15/4/2016

DESIGNING AND
CONSTRUCTION OF PIPELINES
Week 10

One of the most significant properties is

energy density, which is compared to other
transportation energy sources in Figure 11-1.
Other desirable characteristics include:
Liquid form, easy to transport Adjustable
combustion characteristics for use in a wide
range of engines

Petroleum liquids have properties that make

them excellent transportation fuels
This allows a large scale supply chain that
operates efficiently, which reduces cost.
A well-established distribution system
ensures widespread availability.

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Note: During World War II, the then-War Department

delineated PADDs to facilitate oil allocation.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration,
Number and Capacity of Petroleum Refineries, as of
January 1, 2010.
TOTAL U.S. BARRELS PER DAY: 17,583,790

Figure 11-23. Fuel Refining Capacity by Petroleum

Administration for Defense District (Barrels per Day)

The refining industry also plays a role in other

industrial value chains:
1. asphalt for road construction and roofing,
2. lubricants for use in transportation and industry,
3. high-quality petroleum coke for use in the metals
industry,
4. waxes,
5. solvents, and other products.

Many of these specialty products are difficult to

manufacture and require highly specialized processes.

Oil and gas transportation

The transportation of oil and gas from
wellhead to the refinery is crucial to the
global oil industry value chain.
Transportation, even in the earliest years of
the industry, was often the link in the value
chain that was
the source of competitive pressure
and sometimes significant profit.

15/4/2016

Principle issues of transportation for

oil and gas include the following:
Petroleum is a highly capital-intensive linkage
in the global oil and gas marketplace
It is often driven as much by geopolitics as it
is by traditional business concerns.
Oil may be transported for thousands of
miles by truck, tanker, barge, train, pipeline,
or a combination of these means before it
reaches its final destination.

Distance.
The distance that crude needs to be moved
often dictates the mode of movement.
Shorter distances may be dominated by trucking,
medium distances by barge or rail, and the
longest distances by tanker or pipeline.

Oil versus gas

The challenge of course, is that oil and gas
are found in some of the most hard-to-reach
places on earth
Moving the oil and gas from field to refinery
is in many cases challenging.

Oil is a liquid so easily transportable.

Natural gas, lacks portability
Natural gas is usually moved via pipelines.
Pipelines, however, are inflexible and costly.
Another option is to liquefy it by refrigeration
and then moved by traditiona transportation.

15/4/2016

Strangely, the transportation segment of the oil

and gas industry has always led a shadow life
Transportation, both its availability and cost, has
proven critical to competitiveness since the very
beginning,
It has however always been treated as
something of a noncore activity,
a service to be acquired or provided but not a core
source of value.

Nothing could be further from the truth.

Moving crude oil and natural gas from the field

to the refinery today is about pipelines across
land and supertankers across water.
The primary complexity for the transportation of
most of the world's crude oil and gas, however,
is location.
Many production sites on land or water are
relatively inaccessible for the construction of
economic transportation of the crude product.

Pennsylvania's "Black Gold"

Both Pennsylvania and Baku in 1860
experienced very similar crude oil booms,
with production very quickly outstripping
transportation capabilities.

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The First Pipeline

Transporting the oil was also a problem.
In 1865 Samuel Van Syckel, an oil buyer,
began construction on a two-inch wide
pipeline designed to span the distance to the
railroad depot five miles away.
The teamsters, who had previously
transported the oil, didn't take to kindly to
Syckel's plan, and they used pickaxes to break
apart the line.

Oil has a long history of transport by water.

In 1861 oil was first shipped from
Philadelphia to London.
It was loaded in barrels of 42 gallons.

Eventually Van Syckel brought in armed

guards, finished the pipeline, and made a
ton-o-money.
By 1865 wooden derricks extracted 3.5
million barrels a year out of the ground.
Such large scale production caused the price
of crude oil to plummet to ten cents a barrel.

Rockefeller saw early on, that refining and

transportation, as opposed to production,
were the keys to taking control of the
industry.
And control the industry he did!

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This pipeline system relieved Standard's

dependence upon the railroads and reduced its
transportation costs even more.
By 1880 Standard controlled 90% of the
country's refining capacity.
Because of its massive size, it brought security
and stability to the oil business, guaranteeing
continuous profits.
With Standard Oil, John D. Rockefeller became
the richest person in the World

Transportation often encompassed 20% of

the total production cost and Rockefeller
made under-the-table deals with railroads to
give him secret shipping rebates.

