCE position in the larger interest of
world peace.
Along with Nehru some other leaders One of the most important
in the world were also projecting these achievements of the Bandung
perceptions of newly independent Conference was the Declaration on
countries. President Josip Broz Tito of World Peace and Cooperation. This
Yugoslavia, President Gamel Abdul declaration embodied the principles of
Nasser of Egypt (then called United Panchsheel which were first stated in
Arab Republic), President Kwame the Preamble to the agreement between
Nkrumah of Ghana and President India and China in April 1954. These
Ahmed Soekarno of Indonesia were were five principles of mutual respect
prominent among these. Together with for territorial integrity and sovereignty,
Nehru they evolved a coherent outlook non-belligerence, non-interference in
and position on Non-Alignment. These internal affairs, equality and mutual
leaders were largely instrumental in advantage, and peaceful coexistence.
channelling the emerging changes The final communiqu of the
towards the liberation of the people of Conference did not limit itself to the
the world and towards evolving a new enumeration of the regions problems
vision of the world order. They but also called for concrete steps to
rejected outright the notion that East- be taken for disarmament and
West relations alone constituted safeguarding of peace in the world. The
international affairs and asserted their Conference served as the major support
own role in shaping these affairs. of the bridge linking the Afro-Asian,
On the initiative of these leaders the European and Latin American people
conference of Afro-Asian Nations was and the role they intended to play in
held in Bandung (Indonesia) in April the New World Order. Nehru asserted
1955. The participants from 23 Asian at Bandung There is no doubt that our
and 6 African States represented influence will grow. It is growing in fact,
mainly the people of young States and we do exercise some influence even
which had been setup as a result of today. But whether our influence is
the new balance of forces of democracy great or small, it must be exercised in
and freedom on the one hand and of the right direction.
colonialism and oppression on the The Bandung Conference was
others. The states participating in the followed by a tripartite meeting in July
conference did not belong to any 1956, between Nehru, Tito and Nasser
military or political blocs, and they had at Brioni. In this meeting affirming the
INDIAS ROLE IN NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT 261
The rejection of military alliances, countries in the UN. This name has
refusal to be yes-men of this or that continued even though the number of
power and opposition to all forms of such countries has increased to over
colonial domination and racial hundred. The Group of 77 certainly
discrimination all flowed from this succeeded in getting a number of
irrepressible urge for independence. constructive ideas accepted in the
The second component of the Non- UNCTAD.
Alignment related to the struggle for a In 1990, at Belgrade, the NAM
new structure on which to base decided to create G-15 as an interface
relations amongst people and countries with G-7 (the group of seven most
relations characterised by equality, industrialised States) realising correctly
peace and cooperation rather than that economic issues had taken
perilous confrontation. primacy over political-strategic ones.
The attainment of political NAM rightly felt that its new role
independence was not the end of the would be in creating South-South
story but the beginning of a new chapter co operation, which would mean, by
in which the focus was on economic and large collaboration between and
self-reliance. In this field too, India has among the non-aligned nations and in
played a pioneering role. Pandit defending the interests of these nations
Jawaharlal Nehru lost no time in setting from the fast expanding economic and
up a Planning Commission to draw up technological power of the North. India
the blueprint of Indias Five-Year Plans had been a member both 05G-77 and
which allotted enough weightage to G-15 and is playing a leadership role.
Public Sector. Many of the other newly Indias contribution as organiser of
independent countries established the seventh conference of NAM in 1983
contacts with India in order to benefit at New Delhi was particularly
from Indian experience. The World appreciated in the use of its political
Bank, despite its strong bias for the prestige and strength to draw
private sector, began to advise participants attention to such issues
developing countries which sought its as the struggle for averting nuclear war,
assistance to have some kind of putting an end to the arms race, and
developmental plan, on the policy- the need for disarmament, anti-
planning pattern of India. In colonialism and anti -racism. After this
consequence, contacts between India conference India, in its capacity of the
and other developing countries were chairperson of NAM, sponsored a
further strengthened. proposal in the United Nations to freeze
After the UNCTAD came into nuclear weapons and to conclude an
existence, the developing countries international convention on banning
organised themselves into a group the use of nuclear weapons. India also
known as the Group of 77; at that time organised a Six Nations Disarmament
it was the number of the developing Group to impress upon the nuclear
264 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
powers to stop the arms race. India been a pillar of strength of its members.
