Design of tension based fabric structures

ABSTRACT

Fabric structures demonstrate an enormous application

potential of tensioned fabric as a medium for creating dramatic
looking, freeform architectural enclosures.
The simplicity in the shape of fabric structures is not, however,
reflected in the design process which is made complex by the
flexibility of the material. Applied loads have a big impact on
the final shape of the structure and so, their design presents a
number of challenges. First, their shape cannot be known
accurately at the outset; it must be found through a process of
form-finding. In broad terms, form-finding can be defined as a
process that shapes a structure by the action of forces applied
to it either with physical or computer models, a process that is
made more complex by the need to include geometrically nonlinear behaviour and the anisotropic material properties of the
fabric.
Finally, the manufacture of a three-dimensional fabric surface
must involve a patterning stage, which maps the surface onto a
series of two-dimensional panels cut in unstrained fabric.
Few of the studies regarding approaches to form-finding and
patterning have been included in this seminar report in a brief
manner to give a better understanding on design of tension
based fabric structures.

Design of tension based fabric structures

PAGE
NO.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CANDIDATES DECLARATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

1.2 STEPS FOR DESIGN OF TENSILE

FABRIC STRUCTURES

1.3 FORM-FINDING

1.4 CUTTING PATTERN GENERATION

10

CHAPTER 2- RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS

14

CHAPTER 3- CONCLUSIONS

29

REFERENCES

30

Design
of tension
CHAPTER
1 based fabric structures

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
In its short history, fabric structures have fascinated architects
and engineers alike. Architects appreciate their unusual shapes
and forms while engineers delight in their "pure" structural
expression. Appearing as sports arenas, convention halls, or
other publicly-exposed buildings, fabric structures have often
been regarded as iconic.
Fabric structures possess several advantages over conventional
structures. Perhaps most importantly, fabric can span large
distances without incurring much weight on supporting
structure or foundation. They are capable of carrying large
applied loads while weighing very little in comparison to steel or
concrete structures of the same spans. This reduction in weight
and material translates into shorter construction schedules and
overall cost savings.
Through the centuries the applications of tensile structures
didnt change much. They were mostly used for temporary tents
and roofs. The limitation of permanent applications, was due to
the lack of appropriate materials, which have an acceptable
long term behaviour. With the innovation of new materials for
industrial products, the possibilities for architectural tensile
structures changed fundamentally. Materials which were made
of fabric and a protective coating, made tensile structures also
interesting for long term architectural buildings.
Based on these new possibilities created by newly available
materials, architects and engineers have been started to think
in new ways and applications. There are many architects and
engineers to be named who were responsible or had an
important impact on this development. However, the most
outstanding contribution to this type of structure was made by
Frei Otto at the University of Stuttgart.
Some of the most important and ground-breaking structures
were designed by Frei Otto. The roof of the Olympic stadium in
5

Design
fabric structures
Munichof tension
or thebased
Tanzbrunnen
at the

Bundesgartenschau in
Cologne are just two examples of the impressive number of
tensile structures which Frei Otto was involved.
Despite the innovations in modern materials, the design
process for tensile structures were still mainly based on
experiments and experience. The main merit of Frei Ottos work
is the ability to transfer the experimental based models of a
tensile structure to the final real scale. The development of
numerical methods which were appropriate for the design and
analysis of these structures began with the design of the
Olympic stadium in Munich in 1972.

Figure 1.1: Olympic stadium at Munich, Germany, designed by Frei Otto.

(From top: Sky view, inside view).

Design of tension based fabric structures

1.2 STEPS FOR DESIGN

FABRIC STRUCTURES

OF

TENSION

BASED

The first step in the design and analysis of tensile structures is

to find a shape with known boundary conditions which satisfies
the requirements from an architectural and engineering point of
view.
For each structure, the choice of the shape has a fundamental
influence on its structural behaviour. Due to their special load
carrying properties, tensile structures differ fundamentally from
conventional structures in this process. The main difference
between tensile and conventional structures is the absence of
bending stiffness, due to the thin membrane material.
A tensile structure restrains external loads just based on the inplane stresses. The limitation in the structural response on the
inplane stresses introduces special requirements into the design
process. The shape cannot be set arbitrarily as can be done
within certain limits for conventional structures. The shape has
to be found.
The design steps of structural analysis and cutting pattern
generation, are based on the shape and the prestress evaluated
in the process of form finding. Therefore, without form finding,
as a center step, no closed design loop for tensile structures
can be developed. Hence steps are as follows:
1. Deciding the Boundaries
The boundaries include frames, walls, beams, columns and
anchor points. The fabric is bound to frames, walls, beams,
columns and anchor points with membrane plates that have
adjustable tension equipment.
2. Form finding
Obtaining an efficient shape of structure.
3. Structural Analysis
7

Design
of tension
based fabric
structures
Analysis
of structure
with
imposed prestress and loads.

