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Technology Roadmap
Hydropower
INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY
The International Energy Agency (IEA), an autonomous agency, was established in November 1974.
Its primary mandate was and is two-fold: to promote energy security amongst its member
countries through collective response to physical disruptions in oil supply, and provide authoritative
research and analysis on ways to ensure reliable, affordable and clean energy for its 28 member
countries and beyond. The IEA carries out a comprehensive programme of energy co-operation among
its member countries, each of which is obliged to hold oil stocks equivalent to 90 days of its net imports.
The Agencys aims include the following objectives:
n Secure member countries access to reliable and ample supplies of all forms of energy; in particular,
through maintaining effective emergency response capabilities in case of oil supply disruptions.
n Promote sustainable energy policies that spur economic growth and environmental protection
in a global context particularly in terms of reducing greenhouse-gas emissions that contribute
to climate change.
n Improve transparency of international markets through collection and analysis of
energy data.
n Support global collaboration on energy technology to secure future energy supplies
and mitigate their environmental impact, including through improved energy
efficiency and development and deployment of low-carbon technologies.
n Find solutions to global energy challenges through engagement and
dialogue with non-member countries, industry, international
organisations and other stakeholders.
IEA member countries:
Australia
Austria
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Canada
Czech Republic
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Korea (Republic of)
Luxembourg
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Slovak Republic
OECD/IEA, 2012 Spain
International Energy Agency Sweden
9 rue de la Fdration
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Turkey
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Please note that this publication United States
is subject to specific restrictions
that limit its use and distribution. The European Commission
The terms and conditions are available online at also participates in
http://www.iea.org/termsandconditionsuseandcopyright/ the work of the IEA.
Foreword
Current trends in energy supply and use are technologies such as wind power and solar
unsustainable economically, environmentally photovoltaics. It can foster social and economic
and socially. Without decisive action, energy- progress, especially in developing countries. This
related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions could roadmap considers that both annual hydropower
more than double by 2050, and increased oil capacities and generation should by 2050 roughly
demand will heighten concerns over the security double from current levels.
of supplies. We can and must change the path we
are now on; sustainable and low-carbon energy Hydropower is a competitive energy source
technologies will play a crucial role in the energy already today, but its further deployment still
revolution required to make this change happen. faces important regulatory, financial and public
To effectively reduce GHG emissions, energy acceptance issues. This roadmap identifies
efficiency, many types of renewable energy, carbon those barriers and includes proposals to address
capture and storage (CCS), nuclear power and new them, including technology and managerial
transport technologies will all require widespread improvements enhancing the environmental
deployment if we are to reach our greenhouse-gas performance of hydro.
emission goals. Every major country and sector of
Other IEA technology roadmaps have already
the economy must be involved and action needs
included a special focus on the diffusion of clean
to be taken now, in order to ensure that todays
energy technologies in countries beyond the IEA. As
investment decisions do not burden us with
the bulk of the growth of hydropower will come from
suboptimal technologies in the long term.
large-scale projects in emerging economies, the IEA
There is a growing awareness of the urgent need to benefited greatly from full-fledged cooperation from
turn political statements and analytical work into Brazil in elaborating and publishing this roadmap.
concrete action. To address these challenges, the Brazil, a leader in hydropower, shared its vast
International Energy Agency (IEA), at the request experience and knowledge. We are both confident
of the G8, is developing a series of roadmaps for that this novel and fruitful co-operation will broaden
some of the most important technologies needed as we continue to seek solutions to the worlds
to achieve a global energy-related CO2 target in energy challenges.
2050 of 50% below current levels. Each roadmap
develops a growth path for the covered technology
from today to 2050, and identifies technology, Maria van der Hoeven
financing, policy and public engagement milestones Executive Director
that need to be achieved to realise the technologys International Energy Agency
full potential.
This roadmap reflects the views of the IEA Secretariat and the Ministry of Mines and Energy of the Federative Republic of
Brazil, but does not necessarily reflect those of the individual member countries of the IEA or the OECD. The roadmap does
not constitute advice on any specific issue or situation. The IEA and the Ministry of Mines and Energy of the Federative
Republic of Brazil make no representation or warranty, express or implied, in respect of the roadmaps contents (including its
completeness or accuracy) and shall not be responsible for any use of, or reliance on, the roadmap. For further information,
please contact: technologyroadmapscontact@iea.org.
Foreword 1
Table of contents
Foreword 1
Acknowledgements 4
Key findings 5
Key actions in the next ten years 6
Introduction 7
Rationale for hydropower 7
Purpose, process and structure of this roadmap 8
Hydropower today 9
Overview 9
Diversity of hydropower 11
Classification by hydraulic head or powerplant size 14
Energy services 15
Vision for hydropower deployment 18
Regional scales 20
The broader context of renewable deployment 24
Pumped storage hydropower deployment 25
Contribution to CO2 abatement 27
Sustainable hydropower development 28
Environmental issues 28
Socio-economic issues 32
Public acceptance 32
Sustainable approach to development 33
The energy-water nexus 36
Economics 38
Costs 38
Support mechanisms 41
Financial challenges 42
Technology improvements: roadmap actions and milestones 46
Technical improvements 46
Managerial improvements 47
Innovations in pumped storage hydropower technologies 49
Policy framework: roadmap actions and milestones 51
Setting up/improving the policy framework 51
Ensuring sustainable development and gaining public acceptance 52
Overcoming economic and financial challenges 53
Conclusion: near-term actions for stakeholders 55
Acronyms and abbreviations 57
Detailed potential estimate in South and Central America 58
References 59
List of tables
Table 1. Top ten hydropower producers in 2011 10
Table 2. Countries with more than half their electricity generation from hydropower in 2009 10
Table 3. Definitions of small-scale hydro in different countries 15
Table 4. Expected PSP capacities in 2050 27
Table 5. Possible barriers and enabling factors for hydropower development 28
Table 6. Variations of the LCOE of a representative hydropower plant with WACC and load factor 38
Table 7. Minimum and maximum LCOE for selected electricity generating technologies 39
List of boxes
Box 1. Hydro backing wind power: the Denmark - Norway connection 16
Box 2. Hydro facilitating wind power in Portugal 26
Box 3. The Nam Theun 2 project: a model for sustainable development? 32
Box 4. IHA Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol 33
Box 5. The Brazilian approach: from river basin inventories to integrated energy planning 34
Box 6. Strategic environment assessment of multi-purpose hydropower development. 36
Box 7. Sensitivity of LCOE to variations of capacity factor and cost of capital 38
Box 8. Financing the Nam Theum 2 project 43
Box 9. Auction procedures in Brazil and the role of the BNDES bank 44
Table of contents 3
Acknowledgements
This publication was prepared by the International (CEPEL); Luiz Guilherme Marzano (CEPEL); Jian-Hua
Energy Agencys Renewable Energy division (RED), Meng (WWF Global Water Security Initiative) ;
in co-operation with CEPEL, the Brazilian Electric Paul Nel (Aurecon); Johansen Jan Oivind (Ministry
Energy Research Center on behalf of the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy, Norway); Christine van
of Mines and Energy. Cdric Philibert and Carlos Oldeneel (Hydro Equipment Association); Victorio
Gasco were the co-ordinators and main authors Oxilia (OLADE); Clemente Prieto (Iberdrola); Tormod
of this report, together with Maria Elvira Maceira Schei (Statkraft); Pierre Schlosser (Eurelectric); Karin
from CEPEL, and Niels Nielsen, Secretary of the Helen Seelos (Statkraft); Steve Usher (International
Implementing Agreement for a Co-operative Journal on Hydropower and Dams); Walter Vergara
Programme on Hydropower Technologies and (Inter-American Development Bank); and Francisco
Programmes (Hydropower IA). Paolo Frankl, head Romrio Wojcicki (Ministry of Mines and Energy
of the Renewable Energy Division, and Albert Geber of Brazil).