Successor companies to Standard Oil:

This cheap transportation allowed Standard
to undercut its competitors and Rockefeller
expanded aggressively, buying out
competitors left and right.
Soon Standard built a network of "iron
arteries" which delivered oil across the
Eastern U.S.

Standard Oil of Ohio - or Sohio now part of BP

Standard Oil of Indiana - or Stanolind, renamed Amoco - now part of BP
Standard Oil of New York - or Socony, merged with Vacuum - renamed Mobil, now part of ExxonMobil
Standard Oil of New Jersey - or Esso (S.O.) - renamed Exxon, now part of ExxonMobil
Standard Oil of California - or Socal - renamed Chevron
Atlantic and Richfield - merged to form Atlantic Richfield or Arco - now part of BP - Atlantic operations
spun off and bought by Sunoco
Standard Oil of Kentucky - or Kyso was acquired by Standard Oil of California - now part of Chevron
Continental Oil Company - or Conoco now part of ConocoPhillips

Standard Oil of Iowa - pre 1911 - became Standard Oil of California

Standard Oil of Minnesota - pre 1911 - bought by Standard Oil of Indiana
Standard Oil of Illinois - pre 1911 - bought by Standard Oil of Indiana
Standard Oil of Kansas - refining only, eventually bought by Indiana Standard
Standard Oil of Missouri - pre 1911 - dissolved
Standard Oil of Nebraska - eventually bought by Indiana Standard
Standard Oil of Louisiana - always owned by Standard Oil of New Jersey (Esso)
Standard Oil of Brazil - always owned by Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Esso)
Standard Oil of Colorado - a scam to cash in on the Standard Oil brand in the 1930s
Standard Oil of Connecticut - A fuel oil marketer in Connecticut not related to the Rockefeller companies

15/4/2016

Pipeline Timeline
(19th Century)

1859: Colonel Edwin Drake Strikes Oil in Titusville, Pennsylvania

1863: The Teamsters- Oil initially transported by horse to rail terminals by Teamsters using
whiskey barrels, giving the Teamsters a local spatial monopoly on delivery. The price to
move a barrel of oil 5 miles by horse was greater than the charge to move from
Pennsylvania to New York City.
1865: the first wooden oil pipeline built, about 9 miles long bypassing the teamsters.
1870: Standard Oil Company formed by John D. Rockefeller, largely produces kerosene for
lighting and oil for heating
1879: Tidewater - The First Crude Oil Trunkline (built by competitors to Standard Oil, soon
acquired by Standard Oil interests, extended to Buffalo, Philadelphia, Cleveland, New York)
1880s: The Rise of Russian (now Azerbaijani) Oil - Marcus Samuel developed the first
organized kerosene shipping enterprise to compete with Rockefeller and send kerosene to
Europe and the Far East.
1880-1905: Oil discovered in Ohio, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Spindletop, Texas

Fact Sheet Pipelines

FACILITIES
Mileage of Oil Pipelines 1998

FINANCIAL
Capital investment in oil pipelines, 1998 $
30.2 billion
Operating revenues, 1998 6.9 billion
Oil pipelines share of national freight bill,
States in which pipelines operate 50
1998 1.6%
PERFORMANCE
SAFETY
Total ton-miles of crude and
Total transportation fatalities in 1998 43,920
products, 1998 619.8 billion
Number of liquid pipeline fatalities in 1998 1
Percent of total intercity freight (ton- REGULATION AND EMPLOYMENT
miles) carried by pipelines, 1998
Number of oil pipeline companies regulated
17.3%
by the Federal Energy Regulatory
Percent of all crude oil and refined
Commission, 2000 183
products transported (ton-miles)
Total employees in oil pipeline industry, 1998
carried by pipelines, 1998 66.6%
16,000
Crude trunk and gathering lines
114,000
Product trunk lines 86,500
Total 200,500

Pipeline Timeline
(20th Century)