4. Cutting Pattern generation

Obtaining fabric strips which can be seam together to make a
small model.

5. Further Analysis
Once model prepared, analysis for stability, against any
affecting parameters like wind, snow loads etc. is done.
1.3 FORM FINDING
By minimizing the bending moment and shear force in a
structure, less material is needed, leading to an economical and
environmentally sustainable design. The lightness and
slenderness of these structures also give them an aesthetically
appealing appearance. However the shaping of such structure
has to undergo a form finding process dictating the resulting
shape. Unlike contemporary free-form architecture, defined
purely mathematically (with the aid of computer based 3D
CAD), form-finding shapes are defined by the structures initial
geometry, the applied form finding load and the boundary
conditions, making the design process much more involved.
Form finding is a process used to find the geometry for a loadcarrying surface stressed structure. These types of structures
are geometrically complex and have to be designed and
fabricated with high precision, in order to work efficiently. Form
finding has traditionally been carried out using physical or
computer based numerical modelling, often a combination of
the two. However computer based modelling has today taken
the over hand since it offers better control and precision.

Design of tension based fabric structures

Figure 1.3: A physical model to form find a membrane geometry

using steel wire and soap film made by Frei Otto. The soap film
takes the form of a minimal surface and changes as the
boundary changes.
The aim of form finding for a tensile structure is to determine
the geometrical configuration where the loaded membrane
does not slack nor crease. This is achieved through an iterative
process where the nodes in the initial geometry are moved in
the direction of their out-of-balance force to find static
equilibrium. The force induced on the nodes comes from
prestress applied to the adjacent elements.
Membranes are usually constructed with orthotropic fabrics,
with different properties for the two main directions (the warp
and weft direction). Thus the prestress induced in the
membrane elements can be set to one magnitude for the warp
and another one for the weft direction.
This prestress is held constant throughout the form finding
process, and since no other loading is applied the prestress is
the governing form driver. If the prestress is set to the same
magnitude for the two directions (which is usually the case), the
form found surface will be a true minimal surface.
With the aid of physical modelling, a similar result can be
obtained by using soap film or elastic fabric. By using soap film
modelling, the resulting form is close to a minimal surface
where the tension is equal in both directions. With elastic
fabrics on the other hand it is the prestress induced in the two
9

Design
of tension based
structures
main directions
that fabric
dictates
the form. It can be beneficial with

physical models for designers to experience the stiffness and

flow of forces.
For the solution of the form finding, different methodologies
have been developed in the past. They range from
experimental to numerical methods, differing in the quality and
exactness of their results.

1.4 CUTTING PATTERN GENERATION

Due to their large scale, architectural tensile structures cant be
manufactured out of a single piece of fabric. To realize the
design, the surface will be divided into a number of patterns
which will be assembled together to form the final shape.
The fabric, which will be used for the production of the
individual patterns, is available on rolls of material with a
certain width. For the production, a blueprint has to be provided
which defines the shape of the pattern on the flat fabric. The
process of defining the form of the flat patterns is called the
Cutting Pattern Generation.
In the process of cutting pattern generation, the flat patterns for
the manufacturing of the tensile structure are computed. The
underlying mathematical problem originates from the doubly
10

Design
of tension
based
fabric structures
curvature
of the
surface.
In general, double curved surfaces

cant be developed into a plane. The non-developability can be

illustrated on the basis of the two examples shown in figure
1.4.1.
Here, for the discussion of the developability of a surface the
examples of a cylinder and a sphere are introduced. In both
cases the surface should be covered with a simple flat piece of
fabric. In the case of the cylinder, it can be seen that the
structure can be covered by the fabric without any elastic
deformations in the cover.
For the example of the sphere, it is obvious that elastic
deformations are needed for covering the overall surface. The
occurring wrinkles visualize the elastic deformations for the
observer, which illustrates the non-developability of the
surfaces.
The described example shows that in the case of the
manufacturing of tensile structures, the final shape will differ
from the intended one due to the non-developability of the
structure. Additionally, elastic deformations are needed to
shape the final surface from the flat patterns.
In general, the prestress in the tensile structure is achieved
through these elastic deformations. However, the elastic

