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Level III
Study Guide
ElectroDlag etic
Testing
second edition
ASNT
Level III
Study Guide
ElectroDla
Testing
second edition
etic
Publi!>hed by
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ISBN-13: 978-157117-164-1
Printed in the United States of Amerie:l
II
Foreword
ASNT methods committees, at the direction of the Technical and
Education Council, have prepared Level III Study Guides that aTe
intended to present the major a(('as in each nondestructive testing
method. This Study Guide was updated and revised v..r:ith the assistance
of the Electromagnetics Committee.
The Lcvcllll candidate should use ASNT Level III Study GJ/ide:
Electromagnetic Testillg Method only as a review, as it may not contain all
of the informa tion necessary to pass a typical ASNT Level III
cxaminCltion.
The electromagnetic testing method has several subdisciplines. The
general consensus at the time of this revision is that there are four
specific field techniques: eddy current testing. flux leakage testing.
remote field testing and alternating current field measurement. Each of
these techniques may provide some information in specific material
testing applications that the others may not be able to provide in the
same test situation. The primary focus of this document wilt be eddy
current testing. Some information is provided to define how the other
electromagnetic testing techniques might be applied..
In using this Study Guide, the reader ,vill be given specific references,
including page numbers, where additional detailed information can be
obtained. Typical Level III question s are available at the end of each
chapter to aid in detennining comprehension of the material.
A typical use of this Study Guide might include the foUowing
sequence:
An individual should review the qucstions at the end of each chapter
in the Study Guide to detcnnine if his or her comprehension of
electromagnetic testing is adequate. The questions will serve as an
indicator of the individual 's ability to pass a Level III examination.
If the individual finds questions in a certain chapter of the Study
Guide to be difficult, it is suggested that the individual carefully study
the information presented in that chaptcr. This review of the
information in the Study Guide will serve to refresh one's mt.'mory of
theory and forgotten facts.
If the individual encounters information that is new or not clearly
understood, then it is important to note the specific references given
tluoughout the Study Guide and carefully read this information.
Referenccs are indicated by parentheses and the reference number: (N).
iii
Preface
Early experimenters in the field of magnetism and electromagnetism
established the basis fo r the principles of electromagnetic
nondestructive testing used today.
In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted discovered the magnetic field
surrounding a conductor when current "w as passed through the
conductor.
In 1820, Andre-Marie Ampere discovered that equal currents flowing
in opposite directions in adjacent conductors cancelled the magnetic
effect. This discovery has led to development of modern coil
arrangements and shielding techniques.
In 1824, Dominique F. Arago discovered that the vibration of a
m agnetic needle was rapidly damped when it was placed neM a
n onmagnetic conducting disk.
Michael Faraday discovered the principles of electromagnetic
induction in 1831.
James Clerk Maxwell integrated the results o f these and other works
in a two-volume work published in 1873 and Max.vell's equations are
still the basis for investigations of the magnetic and electromagnetic
phenomena.
The application of these laws and principles has led to the
development of an industry whose purpose is to qualitatively and
quantitatively investigate the properties and characteristics of
electrically conductive materials using nondestructive electromagnetic
techniques.
As in any industry, controls and guidelines must be established to
ensure consistent and reproducible products or services. This Study
Guide is intended to provide ASNT Level III candidates w ith a concise
reference with which to prepare for the ASNT Level III Examination.
iv
Acknowledgments
A special thank you to the technical editor who coordinated this
revision and updated major portions himself:
Jim Cox, JECNDT, LLC
A special thank you goes to the follow ing reviewers who helped with
this publication:
Claude Davis, Unified Testing & Engineering Services, Inc.
Darrell Harris, Anchorage, Alaska
Gary Heath, All T~ch Inspection, Inc.
Michael J. Ruddy, Tuboscope NOV
The Publications Review Committee includes:
Chair, Joseph L. Mackin, Intemational Pipe Inspectors
Association
Stephen P. Black. Clermont, Florida
Mark A. Randig, Team Industrial Services, Tnc.
Table of Contents
Foreword ................ ............ .... . ....
Preface .................. . .. , . . .. .......... . . . . . ..
Acknowledgments .......... . , .............. , .... . . .
. . . Ill
. . . . 1V
. . . . . .. V
vii
. ..... 27
. .. 27
.... 27
. ..30
. .. ... .. . . . ... .32
viii
..68
..69
. . .70
Chapter 1
Principles of Eddy Current Testing
Historical Background
n s to 1900, scientific
F ran~ios
Conductive
material
Conductive
material
Changing flu x density in material
E = N/;'~
K /;.1
Equation 1
where:
E
l:J.<l>/l:J.I
=
=
=
Coil B
<i
.t ljl
~b
Core
I/v
I\.
Conductor A
(Test coil)
'-----
",
'E
"
= Primary current
= Primary magnetic field
= Secondary (eddy)
<OE =
current
Secondary magnetic field
Field Intensity
--
Figure 1.7(a)
Ep
primary coil voltage
I
excitation current
Qp
primary magnetic flux
'lis
secondary magnetic flux
Figure 1.7(b)
Ep =
I
=
4!p =
Es
4'5
Er
th
Coil
.. t - - - - ..
a cylindrical
'E @16=37%
-----i le@26=13.5%
.........:.,. 'e@3S = 5%
Glp
l 5 " 0
E,
1.0
0.8
0.6
0,
0.4
.p
0.2
\ II =
\
I'"
I'---
Units 01 depth
(in multiples 01 the standard
depth of penetration)
J X -- J oe -.f,JIf!/KI
Equation 2
Current Density
where:
1.,
/,
n
f
~
cr
e
4
=
=
=
3+ 1.35 = 2.222
Equation 4
where:
0 =
rr
f
~
=
=
=
=
3.141 6
frequency in hertz
magnetic permeability. HI m
electric conducti vity, siemens per meter
0=
3
Radians
lagging
I
J lt f .t"J
0=
J3.
I
1416.100,0004". 10-' 0 .14 10'
/
1/ ,
depth X
de pth of penetralion
Ii = c:-:--:-:c
743.438
8 = X,J7r/,u(J
= depth/depth of penetration
Equation 5
Chapter 1
Review Questions
Q.1.1
Q.1.2
Q.1.6
Q.1.7
c.
50%.
