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Springer
2010
Ethics(2009)90:551-564
ofBusiness
Journal
DOI 10.1007/sl0551-010-0606-y
Ugo Pagallo
MassimoDurante
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552
and PhonogramsTreaty's
Treaty's art. 8 and Performances
art.14).
As somepopularon-linesstoreslikeAmazonor
inforthereexistfullyintegrated
Tunes illustrate,
of
mationsystems
by means complex
implemented
such as the ContentDelivery
serverarchitectures
Network(CDN), whichare reshapingthe tradibetweencreator,busitionaltrilateral
relationship
between
ness, and the public. The difference
of digitalworksis rapidly
distribution
and delivery
collapsing.
andauthorship
Yet,itis theveryideaofcreativity
whichhasbeenturned
upsidedownbytheinformation
likeToffler
Whilesomescholars
revolution:
(1980)or
of
a
new
talk
about
Anderson
(2006)
type "prosumers"
others
insist
on the
andconsuming),
(bothproducing
between centralizedand decentralized
difference
market
andnon-market
between
mechanisms,
choices,
to stressthenoveltyof socialexchangebasedupon
and cooperation
ratherthanprice(as in
reciprocity
doesnotdepend
This
transformation
Benkler,
2004).
the"distributed
of
on
the
possibility harnessing
only
butalsoon thecompuoftheinternet,
intelligence"
availableat eachstepof thedigital
resources
tational
and
investments
conventional
thatdwarfs
interaction
redundant
intermediaries
traditional
makesmany
(as
alreadypointedout by Tapscott,1997).Whileprofromtraditendto migrate
ductionand distribution
tothepublicviasocialsharing,
activities
tionalbusiness
offilesharing
itis clearthatthedevelopment
applica"short
the
has
made
P2P
networks
like
tions-systems
route"evenshorter.
of
The resultof thisevolutionis thepolarization
today'sdebate: Some stressthatP2P interaction
undermines
key elementsof our societiessuch as
of
or protection
forknowledge
incentives
producers
thepersonalspherefromunwantedscrutiny
(Keen,
as thekeyto a
thisinteraction
2008).Otherspresent
Not onlywouldcommunities
newparadigm:
sponbut
on the internet,
taneously
organizethemselves
to
be
are normatively
such organizations
judged
positive developmentsthat should be further
(Bauwens,2005).
encouraged
Soy how can we balance theseoppositeviews?
thereis
On thesideofthenewparadigm-advocates,
of thesefile
and strength
indeedboth the vitality
that,optimizinghow
sharingapplications-systems
is distributed
information
by theirpeerusers,have
in digitalenvironments.
createdwideropportunities
In a multiagent
thedistribution
and circulasystem,
tionof information
by meansof P2P software
may
raiseissuesof trustamongpeersin relationto the
contentofinformation
distributed.
Alongwithmattersoftrust(Durante,2008),workon P2P software
likesearch
ofseveral
crucialfields
involves
thegrowth
broadcast
andmulincentive
mechanisms,
efficiency,
comdistributed
advanced
ticastservices,
databases,
and multimedia
streaming
puting,contentdelivery,
(Shen et al., 2009). All in all, thesefile sharing
have been solvingsome major
applications-systems
- whichisusedby
architecture
of
the
CDN
problems
verypopularWeb siteslikeAmazon,CNN, Google,
andYou Tube - baseduponthetraditional
(andvery
client/server
design.
expensive)
On the side of P2P censorsand opponents,
this
however,someoftheseriousproblems
afflicting
and
include
threats,
security
privacy
technology
and transclaims,issuesof connectivity
copyright
of
(VaccaroandMadsen,2009a),availability
parency
in somecases,even
resources,
and,to be pessimistic
the possiblecollapseof the system.Xiaohe (2006,
p. 68), forexample,has arguedthat"file-sharing
survival"and,furthe [music]industry's
endangers
thermore,
"that,fromthelegalandethicalpointsof
the productionof music fileview, maintaining
It is illegalbecausethesharers
is problematic.