1905: Crude Oil Pipelines built from the fields in Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas to Eastern refineries.
1908: Henry Ford develops Automobile assembly line, gasoline becomes primary customer of oil,
electricity continues to replace kerosene oil lamps.
1912: Sherman Anti-trust act finalized and Standard Oil dissolved.
1913: the Valuation Act was the first attempt at Federal involvement in US pipeline ratemaking.
1917: Crude Oil Pipelines
1920s: Pipeline Mileage Triples
1935: The first product pipelines where built from Whiting, St. Louis and Kansas City to the west.
1945: Product Lines Grow During World War II (oil tankers were sunk frequently, pipelines seen as more
reliable).
1944: pipeline regulation became the responsibility of the US Interstate Commerce Commission who
introduced the notion of reasonable returns in the 8 percent to 10 percent range.
1954: Stanolind, the Indiana Standard pipeline company, became the largest liquid pipeline carrier in
North America. A position it held until the most recent Enbridge expansion.
1968: import refineries on the US Gulf Coast led to the construction of Colonial pipeline to supply the
eastern seaboard. Colonial was the largest privately financed undertaking in US history in 1968.
1970 - 1977: The Trans Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS)

Dirty tankers are those carrying black cargoes, such as crude and
resid.
They do not require as much cleaning between voyages as clean
tankers, which carry so-called white product, encompassing the
lighter, more valuable products.
White cargoes arc more expensive to transport because
contamination must be avoided and because much smaller ships
typically carry these products. LPG (butane and propane) and
ethylene must be transported in high-pressure containers and are
not included in the designation of clean or dirty tankers.
Tankers sometimes sail under flags of convenience, meaning they
are registered in a country where tax rates, operating standards,
and environmental requirements are more lax than the home
country of the chartering company.

15/4/2016

The two most popular flags of convenience are Panama and

Liberia.
Together they accounted for more than 20% of the world tankers,
and more than 80% of their merchant marines are foreign owned
(US CIA 2010).
Because these tankers are generally larger ships, their tonnage
represents about one-third of world tanker tonnage.
Panama's share is slightly higher than Liberia's (AP! 2012).
Inland transportation of oil and products includes pipelines, rail,
and truck.
Water transport consists of self-propelled vessels, such as tankers
on the coast, and barges, which are moved by tug or push boats.
Oil barges were the first to use the US Gulf lntracoastal Waterway,
which runs from Texas to Florida.

Transportation of crude oil and products by

share within the United States is shown in table
17-9, with a comparison for crude shipments in
China.

Although tankers, of course, heavily dominate crude

imports into the two countries, pipelines heavily
dominate transport within both countries.
Rail, which comes second in China, is responsible for
transporting a very small share in the United States.
This share has been growing with the new tight light
oil production and pipeline bottlenecks.
Although products also are largely transported by
pipeline in the United States, local distribution relies
more heavily on motor and rail transport.

Approximately 75% of the existing pipeline

infrastructure was constructed between 1940 and
1980.
The average pipeline lifespan is 33 years
(Humphreys).
Pipelines accounted for 71% of all petroleum
transportation in 2008, up from approximately 54%
in 1990.

15/4/2016

Total Petroleum Product Movement

Pipelines from the

Well to the Refinery and Market

Technical Issues
Receiving terminals for crude oil and petroleum products have
large tanks for temporary storage, called tank farms, where crude
and products are segregated by owners.
Various grades of crude and products must also be segregated into
batches in the pipeline.
Scheduling and dispatching of batches is done by computer, with a
single batch having a minimum volume.
Unless products are physically separated in a pipeline (e.g., by
large rubber balls), there is some mixing at the interfaces.
If product specification is not too tight, the products at the
interfaces can be used;

The following constitutes actual problems

that may be encountered when transporting
different liquids using a single pipeline.

otherwise, they need to be reprocessed

15/4/2016

Liquid pipeline sector

Pipelines are used to transport almost 70% of
the crude oil and refined products that are
transported in the United States.
Pipelines are a very efficient and safe way to
move liquid products.
For example, it costs only a few cents to
move a gallon of gasoline from the Gulf Coast
to Chicago, a distance of about 1,600
kilometers.

With a product like gasoline, pipeline batches

are impacted by both product demand and
by regulations such as regional and summer
and winter vapor pressure requirements.
Fuels oils must be segregated based on sulfur
content and dyed for specific markets.
Jet fuel requires segregated batches to meet
different military and domestic aviation
specs.

