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Abstract. This article deals with geometrical knowledge. The aim of our work was to des-
cribe situation in teaching of geometry at secondary schools in the Slovakia and Hungary. We
asked 94 students to solve 7 geometrical problems and analysed their solutions.
Rsum. Cet article dcrit gomtrie connaissances. Le but de notre travail tait dcrire la
situation de lenseignement de la gomtrie aux coles secondaires en Slovaquie et Hongrie.
On a donn 7 problmes aux 94 leves dun lyce et dans la suite on a compar des solu-
tions.
Riassunto. Questo articolo affronta la tematica delle conoscenze geometriche. Lo scopo del
nostro lavoro stato quello di descrivere l'insegnamento della geometria nelle secondary
school in Slovacchia e Ungheria. Abbiamo chiesto a 94 studenti di risolvere 7 problemi di
geometria e in seguito abbiamo analizzato le loro soluzioni.
Abstrakt. V lnku sme sa zaoberali geometrickmi poznatkami. Naim cieom bolo op-
sa sasn stav vyuovania geometrie na strednch kolch na Slovensku a v Maarsku.
Poprosili sme 94 tudentov o rieenie geometrickch problmovch loh a analyzovali sme
ich rieenia.
Key words: spatial ability, spatial geometrical knowledge, imaginary manipulation, reconstruction,
teaching and learning spatial geometry, comparative survey
2 . BOSNYK, R. NAGY-KONDOR
1 INTRODUCTION
The typical exercises for each types of intelligence are presented below
(Figure 1):
Forty years ago teachers paid more attention to the teaching of spatial geo-
metry, especially to the descriptive geometry in Slovakian secondary schools.
Nowadays, these two topics are almost completely disappeared from the curri-
cula. We can find the descriptive geometry only among optional courses or some-
times not even there. As far as the material of the spatial geometry is concerned, it
is limited only to some classes. We often hear explanations for this like the lack
of time or teachers don't really like to start a hard topic like that. (Boek, 1990)
The spatial geometry is one of the most problematic parts of teaching mathe-
matics. One of the reasons for this is that there are complicated connections
among even the basic definitions. The task of the teacher is to motivate the pupils
to an adequate extent, to arouse the interest of the pupils in spatial geometry.
The teacher has to ponder the opportunities for exercises on classes and pay
attention to the former knowledge of the pupils. But the structure of the topic is
very important too. (Hejn et al., 1989)
In Hungary, Krteszi (Krteszi, 1972) already wrote about the difficulties
of teaching spatial geometry in 1972. The teaching of spatial geometry comes
only after the teaching of plane geometry. They deal with the plane geometry
first, as if the space around the plane figures did not exist. This is why difficul-
ties appear for not developing spatial ability in time. The teaching and learning
of this topic causes several different problems for the teachers and the pupils as
well. The spatial ability of the pupils because of the small number of classes
dealing with spatial geometry is poor. There are very few teachers who know
how to illustrate things quickly and properly on the board. The division of plane
and spatial geometry in time and topic in the curriculum, results in missing the
development of spatial ability in the optimal age. Although, the spatial ability
can be developed to a great extent. The school's job is to develop these abilities,
and the teacher's duty is to acquire the classical and modern methods that are
6 . BOSNYK, R. NAGY-KONDOR
suitable for that. Because the undeveloped spatial ability cannot be replaced by
a high level of theoretical knowledge. Vsrhelyi (Vsrhelyi) writes that the
analysis and the generalisation are obstructed by mistakes that appear in the
pedagogical practise of demonstration:
the split of the observation and the abstract way of thinking;
the over crowdedness of the demonstrational material;
special situation...etc.
In Hungary the primary aim of teaching geometry in grammar schools is
the development of the geometrical approach, the imagery thinking and the abi-
lity of plane and spatial orientation. For the successful acquiring of geometrical
notions, constructs and transformations, it is essential to have a talent in drawing
according to the age. A survey made on primary school pupils (Frei, 2004)
shows that the geometrical knowledge of the pupils is continuously augmenting
and deepening in the higher classes. Although, the role of the spatial ability is
growing in higher classes, it does not reach the 40 percent of the expected deve-
lopmental level even in the 8th year classes, the 5th year pupils have reached
a very low level in the test of spatial ability. Therefore the development of the
spatial ability would deserve more attention in terms of teaching geometry.
Tompa (Tompa, 2001) reports about the results of school-leavers on the
mathematics school-leaving exam in 1995-98. The topics of the school-leaving
exams were chosen from the following ones:
percentage, first- and second-degree equations,
logarithmic, trigonometric equations, functions,
number theoretical problems,
plane geometry, co-ordinate geometry, geometrical calculations,
spatial geometry, location,
vectors, trigonometry,
titles to be proven.