de Melo, Director-General of CEPEL, provided
invaluable guidance and input to this work. Mrcio The authors would also like to thank Peter
Zimmermann, Deputy Minister of Mines and Energy Chambers, Rebecca Gaghen and Marilyn Smith
of Brazil, and Didier Houssin, former Director of for skilfully editing the manuscript, as well as the
Energy Markets and Security at the IEA, provided IEA Publication Unit, in particular Muriel Custodio,
additional guidance and input. Several other IEA Cheryl Haines and Astrid Dumond. Bertrand Sadin
colleagues also provided important contributions created the design and the layout.
to the work on this roadmap, in particular Uwe
Finally, the support of the Brazilian and French
Remme, Cecilia Tam and Zuzana Dobrotkova.
governments, through CEPEL and ADEME, the
The authors are very grateful for all their inputs to French Agency for Energy Management and the
all reviewers. Their list includes Luisa Almeida Serra Environment, and Iberdrola, is fully acknowledged.
(Energias de Portugal); Pedro Bara Neto (WWF
Living Amazon Network Initiative); Fabio Batista
(CEPEL); Alex Beckitt (Hydro Tasmania); Emmanuel
Branche (Electricit de France); Arnaud Chaffoteaux
(Alstom); Fernanda Costa (CEPEL); Jorge Damazio
(CEPEL); Rajesh Dham and anonymous contributors
(United States Department of Energy); Paulo Cesar
Domingues (Ministry of Mines and Energy of Brazil);
Jakob Granit (Stockholm Water Institute); Prieto
Hernandez (Iberdrola); Gilberto Hollauer (Ministry
of Mines and Energy of Brazil); the International
Hydropower Association (IHA); Wim Jonker Klunne
(CSIR, Republic of South Africa); Ruud Kempener
(IRENA); Arun Kumar (IIT Roorkee, India); Franois
Lemperire (Hydrocoop); Alberto Levy (Inter-
American Development Bank); Maria Luiza Lisboa
zzHydropower is the major renewable electricity zzIn order to achieve its considerable potential
generation technology worldwide and will for increasing energy security while reducing
remain so for a long time. Since 2005, new reliance on electricity from fossil fuels,
capacity additions in hydropower have generated hydropower must overcome barriers relative to
more electricity than all other renewables policy, environment, public acceptance, market
combined. design and financial challenges.
zzT he potential for additional hydropower remains zzL arge or small, associated with a reservoir
considerable, especially in Africa, Asia and or run-of-river, hydropower projects must
Latin America. This roadmap foresees, by 2050, be designed and operated to mitigate or
a doubling of global capacity up to almost compensate impacts on the environment and
2000 GW and of global electricity generation local populations. The hydropower industry
over 7000 TWh. Pumped storage hydropower has developed a variety of tools, guidelines and
capacities would be multiplied by a factor of protocols to help developers and operators
3to5. address the environmental and social issues in a
satisfactory manner.
zzMost of the growth in hydroelectricity
generation will come from large projects in zzN ew turbines and design make modern
emerging economies and developing countries. hydropower plants more sustainable and
In these countries, large and small hydropower environmentally friendly; better management
projects can improve access to modern energy helps avoid damage to downstream ecosystems.
services and alleviate poverty, and foster social
and economic development, especially for zzHydropower projects require very substantial
local communities. In industrialised countries, up-front investment, which can range up to
upgrading or redevelopment of existing plants tens of billion USD. Although hydropower is
can deliver additional benefits. the least-cost renewable electricity technology
and is usually competitive with all alternatives,
zzHydropower reservoirs can also regulate water financing remains a key issue. This roadmap calls
flows for freshwater supply, flood control, for innovative financing schemes and market
irrigation, navigation services and recreation. design reforms to ensure adequate long-term
Regulation of water flow may be important to revenue flows and alleviate risks for investors.
climate change adaptation.
Key findings 5
Key actions in the next ten years
Concerted action by all stakeholders is critical to With respect to financial challenges, governments
realise the vision laid out in this roadmap. In order and relevant stakeholders should:
to stimulate investment on the scale necessary zzInclude the financing of hydropower on
to achieve the aimed-for levels of sustainable governments policy agendas and develop new
hydropower, governments must take the lead public risk-mitigating financing instruments.
in creating a favourable climate for industry
zzD evelop effective financial models to support
investment. Actions necessary to achieve these
large numbers of hydropower projects in
targets relate to the policy and market framework,
developing regions.
sustainability and public acceptance, financial
challenges and further technology development. zzProvide guidance to determine the real value
of hydropower and pumped storage, and
With respect to policy, governments should: mechanisms for remuneration.
zzE stablish or update an inventory of hydropower zzE stablish economic tools to assess the non-
potential, at river basin level where appropriate; energy contributions of multi-purpose
include options for upgrading or redeveloping hydropower developments.
existing plants to increase performance; assess
feasibility of adding hydropower units to dams With respect to technology development,
originally developed for flood control, irrigation, governments and industry should:
navigation or drinking. zzE xpand, co-ordinate and disseminate results of
zzPrepare hydropower development plans with technology development to improve operational
targets; and track progress towards meeting performance and reduce costs of development.
these targets. Least-developed countries could zzEnsure that the industry develops technologies
receive appropriate support to this end. at hydropower plants to better support the
zzD evelop and promote a policy framework and grid integration of large amounts of variable
market design for appropriate and sustainable renewable energy.
hydropower projects.