Pipeline companies ship petroleum products

of the same quality in sequence through a
pipeline, with each product or "batch"
distinct from the one before or after.
Each pipeline has specific requirements for
minimum batch size based on factors such as
pipe size and flow rate.

An obvious operational question is how pipeline

companies deal with the mix of different liquids
that flow through their pipelines.
A large petroleum pipeline might have 30 to 50
different products regularly moving through the
pipeline over a specific cycle of days
(a cycle is the period of time beginning with the
pumping of a product until all the product
grades are pumped and the initial product is
pumped again, beginning the new cycle).

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15/4/2016

However, all fluid interfaces are not the

same.
Interfaces between common products such
as regular and premium gasolines are
relatively simple in chemical structure and
are typically cut into the product of lesser
quality or value, the downgrade.

Different products such as regular gasoline, premium

gasoline, or jet fuel, are moved through the same
pipeline in batches.
Once the different batches arrive at their respective
destinations they are pulled out of the linebatch
cutting into other lines or tankage through a
complex set of valves.
Some mixing of product occurs at the interface of
adjacent product grade batches.
This volume can sometimes be mixed into one or both
of the adjacent batches and still meet product
specifications.

Interfaces between regular and premium

gasoline would therefore be cut into the
regular gasoline, downgrading or regrading
the interface and part of the premium
gasoline batch into the regular gasoline
batch.

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15/4/2016

Figure 11-5 illustrates the batch process of

multiple products in a single pipeline.

How Petroleum Pipelines Work

When products are of significantly different grade and

value, e.g. jet fuel and regular gasoline, the product
interface, called transmix, must be diverted to tanks
It is either reprocessed or moved via truck to a
reprocessing center or returned to a refinery.
The transmix reprocessing into marketable qualities of
the two products is a costly procedure.
Interfaces between gasolines, diesels, and jet fuels are
all commonly redirected to transmix tanks to avoid
contamination.

Cost componenents of Transmix

Trucking, reprocessing, refining (where crude
oil must often be replaced with transmix),
labor, and administrative cost (measurement
and ticketing costs).

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15/4/2016

With more regulations, the pipeline

companies have to deal with increased
complexity and a greater number of fuel
grades.

The development of a variety of devices and

technologies for the implementation of
precision batch timing (PBC) shows significant
promise In improving the financial results of
downstream pipeline transportation.

Many companies today are working to reduce

overwash, the tendency to cut too much of the
premium batch interface into the lower grade
batch "just to be safe."
Given the sizeable price and value differentials
between downstream products, reducing
wastage of premium value products improves
profitability.
An obvious extension of this business savings is
the reduction of transmix as well.

As with any capital asset, maximizing a

pipeline's capacity utilization is a constant
objective.
Pumps and motors can be added to increase
pressure and flow rates.
Chemical compounds, called drag reducing
agents, can be injected to increase overall
flow at the same pressure.

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15/4/2016

Sequencing of products is a key operational

issue along with ensuring that product
integrity is maintained.

TERMINALS

Mention flash point

RON
Water ppm
Voc

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15/4/2016

These terminals are located in demand

centers and along pipeline routes to deliver
hydrocarbon fuels and biofuels to the end
customer.
The legacy value of these terminals is
significant, for a competing energy pathway
to replicate this coverage and redundancy is a
very large hurdle.

With falling production, throughput has fallen, as well,

and 2013 throughput averaged 534,480 bbls per day
(Alyeska Pipeline Service Company n.d.).
To increase throughput, either the diameter of the
pipe or the power of the pumping station can be
increased.
Table 17-10 shows the sizes of recently laid pipe in the
United States, along with throughput for 10'000 and
20,000 horsepower an additional 25%.

Pipelines are manufactured in various standard sizes

up to 56 inches (142 cm) in diameter.
Pumping stations keep the crude moving.
For example, along the 18-inch, 800-mile (l,290 km)
Alaska pipeline from the North Slope to Valdez, there
are currently nine operating pumping stations.
The oil travels at 5.1 mph and takes almost six days to
reach the terminal at Valdez.
The highest throughput was more than 2 million
barrels per day in 1989.

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15/4/2016

Both oil and its products play a large role in

international trade.
Around 53% of the world's oil production was
exported in 2010, and product exports are
approximately 60% as large as crude oil
exports
The worlds largest exporters and importers
of oil products are shown in table 17-11.