According to the report, pupils performed so poorly that if they had to pre-
sent one certain competence from each and every topic to pass their exams many
of them would fail.
A similar survey was made in Slovakia. Danihelov (Danihelov, 2000) in
her collection volume reports among others about the results of the school-leaving
exam from mathematics in 320 Slovakian secondary schools in 19992000. The
topics of the school-leaving exam were chosen from eight categories in Slovakia:
set theory and logic,
number theory,
combinatorics and calculus of probability,
serials and functions,
equations, inequalities and equation systems,
analytical geometry,
THE SPATIAL ABILITY AND SPATIAL GEOMETRICAL KNOWLEDGE 7
plane geometry,
spatial geometry.
From the survey it has turned out that the level of knowledge of the pupils is
very low. The efficiency in each topic was between 38,56 % and 61,11 %. Most
of the deficiencies can be observed in the solving of spatial geometrical tasks.
It is worth to think about why is always the spatial geometry the hardest
task on all school-leaving exams?
The number of classes that can be used for teaching certain topics in Slovakia
(Uebn osnovy gymnzia tvorron tdium, 1997, 1999) (Table 1):
Table 1. The number of classes that can be used for teaching certain topics in Slovakia
SECONDARY SCHOOL 1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year
Introduction to mathematics 20 0 0 0
Number theory 14 0 0 0
Functions, equations, inequalities 40 54 0 46
Geometry 20 60 83 0
Combinatorics, calculus of probability and statistics 24 0 0 20
Complementary curriculum 6 10 8 16
Tests 8 8 8 8
There are five series of course-books in Hungary for the 9th12th year classes.
When the course-books are being chosen the teacher or the school has to decide
what kind of methodology they wish to follow. They can choose books that are
more like activity books, or they can stay with classical course-books that contain
the necessary knowledge and ready-made exercises. They can even choose books
THE SPATIAL ABILITY AND SPATIAL GEOMETRICAL KNOWLEDGE 9
(Czegldy et al., 2005) that allow the preparation for both the basic and the advan-
ced level school-leaving exams.
In Hungary, according to the curriculum of the secondary schools the mini-
mum compulsory number of maths classes a week in the 9th12th year classes is
3334. In the curriculum they pay extra attention to emphasize the spiral
structure of the material. Besides they find the use of the inductive method very
important in making definitions. The teaching order of each topic is not determi-
ned by the curriculum, it is regulated in the syllabus based on one of the curri-
culum. The table below shows the number of classes that can be used for teaching
certain topics based on one of the curriculum (Kosztolnyi, 2000). During the
making of the syllabus these topics can be rearranged, where it is needed, with
the materials that belong to it.
The number of classes for each topic in Hungary (Table 3):
Table 3. The number of classes for each topic in Hungary
SECONDARY SCHOOL 9th year 10th year 11th year 12th year
Methods of thinking 6 6 10 15
Arithmetic, algebra 38 40 31 23
Functions, series 15 12 14 25
Geometry 39 39 40 45
Calculus of probability and statistics 5 8 10 10
Review at the end of the year 6 6 6 10
Altogether 111 111 111 128
1
These two course-books do not published handbook for teachers for the 12th year.
2
This syllabus determines only minimum number of mathematics classes.
10 . BOSNYK, R. NAGY-KONDOR
Within this, the recommended topics and number of classes for teaching
spatial geometry (Table 5):
Table 5. The recommended topics and number of classes for teaching spatial geometry
9th year 10th year
Kosztolnyi 2 The mutual position 38 The relation of the surface area
Czapry 1 of spatial elements; 3 and volume of similar solids;
Hajd 1 Notable set of points 45 Spatial calculations with the
in the space. help of trigonometric functions;
Hajnal 1 45
The use of vectors in space.
Vancs 1 34
In the comparison to make things a bit clearer we used 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th
year instead of 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th. The minimal compulsory number of maths
classes a week is more in the 1st and 2nd year and less in the 4th year in Slovakia
than it is in Hungary, but in the four years it is altogether 163. The following
diagrams show the rate of geometry and spatial geometry correlation to mathe-
matics and geometry. The percentage rates were calculated in every case accor-
ding to the curriculum. For the calculation of the rate of spatial geometry we
considered the number of classes in the Kosztolnyi curriculum.
3
These two course-books do not published handbook for teachers for the 12th year.
4
This syllabus determines only minimum number of mathematics classes.
THE SPATIAL ABILITY AND SPATIAL GEOMETRICAL KNOWLEDGE 11
The first diagram within the maths class shows the rate of geometry in both
countries (rate within mathematics) (Figure 2):
Geometry
100
83,84
Rate within maths (%)
80
60 Slovakia
45,45
35,14 35 36 35,16 Hungary
40
15,15
20
0
0
5
In the 4th year the students review spatial geometrical knowledge at the end of the year in both
countries.