11

Design
of tensionare
based
structures
deformations
notfabric
constant
over the overall surface. Due to

that, the final stress distribution will vary around the defined
prestress introduced in form finding. If the elastic stress state
remains in tension, no wrinkles will occur in the surface. If large
elastic deformations are needed to shape the surface from the
patterns, compression stresses can occur, which will result in
wrinkles in the surface.
From a theoretical point of view, the best result for the surface
and stress distribution can be achieved if the width of the
patterns will tend to zero, which results in the recommendation
to divide the tensile structure into as many individual patterns
as possible. Of course, the number of patterns is limited from
practical and architectural point of view. Therefore, in the
design of the pattern layout a compromise between
minimization of stress deviation and architectural or practical
aspects has to be made.
In figure 1.4.2 the principal process of the cutting pattern
generation for tensile structures is illustrated. Based on an
intended surface from form finding, the pattern layout will be
defined by the designer with the decision about the number of
patterns and the shape of the cutting lines. Subsequently, the
computation of the cutting patterns will be made.

12

Design of tension based fabric structures

The Cutting Pattern Problem

At its most general the cutting pattern generation problem may
be defined thus. Given a surface S, determine a set of n planar
sub-surfaces {S1, S2, S3, ..., Sn} such that the distortion between
S and S is minimised, where S is a surface of type S created
by reassembling the sub-surfaces. This is illustrated in Figure
1.4.3

13

Design of tension based fabric structures

A number of problems are associated with the cutting pattern

generation. These are:
The geometry of the surface is not defined without
prestress. The unstressed state has no defined geometrical
shape.
The surfaces cannot be described by closed mathematical
expressions. They must be described by discrete surface
points which must correspond to the state of force
equilibrium in the structure.
The membrane surface is prestressed and doubly curved
to resist external loading. It is therefore not developable to
the plane without distortion.
Wrinkles in the stressed surface are to be avoided.
The pattern precision must be very high in the case of stiff
materials such as glass textile.
The planar strips have to be as straight as possible in order
to optimise the pattern from both cloth material wastage
and performance viewpoints.
The material elastic properties of textile are extremely
non-linear. Therefore textile structures cannot be modelled
using a homogeneous stress-strain diagram.
Seam lines and border reinforcement will additionally
complicate the structures elastic response.
In order to establish the desired working surface pre-stress
the patterns must be strain compensated. Deciding how
much smaller to make the patterns compared to the
stressed geometry is extremely complex.
The manner of sewing the planar strips together as well as
the boundary conditions also affect the pattern
compensation process.
14

Design
of tension based
fabric structures
Subsequently,
different
existing solution strategies, which

have been developed in the past, will be discussed.

CHAPTER 2
RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
2.1 The Design and Construction of Fabric Structures
By: Rosemarie
Fang
Cornell University, 2009
This thesis reviewed the most current methods for design and
construction of fabric structures and focused on how they can
be improved for common application as permanent structures.
THEORY AND METHODS FOR FORM-FINDING
Analysis models for conventional structures assume a linear
relationship between applied forces and displacements. These
linear models can accurately describe a structure's shape, but
are limited to a range of small displacements. Conversely, the
design and analysis of fabric structures requires a thoroughly
non-linear approach, modelling large deformation behaviour
through the use of iterative numerical methods.
The Newton-Raphson method is a classical approach to the
analysis of nonlinear structures, which does not apply well to
the behaviour of fabric because convergence is slow and
sometimes does not happen at all. However, Newton-Raphson
works better when an initial estimate of shape or geometry is
specified.
15

Design
tension based
fabric structures
Newerofanalysis
methods
have been developed for the direct

application of analysing cable-net and tensioned fabric

structures. These include the Grid Method and the Force Density
Method, which are both used to estimate initial system
geometries before applying Newton-Raphson.
Another nonlinear analysis that can be applied to fabric
structures is the Dynamic Relaxation Method. The theory behind
each of these methods is described in detail in the following
sections.

2.1.1 REVIEW OF LINEAR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

To better understand these methods, the classical theory of
linear analysis is first reviewed with the help of simplified
example problems.