Introduction 7
Looking to the future, the most important drivers The IEA convened a first Hydropower Roadmap
for hydropower development will continue to be: Workshop in Paris, France (26-27 May 2011) to
zzlong and productive local generation capability initiate the work, with a broad agenda including
and low life-cycle costs; environmental and financing issues. The Brazilian
Electric Energy Research Center, CEPEL, hosted
zzproven reliability of electricity production, with
a second workshop in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (10-
few service interruptions;
11October 2011), with a focus on the Americas
zzsafe operation, with minimum risks to and Asia. The IEA convened a third workshop in
hydropower staff and the general public; Paris (9May 2012) to discuss the shared vision
zzenvironmental and socially sustainable for hydropower deployment and key actions and
development, providing climate change milestones. Finally, a short wrap-up session was
mitigation; organised in Washington, DC (30 May 2012) in the
zzflexible operations, energy services enhancing margins of the meetings of the IEA Hydropower
grid stability and enabling use of variable programme.
renewables;
This roadmap is organised in six major sections.
zzlarge-scale energy storage for seasonal load It starts with the status of hydropower today,
balancing; revealing its diversity.1 It continues with a vision
zzprovision of many non-energy services such for future deployment of hydropower, given its still
as flood control, water supply and irrigation, undeveloped potential, detailing regional scales;
especially in the context of growing freshwater this section includes considerations on the broader
needs and adaptation to climate change; context of renewable deployment and the role of
zzupgrades, redevelopments and improvements to hydropower as an enabler for variable renewables.
existing hydropower plants; The following section considers the dimensions of
sustainability, detailing environmental issues, socio-
zzaddition of hydropower facilities, where feasible,
economic and public acceptance issues, sustainable
to existing dams originally built to provide flood
approaches to deployment, and the energy-water
control, irrigation, water supply and other non-
nexus. The fifth section reviews the economics
energy purposes; and
of hydropower costs, support mechanisms and
zzenergy security with local generation.
financial challenges. The roadmap then looks at
continuing and future technology improvements,
before addressing the policy framework, listing
Purpose, process and actions and milestones. It concludes by listing near-
structure of this roadmap term actions for stakeholders.
20 000
15 000
TWh
10 000
5 000
0
20 0
2004
20 6
2008
20 9
2005
20 2
2003
19 0
19 4
2007
19 6
19 8
19 0
94
89
19 8
19 6
20 9
19 5
19 2
19 5
19 2
19 3
19 3
1977
1997
10
1987
2001
19 8
19 9
19 3
75
19 6
19 4
19 1
1991
0
0
7
9
8
8
7
9
8
9
7
9
7
8
8
9
9
19
19
19
19
Source: Unless otherwise indicated, material in all figures, tables and boxes derives from IEA data and analysis.
Hydropower today 9
Four countries (China, Brazil, Canada and the United More than 35 countries obtained more than half
States) together produce half the world hydropower of their total electricity from hydropower in 2009
generation; ten countries produce 70% (Table 1). (Table 2).
Japan 85 7.8
Venezuela 84 68
Sweden 67 42.2
Note: T
hese numbers do not include electricity imports such as those from the Itaipu hydropower plant side of Paraguay to Brazil,
which represent almost half of this hydropower plant generation (36 TWh).
Note: C
ountries in bold are those where hydropower generation exceeded 20TWh in 2009 and is indicated in the last column
on the right.
3 500
3 000
2 500
TWh
2 000
1 500
1 000
500
0
71
81
91
01
11
73
83
93
03
5
69
75
79
85
89
95
99
05
09
67
77
87
97
07
6
20
19
19
20
19
19
19
19
20
19
19
19
19
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Hydropower today 11
Figure 3: E
lectricity generation from recent additions to hydropower (left)
and other renewables (right)
600 600
500 500
400 400
TWh
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Hydropower Wind Bioenergy Solar Geothermal
HPP 1
HPP 2
HPP 3
HPP 4
HPP 5
HPP 6
Source: CEPEL.
Pumped storage hydropower generate electricity (Figure 5). Both reservoir HPPs
and PSPs store potential energy as elevated water
In pumped storage plants or projects (PSPs), water for generating on demand. The difference is that
is pumped from a lower reservoir into an upper PSPs take energy from the grid to lift the water up,
reservoir when electricity supply exceeds demand then return most of it later (round-trip efficiency
or can be generated at low cost. When demand being 70% to 85%), so PSP is a net consumer of
exceeds instantaneous electricity generation and electricity but provides for effective electricity
electricity has a high value, water is released to flow storage. Pumped storage currently represents 99%
back from the upper reservoir through turbines to of on-grid electricity storage (EPRI, 2010).
Upper
reservoir Upper
reservoir
Lower
Lower reservoir
reservoir
Water Water
G p
Conducting tube Conducting tube
Hydropower today 13
Most PSPs are open-loop systems developed a consequence of increasing penetration of variable
from an existing HPP system by addition of either renewables), the cycling may accelerate, i.e. PSP
an upper or a lower reservoir. They are usually may shift between pump and turbine modes several
off-stream. The off-stream configuration consists times per day, so increasing the yearly energy finally
of a lower reservoir on a stream, river or other stored and returned to the grid.
water source, and a reservoir located off-stream
usually at a higher elevation. (It is possible to have
the off-stream reservoir at a lower elevation such
Classification by hydraulic
as an abandoned mine or underground cavern). head or powerplant size
Another type is the pump-back project using
two reservoirs in series: a conventional hydro A classification by hydraulic head refers to
project with a pumped storage cycle imposed the difference between the upstream and the
on the normal hydropower operations. Pumping downstream water levels. The classifications of
from the downstream reservoir during low-load high head (say, above 300m) and low head
periods makes additional water available to use (say, less than 30m) technologies vary widely from
for generation at high demand periods. Finally, country to country, and there are no generally
closed-loop systems are completely independent accepted scales. Head determines the water
from existing water streams both reservoirs are pressure on the turbines. Together, head and
off-stream. discharge are the most important parameters for
deciding the type of hydraulic turbine to be used.
IEA analysis shows that existing installed turbine
capacity in PSP projects worldwide neared 140GW For high heads and small flows, Pelton turbines
at the end of 2011, up from 98GW in 2005. Leading are used, in which water passes through nozzles
countries/regions include the European Union and strikes spoon-shaped buckets arranged on the
(45GW), Japan (30GW), China (24GW), and the periphery of a wheel (Figure 6, left). A less efficient
United States (20GW). PSP, like HPP, cannot be variant is the crossflow turbine. These are action
characterised only by electrical capacities. In Spain, turbines, working only from the kinetic energy of
the 17 PSPs allow storage of 1.5TWh of electricity the flow.
in an ideal pumping cycle starting with empty
Francis turbines are the most common type, as
upper reservoirs and full lower reservoirs, and
they accommodate a wide range of heads (20 m
finishing with either full upper or empty lower
to 700m), small to very large flows, a broad rate
reservoirs. In the alpine countries, by contrast,
capacity and excellent hydraulic efficiency. Guide
16 PSPs store only 369GWh in Switzerland, 9
vanes direct the water tangentially to the turbine
PSPs store 184GWh in France, and 15 PSPs store
wheel; the water enters the wheel and exits it in
125GWh in Austria (EURELECTRIC, 2011).
the middle (Figure 6, centre). The guide vanes are
The yearly potential of PSPs depends also on the adjustable to optimise output and efficiency over
number of cycles they perform. When variability the variations in head and flow conditions.
arises from both demand and generation (usually as
Hydropower today 15
Box 1: Hydro backing wind power: the Denmark-Norway connection
Denmark is the country showing the highest designed to avoid the building of a thermal
share (24%) of wind power in its electricity plant in Norway, which would have been
generation. It is a flat land with no opportunities needed only during very dry years, while giving
for hydropower or PSP. However, it is close to Denmark more peaking capacity. At present,
Sweden and Norway, which have considerable a new cable, Skagerrak 4, is felt necessary to
hydropower potential. Over decades, several integrate more wind power into the Danish
high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) connecting power system and to enhance the efficiency
cables have been built between these countries, and competitiveness of the electricity market
as well as with Germany, the Netherlands and (Energinet, 2012). It will add about 700MW of
Poland (Figure 7). exchange capacity by 2014.