D. 100%.
Q.1.8
Q.1.3
A. 3
B. <0.1
C. 1/ 3
D. indeterminate
Q.l.9
Q.l.4
Q.1.5
Chapter 2
Test Coil Arrangements
Test coils can be c<ltegorized into three main
mechanical groups: probe coils, bollbil! coils and
encircling coils (16).
Probe Coils
Surface coil, probe coil, flat coil or pl/Hcake coil are all
common terms used to describe the same test coil
type. Probe coils provide a convenien t method of
examining the surface of a test object. Figure 2.1
illustrates a typical set of probe coils used for
5e\'eral surface scanning applications.
Figure 2.1: Probe coil
Encircling Coils
Encirclil1g coil. olltside diame ter wil and feed thro1lgh
coil are terms commonly used to describe a coil that
surrounds the test object. Figure 2.3 illustra tes a
typical encircling coil.
Encircling coils aTe primarily u sed to inspect
hlbular and bar-shaped products. The tube or b ar is
fed through the coil (feed through) at relatively high
speed. The cross section of the test object '''ithin the
test coil is simultaneously interrogated. For th is
9
Direction of
tube travel
Bobbin Coils
Bobbin coil, inside dinmeter coil and illside probe are
terms that describe coils used to inspect from the
inside diameter or bore of a tubular test object.
Bobbin coils are inserted and withdrawn from the
hlbe inside diameter by long, semiflexible shafts or
simply blown in with air and retrieved with an
attached pun cable. These mechanisms will be
described later in the tex t. Bobbin coil information
follows the same basic rules stated for encircling
coils. Figure 2.4 illustrates a typical bobbin coil
\
Tube
Absolute Coils
objects. It is particularly
useful for comparative
conductivity, permeability
and dimensional
measurements. Obviously
in Figure 2.6 it is
imperative to normalize
(or balance ) the system
\\lith one coil affected by
the s tandard object and
the other coil affected by
an acceptable test object.
The external rderence
differential coil system is
sensitive to all measurable
differences between the
stan dard object and test
object. For this reason it is
often necessary to provide
additional discrimination
to separate and define
variables present in the
test object.
Figure 2.5: Test coil configurations for eddy current testing of small-diameter
tubing
Differential
Absolute
k
b
.-c
2222YA
Fr~1
I.
rUuWiJlF',
:50 0
=
mO
IIc
00
,3t==
:!!
"-
:0
"0
OF -
Hybrid Coils
Hybrid coils may be
defined as driver/pickup,
through transmission,
reflection or primary/secondary coil assembhes.
Hybrid coils mayor may not be the same size
and are not necessarily adjacent to each other (4).
Figure 2.7 shows one possible hybrid coil
arrangement. In the through transmission coil, the
excitati on coil is on one side of the test object and
the sensing coil is on the other. The driver coil
illduces eddy currents and a secondary magnetic
fi eld in the test specimen. Any variation of these
secondary events should be d etected by the smaller
probe coil on the opposite side of the thin plate.
vol tmeter
AC
n...,
'\---'>
R
R
____ Reference
Inspection ~
,,"
Te,'
" ,I
V ~"e" o"
sample
11
sample
Transmittin g circuit
f"\..)
AIt,m";'9 ,,,,,,,
Transmitting coil
source
Materiat
Receiving coil
tndica11ng
instrumen1
Receiving circuit
12
Chapter 2
Review Questions
Q. 2.1
Q.2.6
Q.2.7
Q.2.B
Q.2.9
B. probe coils.
e.
Q.2.2
Q.2.3
Q.2.4
Q.2.5
13
Chapter 3
Test Coil Design
Thus, the resistance of a 10 fllength of 40 gage
copper w ire with a specific resistance of lOA
circula r milfoot at 20 C would be found as follows:
R~
10.4 10
9.888
~IO.518ohm s
Resistance
Inductance
I ~-
R
Equation 6
where:
"
R "
E "
current in amperes,
resistance in ohms,
electrical potential d ifference in volts,
.
s_~pe=c~i~fi=c=re=s~is~t=an~c~e~x_Le
==n~g~t~
h
= ReSlstance
Area
Equation 7
where:
resistance
speci fic resistance
area
length
=
=
ohms
ohms / circular mil-foot
circu lar mils
fec t
15
Inductive Reactance
1-<-
,X
<
k~
ryy
-t
_t
f
>-tx-
r..j
,)r
r:
I
x, = 2JCi L
-b-1
Equation 9
where:
XL -
08 (rN)'
Equation 8
whefe:
I.
f
b
1.
2.
f
b
N
0.1 in.
0.1 in.
0.1 in.
100 turns
L=-
0. 8 (0. 1 . 100)'
6 . 0. 1 + 9 . 0.1 + 10 . 0.1
L=
32 !JH or 0.000032 I I
100 kHz or 100 000 Hz
6.28
6.28 x 100 000 x 0.000032
20.0% ohms
0.8 (100)
P =E /
= 80 = 32
0.6 + 0.9 + I
2.5
Equation 10
where:
L = 321lH
,.
E
A~
power in watts
volts
current in amperes
x, = 27rfL
X, =6.28 0 200 000 Hz 0 0.0001 H
Impedance
Equation 11
Equation 12
further simplified:
where:
Equation 13
Tan
Substituting inductive reactance (Xl) and
resistance (R) it is possible to find the resultant of
the vector addition of X L and R. This resu ltant
e= XL +- R
Equation 15
Equation 16
R = 3+4=0.750
= 36.9 degrees
Tan 8= X,
An; Tan
Z = 5L36.9
Equation 17
Q or Figure of Meri!
The term u sed to describe coil efficiency is Q or
merit of the coil. The higher the Q or merit of a coil,
the more efficiently the coil performs as an
inductor. The merit of a coil is mathematically
stated as:
lal
Equation 18
where:
~D ~L
R = resistance
Ibl
18
Coil Fixtures
i": : i
19
Chapter 3
Review Questions
Q.3.1
Q.3.2
Q.3.7
Q.3.R
Q.3.9
B. volume.
C. inertia.
O. velocity.
Q.3.3
Q.3.4
Q.3.5
Q.3.6
D. 65.9 ohms.
20
Chapter 4
Effects of Test Object on Test Coil
conductor is a poor resistor. Conductance and
resistance are direct reciprocals as s tated earlier.