Figure illustrates a single element with initial length L, crosssectional area A, and modulus of elasticity E. An applied axial
load P results in an elongation that is linearly related by the
axial elastic stiffness, Ke =

AE
L

. This relationship can be

described as:
P = K eu
Where, u is the elongation in the direction of applied load.
In a two-element system, it becomes more convenient to label
displacements as a nodal vector, , where u, v, w, are
displacements in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. With
16

Design
of tension
structures
this notation,
a based
globalfabric
stiffness
matrix K and nodal load vector P

can also be
relationship is:

defined

and

the

new

force-displacement

This matrix notation applies to a single node with three

degrees-of-freedom (again in the x, y, and z directions). The
entry kij represents the force at degree-of-freedom i due to a
unit displacement at degree of freedom j. These matrices and
vectors will be expanded to accommodate the number of nodes
in the system. In general, these terms have the following
dimensions:

where n is the number of degrees of freedom in the system.

Note that the global stiffness matrix is formulated from
individual member stiffness and therefore accounts for all
members that will affect a specific node or degree-of-freedom.
Though the stiffness matrix method works well for conventional
structural elements such as trusses, beams, and columns, one
should remember that it assumes a linear relationship between
force and displacement and therefore, does not apply to the
behaviour of structural fabric.
2.1.2 TANGENT STIFFNESS METHOD
Structural fabric exhibits large deformation and geometrically
non-linear behaviour. Because of this, it requires different
methods of analysis, which tend to be numerical and iterative.
The following describes the theory behind the tangent stiffness
method (sometimes known as the transient stiffness method),
which derives from the linear stiffness method discussed in the
previous section.
17

Design
of tension
based
fabric
structures
The main
reason
that
linear
methods do not apply for large

deformations is because the stiffness matrix depends on initial

member geometries. When the members in a system deform by
a significant amount, the stiffness matrix for the system will
also change. The tangent stiffness method attempts to account
for this discrepancy in the following way.
Begin by defining initial geometry vector, {X}i on which initial
stiffness is based. The displacement resulting from this initial
stiffness will be:

And the new system geometry is:

From this updated geometry, one can find a new stiffness

matrix, [K]i+1,. This stiffness combined with displacement will
yield a set of internal forces, {P in} which differ from the set of
external forces.

For large displacements,

define an error term or
residual, {R} and then an incremental displacement vector,
{}.

At this point, the geometry vector is updated by the incremental

displacement vector and more iterations can be performed until
the residual vector converges on zero.
2.1.3 GRID METHOD
The grid method is a simple approach to the nonlinear analysis
of fabric structures. Initially developed by Siev and Eidelman
(1964), the grid method begins by laying a flat grid underneath
the structure. In doing so, it assumes that the structure is an
orthogonal cable-net with equidistant node spacing.
18

Design
of tension
based assumption
fabric structures
Another
simplifying
is that nodes do not undergo

horizontal displacement; individual joints will move in the

vertical direction only.
In the example problem in figure
2.1.3.1, the top cables pull up while
bottom cables pull down. It is
important to note that the position
of the node is not affected by
prestressing forces. If an external
horizontal load, H is applied, the
cable-net remains in equilibrium
because the horizontal component
at each node is equal to H. Fig. 2.1.3.1: Basic Cable-Net
However, if an external vertical element
load, P is applied, the load in the top cable increases and the
load in the bottom cable decreases. Therefore, because vertical
equilibrium is the only concern, each node has one unknown
and the problem is reduced to a set of linear equations, of
which the solution is the vertical position or elevation of each
node.
Remember that the grid method is only used to estimate an
initial shape or geometry that will be used in conjunction with
the Newton-Raphson Method.
2.1.4 FORCE DENSITY METHOD
The force density method is another analytical procedure
developed for the analysis of nonlinear structures. The basic
idea behind this method is that the force in a structural member
can be described by multiplying the member force by a unit
vector in the direction of the member. The following formulation
describes the force components of a member, i in the x, y, and
z directions.