A number of these countries have set up export

refinery industries, with exports greater than the
amount they supply to their domestic markets.
They include Kuwait, Venezuela, Algeria, Aruba,
and the US Virgin Islands.
At net exports of more than a million barrels a
day in 2012, the United States will likely be in
the top eight list, once comparable international
data is available.

Natural gas is transported primarily by

pipeline with a small (10%) but growing
amount (EIA n.d.d.) transported as LNG.
Gas transportation costs are considerably
higher than for oil, and vary considerably by
distance and conditions (see fig. 17-6).

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15/4/2016

Fig. 17-6. Illustrative gas and oil transportation costs, 2011 Source:
Used with permission ol James Jensen. Jensen and Associates, Inc.
Note: LP = low pressure; HP = high pressure (in this tigure); = inch. Natural gas delivery
capability in million cubic leet per day is given in parentheses. Divide by 35.3 to obtain million
cubic meters per day Divide miles by 0.621 to convert to kilometers and divide by 1 055 to
obtain price in dollars per million kilojoules Multiply by 2.54 to convert inches to centimeters.
Numbers in parentheses indicate natural gas deliverability in millions of cubic feet per day

In figure 17-6, the left-hand axis represents

transport costs in dollars per MMBtu or energy
equivalent transported.
Oil tankers and coal bulk carriers are the
cheapest method of transport, followed by oil
pipelines.
To convert oil transport costs to per-barrel costs.
multiply by 5.8.
To convert coal to transport costs per US metric
tonnes of coal, multiply by 22.2.

Gas onshore is cheaper than gas offshore, and

gas transport costs are, of course, cheaper as
pipeline diameters increase.
Shipping LNG becomes relatively cheaper than
shipping natural gas by small pipeline in as little
as 750 miles.
However, if the market is large enough to
warrant 56 inches (142 cm) onshore pipelines,
LNG transport will not become competitive until
distances are more than 3,000 miles (4,800 km).

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15/4/2016

Because of these high transport costs, gas that is far

from a market, particularly small-scale finds, may not
be commercial.
For this reason, around 3% of gross natural gas
production worldwide was vented or flared in 2012,
and another 11 % was re injected to maintain
pressure in oil wells.
Less than 1 % was vented or flared in North America
and Europe.
Around 4.6% of the gas in the Middle East was vented
or flared, and another 12% was injected.

The company operating the largest

transmission system in the world is Gazprom.
It operates the 102,300 miles of the Unified
Gas Supply System of Russia
(Gazprom 2011.).

Market Share
Total Crude and Product Pipeline Market

In 1999, Nigeria vented or flared more than onehalf of its gas and injected another 13%.
With the large LNG project that came on-stream
in 1999, by 2009, Nigeria vented and flared only
about one-fourth of gross natural gas
production.
Ghana, a relatively new gas producer in 2009,
flared or vented almost 90% of its gross natural
gas production but only about a quarter by
2012.

Market Share

Ton Miles
1,400

100
90

1,200

80
1,000

70
60

800

50
600

40
30

400

20
200

10

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Year
Total Crude and Products Ton Miles

Product Ton Miles

Crude Ton Miles

Pipelines

Water Carriers

Motor Carriers

Railroads

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15/4/2016

Pipeline construction

There are three types of gas transportation in the United States.