Conductivity and resistivity, however, have
different origins and units; therefore, the conversion
is not so direct.
As previously discussed, conductivity is
expressed on an arbitrary scale in percent lACS.
Resistivity is expressed in absolute terms of
micro-ohm-centimeters. To convert values on one
scale to the other system of units a conversion factor
of 172.41 is required. Once you know either the
conductivity or the resistivity value for a material
the other electrical property can be calculated.
172.42
% [ACS= ~~~~~~~---
Electrical Conductivity
0'
. .. (.
.
h
)
172.4 1
ReSlstlvlty 10 rnlcro-o rn-cm =
%IACS
Equation 19
These numerical values will be necessary when
additional calculations are needed to determine
issues of frequency choice, depth of penetration
and / or phase spread to meet specific inspection
criteria.
As the tcst coil is influenced by different
conductivities, its impedance varies inversely to
conductivity. A higher conductivity causes the test
coil to have a lower impedance value . Figure 4.1
illustrates th is concept.
The coil's inductive reactance is represented by
the Y axis and coil resistance appears on the X tlxis.
The 0% conductivity pOint, or air point, is when the
coil's empty reactance (XLQ) is maximum. Figure 4.1
represents a measured conductivity locus (4).
Conductivity is influenced by many factors. Table
4.1 is a comparative listing of materials with various
chemical compositions.
There are various ma nufactu ring or in s itu
factors that must be considered when try ing to
measure the conductivity of various alloys.
In metals, as the temperature is increased, the
conductivity will decrease. This is a major factor to
consider when accurate measurement of
conductivities is requ ired.
21
IN--.!
I
I
tr o(air)
% I r--.
Co~d";IiV;~
I
'< I
Permeability
Permeability of any material is a measure of the
ease with v:hich its magnetic domains can be
aligned or the ease with which it can establish lines
of force (2). Materials are rated on a comparative
basis. Air is assigned a permeability of l.
Ferromagnetic metals and alloys induding nickel.
iron and cobalt tend to concentrate magnetic flux
lines (15). A5 discussed in Chapter 3, some
ferromagne tic materials or sifltered ionic compollnds
are also useful in concentrating magnetic flux (4).
Magnetic permeability is not constant for a given
material. The permeability in a test samp le depends
on the magnetic field acting on it. As an example,
consider a magnetic steel bar placed in an encircling
coil. As the coil current is increased, the magnetic
"
2%
15-
,%
'\
10% .....
I I
Resistance -
Table 4.1: Electrical resistivity and conductivity of several metals and alloys
Material
Resistivity
micro-ohm-cm Utncm)
6.90
2.65
4.10
5.30
Admiralty Brass
Aluminum (99.9)
6061-T6
7075-T-6
2024-T4
5.70
12.00
Aluminum Bronze
Copper
Copper Nickel 90-10
Copper Nickel 70-30
Gold
Corrosive Resistant Nickel Alloy
High Temperature Nickel Chromiu-m Alloy
Lead
Magnesium (99%)
Stainless Steel 304
Stainless Steel 316
TItanium 99%
Tung sten
Zirconium
1.72
18.95
37.00
2.35
130.00
100.00
20.77
4.45
72.00
74.00
48.60
5.65
40.00
22
Conductivity
% lACS
25.00
64.94
42.00
32.00
30.00
14.00
100.00
9.10
4.60
75.00
1.30
1.72
8.30
38.60
2.39
2.33
3.50
30.00
4.30
Good coupling
--
.-
Skin Effect
Decreased coupling
r-
OO
Edge Effect
Lift Off
End Effect
off effect.
Figure 4.3 shows the relationship between air,
conductive materials and lift off. The
electromagnetic field, as previously discussed, is
strongest near the coil and dissipates w id1 distance
from the coil. This fact causes a p ronounced lift off
effect for small variations in coil to object spacing.
As an example, a spacing change from contact to
0.0254 mm (0.001 in.) will produce a lift off effect
many times greater than a spacing change of
0.254mm (0.010 in.) to 0.2794 mm (0.011 in.) (15).
Lift off effect is generally an undesired effect
causing increased noise and reduced coupling
resulting in poor measuring ability (12).
In some instances, equipment haVing phase
d iscrimination capability can readily separa te lift off
from cond uctivity o r other variables. Lift off can be
23
d'
- , = 11 = Fill Factor
D-
Fill Factor
Equation 21
Eq uation 20
90"
0% lACS
(09)'
Fi II Faclor q~ - ;-
~ 0.81
Equation 22
olr---L--~
100%
lACS
---"' 0'
where:
Eo
Resistance - --
E
lift off: The change in coil impedance due to a changing (air) gap
'I
.uiff =
24
establishes a
standard depth of
penetration at the
midpoint of the rube
wall. Th is condition
would allow a
Encircling
Rod
10
relative current
coillD
OD - - density of about 20%
on the far surface of
the tube. With this
condition, identical
near and far surface
discontinuities \..,ould have greatly different
responses. Due to current magnirude alone, the near
surface discontinuity response would be nearly five
times that of the far surface discontinuity.
Discontinuity orientation has a dramatic effect on
response. As seen earlier, discontinuity response is
maximum when eddy currents and discontinuities
are at 90 degrees or perpendicular. D iscontinuities
parallel to the eddy current flow produce little or no
response. The easiest technique to ensure
detectability of discontinuities is to use a reference
standard or model that provides a consistent means
of adjusting instrumentation (12).
,,
,,,
,,
Tube
Bobbin
10
ID - - - coil 00
,,,
,,
E
E
E
Signal-Io-Noise Ralio
Discontinuities
25
Chapter 4
Review Questions
Q.4.1
QA.6
Q.4.2
Q.4.7
Q.4.8
Q.4.3
Q.4.4
D. 3.2V.
B. hardness.
QA.9
C. heat treatment.
D. a ll of the <lbove.
Q.4.5
B.
permeable.
C. resistive.
D. inductive.
26
Chapter 5
Selection of Test Frequency
It is the responsibility of nondestructive testing
engineers and technicians to provide and perform
nondestructive testing that in some way ensures the
quality or usefulness of industry products. To apply
a nondestructive test, it is essential that the
parameters affecting the test be understood.