sharing
are not theownersof thesharedfilesnorare they
authorizedby the owners.It is unethicalbecause
whatusersshareis not theirs.It is stealingbecause
whattheyobtainbelongsto others."
the
Hence, in lightof the currentpolarization,
is
howtechnology
aimofthisarticleis to understand
like
copyright
rights
changingeven longstanding
themintomatters
(1890),turning
(1709)andprivacy
of accessand controlover information
(Ginsburg,
2003; Heide,2001; Tavani,2007). In whatfollows,
we proposethree"roads"in orderto examinethe
issuesconcerningP2P systems
new informational
and ethics.
and theirimpacton businesspractices
outlookto complex
roadis thetopologice
The first
asdeveloped
socialnetworks
byPagallo(2007a,b).This
ofthelawsaccording
enablescomprehension
approach
P2P sysis distributed
to whichinformation
through
thepropaaccelerated
temsso thatthey"havefurther
resources"
(Shangetal.,2008,p. 349):
gationofdigital
relevance.
Technicaldetails,
indeed,oftenhaveethical
The secondroad is the context-based
perspective
and
Nissenbaum
Nissenbaum
(2004;
developedby
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andTheirImpact
ThreeRoadstoP2P Systems
and
Benkler,2006), and deepenedby Grodzinsky
Tavani (2008). The claimis thatall spheresof life
are governedby "normsof informational
flow,"
contexts
different
social
be
may governed
although
setsof norms.Once we have grasped
by different
how P2Ps work,we haveto examinethe"contextrelativequalifications"
thatcan properly
be applied
to thenatureofP2P systems.
The thirdroadis the informational
viewpointon
ethicsproposedby Floridi(1999,2003). His overall
thesisis thatstandard
ethicaltheorieslike the universalnormsofKantiandeontology
or theutilitarian
normsbased upon the evaluationof distributed
cannotbe easilyadaptedto tacklethe
consequences
new informational
issuescreatedby digitaltechnolshouldbe
ethics).P2P dilemmas
ogy(e.g.,computer
in termsof informational
thusunderstood
entropy
and itsopposite,thatis, the "flourishing
of informationalentities
as wellas thewholeinfosphere."
The conclusionaimsto singleout a theoretical
"roads"so as to
convergence
amongthesedifferent
overcomecurrentexaggerations
of both advocates
andcensorsofP2P systems.
we wantto
Specifically,
integratethe context-based
perspectivewith the
universal
ofinformational
normsvia a
representation
outlook
which
is
in
procedural
presented termsof
burdenof proof.Since empiricalevidenceon the
it is
impactof P2P systemsis stillcontroversial,
crucialto determine
on whomtheburdenofproof
fallsin a givencontext,on censorsor advocates,
by
boththedefaultnormsand exceptions
determining
in theuse and development
ofP2P software.
The topological road to information
The topological
illustrates
thelawsaccordperspective
is distributed
in complex
ing to whichinformation
socialnetworks
1973;Milgram,
(Granovetter,
1967).
some
such
as
the
Byconsidering keyparameters
average
distancebetweenthe nodesof the networkand its
we can shedfurther
coefficients,
clustering
lighton
boththestructure
andevolution
ofa givensystem,
by
three
kinds
of
networks:
randistinguishing
regular,
dom,and"smallworld."