At the field, small gathering pipelines transport gas to long-distance transportation pipelines.
Distribution pipelines then transport gas from large, long-distance pipelines to the end user. In 2012, the United States had 1,246,463 miles of
distribution pipelines and 303,303 miles of transmission and 16,729 gathering pipeline operated by more than 1,000 companies (US BTS, n.d.).
Gas pipelines require compressor stations. As with all pipelines, more gas can
be transported by increasing pipe diameters or by increasing the horsepower of the
compressors. ln the Netherlands, for example, gas may travel at 5 kilometers per
hour (km/hr) during slack summer months and more than 50 km/hr in peak winter
periods. Gas can also be stored in pipelines by increasing line pack. Compressor
stations built in the United States in 2011 ranged in size from 350 to 57,000 HP,
with costs generally running between $2,000 and $5,000 per horsepower (OGJ
Editors 2013b, table 5). Even larger stations are being built in Russia, with one
at Portovaya to accompany the Gryazovets-Vyborg Pipeline rated at more than
100,000 HP (Pipeline International 2011). Compressor stations are more typically
rated in megawatts in Russia, with 1 MW= 1,341 HP.
More than one-half of the world's coal is used to produce electricity and more
than 60% of this utility use is located within 38.5 miles (60 km) of the mine mouth.
Only about 15% of the world's coal is traded internationally. Nevertheless, coal
transport is still big business. Transport of coal by sea constitutes the world's largest
dry cargo. Total coal trade was more than l billion tons a year in 2011, with steam
coal approximately 75% of the total in 2011 (World Coal Institute, n.d.). In 2010,
crude oil and petroleum products were about one-third of total world shipping
tonnage. Steam coal is about one-half the tonnage of oil (UN Conference on Trade
and Development Secretariat 2011). Major shipping routes for coal are the black
lines seen in figure 17-5. As in the independent tanker trade, independent bulk

Oil pipelines are constructed today from steel or

plastic tubing, with inner diameters ranging from as
small as 4 inches (10 cm) for refined/ downstream
products to 48 inches (120 cm) for crude oil.
When possible, most pipelines are buried 3 to 6 feet
below ground.
Buried lines provide improved safety and security,
although they add considerably to construction cost.
These higher costs are usually easily recovered in
fewer repair and maintenance costs over the pipeline
life.

Pipelines
Pipelines are critical from the beginning of oil
and gas production.
As pipeline engineers frequently say "Nothing
happens until we get our lines in place."
Beginning at the wellhead, on land or sea,
the oil and gas produced from the well must
be first contained and moved via pipeline.

Pipeline construction costs vary dramatically depending on

diameter, length, terrain (both onshore and offshore), and
environmental conditions, including weather.
Pipeline companies use calculations based on cost per pipe
diameter per distance to estimate pipeline project costs.
For example, the calculation for a gathering system may be
$1,000 per millimeter diameter per kilometer.
A 50-kilometer system consisting of 50-millimeter pipe may
be roughed out as:
50 millimeters x 50 kilometers x $1,000 per kilometer = $2.5 million

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Pipeline construction45%;
line pipe and fittings19%;
pump stations and equipment16%,
land and ROW5%; other15%.
Pipeline construction costs, as the largest single
component, are
38% labor and
36% materials,
ROW and damages make up about 7%, and
miscellaneous expenses 20%.
Obviously construction, pipe, and pumps and
compressors dominate investment.

Natural gas pipelines today are constructed nearly

exclusively of carbon steel, and may vary anywhere
from 50 millimeters to 1,500 millimeters in diameter.
The gas is moved via pump stations like crude oil, but
instead of pumps there are compressors.
Because natural gas often has high levels of both
sulfur and water when initially produced, it is critically
important for the long-term preservation of pipelines
that the sulfur and water be removed from the gas
before entering transit pipelines.

Pipeline gas specs

Crude oil pipelines require maintenance both inside
and out.
Because many crude oils contain a variety of wax
components that may adhere and buildup on the
internal surfaces of a pipeline,
Pigs (or scraping devices or go-devils) are run through
the pipelines on a regular basis for inspection and
cleaning.
These inspection robots are also capable of detecting
small leakages or other possible pipeline failures
before they happen.

CO2 50ppmv
H2S 5mg/Nm3
Total S 30mg/Nm3
Water 80mg/Nm3

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Gathering systems
A production field with multiple wells must first
combine or gather the crude o before Initial prtx
euing and shipping.
The network of pipes, the flowline network,
moves the oil to a central processing plant
and/or shipping point.
The entire gathering system will include the
pumps, separators, treatment facilities, tanks,
regulators, compressors, dehydrators, valves,
and all other associated equipment.

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Designing and Construction of

Pipelines

Internal design pressure

P = (2 St/OD)* x E x F
E = seamjoint factor
F = design factor

* 2 St/O.D. Used to determine low stress

Pipeline Construction
This subpart prescribes minimum design
requirements for new pipeline systems
constructed with steel pipe and for
relocating, steel pipe and for relocating,
replacing, or otherwise changing existing
systems

Pipeline Construction Sequence

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15/4/2016

1. Surveying.
The right-of-way is a narrow strip of land that
contains the pipeline(s) and is where all
onsite construction activities occur.
After a planned or proposed route is
determined, it is proposed route is
determined, it is surveyed to determine the
parameters that will be needed to complete
the project.