has also played a very active role Today after the end of cold war
in defending the freedom of and beginning of the process of
countries for use of nuclear energy. globalisation when doubts on the very
It has vociferously opposed the existence of NAM are being raised there
discriminatory attitude of nuclear is need that NAM is strengthened.
powers, particularly on CTBT and NPT. Indias stakes in this task are of
Indias refusal to allow the deeply considerable importance. India as a
faulted CTBT to go to the United developed among the developing non-
Nations alerted USA and its allies; they aligned countries has to concentrate on
felt that they can not take the leading retaining the independent character of
powers of the South for granted. It the Movement working for evolution of
imparted a sense of strength to NAM. a just international order.
Right from the beginning a very
important task before NAM had NAM IN POST-COLD WAR PERIOD
been to fight against racism. In this,
AND ITS RELEVANCE
India has played an outstanding
role, particularly against apartheid. From the period of the formation of its
At the Harare NAM Summit vision at Bandung in 1955 and first
in September 1986, Indian Prime Summit at Belgrade in 1961, NAM has
Minister Rajiv Gandhi proposed and traveled a long and eventful path.
successfully persuaded the member Starting with a membership of 25
States to create Action for Resisting countries, its membership has grown
Invasion, Colonialism and Apartheid to 114. There have also been shifts in
Fund (popularly known as Africa its perspective and preoccupations
Fund). The main objectives of the Fund necessitated by the change in
were to strengthen the economic and international scenario. However, the
financial capabilities of the Frontline changed perceptions that have come in
States to fight the apartheid regime of the 1990s have placed NAM almost at
South Africa. The Harare Summit Cross Roads.
created the Fund and India was With the disintegration of the
appointed the Chairman of the nine erstwhile Soviet Union and break up of
member AFRICA Fund Committee Socialist bloc, there have emerged new
whose responsibility was to raise the global situations and issues. The
fund. India herself contributed Rs 500 process of globalisation has also begin.
million by January 1987. It was Humanitarian aid to the developing
primarily the efforts of NAM with very world has greatly been reduced.
effective role of India in it that finally in Greater conditions are being imposed
1994 apartheid ended in South Africa. on the aid to the South, such as
Thus on account of its steadfast allowing access to transnational
support to NAM, India has all along companies. Most of the developed and
INDIAS ROLE IN NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT 265
peace, security, equality of status for support the struggle for decolonisation
nation-states and a voice for the of rest of the colonies. It sought to forge
underdeveloped world to procure unity among anti-colonial, anti-racial
foreign aid for development will remain forces and liberation movements and
a distant dream. At the Doha meeting help them in achieving their objectives
of WTO in June 2002, India urged world wide.
strongly on behalf of the developing The economic objective of the Non-
countries. Aligned Movement is aimed at keeping
Thus, even after the end of cold war the markets of developing countries
and demise of power blocs, non- free from the domination of free
alignment both as an idea and a market forces represented by
movement continues to be relevant. The Western capitalism and Multinational
efforts of NAM have to be geared Corporations.
towards achieving security, peaceful India remained in the forefront of
coexistence, international cooperation the movement performing a leadership
in political, economic and cultural role as a founder member. In all the
fields and in opposing all types activities of NAM struggle against
of domination, neo-colonialism, colonialism and racism, and infavour
hegemonism, fundamentalism, etc. of disarmament and cooperation for
India has a stake in these and is likely development, and dialogue with
to play the leadership role that it has developed world, etc. India not only
played so far. provided policy inputs but has played
Non-alignment has first developed an active role.
as a conceptual factor in its foreign With the end of cold war and bloc-
policy by India as a means to its systems NAM has in no way become
enlightened national interest in the irrelevant. If the essence of non-
context of bipolarisation of world alignment is the assertion of
politics and situation of cold war. Later independence, then non-alignment
on, non-alignment became a movement does not become irrelevant at any time.
of nations which had suffered the same Infact developing nations have no
fate of colonialism and imperialism. alternative but to strive for a just world
Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal order through the forum of NAM.