NORWAY
SWEDEN
Ska
gerr
n
ti -Ska
Kon
ak
LATVIA
NorNed
DENMARK
Baltic Sea
North Sea LITHUANIA
Kontek Baltic
cable RUSSIA
GERMANY POLAND
UNITED
KINGDOM NETHERLANDS
This map is without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
Hydropower today 17
Vision for hydropower deployment
This section first considers the technical potential technical potential would require a global capacity of
for hydropower, then short-term deployment 3750GW at 4000 full load hours. The percentage of
perspectives, and, based on IEA modelling, undeveloped technical potential is highest in Africa
deployment perspectives till 2050. These are (92%), followed by Asia (80%), Australia/Oceania
then detailed for most regions of the world. After (80%) and Latin America (74%) (Figure 8). Even
elaborating on the broader context of renewable in the most industrialised parts of the world, the
energy deployment, the text considers the specifics undeveloped potential remains significant, at 61% in
of pump-storage hydropower, as well as its North America and 47% in Europe.
deployment perspectives. Finally, the contribution
of hydropower deployment to CO2 emission Short-term deployment
reductions till 2050 is assessed.
Global installed hydropower capacities have been
Technical potential growing in recent years at an average of 24.2GW
per year, and reached 1067GW at the end of
The technical potential for hydropower is usually 2011 (including pumped storage capacities). Total
estimated at around 15000TWh/yr, or about 35% capacity is expected to reach 1300GW in 2017
of a theoretical potential derived from the total (IEA, 2012b) (Figure 9). Given the long lead times of
annual runoff of precipitation (e.g.IJHD 2010). This HPP development, these figures represent capacities
in construction virtually certain to come on line.
Figure 8: R
egional hydropower technical potential and percentage
of undeveloped technical potential (2009)
388 1 659 61%* 608 2 856 74%* 338 1 021 47%* 283 1 174 92%* 2 037 7 681 80%* 67 185 80%*
GW TWh/yr GW TWh/yr GW TWh/yr GW TWh/yr GW TWh/yr GW TWh/yr
Installed (%)
*Undeveloped (%)
1 200
1 000
800
GW
600
400
200
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
RoW Brazil China Russia United States Canada
Figure 10: H
ydroelectricity generation till 2050
in the Hydropower Roadmap vision (TWh)
8 000
7 000
6 000
5 000
TWh
4 000
3 000
2 000
1 000
0
2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
Figure 11: H
istorical hydroelectricity generation and projections in ETP 6DS
and 2DS, in TWh and shares of total electricity generation
8 000 25%
7 000
20%
6 000
5 000
15%
TWh
4 000
10%
3 000
2 000
5%
1 000
0 0%
1971 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2009 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
Hydro 2DS Hydro 6DS Share hydro 2DS Share hydro 6DS
Sources: IEA, 2012c and IEA analysis.
Although a factor, the quest for electricity is not the In countries that have already extensively developed
only driver: flood control and navigation services hydropower, environmental regulations and
are equally important in China. Five state-owned economic considerations may limit its further
companies are responsible for most investment in expansion, and not all technical potential will likely
electricity generating capacities. They are usually be harvested. For example, hydropower in France
given responsibility for all dams on a single river already generates 67 TWh/y on average. The overall
basin, thus allowing for harmonised management of technical potential has been assessed at 95 TWh/y,
the resource. but taking the strongest environmental protection
in full account brings the total to 80 TWh still a
In India, the Central Electricity Authority has 19% increase from current level (Dambrine, 2006).
mapped out hydropower resources by river basin,
ranking the attractiveness of potential hydropower EU member states have a common target of 20%
sites (CEA, 2001), for a total of 148.7GW in 399 renewable energy use by 2020. The European
hydro schemes plus 94GW in 56 possible pumped Union has also introduced the Water Framework
storage projects. In May 2003, the government Directive to turn rivers back to their original
launched the 50000MW Hydroelectric initiative environment as far as possible, with a focus on
of 162 projects, of which 41 were storage-based pollution reduction. In certain rivers, this will result
and 121 RoR. Their development faces several in reduced hydropower generation capacity due
constraints such as delays in environmental to increased compensation flow (i.e. the body of
approvals, forest clearance, lack of infrastructure water bypassing the HPP). A significant barrier
(roads, power and reliable telecommunication for future development of hydropower in Europe
systems), and issues relating to corruption, land is the lack of harmonisation between EU energy
acquisition, benefit sharing, resettlement and policy and various EU water management policies.
rehabilitation. Development of transmission systems This creates substantial regulatory uncertainties,
to connect hydro projects located in remote which are amplified by highly variable national
areas is also challenging. To overcome resistance implementation of these conflicting EU legislations.
against dam development, state governments may To promote implementation of renewable energy
prefer run-of-river schemes to reservoir storage schemes, many EU countries have introduced large
schemes, thereby forfeiting the premium value that economic support programmes, such as feed-in
hydropower provides as peak power and water tariffs. Some of these systems include smaller-scale
security for irrigation and drinking water use. hydropower projects, but most exclude larger-scale
hydropower projects.
Despite the regions rich resources, South Asia
continues to face power shortages that constrain In this context, reservoir HPP and PSP could facilitate
economic growth. Tremendous scope exists for the expansion of variable renewables. Several
co-operation in energy. Three nations bordering countries are strengthening or creating ties with
India have rich hydropower potential far in excess of Norway, which has considerable hydropower
their domestic needs: Nepal (potential of 84GW), potential. Norways Statnett and UKs National
Bhutan (24GW) and Burma (100GW). India, Grid, for example, are jointly developing a project
with its large gap between demand and supply, to construct a HVDC cable between Norway and
offers a ready market. This roadmap foresees a Great Britain. The North Sea Offshore Grid Initiative
total hydropower capacity in Asia of 852GW by aims to provide energy security, foster competition
2050, half in China and one quarter in India, with and connect offshore wind power. It will benefit
hydroelectricity reaching 2930TWh. from Norways HP capacity. Reservoir and cascading
HPP in the Alps or the Pyrenees could also play an
Europe important role in backing up the expansion of wind
power and PV.
At present, only about half the technically feasible
potential for hydropower in Europe3 has been PSPs, previously used for night pumping and diurnal
developed. The additional potential could be generation, are now used for frequent pumping
and generation during either day or night, as a
3. In this section, Europe does not include Eurasia and Russia; the
region has a hydropower capacity of 249 GW by 2009. result of the expansion of variable renewables.
4. T
he first demonstration of seawater pumped storage worldwide was
the 30MW Yanbaru project in Okinawa.
40 000
35 000
30 000
25 000
TWh
20 000
15 000
10 000
5 000
0
2009 2050 2DS 2050 hiRen
Coal Coal with CCS Natural gas Natural gas with CCS Oil
Nuclear Biomass and waste Biomass with CCS Geothermal Hydro
Solar CSP Solar PV Wind onshore Wind offshore Ocean
Source: IEA, 2012c.