Pipeline location

ROW must be selected to avoid, as far as

practicable:
areas containing private dwellings
industrial buildings
industrial buildings
places of public assembly

Pipeline may not be located within 50 feet of

any: of the above
unless 12 of cover is added.

1. Maps & Materials.

Once the pipeline is
surveyed, ROW is
purchased, alignment
sheets (maps) are drawn
sheets (maps) are drawn
and material lists are
generated.

Compliance with specifications or

standards.
Each pipeline system
must be constructed in
accordance with
comprehensive written
specifications or
standards that are
consistent with the
requirements of this part.

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15/4/2016

Track-Type Tractor or Dozer

No pipe or other component may be installed
unless it has been visually inspected at site.

2. Clearing & Grubbing

The ROW is cleared of brush and trees, and
leveled to give workers and equipment
access to and equipment access to build,
inspect and maintain the pipeline.

Inspection - general
Inspection must be provided to ensure the
installation of pipe or pipeline systems in
accordance with the requirements of this
with the requirements of this subpart.
No person may be used to perform
inspections unless that person has been
trained and is qualified in the phase of
qualified in the phase of construction to be
inspected.

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3. Right-of-way preparation.
The right-of-way will be graded, and pads
may be built to allow for the movement of
ditchers, additional equipment, materials and
other pipeline construction activities.

4. Hauling and stringing the pipe

Lengths of pipe are moved from stockpile
sites to the right-of way.
They are lined up along the right-of-way,
ready for welding.

Stringing
Stringing is the delivery and distribution of
line pipe where it is needed on the right-ofway and when it is needed

5. Bending the pipe.

A pipeline must cross over hills
and curve around special
places such as lakes and
sacred sites.
A specialized pipe bending
machine is used to bend some
pipe to the shape of the land.
The pipe retains its strength
and remains circular where it
is bent because of the
characteristics of steel and the
bending techniques used.

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Hydraulic Pipe Bending Machines

Pneumatic
Bending
Mandrel

Bending of pipe.
Pipe may not have a wrinkle bend.
Each field bend must comply with the
following:
not impair serviceability
have a smooth contour
pipe with longitudinal weld, must be in neutral
axis unless
made with internal mandrel pipe is <12

Bent to Fit

The pipe must be bent to reflect the general

contours of the right-of-way.

6. Welding
A technique where another metal is melted
and used to join lengths of pipe.
Automatic welding machines are used where
possible and some hand welding also takes
place.
A rigorous quality assurance and quality
control program is followed to ensure the
strength and quality of the welding.

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Welding Equipment

Automatic Internal Welder

Automatic External Welder

Pipe Facing Machine

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Welding Truck Rig

The Pipe Gang

The workers
responsible for
positioning the
pipe, aligning it,
and making the
initial welds.

Welding Tractor

Firing Line
The workers responsible for the filler pass
and the cap bead, which complete the joint.

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Radiography
195.234 Welds:
Nondestructive testing.

Welding of supports and braces.

May NOT be welded to pipe which operates over
100psig.

Good Weld?

Field Joint Coating

Mill coated pipe has a cutback of 6-9 inches
at the end of the pipe to not interfere with
welding.
This cutback must be coated once the weld is
complete.

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195.557 Which
pipelines must
have coating for
external
corrosion
control?
195.559 What
coating material
may I use for
external
corrosion
control?

195.561 When must

I inspect pipe
coating used for
coating used for
external corrosion
control?
195.581 Which
pipelines must I
protect against
atmospheric
corrosion and what
coating material may
I use?

Hydraulic Excavator or
Trackhoe

7. Digging the trench.

The way the trench or ditch is dug,
and what equipment is used,
depends mainly on the type of soil.
Alternates include bucket soil.
Other digging equipment will
include backhoes or trackhoes
195.246 Installation of pipe in a
ditch.
195.248 Cover over buried pipeline.
195.250 Clearance between pipe
and underground structures.

Trencher or Ditching Machine

Backhoe or Rubber-Tired Hoe

Ditching or Trenching

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First Rule of Holes:

When youre in one . . .
STOP
DIGGING!!!