Usually, industry establishes a product or
component and then seeks a method to inspect it.
This practice establishes test object geometry,
conductivity and permeability before the
application of the eddy current examination .
Instrumentation, test coil and test freque ncy
selection become the tools used to solve the
problem of inspection. Test coils were discussed
previously and instrumentation will be d iscussed
later in this text. Test frequencies and their selection
will be examined in detail in this Chapter.
Frequency Selection
Equation 23
In Chapter 1, it was observed that eddy currents
are exponentially reduced as they penetrate the test
object. In addition, a time o r phase difference in
these currents was observed. The currents near the
test coil happen first or lead the current that is
deeper in the object. A high current density allows
good detectability and a wide phase difference
between near and far surfaces allows good
resolution .
where:
Ii
K
f
!irel =
Eq uation 24
The prime variable is frequency. By adjusting
frequency technicians can be selectively responsive
to test object variables. Solving the
nonferromagnetic depth of penetration formula for
frequency requires a simple algebraic manipulation
as follows:
27
8~K~
la)
Ib)
Ie)
Id)
lei
where:
f
a
d
!~~
8'
K'
K'
f
f
8'
K' p
8'
,U ....1
frequency in hertz
conductivity meter / ohm-rrun 2
diameter of test object, em
relative permeability
1 = fj1r~l (Jd?
5066
~ f or f ~ (1.98 )' P
.
8'
Equation 28
0.01
f ~ 1960Hz
Equation 25
f ~
~ 0.09
f ~ 21gHz
Eq uation 26
Equation 27
28
Zp (8 (,)1)
>.0
.b
Zplw,)
0.9
0"'------';;_ _ _ _ __
R,
Resistance R (relative scale)
(b)
0.8
'-I
0.7
'
kr = r J(W\.l(f) '" 2.
0.6
2.'
28'_t-_
3.0 /'
1
05
,.
,.,,"il---I--/,- .
0.4
Er...._f
'.0
0.'
Or-Nl,
0.2
0.'
1'.4 n
H)()
'~=---.L2.0
o
0.'
0.2
,"
0.3
'6[-1-1
0.4
0.5
0.6
o
Resistance R (relative scale)
Lo '"
29
Multifrequency Systems
It becomes obvious that the technician must have
a good working knowledge of current density and
phase relationships to make intell igent frequency
choices. The frequency chOice discussed to da te
deals with coil systems driven by only one
frequency. Test systems driven by more than one
0.14
0.1
-g"
-"
og~'I:: 2
0 '
0.08
ciJ&
~"',g
6'0
0.06
Distance of crack
from surface in %
0.04
of diameter
0.02
0
6R
6R
0 .02
"'Lo
30
Equation 29
where:
S/N =
31
Chapter 5
Review Questions
Q.'s.l
Q.5.2
Q.5.3
Q.5.6
Q.5.7
Q.5.8
called:
A. an optimum frequency.
B. a fesonant frequency.
C. "limit f<equency.
D . a penetration frequency.
Q.5.4
Q.5.9
100 Hz .
D. loa kHz.
B.
C. 2
D. 5
Q.S.5
fifg
the
ratio if the test frequency is 60kHz?
A. 1.2
B.
110
C. 60
D. 600
32
Chapter 6
Instrument Systems
Most eddy current instrumentation is categorized
----..1
r--:
,
,
33
..
YOlTM!lf.~
oC
CiIlOUNO
(a)
(b)
Q~OU NO '"
(e)
(d)
Vector Point
Impedance Testing
Ellipse
a
34
Figure 6.4: Cathode ray tube displays for dimension and conductivity
Dimension
Small change
Conductivity
Small change
Both dimension
and conductivity
Small change
M=Asi nB
Equation 30
where:
35
Screen
"
"
"
:,
_/
" "\ \
"",
'I
"
:'
,-
,I
"
"
"
"
Mode of Operation
Test instruments m ay also be cl<l5sified by their
mode of operation (4). The mode o f operation is
determined by two functional aTCas within the
im;tnlment.
The first fun ctional consideration might be the
degree o f compensation, or nulling, and the type of
detector used . The second consideration is the
m ethod of test coil excitation. The types of
exci tation indude single /reqll mcy or mulfifreqllellcy
silJUsoidai, single or repetitive pl/lse alld swept
frequency.
Signal Compensation
Mode 1. Null balance with amplitude detector,
Mode 2. Null balance with amplitude phase
detectors, (Figure 6.6) and
Mode 3. ~lecte d off null ba lance w ith amplitude
detector.
Mode 1. responds to any signal irrespective of
phase angle. These would typically be meter-based
instrumentation capablc of shOWing only the
volt<lge change or amplitude of the signal of
interest.
Mode 2, using amplirude and phase detectors,
can be used to discriminate agaillst signals haVing a
particular phase angle. With this type of system, the
total demodul ated signal can be displayed in an X-V
screen presentation format to show both amplitude
and ph<lse relationship..:;.
36
IGe~ratorh
IGe~rator~
Test object
Reference
as.e adjust
I
=-==--' 1
II ---- L~
I' - _ _ _
r----.,
~_...J
--'t
I' - _ _ _ _ JI
si/llu/tam'Qus injection .
This diagram shows
three dedicated
frequcncy modules but
mort" rerent adaptations
uS(.' multiple variable
frequency circu its.
In Figure 6.9,
excitation currents at
each selected frequency
IU
Test object
Compensation
or balarlCe
circuits
Filters and
amplifiers
I-
Multiple
amplitude
phase detectors
r-
Analyzers
I II I
Multiple
read-outs
37
Indicator Lights
A si mple use of the indicator light is to monitor
the eddy current signal amplitude with an
amplitude gate circuit. 'vVhen the signal reaches a
preset amplitude limit, the amplitude gate switches
a relay that applies power to an indicator light or
automatic sorting device. With the amplitude gate
circuit, high-low limits could be preset to give
GO / NO-GO indications.
Audio Alanns
Audio alarms can be used in much the same
manner as alarm lights. Usually an audible alarm
would be used to indicate an abnorma l condition .
These types of alarms are commonly incorporated
into online eddy current k-st I.quipment that might
be found in a manufacturing plant. These alarms
give only qualitative information about the tested
item. The degree or amount of the condition that
exceeded the preset threshold calUlat nonnally be
determined with the!iC devices.