19

Design of tension based fabric structures

Note that the force density is equal to the force in the member
divided by its length,

Fi
Li

. One can see from these equations

that if the force density were set to some constant, the force in
the member would be a linear function of the coordinates X A, YA,
ZA, XB, YB, ZB. Because of this, equilibrium equations at any node
will be reduced to a set of linear equations with force as a
function of length.
2.1.5 DYNAMIC RELAXATION METHOD
The dynamic relaxation method is widely accepted as a
successful tool in the analysis of cable-net and tension fabric
structures. Initially developed in the 1960's for the study of
concrete nuclear vessels, the method was first adapted for
application to cable structures by Day and Bunce in 1970.
The method begins by discretizing a given system into
concentrated or lumped masses at specified points (in a cablenet, it is convenient to lump mass at the nodes or joints). The
next step is to model the dynamic response of these discrete
masses. The mathematical procedure is outlined below:
Begin with the equation of motion for the j th node in the ith
direction.

where Pji represents a vector of externally applied loads, [] ji

represents a vector of internal loads, C is the coefficient of
viscous damping, and
are the nodal accelerations and
velocities.
20

Design
of tension
fabricorstructures
Next, define
thebased
residual
error between internal and external

loads, R.

Use the centered finite difference approximation to represent

acceleration as a function of velocity over time step interval, t.
In this expression, the velocity is represented as an average
over the same time interval. For simplicity, the subscript ji is
omitted from the following equations.

Rearranging the above equation will yield the following

expression for velocity, which can then be used to estimate
displacement at time n + 1.

These steps represent one iteration of the dynamic relaxation

method. They are repeated until the residual term converges on
zero (i.e. the internal forces match the external forces).

2.2 Conceptual Design and Analysis of Membrane

Structures
By: Erica Henrysson
Chalmers University of
Technology,
Sweden, (2012)
This thesis described one approach for form-finding and
analysing tension membrane structures. Focus has been on the
conceptual stage. For this the computer software SMART Form
has been further developed, enabling the possibility to do realtime form-finding and analysis of fabric structures. The software
21

Design
of tension
fabric where
structures
is based
on abased
method
the orthotropic membrane is

modelled with a triangular mesh, where the mass is lumped on

the nodes. As a computational tool dynamic relaxation is used
to find the static equilibrium configuration for the structure.
The advantage with this is that there is no need for formulation
and manipulation of matrices common in the finite element
method.
SMART Form is Buro Happlods form-finding software for
sculptural /conceptual structural design. The software uses
dynamic relaxation as the calculation engine and generates an
optimized shape based on the defined gravity and the input
geometry. However the simulations made are simplified and
only works with systems of bars/springs, where lengths and
stiffness can be increased or decreased. There is also no way to
apply actual loads or properties to the model, or to output any
measurable properties like forces.
As the tool is developed as a plug-in, for the 3D modelling
software Rhinoceros, it can make use of its modelling and
visualisation capabilities.
2.2.1 SOFTWARE STRUCTURE
The model of the structure, in the software, consists of a system
of nodes, connected to each other by a set of links (see Figure
2.2.1). These links can be of different kind, for the part of the
tool developed in this study they are either bars, or cables. A
bar does not have any structural properties of its own, but can
store information about force and stiffness as well as
geometrical properties. Cables have all the properties that a bar
has, but they have a stiffness of their own which is depending
on what material they are, when the nodes move the stiffness
will result in a force in the cable.

22

Design of tension based fabric structures

Figure 2.2.1: illustrating how the structure is built up in the

analysis tool.

In between the links are membrane panels, this class of object

inherits all the information contained in the parent class face,
which has all necessary geometrical information. On top of this
the membrane object has information about the stresses and
properties, such as stiffness, of the membrane. It is also
containing methods for calculations specific for membranes.
In Figure 2.2.1 the membranes are represented by the grey
triangles, both the dashed and solid lines are representing links.
In this case all links are of type bar i.e. no cable elements are
drawn in this figure. The solid lines are bars in the control
strings which also mean that they are in the warp direction.
2.2.2 ALGORITHM
The algorithm is based on the principle of transferring all
information to the nodes (see Figure 2.2.2). This is done by first
calculating the stresses in the membrane, or in the case of
form-finding dictating the stresses, and converting them to
tensions in the edges of each panel. The calculated force is
applied on the links of the system. If a link is a cable the forces
in this element is calculated and added to the forces from the
23

Design
of tension
based
structures
membrane.
Then
thefabric
forces
are transferred on to the nodes.

From here the acceleration, velocities and finally displacements,

of the nodes, can be calculated, as per dynamic relaxation
method. In the next iteration the deformations in the geometry
of the membrane panels and the cables will generate new
forces.

Figure 2.2.2: Illustrating the algorithm. Step 1: the tension from the
membrane is added on to the links, step 2: the forces in the links is added
to the nodes. Then the nodes have all the information needed to calculate
their new positions.