Portugal must address the variability of wind to almost double by 2020. It also has about
power, which provides 17% of its electricity 1245MW pump-back PSPs, which it intends to
but has delivered up to 70% of all electricity in quadruple in the same time frame, to support
a single day (13 November 2011). The Iberian its continuous wind power deployment. Of
Peninsula has great hydropower potential but the 1959 MW of added hydropower capacity
poor electricity connections with neighbouring under construction, 1367MW include
countries. Portugals currently installed HPP capacity for pumping.
capacity totals 5180 MW, which it intends
The need for greater flexibility, which historically existing or new-built HPPs might enable their more
arose from the rigidity of some thermal power frequent use as peaking plants. PSP provides the
plants, is driving this expansion in many countries. largest electricity storage volumes and capacities,
This is only in part technical; economically, but projects are capital intensive, and investments
operating heavily capitalised plant (originally need to be made where the capacity created will be
designed for base load) to accommodate variations profitable (IEA, 2012c).
in demand dramatically cuts its profitability. Too
rapid and frequent variations may create costly A simplified approach builds on ETP2012, assuming
wear and tear, and reduce the plants technical that PSP remains the backbone of electricity storage
lifetime or require costly repairs. Yet large amounts capabilities. The ratio of current PSP capacity to
of variable renewables will only increase this need total electric capacity very much depends on the
for flexibility. characteristics of each electricity system: it is very
low where hydropower dominates, but high in less
The economics of PSP have paradoxically flexible systems. PSPs currently represent about 2%
deteriorated in the last few years in many countries of capacities in North America, 3% in China, 5% in
(see section on economics, below), slowing Europe, and 11% in Japan, and these proportions
deployment. Three years ago, the global capacity are increasing. A conservative approach would be to
was expected to exceed 200 GW by 2014 (Ingram, increase only the lowest of these percentages, and
2009) but this level is now unlikely to be achieved only slightly. This low estimate (Table 4) would
for several more years. lead to about 400GW by 2050 close to a trebling of
current PSP capacities.
Long-term deployment
The Hi-REN variant, which in some regions
Assessing the long-term global deployment (notably Europe and the United States) leads to a
of pumped storage hydropower is complex. greater proportion of variable renewables while
Current visions of a very large-scale deployment not significantly increasing the balancing role of
of renewables with minimal energy-related CO2 reservoir hydropower, would likely call for more
emissions tend to assume that covering demand PSP. This would lead to about 700GW PSP by 2050,
peaks and ensuring electricity generation during a quintupling of current PSP capacities, while still
long periods of very low wind or sun would best keeping the percentages of PSP under todays level
be achieved by combining some electricity storage in Japan. Noting that some experts envision even
with a large base of conventional, cheap peaking higher deployment levels of PSP (e.g. Lemprire,
plants with quite small load factors (IEA, 2011b). In 2010), this roadmap suggests a range of 400GW to
fact, hydropower capacities might be adapted to 700GW PSP capacities by 2050.
respond to this need, i.e. increasing the capacities of
United Rest of
China Europe Japan Total
States world
Note: F or both low and high estimates, the first two lines indicate the percentage of variable renewable energy, and of hydroelectricity,
relative to total energy in the electricity mix, as resulting from the 2DS or the Hi-REN modelling; building on this information as
explained in the main text, the third line shows this roadmap's assumption of the possible share of pump-storage capacities over
total electric capacities. The fourth line expresses these results in GW.
Figure 13: E
stimates of lifecycle GHG emissions in electricity generation
(excluding land-use changes)
Electricity generation technologies powered by renewable resources Electricity generation technologies
powered by non-renewable resources
2 000
1 750
Maximum
1 500 75th percentile
Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions (g CO2 eq/kWh)
Medium
1 250 25th percentile
Minimum
1 000
Single estimate
750 with CCS
500
250
0
Geothermal
Wind
Oil
Coal
Ocean
Hydro
Photovoltaics
Natural gas
Biopower
Nuclear
-250
-500
-750
-1 000
-1 250
Nam Theun 2 (NT2) is a cross-border project evaluated comprehensively since the early
consisting of dams with hydropower facilities 1970s by the project sponsors, Lao PDR, NGOs,
having an installed capacity of 1070MW consultants and multilateral development
(1000MW for export to Thailand and 70MW institutions. The project has been designed
for domestic use in Laos and the management of to meet and often exceed the applicable
the projects environmental and social impacts). World Bank and Asian Development Bank
Following a feasibility study initiated by the guidelines on E&S issues. A proportion of its
World Bank, it is the largest foreign investment revenues will be used for poverty reduction
by the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao and environmental protection. The legal
PDR), the world's largest private-sector financed commitment, written into the Concession
cross-border HPP project, and a significant Agreement, to improve the incomes of resettled
step in the co-operation between Lao PDR and villagers, sets a new standard for hydro
Thailand. Delayed in particular by the Asian schemes. Various independent monitoring
financial crisis, the project took 20 years to be agencies work to ensure these obligations
completed after the feasibility study initiated by are strictly followed. NT2 was voted the top
the World Bank in 1989. hydroelectric power project of the year 2011 in
a Global Energy Magazine poll.
The environmental and socio-economic issues
associated with NT2 have been studied and
The IHA protocol is a comprehensive tool to (Equator Principles Group) and development
assess the sustainability of hydropower projects banks (World Bank); and the hydropower sector,
globally. It provides a rigorous, evidence- represented by IHA. Development of the protocol
based assessment of between 19 and 23 involved field trials in 16 countries, across 6
relevant sustainability topics, depending on continents, and stakeholder engagement with
the development stage of the project. It is the nearly 2000 people in 28 countries. Its topics
product of a multi-stakeholder development cover the three pillars of sustainability social,
process involving representatives from social economic, and environmental and include
and environmental NGOs (Oxfam, The Nature issues such as downstream flow regimes,
Conservancy, Transparency International, WWF); indigenous peoples, biodiversity, infrastructure
governments (notably China, Germany, Iceland, safety, resettlement, water quality, and erosion
Norway, Zambia); commercial organisations and sedimentation.
Box 5: T
he Brazilian approach: from river basin inventories
to integrated energy planning
Brazil has developed structured planning SINV (CEPEL, 2008,2011), was developed to
and operation procedures for hydropower assist the inventory studies. The manual and the
development based on a set of methodologies SINV system have been used in several Brazilian
and studies, which interact with the planning inventory studies, e.g. the Teles Pires river basin,
procedures of the energy sector as a whole. in Amazon region, and the bi-national study
In these procedures, socio-environmental of Uruguay river basin inventory (Brazil and
aspects are considered from the first phase Argentina border), among others.
of expansion planning and are continuously
monitored throughout the project life-cycle. As part of project development, the purchase of
The physical targets and the expansion energy is based on a public auction procedure.
schedules are established with a view to future This requires a preliminary environmental
auctions for the purchase of energy from license or previous license (LP), which
new generation developments and for new itself is based on the environmental impact
transmission facilities. The development of new assessment (EIA) Report. This LP includes public
hydroelectric power plants involves five distinct hearings and water use rights. The auction
stages: Estimate of hydroelectric potential; winner, prior to project implementation, has to
inventory, feasibility; basic design; and undertake further environmental studies and
executive design. In each stage, engineering meet all requirements prior to obtaining the
studies are balanced by assessments of energy environmental operating license.
benefits and socio-environmental impacts.