Nehru, with the cooperation of While the relevance of NAM in the
President Tito of Yugoslavia, President present day world is not in doubt, it
Nasser of Egypt directed this movement would serve its purpose if it focuses on
towards peace in the world and also the current problems that the
aimed at securing political and developing countries are facing. In
economic objectives of development. At formulating its agenda for the future,
the political level, the movement aimed NAM would have to incorporate in it
at keeping intact the independence of both its traditional and emerging goals
the newly decolonised countries and and objectives and take cognisance of
268 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
emerging issues and priorities on the moving in steps with the realities of
international agenda. The NAM agenda time. To usher in peace, security and
has to be topical and flexible thereby prosperity NAM has to act in unison.
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 22
Indias Approach to Major World Issues
Disarmament, Human Rights and Globalisation
we are discussing the issue as one The Partial Test Ban Treaty of
under the heading of disarmament. 1963 and subsequent agreements
As mentioned above the UN General did not ban nuclear testing under
Assembly has set before itself the aim the ground. Need for this prompted
of Complete Disarmament. negotiations for comprehensive
In 1961 at the initiative of the nuclear test ban treaty (CTBT). Such
Soviet Union and the United States a negotiations started in 1977. After
negotiating body called the Eighteen- many years of debate finally in 1996
Nation Committee on Disarmament, there emerged a Comprehensive Test
was constituted. It was renamed in Ban T reaty (CTBT). This treaty,
1969 as the Conference Committee however, was full of controversies,
on Disarmament. Since 1979, the particularly in view of discriminatory
Geneva based body has been meeting treatment of nuclear weapon States
as the Committee on Disarmament, and non-nuclear weapon States.
with an enlarged (40 nation) Because of this India, which had
membership to ensure better been actively advocating for a
representation of different regions comprehensive test ban since 1954,
and view points. could not agree to sign the CTBT
Along with these efforts by the treaty. We will discuss this issue
United Nations, negotiations among below. What is important to note here
nations were also going on, is that though it cannot claim full
particularly among nuclear powers, success in disarmament, the United
for control over nuclear weapons. In Nations, since its inception has made
1963 an agreement was reached on a repeated attempts to halt arms race.
Partial Test Ban Treaty. It prohibited Efforts have also been made by other
all test explosions on the surface, in organizations like Commonwealth,
the atmosphere and under water. NAM, and Regional bodies. India
Only limited underground tests were right from the beginning has not only
allowed. The treaty was ratified by been an active supporter for
three original signatories i.e. UK, USA disarmament but has also been
and USSR and 98 other member playing a leading role both in the UN
States of the UN including India and and at other fora for this cause.
seven non-member States of the UN.
Another treaty known as Nuclear DISARMAMENT AND INDIA
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was
formulated in 1968 and signed by UK, Since Independence, India has
USA, USSR and 50 other countries. consistently pursued the objective
India refused to sign the treaty on the of global disarmament based on
ground that it was discriminatory in principles of universality, non-
nature. discrimination and effective
272 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
was a matter of great regret that the peaceful nuclear explosions by non-
proposal put by India, along with nuclear weapons States. Accordingly,
several other countries, did not receive in Indias view, the treaty is
a positive response and instead discriminatory, unrealistic, ineffective
a limited and distorted non- and therefore unacceptable to India.
proliferation agenda, meant above all Indias concerns have been two.
to perpetuate nuclear weapons was One, freedom to use nuclear energy
shaped. This compelled India not only for peaceful purposes, and two its
not to sign the CTBT but also itself go national security. In terms of national
nuclear in consideration of its security India was faced not only with
national security and failure of big the situation of nuclear proliferation
powers to agree on complete world over, but also in its own
elimination of nuclear weapons. neighbourhood first in China and
then in Pakistan. China conducted
INDIAS STAND ON CTBT its first atomic explosion in October
1964. Before that, China had already
Indias stand has been that the goal waged a war on India in 1962.