12 . BOSNYK, R. NAGY-KONDOR
The next two diagrams show the rate of spatial geometry first in maths then
in geometry based on the curriculum in the two countries (Figure 3) (Figure 4):
Spatial geometry
100
Rate within maths (%)
80
60 Slovakia
40 Hungary
25,25
15,15 16,4
20
0 1,8 4,95 0 0
0
Spatial geometry
100
Rate within geometry (%)
80
60 Slovakia
46,66
33,33 30,12 Hungary
40
20 14,1
0 5,13 0 0
0
6
In the 4th year the students review spatial geometrical knowledge at the end of the year in both
countries.
THE SPATIAL ABILITY AND SPATIAL GEOMETRICAL KNOWLEDGE 13
In Slovakia there are 14 more days devoted for teaching spatial geometry in
secondary schools even if we count the maximum number of classes recommen-
ded for this topic in Hungary. In case we count the minimum number of classes
devoted for spatial geometry in Hungary, then the difference between the two
countries will be 24! The suggested material for both countries is the same, the
difference is that in Slovakia it is taught in the 2nd and 3rd years and in Hungary it
is taught in the 1st, 2nd and 4th years.
All in all, we can admit that there is little time devoted for the teaching of
spatial geometry in both countries.
The survey:
1. We cut the solid on the task sheet with a plane. We marked the lines of
intersections with a thick continual line on the surface of the solid. Draw
the lines of intersections on the solid's laid out surface (web)! We draw one
point of the line of the intersection on the web of the solid.
14 . BOSNYK, R. NAGY-KONDOR
4. The edges of the solid seen on the task sheet are of the same length. A
ladybird wants to get from point A to point B on the shortest way it is
possible. Which one of the edges marked by x does it have to go through?
Explain your solution!
THE SPATIAL ABILITY AND SPATIAL GEOMETRICAL KNOWLEDGE 15
5. The points drawn in the cube are the vertices, midpoints of the edges or the
sides or the diagonal line. What kind of geometric figure will we get if we
connect the given points? Draw the geometric figures!
Sample task: SCD right-angled triangle
BAF
SEF
BSD
=?
FDC
EAC
6. There is a cube ABCDEFGH (length of the edge: a). Determine the distance
of point E from the plane BDG.
We gave one point to each task, but only in case of correct part tasks. We
did not deduct a point in case of slight inaccuracy and slightly incorrect rates. In
the fourth task there are two ways of solution in the case of the second cube, but
we did not give extra points for getting both solutions. In the last two tasks it is
the students' task to name the vertices of the solids by the given letters. In the
case of these two tasks we gave points only to the correct calculations deduced
logically. The next diagram shows the performance of the students on the test
(Figure 5):
THE SPATIAL ABILITY AND SPATIAL GEOMETRICAL KNOWLEDGE 17
Results
100
72,09
80
Performance (%)
Tasks
We are listing the typical mistakes in the following sections. We call a mis-
take typical if it was committed by at least the 10 % of the students.
1. The students of the Komensk University were 11,31 % better in the tasks
of manipulating the imaginary solid. Both groups managed to solve these
tasks the best of all.
The 27,91 % of the students of the Komensk University and the 39,22 %
of the students of the University of Debrecen draw the line of intersections
to a wrong place.
3. In the reconstructional exercise was the biggest difference between the two
groups. At the Komensk University there were 29,99 % more students
who knew the correct solution.
The 46,51 % of the students of the Komensk University and the 78,83 %
of the students of the University of Debrecen reconstructed the solid
incorrectly or incompletely based on its projection picture. The 45,1 % of the
students of the University of Debrecen gave the solution that can be seen on
the middle figure.
4. The students of the Komensk University scored their worst in the task
related to the punctuation of the objective cognitive map, they managed
to solve the task 11,04 % worse than the students of the University of
Debrecen. The students of the University of Debrecen also reached a low
level at the test of the comprehension of the structure. Therefore, it is true
for both of them that the inner view of the picture does not reflect the
object's real spatial relations punctually enough.
The 51,16 % of the students of the Komensk University and the 45,1 % of
the students of the University of Debrecen in the case of one or both cubes
chose that point, through which the way would be the quickest if it was
a plane figure.
The 11,63 % of the students of the Komensk University and the 13,73 %
of the students of the University of Debrecen gave only one solution in the
case of the second cube.
THE SPATIAL ABILITY AND SPATIAL GEOMETRICAL KNOWLEDGE 19
The 18,6 % of the students of the Komensk University and the 41,18 % of
the students of the University of Debrecen suspected that the shortest way
is not through point C, but they chose the nearest point to that as a solution
without explanation.