The peculiarity
ofsmallworld-networks
depends
on the apparentdeviationfromthe properties
of
both regularand randomnetworks:Since they
a shortpathlength(as do randomnetworks)
present
553
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554
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and TheirImpact
ThreeRoads to P2P Systems
would notstopbeinga reproachablethingand would
attention.
requiresome regulatory
In the next section,we take a closer look at the
ethicalfeaturesof the informationrevolution.After
in
is distributed
havingconsideredhow information
networks
file
social
through
sharing
applicomplex
we will examine the normswhich
cations-systems,
an
informational
flow.
such
govern
555
aboutpeople
Thus,whiledealingwithinformation
involved in P2P issues, the context-basedanalysis
claimsa normativevalue: "Contexts,or spheres,offer
a platformfor a normativeaccount [of privacy!m
termsof contextualintegrity"(Nissenbaum,2004,
p. 138). Moreover,the aim of the analysisis to guarantee contextualintegrity
by definingand governing
informationin the light of two types of norms
(Nissenbaum,2004, p. 138):
in mostcontexts
areones
Amongthenormspresented
thatgoverninformation,
most
relevant
to our
and,
information
about
involved
in the
discussion,
people
contexts.I posittwo typesof informational
norms:
normsof appropriateness,
and normsof flowor distribution.Contextualintegrity
is maintainedwhen
bothtypesofnormsareupheld,anditis violatedwhen
eitherofthenormsis violated.
Hence, on theone hand,normsofappropriateness
suggest"what informationabout personsis appropriate,or fitting,to reveal in a particularcontext.
Generally,these norms circumscribethe type or
natureof information
about variousindividualsthat,
within a given context,is allowable, expected, or
even demandedto be revealed" (Nissenbaum,2004,
p. 138). On the other hand, norms of distribution
govern "what I will call flow or distributionof
- movement,or transfer
information
of information
fromone partyto anotheror others" (Nissenbaum,
2004, p. 140). The formertypeof normsdetermines
whetherit is appropriateor inappropriate,
in a given
context,to tracebackinformationto an individual,
whereasthe lattertypeof normsdictatesthatinformationis to be distributed
stanaccordingto different
dardsin diversecontextsor spheresofjustice (as in
Walzer, 1983).
Informationalnorms can thus provide a useful
ethicalframeto be applied to the case of P2P systems.As proposedby Grodzinskyand Tavani (2008,
p. 379), thisframeworksuggeststwo propositions:
Pi: P2P systemsoperate according to a default
norm in favor of privacy,because personal informationis not expected to be revealedin P2P environmentsunless it is required by context-relevant
qualifications.
P2: In P2P systems,context-relevantexceptions
are assessedin legalterms;
(technically,
qualifications)
theyshould not be grantedmerelybecause of simple
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556
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ThreeRoadstoP2P Systems
andTheirImpact
tothenatureofP2P contexts
andtheyneednottobe
Thesequalifications,
on the
treated
as "exceptions."
"can
be
built
into
the
informational
contrary,
right
normsof any givencontext"(Nissenbaum,
2004,
p. 156).Whatis more,a contextual
approachcanbe
usefulto framethe overlapor conflictbetween
oppositeclaimsas in the case of different
specific
valuesand interests
whichare put forwardin the
contextoftheinteraction.
One ofthewaysin which
thistheory
fromothertheoretical
differs
workis that
"it recognizes
a richer,morecomprehensive
set of
relevant
2004,p. 151).
(Nissenbaum,
parameters"
such "virtues"lead to further
Nevertheless,
How is it possiblethat"implicit"norms
problems:
from
the contextsthattheycontribute
to
emerge
How can we identify
the boundariesof
defining?
such contexts?And what about the contextual
frameworkof the invoked fundamental
social,
political,and moralvaluesthatdo not necessarily
vary"acrossculture,historical
period,and locale"?
2004,
(Nissenbaum,
p. 156).
In orderto addresstheseissues,let us examine
another"road" to P2P systems,
namely,Floridi's
Thisapproachfurther
(2007a)ethicsofinformation.
defineshow informational
resources
shouldbe disin
tributed thecontextofP2P networks
on thebasis
ofan ontological
viewpoint.