Indicator lights and audible alarm.. arc relatively
inexpensive. Both can easily be incorporated into
inspection systems found in ma nufacturing
inspection applications where processes may be
monitored by uncertified or semi-skilled tabor.
Audible alarms are also very useful in handheld
portable testers when the in... pcctor may be doing
manual scanning. Often these inspectors have to
pay very close attention to the probe position and
speed and they may not be able to continuously
monitor a visual display.
Meters
Meters operate on the d' Arsonval galvanometer
principle. The prindple is based on the action
between two magnetic fields. A common meter uses
a permanent magnet to produce one magnetic field
while the other magnetic field is produced by a
movable coil wound on a core. The coil and core are
suspended on jeweled bearings and attached to a
pointer or ueedle. The instrument output current is
passed through the coil and produces a magnetic
field about the coil that reacts to the permanent
magnetic field su rrounding the assembly. The
measuring coil is ddlected, moving the meter
pointer. The amount of pointer movement can
sometimes be related to spechc test object Variables.
Even with the aVailability of digital electronics
that have many advanced features some inspectors
38
II
Pulse
generator
(0
'I
Test object
Balance
circuits
Amplifiers
Analyzers
Indicators
Digital Displays
are still more comfortable with analog technology.
As long as it can be demonstrated that these units
Numerical digital displays can also be used to
are still fu nctional and can meet the inspection
provide qual itative information. These might have
sensitivity requirements then they will continue to
be used. Good maintenance and electronic
, _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
calibration checks are essential with vintage
Figure 6.12: A quantitative meter response indicating a
test units.
specific conductivity (in percent of the lACS)
The test information generated by any
analog system can be processed through an
analog-to-digital converter if additional
signal processing is required.
Meter-based technology signal responses
fall into one of two categories: either
quantitative or qualitative. One example of a
quantitative meter response would be a
CONDUCTIVITY
system lIsed fo r measuring conductivity
% IAC.S.
(Figure 6.12). When the needle deflects and
reaches a specific point on the scale the
number indicated on the scale should
correlate to a specific percent lACS value if
the system has been properly set up.
Some meter-based devices (Figure 6.13)
Figure 6.13: A qualitative analog meter response showing
that might be used for simple discontinuity
only percent of fu ll scale
detection do not give the opera tor a
numerical value other than a percent of full
scale. A given crack could generate either a
small amplitude voltage at a low ga in
setting or a larger amplitude response at a
higher ga in setting. This would be a
qual itative type response. These systems are
not used for d iscontinuity sizing.
An qualitative meter response could be
used in a test situation where a minimum
discontinuity amplitude response can be
accurately defined. 111is might be an EDM
notch of a spedfied depth in a ca libration
block. As long as the meter stays below the
preset voltage level from the selected
39
Recorders
Da ta recorders might be required to meet the
inspection criteria. Recording is sometimes
accomplished on analog paper strip charts or on
magnetic tape formats. With most modern
equipment providing recording capability some
form of digital media would be used. The data
could be stored internally in some test systems, but
more often than not the data are exported to an
external storage device. Most of these digita l
recording media can retain the files created for
offl ine analysis and long term historical use. Early
d igital systems were write ollce - read mallY devices.
The more recent recording med ia can be erased and
reused.
The advantage of digital systems is that all of the
raw data created by a muItifrequency test system
can be viewed in multiple display formats at the
same time. Tubing exam d" ta are often reviewed
using both the X-Y and strip chart modes to
optimize d iscontinuity ddechon and sizing. The
strip chart format is often used where the
discontinuity's location down the length of a rod or
tube is critical. The strip chart length is indexed to
time or distance and signal response deviation from
the baseline ind icates various materia l condi tions.
The ampl itude of the X-Y lissajous response in
Figure 6.15 (6.66 V) is an indicator o f the volume of
the d iscontinuity. The p hase angle with respect to
the X axis (114 degrees) represents discontinuity
depth (in this case, 41%) and d iscontinuity origin
(tube outside diameter), indicating whether the
discontinuity originated on the inside or outside
surface of the tube (13).
Many computer-based systems have multiple
display modes available for the same raw data set.
I 31.71 I
02.9
L.:-c~"~'~"'~F;I~'~M1iTrCS!""
40
Computers
Most eddy current testers use an integral visual
output device of some sort. Advanced eddy current
testers may include such options as an eddy current
card that extends the functionality of a standard PC
with eddy current testing capability. Field hardened
eddy current testing systems may just be a box of
!IE
'"
"c
,x
41
Figure 6.16: Multimode output responses: rotating pancake coil inspection in a batt hole application. The
same crack response can be seen in all four display formats.
Ii
42
43
Chapter 6
Review Questions
Q.6.1
Q.6.2
Q.6.6
Q.6.7
Q.6.8
Q.6.9
C. sine wave
O. sawtooth wave
Q.6.3
Q .6.4
Q.fi.5
44
Chapter 7
Eddy Current Applications
A problem common to the chemica l and electric
power industries is the corrosion of heat exchanger
tubing. This tubing is installed in closed vessels in a
h igh density array. It is not lUlcommon for a nuclear
steOlm generator or main condenser to contain many
thousands of tubes. This high density and limited
access to the inspection Olrcas oft en precludes the
use of other nondestl1lctive testing methods. A
bobbin coil inspection provides a volu metric
inspection of the tube wall in a cost effective
process.
Heat exchanger inspection systems and results
are described by Libby (8), Dodd, Sagar and Davis
(1 2).
Figure 7.1: American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASM E) thin-walled tubing standard
TSP
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
45
c;;:B
(1)
(2)
1/
't---L
I~
"
If
, ,
TT
Itt
T
T
I
T
'I
,-
11
!
,
I
L-~' I
, ,
1
46
... ..,
..
.
.
,
.
"
.
.
. .
..
.
.
..,
.. ... ...
;.~--,
;---~-~-:---t--1---i-(--!---;----:
. . .,
: :
. .:--: .
-;---:--~:- -<:---:
~
:- --;-.-~-
-~- . ---~~---:~--~
.. ., .. . ,
~-- !---:
., ,. -- -~--~-. .,
-; .. .':' -- ;... -!
i~ ~ ---
~---;_--~
- - ~1"
_ __ - ;- - -
~ -- ' -
~~-
--;- . - .;'- - -.