of disarmament can be none other Having joined the nuclear club,
than the achievement of general and China also started helping Pakistans
complete disarmament. This means nuclear programme. At that time,
that disarmament has to be general, both China and Pakistan were hostile
i.e. to cover all countries; to be to India and Western powers were
complete, to apply to all weapons and also inclined towards Pakistan. All
has to be implemented under strict these factors posed a threat to Indias
and effective international control. security. Yet India continued to
India has also made it clear, from the strictly adhere to the policy of using
very beginning, that it wanted to keep nuclear energy only for peaceful
its options open for the peaceful use purposes.
of nuclear energy. On May 18, 1974 India carried
Against this background India did out an underground nuclear
not sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation experiment for peaceful purposes,
Treaty (NPT) of 1968; She emphasised and reiterated that the country was
that it is an unequal and committed to its use for constructive
discriminatory treaty. While it purposes and that it had no intention
imposes stringent restrictions and of producing nuclear weapons.
curbs on non-nuclear weapon States, India, therefore, continued its efforts
it leaves the nuclear weapon powers for a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
free from any legal or time-bound with the aims of curbing nuclear
obligation to stop proliferation and to arms race by stopping both
take steps to reduce their nuclear horizontal and vertical proliferation
arsenals. It also denies the right to of nuclear weapons. After the Nuclear
274 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 1968, and will not engage in an arms race.
w h i c h I n d i a d i d n o t s i g n, t h e India has also declared a no-first-use
United Kingdom, the United States of nuclear weapons. It believes that
and the Soviet Union in 1977 initiated a global no-first use agreement can
negotiations on CTBT. Years of be the first step towards the
negotiations did not yield any delegitimisation of nuclear weapons.
result. Indias position was clear that It stands for Comprehensive Test Ban
it believes in total nuclear T reaty (CTBT) which is non-
disarmament, but it opposes any discriminatory and universal. In
agreement that is discriminatory in other words, it should have three
nature. Despite Indias strong characteristics: (i) it should cover all
objections against discrimination and States including the five nuclear
not taking into account security weapon States; (ii) it should extend
interests of countries like India, the the prohibition on the testing of
CTBT was pushed through. India nuclear weapons to the underground
refused to sign it. According to environment also; and (iii) it should
experts the Treaty (CTBT) will, in do so for all time. The verification
reality, legitimize a new qualitative system to be developed must be non-
arms race. This treaty like the NPT discriminatory.
will be a license to proliferate From the above discussion it
vertically without effectively banning becomes quite clear that the world
horizontal proliferation. Thus India, today, more than ever before, is aware
after having been actively engaged of the menace of arms race with no end
in the negotiations for two and a to the stockpiling, deployment
half years, could not become a and development of new and
party to CTBT precisely because the more destructive weapons, both
issues of non-proliferation, global conventional and nuclear.
disarmament and Indias concerns Disarmament has long been an
for its national security and strategic agenda item in various global forums.
autonomy were ignored. In all these efforts India has been
In May 1998 India conducted playing a significant active role.
three nuclear explosion tests some
doubts were raised in inter -
HUMAN RIGHTS
national community about Indias
commitment to disarmament. India, People is general, whether living in the
however had made it clear that these developed, developing or under
tests were conducted in the context developed world, cherish the
of national security and prevailing enjoyment of rights in one form or the
international situation. India has other. The rights are the claims of the
declared that it will maintain a individual recognised by the society
minimum credible nuclear deterrent and enforced by the State. These
INDIAS APPROACH TO MAJOR WORLD ISSUES 275
rights are moral, legal, political, of human rights. The British colonial
economic in nature and a combination rule in India affected the common
of all these rights is termed as human man, children, women, labourers,
rights which all men and woman workers, peasants, either directly or
should enjoy. Today these basic indirectly. The police and the security
rights are even recognised by the forces were used as basic tools to
international community. suppress the rights of the individuals.