The ontological road to information
Floridi'sethicsofinformation
is an ontocentric,
receivermacroethics
oriented,
(Floridi,2008). By rejectecological
this
ing a rigidmethodological
anthropocentrism,
callsfora reconsideration
ofP2P interaction
approach
froma widerperspective
thanthatbasedexclusively
on theroleofhumanagents.The informational
outlook suggests
a different
oftheinterunderstanding
actionbetweenagentsand receivers,
assumingthe
"level of abstraction"
whichassertsthatall entities
shouldberepresented
interms
ofinformation
(Floridi,
2008,p. 21):
Allentities,
quainformational
objects,havean intrinsic
moral value, althoughpossiblyquite minimaland
and hence can countas moralpatients,
ovveridable,
to
some
subject
equallyminimaldegree of moral
respect understood as a disinterested,appreciativeand
carefulattention.
557
This perspective
aimsto explainhow interacting
andshareresources
agentscommunicate
bymeansof
or
Due
to
its
ontocentric
positive negative
messages.
Floridi's
informational
offers
a unified
outlook,
theory
forvarying
statuses
andregimes
thatconperspective
cernthecontentofsharedresources.
In thenameof
theontological
theseresources
are
equality
principle,
indeedinformational
entities
thatshouldbe morally
treatedas partof theinformational
environment
or
Such
a
should
not
be
considered
infosphere:
principle
as an indiscriminate
of thewholestatus
justification
of entities
quo,butas a moralappraisal
qua informationalsystems.
the
Consequently, goal of Floridi's
information
ethicsis to be "impartial
and universal
becauseitbrings
toultimate
theprocess
of
completion
of theconceptof whatmaycountas a
enlargement
centreofmoralclaim"(Floridi,
2008,p. 12).
of imparMoreover,as a resultof itscharacters
and universality,
thisperspective
recommends
tiality
a field-independent
macroethics
so as to rectify
"an
excessiveemphasisoccasionallyplaced on specific
to themorefuntechnologies,
by callingattention
damentalphenomenonof information
in all its
varieties
and longtradition"
(Floridi,2006,p. 256).
A universal
normative
framework
shouldthusbe
able to governthelife-cycle
of information
within
the infosphere
in an impartial,
field-independent
is groundedin the moral
way. This framework
analysisof the concept of informational
entropy
whichis structured
to
four
moral
laws.If
according
informational
"refers
to
kind
of
entropy
any
destruction
or corruption
of informational
objects
thatis, any formof
(mind,not of information),
ofbeing"(Floridi,2008,p. 11),the
impoverishment
fourmorallawscommandthat(Floridi,1999,2003):
0. Entropyoughtnot to be causedin theinfosphere
in the
(nulllaw); 1. Entropyoughtto be prevented
2. Entropyoughtto be removedfromthe
infosphere;
3. The flourishing
ofinformational
entities
infosphere;
as wellas thewholeinfosphere
oughtto be promoted
by preserving,
cultivating,
enhancingand enriching
theirproperties.
What is striking
about thiscomprehensive
normativeframework
is thatentropyrefersto informationalobjectsand not to information
as such,
while the fourmorallaws do not alwaysreferto
informational
as a
objectsbut to the infosphere
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558
to considerboththe
Floridi'sapproachsuggests
and thefourmorallawsin connotionof entropy
in the infonectionwiththe ontologicalfriction
forces
that
This
involves
"the
oppose the
sphere.
within(a regionof) the infoflowof information
to theamountof
andhence(as a coefficient)
sphere,
workand effort
requiredto generate,obtainand
in a given environment....
information
transmit
availablein (a
Givena certain
amountofinformation
thelowertheontological
regionof)theinfosphere,
of that
in it, the higherthe accessibility
friction
becomes"(Floridi,2007b,
amountof information
p. 3).