.~ __ .~
____.
:.. _~.
.. .
-.- , __
:---~ - --~---
;__
--~
,
. . .
,., .....
.
. .,----..,
,- -_.--,
-~- - - -
Dimensional Measurements
~. - - ~ - - -~
:
- +
~ - - - ~ - - .~ - -~ . . - ~
~
"!'""
r:~:~:t:::t::
~:::.t:::t::
..,
. ,j:::
.j
,..,
,
,
,
',.
-~
,! :
::.
.;,;....-.,
,,
.
__.,
"..::
r,'
~
:
;
~
,...
.
,
.
I;
....
;::
A,,,,,,,,, -- _--
~_._
;.. _;.___ L
.' ;,~-,-,-:r-..,:~~
..
:
i
"1
- .. . ...
i:
"" __ -:.>00
-...:
:__: :
-- .. i
,,
""
~.
.
.. _. c:-_.
..
.:., -- -r""
, '- ,~-";=':" "':: -- -! -"i' - - -:, --
!:
.
.
<,-----------,
. ... E. ... __ .~ __ ~ ..
~--- :J
.
--~,
--''''-'~-''
i!: : : :
'P""t"---"-=-~~"""'{-;-"-;-~"""~---=-=--r=--;--=--t
.. -;--
--:- .. ~. .. :--.;-
~--.~
. .
... ~ ...~
.-'-~---~"~"-~
i 1 : ; :
rT--~--r
:--TT-r;
,
. , . ,
1--+'+-~ --' ~'
'.'--:---~'-~---~
~'+--f
A~B:
~~ ~ .
11--1:
",~... .,,-,~.
A:
47
cur OR
BR... TO RESTART
.~ .
. ,,' -,.
10.. '
. :/ . .. ~J ../ ...
sy~tems .
Hardness Measurements
dimen:;ions. One example i:; the measurement of the
inside diameter~ of tubes using a lift off technique
(11). For this measurement, several small pancake
coils are mounted radially in a coil form. The coil
form is inserted into the tube ilnd each coil':;
proximity to the tube wall is monitored. The
resultant output of each coil can provide detailed
information about the concentricity of the tube. This
is especially lL'iefu l when the amount of hlbe wall
deformation due to either manufacturing or
operational conditions may require corrective
action.
An obvious problem encountered with this
technique is centering of the coil holder assembly.
The center of the coil holder must be near the center
of the tube. When inspecting for locali7.ed
dimension<ll changes, a long coil holder is effective
in main t<lining proper centering. Another function
of the long coil form is to keep the coils from
becoming tilted in the hlbi:!. This also requires
higher probe fill fa ctors than might normally be
used during other types of tube inspection.<;.
Conductivity Measurements
Alloy Sorting
Conducti vi ty is an important measured variable.
Alloy sorting can also be accomplished with a
two coil comparator bridge process but again it is
not a strict requirement. Other types of coil
arrangements may also provide useful inform<ltion.
The key element to kt.'Cp in nLind with alloy sorting
is that this is not the Sclme as m<lteriaJ identifica tion .
Two very different materials may provide the same
load to the coil. Alloy sorti ng using
electromagnetics must ~ verified with the
additional verification of the mechanical properties
of these ma terials.
49
Chapter 7
Review Questions
Q.7.1
part of the
Q.7.6
Q.7.7
Q.7.8
Q.7.9
group.
A. discontinuity detection
6. material properties
C. dimensional
D. special
Q.7.2
O. a bulge.
Q .7.3
Q.7.4
subtracting a
frequency
signal from the optimum frequency Signal.
A. low
B. high
C. AorB
D. None of the abOve.
Q.7.5
50
Chapter 8
Other Electromagnetic Techniques
Eddy current testing is just one of a group of
techniques that as a whole <lfe defined as the
electromagnetic testing method. The subdisciplines
or techniques listed within the method continue to
expand. Follow ing are the techniques that fall Wlder
this method at the time of publication:
51
~."~
~~
." 0;
B,
/'\..
gives Bz peak
Unlfo,m
input
current
Counterclockwise
flow gives
Bz trough
Current lines
close together
gives
Bx :ak\
."
=w
E:.=
uo
, m
~>
.,,-"
Current lines
far apart gives
~ BxtrOUgh
Bx
+-- - --
Legend
magnetic flux component normal to eleck ~ field
and parallel to test surface
Bz '" magnetic flu x component normal to test surface
T :time or scan distance (retative scale)
Bx :
52
(a)
Pickup coils
(b)
53
Double exciter
EXCiter
, f5li 'I
1111
Flexible (smallbore)
Flexible (large-bore)
Detector
{
configurations
(Available for all
probe types)
a-OJ
Centralizer
brushes
o-w
i@ - W
From top to bottom: Larger diameter tubing with either Single or dual exciters, smaller
diameter tubing and boiler tubing.
54
concern is to
determine where
along the length of
the tube thc primary
magnetic flux lines
will reverse their
direction and start
their retum path back
to the driver coil. It is
at that point on the
tube inside diameter
that the remote field
testing pick up coils
should be placed.
10"'1\
g.
----
"
55
---
-===
----=J---
56
Chapter 8
Review Questions
Q.8.1
Q.8.6
Q.S.7
Q.S.8
Q.8.9
C.
Q.S.2
Q.8.5
Chapter 9
Eddy Current Procedures, Standards
and Specifications
Procedures, specifications and standards are
produced to provide a means of controlling product
or service quality. Written instructions that guide a
company or individual to a de5ired end result and
are acceptable to industry, are the basis of
procedures, specifications and standards.
Many publica tions are available to guide or
instruct us. Some of the most frequently u sed
references are the American Society for Testing and
\Iatcnals (ASTh1), American Society o f Mechanical
Engineers (ASME), American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) and Military Standards
('.1lL -STD-)()()()().
These publications arc labariou!>])' p roduced by
committees made up o f scien tific and technical
people. Usually after a committee produces a draft
document, it is submitted to industry and the
scientific community for comment and subsequent
reVision.