In operation, generation schedule is
In the inventory stage, the Manual for co-ordinated with the other generation
Hydropower Inventory Studies outlines the plants in the country by the national electric
process to balance energy generation, social system operator in order to obtain the best
and environmental impacts (positive and use of the national hydropower system.
negative) and multiple uses of water. All the This co-ordination is done using a chain of
site selection alternatives (i.e. alternatives for optimization models with different degrees of
the partition of the total water head of a river detail in system representation, which are also
basin) are analysed and the optimum is selected used in the expansion planning studies of the
according to a basic criterion of maximising electrical sector. These are under continuous
economic energy efficiency while minimizing development (Maceira et. al, 2002, 2008) for an
any negative socio-environmental impacts, integrated and sustainable expansion planning
taking into account the positive impacts from the of the Brazilian energy system and, have been
implementation of the hydropower plants in the used not only by the Brazilian electrical sector
basin. A computerised decision support system, entities but also by utilities and agents.
Figure 14: M
ajor dams under development today of which
60% are multi-purpose
This map is without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
Source: IJHD, 2010.
Box 6: S
trategic environment assessment of multi-purpose
hydropower development
The strategic environment assessment (SEA) is factors are considered to be of the same level of
an instrument to analyse impacts of hydropower importance as technical and economic factors.
development early in the planning process. It
can be used to help address risks, challenges, There is an increasing trend to involve the
mitigation strategies, opportunities and costs. private sector in the development and financing
of new hydropower, and the SEA process
An SEA does not replace the traditional can provide an overall perspective of the
feasibility study and environmental and social opportunities and risks. This is particularly
impact assessments that are pre-requisites important as hydropower projects are usually
for project approval. Rather, it is an umbrella perceived as high risk from a political and
assessment to ensure that a project moving financial perspective. The SEA process outlines
into the final approval and financing stage key risks and opportunities for different options
is compared with all alternative options for as well as mitigation options to be further
meeting needs in the country or region. For analysed in detailed feasibility study and project
such a comparison, social and environmental design (Granit, King and Noel, 2011).
The levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) from Note that if one compares different options for
HPP is very sensitive to variations of plant the equipment of one single site, the reasoning
capacity factor and the cost of capital used will be different. Yearly production depends
for financing, as shown on Table 6 for a on the site characteristics, water flows and
development with a construction period of head. With sufficient reservoir capacity, the
only differences in the various options may lie
5 years followed by a 50-year life span. The
in the relative sizes of the electrical equipment:
investment cost is assumed as USD1500/kW
larger for a peaking plant, smaller for a base-
with operation and maintenance (O&M) costs load plant. Variations of the lcoe might be
of 2.5% of this amount. only +/-20%. Under fair time-of-use electricity
pricing, the variation of revenues might be
more important than that of costs.
Table 6: V
ariations of the LCOE of a representative hydropower plant
with WACC and load factor
75% 28 34 41
Table 7. M
inimum and maximum LCOE for selected electricity
generating technologies
Micro hydro
Geothermal
Small-scale
Small-scale
Technology
Bioenergy
Bioenergy
New coal
co-firing
offshore
New gas
Solar PV
Solar PV
onshore
Biogas
Hydro
Wind
Wind
CCGT
CSP
min USD/ 20
80 80 35 155 160 50 140 40 40 35 185 110
MWh
Costs vs. benefits value. IEA Hydro has started a new research project
on hydropower services to evaluate the costs and
Economic analyses are used for multi-purpose benefits of the following aspects:
developments to better understand the value of
zzintegration of any non-firm renewable resource,
the benefits provided. Governments, agencies
such as wind energy, solar energy, biomass,
and regulators need to understand the economic
etc., that is both large scale and subject to rapid
parameters for any hydro project they are
fluctuations in supply;
considering.
zzt he provision and sale of ancillary services by
In many regions and markets, some energy and hydropower producers;
most water management services are provided
without compensation or an understanding of their
Economics 39
zzrequirements for hydropower plant equipment In the United States, the main reason for this closing
and its controls, modifications and decision- of the gap may be the low price of natural gas,
support software, to enable rapid integration; driven down by the boom in shale gas and the wide
zzt he provision of water management services; and availability of gas-fired plants. Although more than
16 GW of new PSP capacities have recently been
zzsocio-economic impacts of hydropower
licensed, only 1 GW will be commissioned by 2020,
development.
almost all of it through modernisation and upgrade
Hydropower is the only large-scale, cost-efficient of existing PSP (Fisher et al., 2012).
storage technology available to support electrical
In Europe, growing shares of renewable may
systems. Conventional reservoir hydro projects
have played a significant role due to the merit
are even less costly than pumped storage plants
order effect that reduces electricity prices on spot
(Eurelectric, 2011).
markets, which are based on marginal running
costs. For example, PSP plants in Germany have
Economics of pumped collected about kEUR 87/MW (kUSD 112) in 2008
storage hydropower but only kEUR 35/MW (kUSD 45) in 2010. Ancillary
service markets especially negative secondary
Existing PSP get most revenues from the difference
reserve - may now provide greater revenues in
between peak and off-peak prices the price at
Germany, with 83kEUR/MW (kUSD 107) on average
which owners sell energy, and the price at which
2008-10 (Steffen, 2012). These various revenue
they bought it. For a project to be viable, these
streams are not cumulative, however, as the same
revenues, minus efficiency losses and possible
MW cannot be fully devoted to arbitrage (buying/
grid fees, must cover investment, operation and
selling) and reserve at the same time.
maintenance costs. The spread between peak and
off-peak prices has diminished in various areas,
including those where the need for storage is
increasingly recognised, such as Europe and the
United States.
0.8
0.6
USD / kWh
0.4
0.2
0
PEM FC SOFC NiCd NaS Va Redox CAES Pumped hydro
High Low
Note: P
EM FC = Proton exchange membrane fuel cell; SOFC = Solid oxide fuel cell; NiCd = Nickel cadmium battery; NaS = Sodium-
sulphur battery; Va Redox = Vanadium redox flow battery; CAES = Compressed air energy storage. For the high case the assumed
price for electricity is USD 0.06 per kWh; for the low case USD 0.04/kWh.
Source: NREL, 2009.