P2P systems
bothfromthepointof
By evaluating
and "the impoverfriction
view of theontological
Floridi'sfourmorallaws
oftheinfosphere,"
ishment
in two
fulfilled
ethicsseemtherefore
ofinformation
crucialcases.
ofP2P systems,
indirect
effect
as a potential
First,
environment
extension
theprogressive
ofzfrictionless
a positiveconditionforthe creationof
represents
informational
intellectual
objects(e.g., the rightto
and
information,
education, culture).As theyproofinformation
anddistribution
motethecirculation
- P2P
- andtheallocation
resources
ofinformational
systemsreduce the amountof work and effort
ina given
information
toobtainandtransmit
required
Risksforpeople'sprivacy
regionof theinfosphere.
are
information
of
duetohigher
accessibilitypersonal
hard
and
with
techniques
anonymity
compensated
ofthenodesin thesystem.
traceability
is
as a resource
ofinformation
thesharing
Secondly,
since it
anotherpotentialeffectof P2P software,
of
the
for
condition
a
generation
representspositive
As
we
a
as
newinformational
pointed
objects product.
socialexchangeis fostered
out in theintroduction,
of harthanksto the possibility
by P2P systems;
as
internet
of
the
the
distributed
intelligence
nessing
availableat each
resources
wellas thecomputational
affects
Thispositively
stepofthedigitalinteraction.
the informational
environment
as a
(information
insofar
as theincreasein thenumberofpeers
target)
hand
in
handwiththeincreasein theamount
goes
ofinformational
objects.
However,it is obviousthatsucha dataconducof the
tivityhas itsown risks:Whilethereduction
can facilitate
the increasein
informational
friction
the sharingof informational
objectsthatare obvi(Murray,2007,
ously illegallike child porn-files
likeinformawe
also
have
problems
pp. 157-163),
or corruption
destruction
tionoverloadandsecurity,
of
of informational
objectsand, moreparticularly,
such
as
intellectual
Accordingly,
copyright.
objects
to the
theP2P's "contribution
how can we specify
Is
there
a
of
the
sustainable
infosphere"?
blooming
theappropriate
degreeoffriction
wayto determine
Is it possibleto
in (a regionof) the environment?
ofinformational
treatment
reconcilesucha universal
on context-relative
normswiththestrongemphasis
in
as
the
case
of
copyright?
qualifications
Ethics among peers
we havebeen
roadstoP2P systems
The threedifferent
the
of
arenot, course, onlyones.There
considering
are severalotheremergingapproachesto business
socialcontracts
ethicsas,forexample,theintegrative
and
Donaldson
ethics
of
economic
(ISCT;
theory
forcapturing
Dunfee,1999),whichseemspromising
oftheimpactofP2P systems
theethicalimplications
As further
on business
byCalton
suggested
practices.
and
and
(2006)
Johnson-Cramer Phillips(2006),the
can be developedvia a discursive
ISCT perspective
between information
differences
that
so
process
information
and
commons,e.g., the
marketplaces
in
P2P
usersmentioned
of
affinities"
"spontaneous
roadtoinformation"
"The topological
section,
might
be resolved.
of speechas a
Leavingasidetheidealconditions
eventualroad,we believethatthetopologifourth
cal, contextual,and ontologicalapproachesto
as sharedandprocessed
information
byP2P systems
nature
informational
allowus to focuson thespecific
of theissues:That is, how thelawsof distribution
in the networkimpact
and sharingof information
the new
and how to understand
businesspractices
thatarisein a givencontextsuchas
ethicaldilemmas
conThereis in facta significant
P2P interaction.
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ThreeRoadstoP2P Systems
andTheirImpact
vergencebetweentheemphasison context-relative
and informational
universalism.
qualifications
On the one hand, the contextualapproach
and supportof fundaenablesthe identification
mentalvalues:"Conducting[...] a comparisonin
termsofsocial,political,and moralvalues,involves
valuesthatmaybe servedby
fundamental
identifying
the
relevant
obscured
informational
norms
(or
by)
on theflowof distribution
of
imposingrestrictions
in
a
information
case"
(Nissenbaum,
personal
given
2004,p. 146).
On the otherhand,the informational
universalism takesthe fallibility
of humannatureseriously:
"Perhaps,we shouldconsiderthattheethicalgame
to play
maybe moreopaque, subtleand difficult
thanhumanity
has so farwishedto acknowledge.
we
could
be lesspessimistic:
humansensiPerhaps,
has
tivity alreadyimprovedquite radicallyin the
past,and mayimprovefurther.