The Indian Constitution which was In this context the national movement
enforced in 1950 showed its full in India incorporated in its values
respect to the Universal Declaration issues of democracy, universal
of Human Rights. In the third part of franchise, freedom of the press,
the Constitution, they have given the education, etc. It took these issues to
most elaborate description of the basic the people and educated them about
rights of the Indian citizens. In the their political and economic rights.
remaining of this chapter, we will Infact national movement took up
study about the Indias role relating the battle for human rights in a variety
to human rights. of ways.
global issues and problems which Their efforts got a big boost by the
are to be tackled with global efforts collapse of Socialism, revolution in
and cooperation. Of course various communication technology and
developments in the field of science and worsening economic situation of
technology have helped in this closeness developing countries. New develop-
of the world. The phenomena includes ments in the field of communications
an enormous range of features of and rising debts and declining
contemporary life involving diverse productions in developing countries
activities and interactions in the helped developed countries to put
economic, political, technological, pressure on these countries through
cultural and environmental field. international bodies like World Bank
Globalisation is manifest in the and International Monetary Fund
rapid flow of information, capital (IMF) to integrate their economies with
and goods. Under globalisation cultures the market oriented world economy,
and societies that were hitherto distinct make structural adjustments to
have come face to face with each accommodate the interests of the
other. The world has become an Multi-National Company and liberlise
inter-connected one. their own economies. Accordingly, a
While the coming closer of the large number of developing countries,
world can be attributed to the either per-force, or due to their needs
phenomenal increase in the reach of of development have sought to
electronic media and other means of integrate increasingly with the world
communications, as a policy frame economy. India also has not remained
work for economic, political and social immune from the processes. It has
interactions, the emergence of accordingly, taken some measures to
globalisation is a consequence of be a part of global community and
deliberate efforts of western liberal also reacted to certain issues arising
capitalist countries to bring the out of the process.
whole world under one market
oriented economic order. Observers GLOBALISATION AND INDIA
point out that the big Multi National India began responding to globali-
Companies (MNCs) had always sation from early 1980s by
wanted to have free access to all warmly welcoming the technological
markets in the world. They were, developments. In the beginning, its
however, restricted by the protect- acceptance of the ideas of world
ionist policies of the various countries. market, world economy, unfettered
They had been pressurising their market economy etc. was lukewarm.
powerful governments to get these Of course, it started some pro-
artificial restrictions removed and cesses towards liberalisation and
facilitate free flow of capital and goods. globalisation in the middle of 1980s.
280 DEMOCRACY IN INDIA : ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
It was in the wake of the external (v) Financial Reforms: Private sector
repayment liability crisis of 1991 that banks including foreign joint
government took a qualitative turn venture banks came to be
towards liberalisation. It involved the permitted to undertake and
following major changes in policy. expand their operations. A
(i) Trade policy reform: This reform policy regime for private non-
sought to dismantle the earlier banking finance companies
import licensing system. It came to be established.
proposed reforms and heavy In addition to the above, the
scaling down or removal of tariff government has attempted to build up
on imports . Except on consumer competition in sectors where hitherto
goods non-tariff barriers were the public sector enjoyed a monopoly;
phased out. thrown open the insurance sector for
(ii) Industrial Policy Reform: It market competition; attempted to
sought abolition of industrial lay down a set of directives for
licensing except for a few disinvestments and removed tariffs on
specified industries. Items a large number of items in accordance
reserved for public sector came with its agreement with the World Trade
to be highly restricted and it Organisation (WTO).
extended favourable treatment In the context of globalisation,
to FDI. Restrictions on the above-mentioned liberalisation
investment by large industrial primarily means removal of controls
houses were abolished and and regulations at various levels of the
a phased programme of
economy facilitating market forces to
disinvestments of public
determine its course and direction. It
ownership in public sector
favours a competitive market solution
undertakings was initiated.
to economic issues and a reduced
The Non-resident Indians (NRIs)
were extended additional role for the State in economic
encouragement to invest and management. In a wider sense, the
outward investment by Indian term is also used to mean creating
enterprises was liberalised. conditions for the prevalence of civic
(iii) Exchange Rate Reform: The rupee and political rights, rule of law,
was devalued in 1991. Partial accountability of power, periodic
convertibility of the rupee was elections, multi-party system and an
done in 1992-93 and full impartial judiciary. These conditions
convertibility on current account are seen as keeping public authority
in 1994. transparent and under scrutiny.