In certain cases, standards combine to assist
each other. As an example, ASME Section V Article
8 - Appendix IV uses ASTM 1316 to provide
Sta ndard Terminology for Nondestructive Testillg . The
military standard, M1L-STD-1537C Electrical
59
E 571 Stal/dard Practice for Electromaglletic (EddyCllrrCllt) hamillation of Nickel and Nickel Alloy
Tubular Products
E 690 Standard Practice for III Situ Electromagnetic
(Edd y-Cllrrmt) Examination of Nonmagnetic Heat
ExcJ lUlJger Tubes
E 1316 Standard Terminology for Nondestrllctil'e Testing
Military Standard
The United States Military uses the Military
Standard document to control testing and materials.
Standard procedures are provided by a series of
MIL-STO-XXXXX document<;. Special requirements
are speci fied by the Military Specification system.
For example, MIL-STD-1537C refers to Electrical
60
Procedure No. QA 3
11-1
PURPOSE
This procedure describes the equipment and methods as well as the personnel qualifications to be utilized
for the performance of the eddy current examination of steam generator tubes. It meets the requirements
of the NRC Regulatory Guide 1.83, ASME Section XI , Appendix IV and ASM E Section V, Article 8 of the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vesse l Code.
B. SCOPE
The scope of the examination to be performed is contained in the eddy current inspection program
document applicable to the specific plant to be inspected.
C. PREREQUISITES
1.
Plant Condition
The plant must be shut down with the primary system drained. The steam generators shall be open on the
primary side for access to the channel head and the shell cool down sequence shall be complete . Air
movers shall be attached to circu late air through the generator to dry the tube sheet.
2.
Equipment
The examinations shall be performed utilizing an XXXXIXX multifrequency eddy current instrument with
bobbin coil probes designed for testing from the inside of the tubes. The inspection performance shall be
monitored by the use of a phase sensitive vector display and recorded for later evaluation.
a.
61
Procedure No. QA 3
112
b.
Probe positioning and feeding shall be accomplished remotely for inservice inspection. Baseline
inspection may be done manually.
c.
3. Personnel Qualifications
Personnel collecting data in accordance with this procedure shall be qualified to Level I or higher in
accordance with Document QA 101. Personnel interpreting data collected in accordance with procedure
shall be qualified to Level llA or higher in accordance with Document QA 101. Prior to receiving a
certification, the applicants shall have completed the program recommended by SNT-TC-1A (1984
edition) , Supplement E.
D. PR ECAUTIDNS
1.
All personnel to be engaged in eddy current inspection programs at operating plants shall have
received instructions in and understand the radiation protection rules and guidelines in effect on the
plant site.
2. All personnel to be engaged in the test program shall wear protective clothing to the extent of the type
defined by the exclusion area work permit.
3.
All personnel entering a radiation work area will have proven their ability to work in a face mask by
successfully passing the pulmonary function test during their annual physical.
4.
No entries shall be made into the steam generator channel head without the presence of a qualified
health physics technician.
5.
Ensure that nozzle covers (when applicable) are securely in place inside the vessel before
commencement of the eddy current inspection program.
E. PERFDR MANCE
1.
Preparation
a.
b.
c.
Install communications system control box at the data acquisition control center.
d.
e. Install XXXX/XX eddy current test instrument. pusher puller and fixture control boxes as the steam
generator.
f.
2.
Install remote digital data acquisition computers and recording devices at the data acquisition
contro l ce nter.
Eq uipment Calibration
a.
Prior 10 the commencement of the eddy current examination of the steam generator tubes and
after the replacement of any component, the equipment shall be calibrated in accordance with the
following steps:
62
Procedure No. QA 3
11-3
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
3.
Insert the test bobbin coil probe into a section of the reference standard, which is free of
discontinuities.
Select the desired frequencies as per the Site Specific Data Acquisition Procedure.
Select the probe drive voltage and channel gain as per the Site Specific Data Acquisition
Procedu re.
Perform a hardware null.
Remotely pu ll the test probe through the reference standard at the speed selected for actual
testing in the heat exchanger. Data from the heat exchanger will also be acquired on the pull
unless noted.
Set the display sensitivity setting for each channel per the site specific calibration procedures.
Set the rotation (phase) val ue so that the probe motion signals in the discontinuity sensitive
differential channels are horizontal (as per the specific calibration procedure) with the first lobe
of the 100% through the wall dril l hole going down first as the probe is withd rawn from the
standard.
Set the rotation (phase) value so that the probe motion signals in the discontinu ity sensitive
absolute channels are horizontal (as per the specific calibration procedure) with the response
of the 100% through the wall drill hole going up as the probe is withdrawn from the reference
standard .
Complete the digital calibration summary form, update it with all pertinent information and
store this information to the selected digital storage device .
Eddy current inspection activi1ies shall be performed with equipment sensitivities and speeds set
per the Site Specific Data Acquisition Procedure.
b.
Visual verification of the identity of the specific tube being inspected shall be performed before
and after each fixture change and at the beginning and end of each row or column. Verification of
the positive identification of tube location shall be noted by a digitally recorded message.
c.
Should the performance of the tube identity verification reveal an error has occurred in the
recording of probe location , all tubes examined because the previous verification of location shall
be reexamined .
d. The eq uipment calibration shall be verified and recorded at the beginn ing and end of each
calibration cycle. At a minimum, the calibration will be verified at 4 h intervals and after any
equipment change.
e.
4.
Should the equipment be found to be out of calibration, the equipment will be recalibrated as per
Section E2 of this procedure. The data interpreter will determine if it is necessary to reinspect any
of the tubes.
Due to rad iation exposure probe pusher/pullers shou ld be used to facilitate the inspection .
63
5,
Procedure No. QA 3
Tube Inspection Automatic Remote
NOTE: Ensure that all probe positioner, probe feeder and probe and communication connecting
cables are clear of access walkways and secured to available supports.
114
a.
b.
Check the operation of the remotely operated eddy current positioner and connect the flexible
probe conduits to the probe guide tube and the probe pusher.
c.
Install remotely operated probe positioner on the manway or the tube sheet of the steam
generator to provide coverage of the area to be examined.
d.
e.
Verify the correct operation and control of the remotely operated platform hardware.
f.
Operate the pos itioner to locate the probe beneath the tube to be examined.
g.