Trench Boxes

8. Lowering the pipe.

Tractors with special arms
called sidebooms are used to
lower the pipe into the trench.
Care is taken to avoid
damaging the pipe and its
exterior coating.

Pipelayer or Sideboom

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Lowering In

10. Crossings
A pipeline will need to cross rivers and streams,
roads, railroads and other pipelines.
Plans are developed in advance.
Water crossings can be completed either by
"open cut" techniques or by directional drilling.

9. Installing valves and special fittings

Valves and other connections are
part of a pipeline.
These assemblies are installed as
the pipeline is constructed.
They include shut-off valves that
can block off sections of the
pipeline for maintenance.

The selection of a crossing method depends

upon site specific criteria such as fish habitat,
water flow, and soil conditions such as rocks
and boulders.
Generally, horizontal directional drilling is
selected for major river crossings where local
soil conditions permit the technique.

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11. Backfilling the trench

Before testing the pipeline, the ditch is
backfilled.
Sometimes the excavated soil is used to fill
the trench and sometimes other selected
backfill is used.
Care is taken to protect the pipe coating from
potential damage.

12. Tie-in

Collective term for the construction tasks by

passed by regular crews on pipeline
construction.
Tie-in includes welding road and river
crossing, valves, portions of the pipeline left
disconnected for hydrostatic testing, and
other fabrication assemblies, as well as
taping and coating the welds.

13. Testing
Track-Type Tractor
or Dozer

A variety of methods will be used to ensure

the integrity of the assembled pipeline and to
comply with code.

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14. Dewatering
If water is used as a test medium, dewatering
of the pipeline is done with dewatering pigs.
The water should be disposed of in an
environmentally sensitive manner.

Electromagnetic Interactions Between

Power Transmission Lines and Pipelines
The continuous growth of energy consumption
and the difficulties in establishing new ROWs for
transmission power lines and metal pipelines
increase the tendency to site them along the
same routes.
Consequently, electromagnetic problems can
arise.
Electric shocks to people who contact the pipeline
Damage to pipeline insulating coating, insulating
joints and cathodic protection systems

15. Cleaning up
The pipeline right-of-way and temporary
facilities such as camps will be reclaimed.

Pipeline induced voltages should be compared to

safety limits established by industry codes.
Underground sections of pipeline checked with
respect to the risks of damage to pipeline coating.
Above-ground sections checked for risks of potential
electric shocks to people.
Voltage across insulating joints compared to the
voltage withstand capability.
Cathodic protection systems checked for maximum
voltages at their connection to the pipeline.

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Other Safety Considerations

When driving on the Right-of-Way - watch
out for
HEAVY EQUIPMENT!
Wild animals are about in
the woods be careful!

Overhead power lines and equipment-dont be in

contact with equipment or stand near (water, mud
other conductors)
Wear proper personal protective equipment
Beware of lengths of welded pipe on skids without
Beware of lengths of welded pipe on skids without
proper cribbing
Dont stand near pipe being lifted from ground
Dont stand near pipe truck being unloaded
Note improperly chocked pipe

Sideboom A-frames dont fall up

Sidebooms can flip over when lifting pipe
Sidebooms can roll over backward on an incline
Be aware of worn cables or slings
Hydraulic hoses can break causing unintended
Hydraulic hoses can break causing unintended
equipment movement

Be aware of trenching and shoring safety

precautions
Dont stand near the edge of an excavation
Dont enter an unsafe excavation
Equipment vibrations can cause a cave-in

Welding can cause a flash

Welding at night near glass can reflect the same
damaging radiation

Avoid touching the tail of the jeep

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Pipeline Construction Sequence

Construction spreads - whats going on during construction:
Surveying, staking & pre-construction condition documentation
Environmental Mitigation
Relocation/replacement precautions near/over live lines
Clearing, stumping, grubbing & grading
Stringing & bending
Welding & Coating
Trenching, double ditching/HDD & bores
Trenching, double ditching/HDD & bores
Road and stream x-ings (rip-rap, flume & trench, etc.,)
Lowering-in
Tie-ins
catheading
Coatings, corrosion & backfill
Hydro (pre & post testing), de-water, clean & dry

Purging
Commissioning

Hot taps & stopples

Final clean-up

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