(iv) Capital Market Reform: This was Summing up, liberalisation means
undertaken by setting up the freedom of trade and investment;
Securities and Exchange Board creation of free trade areas; elimination
of India (SEBI). of government control on allocation of
INDIAS APPROACH TO MAJOR WORLD ISSUES 281
and political parties are deeply divided has now been replaced by discussion
on the desirability and consequences on the measures which can help the
of globalisation. Since globalisation country derive more advantages from
now is a reality, the discussion on the globalisation and minimise its
desirability or otherwise of globalisation disadvantages.
EXERCISES
Glossary
Alternative Vote: In this first method voters are asked to rank the candidates in
preferential order. In this first stage of counting, only the first preferences are taken
into consideration. If no candidate receives majority, the candidate with the least
first preferences is eliminated, and the ballots of this candidate as first preference
are redistributed according to second preferences and so on.
Apartheid: Refers to the South African system of racial segregation of the white,
black and brown (i.e. Indian) population and the domination of the white minority
over the black majority. A basic aspect of apartheid was the exclusion of the majority
on the basis of their colour from participation in government.
Bourgeoisie: Also known as the capitalist class that owns the means of production,
employs wage labour, and has profit as its source of income.
Civil Liberties: These are freedoms or rights which are thought to be especially
valuable in themselves and vital to the functioning of a liberal and democratic
society. Emphasis vary, but most lists of basic civil liberties will include freedom of
speech, freedom of religion and thought, freedom of movement, freedom of
association, the right to a fair trial and freedom of the person.
GLOSSARY 285
Coalition: These are grouping of rival political units in the face of a common
opponent. Coalition usually occur in modern parliaments when no single political
party can muster a mojority of votes. Two or more parties, who have enough elected
members between them to form a majority, may then be able to agree on a common
programme that does not require too many drastic compromises with their individual
policies, and can proceed to form a government.
Egalitarian Society: A society based on the principles of liberty, equality and justice
in which all have a certain minimum equality in social, political and economic
spheres.
Feudalism: The economic, political and social system in which land was held by
vassals in exchange for military and other services to overlords.
Liberal Democracy: A form of democratic rule that balances the principle of limited
government against the ideal of popular consent. Its liberal features are reflected
in a network of internal and external checks on government that are designed to
guarantee liberty and afford citizens, protection against the state. Its democratic
character is based on a system of regular and competitive elections, conducted on
the basis of universal suffrage and political equality.
Nuclear Disarmament: The talks for nuclear disarmament have taken place in the
Disarmament Commission (DC) of the UN General Assembly, among the nuclear
powers, especially the USA and the former Soviet Union over the years, From 1969
to 1979 the famous Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were held between the
two. Followed by Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) initiated in 1982.
Gorbachev and Reagan held five summits between 1986 and 1988, discussing nuclear
disarmament. In 1988, the US and the former Soviet Union signed the Intermediate
Nuclear Force (INF) disarmament agreement which was the first major breakthrough
in nuclear disarmament.
Panchsheel: In 1954, the Prime Ministers of India and China, Jawaharlal Nehru
and Chou-en-lai enunciated five principles of peaceful coexistence while signing
the Treaty on Tibet. These five Principles, known as Panchsheel, have become
important formula of International relations. These are:
(i) Mutual respect for each others territorial integrity and sovereignty;
(ii) Mutual non-aggression;
(iii) Mutual non-interference in each others internal affairs;
(iv) Equality and mutual benefit and ;
(v) Peaceful coexistence.
Poverty Line: A way of defining the minimum level of existence in a society below
which it would be impossible to satisfy the bare minimum needs to survive.
GLOSSARY 287
Racism: Racism is any political or social belief that justifies treating people differently
according to their racial origins. (See Apartheid)
Rigging: It describes any fradulent, illicit or underhand interference with votes and
voting processes. The intention being to falsify the result or to make sure of electoral
victory in advance.
Secularism: A form or a system where religion and politics are separated from each
other; one where religion has no role in politics.
Trade Unions: These Unions are organised collectives of working people, usually
but not invariably in industrial and commercial rather than agricultural
organisations.