Perhaps,we should
we are,itmaybe
justbe cautious:givenhow fallible
betterto be too inclusivethan discriminative"
(Floridi,2008,p. 27).
As we previously
stressed,
empiricalevidenceis
indeedcontroversial
and,whatismore,we stillignore
in the P2P architecture
that
possibledevelopments
willhavenotonlytechnical
butpoliticalrelevance.
information
canwe
So, goingbacktoFloridi's
ethics,
P2P systems
determine
whether
reallypromote"the
of
information
aswellasthewhole
entities
flourishing
Are therenot specificcontexts,e.g.,
infosphere"?
copyright
legal field,wherethistechnology
easily
its
users
toimpinge
on otherpeople'srights?
Is
permits
theresomething
likea "presumption
infavourofthe
status
claims(2004,p. 145)?
quo" as Nissenbaum
Whatwe proposeis to integrate
the contextual
with
the
road
to
informational
approach
ontological
normsinorderto determine
on whomtheburdenof
on censors
oradvocates,
prooffallsina givencontext,
out
both
the
default
norms
and
bysingling
exceptions
in theuseanddevelopment
ofP2P software.
of both
First,we shouldavoidtheexaggerations
advocatesand censorsof thistechnology.
Although
P2P systems
have becomeinfamous
as filesharing
that
make
it
applications
particularly
easyforusersto
accesscopyright-protected
filesforfree,theyinvolve
a numberofsubstantial
useslikenew
non-infringing
for
distributed
advanced
databases,
applications
broadcast
and
multicast
and so
services,
computing,
that
have
new
markets
forth,
opened
bymakingthe
559
"shortroute"evenshorter:
P2P applications
aremore
thanthe simpledowncomplexand multifaceted
loadingofvideoandmusic.Thisiswhywe thinkthat
theburdenofproofoughtto fallon thosewhowant
toprevent
usfromdeveloping
andusingthesesystems
risksand threats
ofthis
(Pagallo,2008c). Otherwise,
would
be
but
an
excuse
to
curtail
technology
only
otherbasicinterests
and rightslike freedomof revaluegranted
search,of speech,or thefundamental
the
first
of
Article
27
of
theUniversal
by
paragraph
Declaration
from1948,i.e., "therightfreely
to parinthecultural
lifeofthecommunity,
toenjoy
ticipate
theartsandto sharein scientific
advancement
andits
benefits."
as suchis notat stake:
Secondly,P2P technology
Thisiscrucialevenwhenwe focuson a specific
sector
andconsequently
claimthat
like,say,musicindustry,
P2P software"merelyreproducesothers'creative
work" and that "this processrisksinjuringthe
musiccreators'
interests"
(Xiaohe,2006,pp. 70-71).
in
even
this
Indeed,
case, the same scholarfairly
admitsthatP2P filesharing-applications
are "a new
how "a new type
typeof distribution"
suggesting
of musicproductionis needed. Legislationshould
enhancesuch a new development,
supportP2P
of the public,protect
technologyin the interests
P2P
and
stakeholders'
interests
copyrights, regulate
in a balancedmanneraccordingto the ethicsof
law" (Xiaohe,2006, p. 73). All in all,"as eventhe
and movieindustries
concede,P2P softrecording
ware 'can be used forlawfulexchangesof digital
files'"(Lee,2005,p. 155; quotinga briefforMotion
PictureStudioand RecordingPetitioners
in MGM
vs. Groksterfrom2005). Therefore,in orderto
protectintellectual
property
rights,it is crucialto
that
should
grasp "companies
tryto applyandrealize
theadvantages
ofnew technologies
to increaseconsumers'benefits,
insteadof resisting
change,simply
theirrights,
andimposing
theguiltofpiracy
declaring
on consumers"
(Shanget al., 2008,p. 361).