If probe insertion is to be done manually, utilize the probe pusher controls to feed the probe into
and up the tube to the desired height. Monitor the extent of insertion by reference to impedance
signals from known tube reference locations (tube end, top of tube sheet, supports) on the display
screen.
h.
If operating in the Auto Acquire mode , verify that the proper landmark tables have been installed,
axial encoders are functioning properly and that the correct voltage thresholds have been
established for auto locate of supports and tube ends.
i.
ff performing manually or automatically ensure that the tube alphanumeric identifier has been
properly updated. Monitor the withdrawal at the probe from the tube until the impedance Signal on
the screen indicates that the probe is clear of the tube sheet. Concurrent with the probe
withdrawal, visually monitor the signals on the display screen while recordi ng all data in real time.
j.
Reposition the probe beneath the next tube selected for examination.
k.
Repeat the procedures described in the preceding steps untif all the tubes selected for inspection
have been examined .
Requirements
a.
The data interpreter shall be certified to Level itA or IliA as per Procedure OA 101.
b.
Data shall be collected with an eddy current test system with a current certification of calibration
as per CSP procedure.
c.
The data collection system shall be calibrated with an approved reference standard that is
serialized and traceable to a master reference standard.
d.
The identify of the plant site, the steam generator, the operators name and certification, the date ,
the test frequencies, the reference standard serial numbers, equ ipment serial numbers and
certification dates, software revisions and probes design and serial number shall be recorded at
the start of each calibration cycle.
e. The data collection station shall be set up and calibrated as per Procedure OA 3.
64
Procedure No. QA 3
2.
11-5
Perlormance
a. The data interpreter shall:
Determine that all tubes selected for inspection have been tested.
Report tubes whose data are incomplete or uninterpretable.
Requ ire a retest of any tubes exhibiting excessive noise or unusual responses .
InselVice inspections
aa. Report all discontinuities> 19%.
bb. Report all other indications that appear to be relevant.
cc. Identify the axial position of all indications with respect to a known structural member.
v. PreselVice inspections
aa. Report all indications obselVed . Include the axial position of the indication with respect to
a known structural member.
Interpretation
i. All data shall be reported on a digital Final Report form.
ii. The conversion from signal phase angles (or amplitudes) to discontinuity depths shall be
accomplished per calibration curves established on the appropriate channe ls using the
calibration standards and techniques defined in the site specific data analysis specifications.
iii. All data shall be reviewed in its entirety.
IV. Any abnormal signals obselVed shall be reported.
i.
ii.
iii.
IV.
b.
G. REFERENCES
The following documents or files are required for the performance of eddy current inspection programs
utilizing the methods described in this procedure.
1. Required Documentation
a.
Eddy current inspection specific calibration procedure documents applicable to the plant to be
inspected.
b. Inspection plans showing tube sheet maps marked to designate the extent of examination to be
perlormed and extent of completion.
c.
i ndic~tions
65
Chapter 9
Review Questions
Q.9.1
Q.9.-7
Q.9.8
Q.9.9
system or service is a:
A. standard.
B. specification.
C. procedure.
D. practice.
Q.9.2
Q.9.3
D. procedure
Q .9.10 The system in QA 3 is calibrated with an
Q.9.4
Q.9.5
Q.9.6
66
67
B
B
C
A
B
D
B
B
C
C
(4, p. 19)
(4, p. 19)
(4, p. 20)
(4, p. 20)
(4, p. 23)
(13, p. 4 )
(4, p. 25)
(4, p. 26)
(4, p. 26)
(4, p. 45)
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.1 0
D
B
D
D
C
B
B
D
(5,
(4,
(4,
(5,
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
B
E
A
B
35
3.6
3.7
3.8
3 .9
3.10
D
D
D
p. 38.25)
p. 194)
p. 71)
p. 40.1 )
(4, p. 19.5 )
(6, p. 353 )
(4, p. 69)
(4, p. 210)
(4, p. 198)
(4, p. 211)
(4, p. 328)
(2, p. 36)
(4, p. 332)
(Chapter 3, p. 16)*
(2, p. 38)
(19, p. 78)
(4, p. 212)
(4, p. 195)
(4, p. 173)
(4, p. 211)
4 .1
4.2
4.3
44
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.1 0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
56
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6. 10
B
C
D
D
B
B
D
B
A
A
B
C
D
B
B
B
B
D
A
C
D
A
A
B
B
(2, p. 8)
(1 2, p. 95)
(9, p. 56)
(2, p. 13)
(19, p. 78)
(4, p. 171 )
(2, p. 26)
(5, p. 36.17)
(19, p. 88)
(4, p. 27)
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
(19, p. 79)
(5, p. 37.20)
(5, p. 36.13)
(5, p. 36.13)
(5, p. 36.13)
(4, p. 37)
(4, p. 37)
(19, p. 82)
(5, p. 37.20)
(12, p. 289)
8 .1
8 .2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.1 0
(4, p. 60)
(4, p. 60)
(4, p. 64)
(12, p. 21 9)
(1, p. 276)
(4, p. 76)
(4, p. 76)
(Chapter 6, p . 41 )*
6B
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9 .8
9 .9
9 .10
9 .11
B
B
B
A
B
D
B
C
B
c
A
B
B
C
c
E
D
B
D
B
C
B
B
B
c
C
c
B
(4, p. 270)
(13, p. 59)
(12, p. 282)
(12, p. 256)
(13, p. 47)
(12, p. 129)
(4, p. 51)
(11, p. 631)
(12, p. 121)
(19, p. 102)
(1,
(1,
(1,
(1,
(1,
(1,
(1,
(1,
(1,
(1,
p.
p.
p.
p.
p.
p.
p.
383)
248)
383)
211 )
364)
386)
235)
p. 212)
p. 216)
p. 403)
(17, Section V, p. X)
(QA 3,
(DA 3,
(QA 3,
(QA 3,
(QA3,
(QA3,
p.
p.
p.
p.
p.
p.
2)
3)
4)
4)
5)
5)
References
1.
3.
6.
1981.
2006.
69
Figure Sources
Chapter 1
Chapter 6
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
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Chapter 4
Fil/ure -4.I _ ASt\T
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Chapter 5
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5.4_ 1 n~lilul
Chapter 8
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Figure 8.4 ~ ASNT
Dr. Foerster
70
S}'~lems
Inc,
Order #2257R