Economics 41
Given the scientific uncertainties concerning 80 years for civil works, project viability relies
greenhouse gas emissions from reservoirs, a rough critically on long tenure, which is typically difficult
criterion was instituted to determine the eligibility to obtain from private commercial lenders.
of hydroelectric power plants for CDM project
activities, based on the notion of power density With significant hydropower potential in developing
nations, policy, price and political uncertainty are
(i.e. installed power generation capacity divided by
also concerns for potential investors, adding an
the flooded surface area, in W/m2). Hypothetically,
additional level of complexity and risk to financing.
two storage projects with similar power density
The inability to provide project financing that meets
would have the same emissions independent of
the needs of both the developer and the lender
climate zones or of inundated biomass and carbon
is often the main challenge to the development
fluxes. The IPCC Special Report on Renewable
of sustainable hydropower projects, particularly
Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation
where public funds are scarce and private investors
(IPCC, 2011) notes, however, that there is little link
consider the risk is too high.
between installed capacity, the area of a reservoir
and the various biogeochemical processes active A possible solution to such an impasse is the public-
in a reservoir. As such, the power density rule may private partnership (PPP), through which financial
inadvertently impede the development of socially- efforts, risks and returns are shared between
beneficial hydropower projects, while at the same private investors and the public sector, to provide
time supporting less beneficial projects. On-going the synergies for a positive outcome. A PPP can
scientific work is expected to lead to more also be valuable in countries that lack sufficient
appropriate criteria. Even if the CDM provides only financial resources and have utilities with shortages
a small share of the overall revenues of HPP, it can of technical skills. The public sector takes the lead
increase investment profitability. in creating the appropriate institutional and legal
framework, and partners with the private sector in
The Nam Theun 2 Hydroelectric Project (NT2) Lao governments equity is financed by means
(see Box 3) is owned by private shareholders of loans, grants and other financing from
and the government of Laos PDR (GoL) and international institutions. About 85% of the total
backed by commercial lenders and international cost has been funded from the private sector.
financial institutions including the World Bank,
The electricity generating authority of Thailand
the European investment bank (EIB) and the
(EGAT) is contracted to purchase power from
Asian Development Bank (ADB). Nam Theun 2
NT2 at an agreed tariff on a take-or-pay basis
power company (NTPC) was formed by GoL and
for the duration of the 25-year operating
private shareholders to build and operate the
concession and therefore assumes market
project for the first 25 years.
risks. Under a similar agreement EDL (the Lao
The project had a total investment cost, electricity utility) undertakes to buy energy at
including contingencies, of USD1.3 billion, an agreed tariff on a take-or-pay basis.
with the project financed on a debt-equity
The hydrological risk is shared between EGAT
ratio of 72/28. The financing arrangements
and NTPC. Construction risk was borne by
reflect project economics. The senior debt
the head contractor, which in turn passed on
facilities in USD include political risk guarantees
a substantial portion of that risk to the five
from the ADB, the World Bank and the
subcontractors under fixed price contracts with
multilateral investment guarantee agency
heavy penalties for late delivery. Thai political
(MIGA), export credit agency support and
risk associated with the off-take agreement
direct loans from a number of multilateral
is reduced by the involvement of the Thai
and bilateral development agencies. Nine
commercial lenders, while the international debt
international commercial banks and seven
is backed by various multilateral development
Thai commercial banks are providing long-
banks and export credit agencies. Government
term loans. Project financing was completed
obligations under the Concession Agreement are
by shareholder contribution of equity pro-rata
backed by the World Bank and ADB.
to their respective participation in NTPC. The
The increasing role of the private sector in zzLong repayment periods are decisive for the
hydropower development has created some financial viability of a hydro project. Loan
challenges: maturities average 5 to 10 years for commercial
zzW ith large hydropower in public sector banks, 10 years for corporate bonds and 10 to 25
ownership, government policy was to keep years for IFI loans all of which are shorter than
tariffs low, partly to support local economic the normal economic life (50 to 80 years) of a
development. In the private ownership model, hydropower project.
developers and financiers require commercial
rates of return, and governments seek revenue Project risks and mitigation
from royalties, taxes, etc.. This has increased the
In order for investors and lenders to be willing to
production cost of hydropower.
engage in the funding of a hydropower project,
zzA privately financed hydropower project will be it is essential that all risks be properly identified,
sized to deliver maximum commercial returns, quantified where possible, effort be made to
whereas the same project developed with public reduce them, and residual risks be properly
funding would likely be sized to maximise the allocated, managed or mitigated among the various
use of the water resource, including multi- stakeholders.
purpose benefits. Where international financial
institutions (IFIs) are involved, some provision of With no two hydropower projects being the same,
non-energy benefits is usually required. it is not possible to use a standardised financial
framework. However, setting a common basis for
risk identification and mitigation measures helps
Economics 43
Box 9: Auction procedures in Brazil and the role of the BNDES bank
The Brazilian power sector model initiated the same hiring costs per unit of energy. For
in 2004 relies on a combination of planning power generators, this mechanism reduces the
and competition (with both private and risk of default since they sign a power purchase
government-owned companies) to guarantee agreement with all distribution companies.
supply adequacy and provide a relatively Auctions also represent an opportunity of
predictable environment for attracting new selling their energy by long-term future
investors. The model states that the energy contracts, even before the construction of the
distribution companies should acquire their power plant. This implies a reduction of risks
energy supply through public auction. and uncertainties, and also contributes to
lowering the costs of electricity generation.
For the distribution companies, the purpose of
such auctions is to contract power to fully meet In the particular case of hydropower generation
their forecast demand (three to five years in projects, due to the amounts of money involved
advance). Before the auction, each distribution in the development phase and the long time
company indicates the amount of energy it needed for their construction, credit lines with
will need. The individual energy demands are specific conditions may be necessary.
then aggregated to a single pool, which will
purchase the sum of the amounts requested by Brazils BNDES (National Bank for Economic
all distribution companies. and Social Development) has been the leading
provider of long-term financing for infrastructure
During the auctions, the generation projects are investments. For the Brazilian electricity sector,
sorted in ascending order, according to the bid BNDES support involves financing investment
price offered by the developers of the project, projects and equipment acquisition, thus
until their aggregated supply fully meets the allowing the execution of projects with high
pool energy demand. The developers that investment volumes and long-term deployment
offer the biggest discounts on the price cap are period. From January 2003 to June 2008, the
declared winners and then contracted with all bank supported 142 power generation projects
distribution companies. totalling about BRL 21.3 billion (USD 10.5 bn) in
financing, of which BRL 13.6 billion (USD 6.7 bn)
For power distributors, this mechanism went to hydroelectric projects.
socialises the gains of trade, for example,
ensuring that all distributors may face exactly
Economics 45
Technology improvements:
roadmap actions and milestones
While hydropower is the most efficient power potential to make hydropower development
generation technology, with high energy payback more reliable, efficient, valuable and safe.
ratio and conversion efficiency, there are still many Improvements along the lines of those made in the
areas where small but important improvements in last 30 to 50 years will also continue, though with
technological development are needed. Work is smaller incremental benefits: mainly in physical
underway to identify and apply new technologies, size, hydraulic efficiency and environmental
systems, approaches and innovations, including performance.
experience from other industries, that have the
Technical improvements
Technology Timing
Develop low-head and kinetic flow turbines for use in canals, pipes and rivers 2012-30
90%
+ 4%
Turbine peak efficiency
85%
Pelton supplied
in 1950
80%
75%
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Kaplan Francis Pelton
Source: Stepan, 2011.