5. From the students of the Komensk University there were 10,98 % more
people who solved correctly the tasks on the balance of perception and
thinking.
The 27,91 % of the students of the Komensk University and the 19,61 %
of the students of the University of Debrecen without drawing anything
they named each of the plain figures incorrectly.
Those who tried to draw each of the plain figures gave a correct solution for
them in 1411 cases. The 13,95 % of the students of the Komensk University
and the 11,76 % of the students of the University of Debrecen tried to put all
the figures in a square or tried to connect each point in the cube as if all the
points in the cube were in the same plane- and they named the plane figures
they got.
The 20,93 % of the students of the Komensk University and the 37,25 %
of the students of the University of Debrecen wrote line as a solution for
the BSD instead of figure.
6. The students of the University of Debrecen scored their worst in this exer-
cise 12,72 % less than the students of Komensk University.
The 27,91 % of the students of the Komensk University and the 29,41 %
of the students of the University of Debrecen tried to solve the task by
drawing, but incorrectly, 13,95 % and 19,61 % could not even draw the
BDG plane properly or did not even start the task at all.
7. The smallest difference between the two groups was in the problem-solving
task: the students of the University of Debrecen solved the task 8,85 %
better than the other ones. The low rate of fulfilling the sixth and seventh
task shows that the problem solving ability of the students is poor in the
field of spatial geometry.
THE SPATIAL ABILITY AND SPATIAL GEOMETRICAL KNOWLEDGE 21
6 SUMMARY
time with the models of spatial solids and on the university courses some review-
systematisation classes or even a whole semester should be devoted for the summa-
ry of spatial ability, spatial geometry and solving spatial geometrical tasks. The
effectiveness of teaching spatial geometry can be influenced to a great extent by
using several different models, manipulation activities with spatial models,
especially dynamic, in the demonstration of relations between spatial models and
operations with them (even at the university level). When they had acquired the
basic characteristics and relations by the help of traditional models then they
could be introduced to the new definitions. Since there is a huge difference
between the students' level of abstraction, it is important that the objective visuali-
sation should be appear when it is needed. Vsrhelyi (Vsrhelyi) calls the
attention to the use of computers besides the traditional models, because they pro-
vide help for the motivation of the students. The interactive worksheets that can be
made by dynamic geometrical systems remind us to the concrete model and they
lead us to the iconic representation. After acquiring the direct experiences through
concrete objective manipulation, a properly prepared interactive worksheet can
help to separate the characteristics of the model from the general characteristics,
different objects can be created and be observed in varied size and position.
According to Vsrhelyi (Vsrhelyi) it is practical to make four periods in
the usage of models:
with models,
with models and their pictures (e.g. by computer animation),
with pictures and their prepared models or animated pictures,
problem solving only with the help of pictures.
Bak (Bak, 2006) was studying the conditions of the beneficial usage of
computer in the teaching of spatial geometry. On the grounds of her researches
she concluded that in acquiring the basic definitions of spatial geometry and the
cognition of solids, the usage of models are still needed. After the development of
basic abilities, the computer can get a role in developing the spatial intelligence
from the 7th year of the primary school. She found that the help of the computer
could develop all of the skills given by Maier (Maier, 1998). At the same time,
she experienced that we should not overdo the use of computers, because the
explanation of the teacher, the usage of models and individual work are needed
as well.
We want to call the attention to one of the computer programs for pupils
made at the University of Veszprm (Sk Lnyi-Lnyi-Tilinger, 2003) that helps
the development of spatial ability. It is very useful that the program is inter-
active so we can rotate the solids by the mouse or we can use animations. It
gives a hand in, among others, the comprehension of the structure, the imagina-
ry transformations of the solids, the recognition and representation of the spatial
figure and it the field of making projections.
24 . BOSNYK, R. NAGY-KONDOR
We all agree in that the development of the spatial ability is a very important
task because we have to understand and develop the geometry knowledge of the
students in the unity of the theoretical knowledge and the spatial abilities. Every
skill, like the spatial ability as well can be developed at the right age with the
suitable teaching strategy.
The results of the students in this survey were assessed on the basis of
written documents. In the future we plan to make task based student interviews
and further surveys by questionnaires to reveal the problems and their results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank Professor Andrs Ambrus his valuable advice and help.
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GNES BOSNYK, Selye J. University, Ronckej koly 1519, 94501 Komrno, Slovakia
E-mail: matlak_agi@yahoo.com
RITA NAGY-KONDOR, University Of Debrecen, P.O. Box 11, H-4011 Debrecen, Hungary
E-mail: rita@mfk.unideb.hu