Would it
Finally, what about personal responsibility?
only be a matterof stealing?
Itis no merecoincidence
thatmostofthetroubles
ofP2P systems
havebeen entwinedwithtraditional
claimsin thedefenceofthe"longroute"
copyright
betweencreators,
and thepublic.Certain
business,
formsof copyingcan obviouslybe considered
immoralwhen theyimpoverish
the infosphere
by
creativeness
and,therefore,
dampening
diminishing
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560
27 ofthe
oftherights
byArticle
interpretation
granted
Declaration
ofHumanRightswillinvolve
Universal
betweenold and new formsof
the reconciliation
copyright
protection.
Contribution to the literature
on P2P sysThisarticlecontributes
to theliterature
temsso as to takesidesin today'sstrongly
polarized
debate,thatis,betweenP2P censorsand opponents
thesesys(e.g.,Keen,2008) and thosewho present
temsas thekeyto a new paradigm
Bauwens,
(e.g.,
2005).
It is not the firsttimescholarshave suggested
ina morebalancedway.For
dealingwithP2P systems
Lee
example, (2005) proposes"a waythatbestbalof deterring
ancesthe interests
infringecopyright
innovation"in
mentand promoting
technological
connectionwiththe safeharbor-doctrine
provided
bytheUS SupremeCourt'srulingin theSonycase.
shouldhavethefreedomto
WhileP2P developers
innovateand developsoftwarethatis capableof
stansubstantial
uses,thetraditional
non-infringing
would applyforother
dardsof secondaryliability
conductbeyondthe design,sale,or supplyof the
For example,thisis whatoccurswhen
technology.
facilitate
infringement
"by providing
developers
on how to copycopyand advertising
instructions
rightworks"(Lee, 2005,p. 156).
thisperspective
Our approachaimsto integrate
bothfroma legaland ethicalviewpoint.We agree
as suchshouldnotbe at stake;
thatP2P technology
involvenot only
yet,legaltroublesof P2P systems
P2P
well.
Lee
claimsthat"in
users
as
but
developers
it is clearthatit facilitates
thecase ofP2P software,
to
bothlawfulandunlawful
copying.It is important
immoral
thatcopyingis notan inherently
remember
of
act- it dependson thecontext....Certainforms
immoral
because
considered
could
be
copying
theyhave an overallharmon society"(Lee, 2005,
pp. 157-158). So, theaim of our articleis to shed
boththe
further
lighton theseissuesby examining
context-basedperspectivedeveloped by Helen
Nissenbaumand the informational
viewpointon
ethicsproposedby LucianoFloridi.On thisbasis,
or
we offerthe "context-relative
qualifications"
be
can
that
2004)
properly
(Nissenbaum,
exceptions
in orderto
appliedto the natureof P2P systems
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
andTheirImpact
ThreeRoadstoP2P Systems
determinewhen copyingwould impoverishthe
(Floridi,1999, 2003), by dampening
"infosphere"
and,
diminishing
learning.
creativity therefore,
Lu
As stressed
by Xiaohe,however,"it is obvious
from
the
that,
legalandethicalpointsofview,mainofmusicfile-sharing
is probtheproduction
taining
P2P systems
lematic"(Xiaohe,2006,p. 68).Although
havebecomeinfamous
as applications
thatmakeit
easy for users to access copyrightparticularly
filesforfree,thefactisthatwe cannotsolve
protected
theproblembysimply
thesesystems
down.
shutting
P2P
As thesamescholarfairly
file
admits,
sharingapplicationsare "a new type of distribution,"
"thata new typeof musicproduction
suggesting
is needed.Legislation
shouldenhancesuch a new
P2P technology
intheinterests
development,
support
of thepublic,protectcopyrights,
and regulateP2P
ina balancedmanner
stakeholders'
interests
according
to theethicsoflaw" (Xiaohe,2006,p. 72).