Managerial improvements
Managerial improvements Timing
Upgrade or redevelop old plants to increase efficiency and environmental performance 2012-50
The vision for this Hydropower Roadmap is to materials used in the windings and elsewhere, and
develop significant increases in energy and erosion, corrosion and hence fatigue in turbine
capacity, with most of this to be derived from new components. The capacity of HPP will decrease
hydropower developments. However, the first as equipment, and waterways and reservoirs get
priority should be managing existing hydropower progressively clogged with silt, operating costs
developments to both ensure their capacity is exceed revenues or generation ceases due to a
maintained over the long term, and gain any major component failure. Regular maintenance and
feasible increases in output of energy and services. replacement of damaged or obsolete equipment
It is also important to consider any opportunities is needed to maintain the original level of service.
to add hydro capacity to existing water resource Upgrades may include modifications to reduce
facilities that do not have power generation. environmental impacts through the introduction of
fish-friendly turbines, or improving safety to cope
Hydro plant machinery deteriorates with age and with exceptional floods or earthquakes.
will eventually fail, principally due to thermal,
electrical and mechanical degradation of insulation
Use variable-speed pump turbines for PSP projects to provide greater variability 2012-20
Develop seawater PSP in conjunction with offshore resources (wind power, marine power) 2020-50
Under normal operating conditions, hydropower a man-made reservoir on top of cliffs as the upper
turbines are optimised for an operating point reservoir. Running turbines with seawater is a
defined by speed, head and discharge. At fixed- proven, mature technology the tidal plant of La
speed operation, any head or discharge deviation Rance in France has been operating for almost 50
involves some decrease in efficiency. Variable-speed years. Much larger projects are under consideration
pump-turbine units operate over a wide range in various parts of the world. For example, in
of head and flow, improving their economics for France, various GW-sized plants could be installed
pumped storage. Furthermore, variable-speed in Normandy and Brittany, where the variable wind
units accommodate load variations and provide resource is good (Lemperire, 2011). Each would
frequency regulation in pumping mode (which require about 1km2 of land.
fixed-speed reversible pump-turbines provide only
in generation mode). The variable unit continues It has also been proposed to create entirely artificial
to function even at lower energy levels, ensuring seawater or freshwater PSP systems in the absence
a steady refilling of the reservoir while helping of natural declivity. A Dutch company, Kema, has
to stabilise the network. Wear and tear on the further developed the concept of Energy Island to
machine, seals and bearings is reduced. build off the Dutch coast in the North Sea. It would
be a ring dyke enclosing an area 10km long and
For very flexible operations, so-called ternary 6km wide (Figure 19). The water level in the inner
pump turbine units group separate pump and lake would be 32metres to 40metres below sea
turbine on a single shaft with a unique motor/ level. Water would be pumped out when electricity
generator. These units operate in a single rotational is inexpensive, and generated through a turbine
direction allowing for rapid transitions from power when it is expensive. The storage potential would
absorption to power production and back. be 1500MW by 12 hours, or 18GWh. It would also
be possible to install wind turbines on the dykes, so
The first marine pumped storage system was reducing the cost of offshore wind close to that of
developed in 1999 on the Japanese Island of onshore, but still with offshore load factors.
Okinawa, with seawater as the lower reservoir and
Integrate HPP development in energy and water planning at river basin level 2012-20
Each nation with hydropower potential should the forefront in identifying such opportunities,
prepare or update its inventory of hydropower but public agencies could identify dams without
potential (run-of-river, reservoir storage and generating facilities and assess their feasibility for
pumped storage) in terms of technical, economic, hydropower.
environmental and social feasibility. This inventory
should cover site selection, i.e., the formulation Hydropower should be included in the option
of alternatives for the partition of the total water assessment for each countrys energy resources,
head of a river basin, by carefully addressing considering both short-term operational and long-
environmental, social and economic impacts and term expansion planning. Targets for hydropower
the benefits of the new projects, including multi- should be developed, taking into account all
purpose development and all potential users of the concerns and any cross-boundary issues, for
water resource at river basin level. integration with the national strategic energy
plan. Environmental permits should include
This inventory should also take in account all an environmental impact assessment (EIA) that
opportunities to rehabilitate, upgrade or uprate encompasses social issues and water use rights.
existing HPP to increase efficiency; improve output, In this process, hydropower should be treated
capacity and value; and enhance environmental equally with all other sources of renewable energy
performance.It is also important to consider any and included in all analyses and discussions. The
opportunity to add hydro capacity to existing water potential of reservoir HPP and PSP to help integrate
resource projects that presently do not already variable renewables such as wind power and PV
have it. HPP owners and operators should be at electricity should be acknowledged. As these
Develop tools to monitor and manage GHG emissions from reservoir HPP 2012-50
Communicate with stakeholders at all stages of HPP and PSP development 2012-50
One of the most important stages in the sustainable implementation of hydropower projects, and
development of hydropower is the selection of during their operational life cycle. Those that
water head partition, carried out in the river basin cannot be avoided should be minimised, mitigated
inventory studies. The hydroelectric inventory is of or compensated. This includes environmental
paramount importance once the decision is taken impacts (notably on water quality, wildlife and
not only for a single project but for the whole set biodiversity), as well as socio-economic impacts on
of projects that can be developed in a river basin. local populations. Developers should use guidelines
Sustainability criteria should be utilised in this or protocols reflecting recognised standards, and
phase, requiring the development of methodologies regularly report on their achievements in meeting
that provide clear direction on how to minimise sustainability objectives.
negative social and environmental impacts while
maximising the positive ones and also capturing The positive impacts for sustainable development
synergies between hydropower development and must also be considered, especially in comparison
the river basin water resources. with possible alternative water and energy
management options, as well as in promoting
All possible impacts of hydropower development social improvements and regional development.
must be considered and taken in account by Assessment of costs and benefits, including
developers and regulatory authorities. To the environmental aspects, should be clearly and widely
greatest possible extent, negative impacts should communicated.
be avoided, both during the development and
Reform electricity markets to ensure the adequate long-term revenue flows 2012-20
Ensure that financial decision making for sustainable projects takes full account of
2012-50
economics, environmental/social aspects and the long-term contractual framework
With the electricity industry evolving towards financing institutions, must enter into arrangements
deregulation in many countries, public funding with the private banking sector to reduce the cost of
for new hydropower projects has diminished capital and the level of risk.
substantially in favour of private financing,
operation and ownership. Like most renewable Hydropower can make a considerable contribution
energy technologies, hydropower is a capital- to energy security in the context of decarbonising
intensive business. Hydropower projects require the energy mix, but this is likely to require the
long construction periods and large upfront development of adequate financing schemes.
capital costs.
In countries restructuring their electricity markets,
One of the most pressing priorities in the utilities could be induced to offer long-term power-
hydropower sector is to develop the business model purchase agreements to HPP developers, and
and financial instruments that will enable the markets to effectively reward flexibility in all aspects
required rapid growth in large-scale hydropower. (demand-side management, interconnection,
The various risks for developers from variations flexible generation and storage). The creation or
in rain patterns to uncertainties about future strengthening of ancillary services markets could be
electricity prices must be mitigated. In emerging part of this exercise.
economies the national public banking institutions,
and in developing countries the international
Intergovernmental
zzProvide capacity building for regulatory frameworks and business
organisations and
models to help developing countries implement sustainable hydropower
multilateral development
development.
agencies
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and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
The paper used for this document has received certification from the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC)
for being produced respecting PEFCs ecological, social and ethical standards. PEFC is an international non-profit, non-governmental
organization dedicated to promoting Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) through independent third-party certification.
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