We takeXiaohe'sclaimsseriously
by illustrating
how P2P systemsreallywork, optimizinghow
information
is sharedand distributed
in complex
socialnetworks,
the
openingnewmarkets,
harnessing
ofsocialexchange
baseduponreciprocity
and
novelty
etc. Yet, theproblemis thatstandard
cooperation,
ethicaltheories
as in thecaseof"theethicsoflaw,"
cannotbe easilyadaptedto tacklethenew informationalissuescreatedby digitaltechnology.
While
some
concrete
in
recommendations
conproposing
nectionwiththerights
granted
byArticle27 of the
UniversalDeclarationof Human Rights,we have
thus suggestedthat Xiaohe's proper balancing
betweenP2P stakeholders'
interests
and copyright
holders
shouldallowus to determine
theappropriate
in (a regionof)thesocialenvirondegreeoffriction
forthecreationof
ment,thatis,a positivecondition
intellectual
informational
objects(e.g., the rightto
andculture).
information,
education,
we examined
theempirical
research
on the
Finally,
ethicaldecisionsabout P2P filesharing:As Shang
et al. (2008) affirm,
"the results
showthatdeontoareinfluenced
logicalevaluations
bythebeliefin the
and
ideologyof consumerrightsin all alternatives,
itsimpactsare largerthanmostof the otherantecedents"(Shangetal, 2008,p. 359).Asinthecaseof
bothLee'sandXiaohe'swork,theoverallideais"that
to protecttheirproperty
recordcompanies
rights,
shouldtryto realizetheconsumerbenefits
brought
561
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562
As
ofinformational
products.
mizingthedistribution
workshows,however,thefinaloutputof
empirical
is stilldebatable.
suchsoftware
a context-based
we
considered
Next,
perspective
to determine
the normsthatgovernthe informathatis, bothnormsof
tionalflowin P2P systems,
in
A presumption
and
distribution.
appropriateness
is putin place unlessconfavorof P2P interaction
of
text-relevant
requirean alteration
qualifications
in accordancewithappropriate
sucha distribution
flow:P2P legal issuesnot
normsof informational
but people'sconinterests
onlyconcerncopyright
as well.
textualintegrity
the ontological
Finally,thethirdroadillustrated
in
P2P
the
interaction
basesof
lightof fourmoral
laws.Whereas"good" maybe definedas anything
- making
thatimprovesor enrichestheinfosphere
to
"evil" its opposite,entropy- it is important
the behaviorof P2P usersfromthe
distinguish
as sourcesof good and evil. The proper
software
should
andinterests
rights
balancing
amongdifferent
the
allow us to determine appropriate
degreeof
in (a regionof) theinfosphere.
friction
can be summedup in termsof
The conclusions
burdenofproof.
we arguefora
withP2P advocates,
In accordance
infavor
ofthesefilesharing
applicationspresumption
and
isshared
information
how
Theyoptimize
systems.
thus
in
social
distributedcomplex
networks, opening
the noveltyof social exnew markets,
harnessing
etc.
andcooperation,
changebaseduponreciprocity
P2P
in
with
accordance
censors,illegaluses
Yet,
can be madeand theseoughtto
ofthistechnology
in orderto introducean exceptionto
be specified
in favorof theuse of this
thegeneralpresumption
The mainlegalproblem,
software.
however,doesnot
involvepiracybuta morereasonable
interpretation
27.
Article
UDHR's
oftherights
by
granted
Whatitis crucialis to widenourperspective
and,
of
with
the
interests,
protection copyright
along
issueslikesearchefficonsidersomeotherrelevant
and transparency
ciency,incentivemechanisms,
inadvertent
and
Madsen,
2009b),privacy,
(Vaccaro
about
or
concerns
ofsensitive
disclosure
information,
what
not
know
do
thefactthatmanyP2P users
they
cruAfter
a decadeofcopyright
arereallyinstalling.
in a more
sades,it is timeto dealwithP2P systems
balancedway.
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