The following algorithm is devised for the form-finding part of

the tool:

24

Design of tension based fabric structures

For the analysis part the algorithm is:

2.2.3 COMPARISON WITH EXISTING SOFTWARE

25

Design
of tension
based fabric
structures
The thesis
compared
the
analysis of hypar (hyperbolically

shaped membrane) which is often seen in fabric structures. The

geometry of this structure is relatively simple, but it is still
difficult to analyse it without a computer, which is the reason
for why it was chosen for the case study. The results from the
analysis were compared with results from Tensyl, a nonlinear
form finding and analysis software. The geometry for the
analysed hypar can be seen in Figure 2.2.3 .

Figure 2.2.3: From the top: starting geometry, form

found shape.

The stress patterns generated in the developed tool and in

Tensyl were very similar, looking at both the values and the
stress distribution.
2.2.4 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from the study presented
here in:In this work a tool for conceptual design of tensioned fabric
structures has been developed and, even though it is far from a
finished product, it is a useful tool with a lot of potential.

26

Design
of tension
fabric structures
Comparing
thebased
developed
tool with Tensyl (Buro Happolds

analysis tool for tensile structures), the analysis results are

comparable and sometimes have substantial errors, however,
this might not be a very big problem, since the safety factors
used, makes todays structures both safe and long lived. Also
the analysis is a lot slower, but when it comes to how much
time that is needed for actual work, SMART Form comes out as
the winner. Working with Tensyl a lot of time is needed for
setting up the analysis model, the properties and the loads.
This is really easy and quick to do in SMART Form and the time
it takes to run the analysis can be used to work on other things.
So in terms of developing a simple conceptual tool the work has
been successful, even though there is a lot to do still before the
program is completely stable and can be fully relied on.
This tool offers a big advantage especially when the engineers
are involved in the early stages of the design process. However
there is still a long way to go before the tool could be seen as a
finished product, several functionalities needs to be
implemented and a lot more testing needs to be done to gain
more confidence in the tool.
Further developments that might speed up the process could be
to try out different iteration methods, such as Runge-Kutta or
the backward Euler method.

2.3 Smooth cutting pattern generation technique for

membrane structures using geodesic line on
subplane interpolation.
By: SHON Su-deok, LEE
Seung-jae, LEE Kang-guk
School of Architectural Engineering,
Korea University of Technology, Korea, (2013).
This paper presented procedure for generating the cutting
patterns of a membrane surface which can then be used for
fabric of tension surface. Geodesic lines are minimum route
connecting two points on a surface and have a property that, as
they pass over a surface, they do not curve in the tangential
plane. There are three methods of attaining the geodesic line,
i.e., finite element method, dynamic relaxation method in
27

Design
of tensionofbased
fabricand
structures
consideration
energy,
an approach based on the premise

that the alternate angles of geodesic line, which passes through

the triangular elements of a curved surface, and the element
boundary interfaces are the same, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3.1. In
other words, if ABi and CBj are equal, then the line A-B-C
becomes the geodesic line.

Figure 2.3.1: Geodesic line for curved surface formed in triangular mesh
configuration.

They pointed out the problems of these methods such as the

difficulty in expressing the curved surface function as well as
excessive number of iterations required for the computation of
the geodesic line. Additionally, they suggested the new concept
of geodesic line search.
For this new method, an extracted element series from the
shape finding surface has to be chosen and deployed into subplane, and then the search for the geodesic line on the subplane is conducted. Thus, the method must solve the problem
of finding the suitable sub-plane, and how to choose the series
of extracted elements is the key. However, the computational
method to find the suitable sub-plane involves a great number
of iterations. Nonetheless, for the practical patterning, an easy
rule and processor can be found. Extracting a sub-plane from
the total element set involves a set of two continuous triangular
elements.
In other words, the two connected elements can be transformed
into two dimensional coordinates by fixing an element and
rotating or moving the other element. Even if several elements
are connected, the transformation to the same planar space is
feasible with the nodal coordinates and the geometrical
connectivity of the elements. Especially, when the appropriate
connection relationship among all the elements is removed, it
can be enumerated as a planar space. First of all, global
coordinate system (X, Y, Z) and local coordinate system (x, y, z)
28

Design
of tension
structures
are defined,
as based
shownfabric
in Fig.
2.3.2(a), in order to find a geodesic

line on a sub-plane.

In global system, the nodal points of each triangular element

are represented by Xi= {Xi, Yi, Zi}T, Xj={Xj, Yj, Zj}T, Xk={Xk, Yk,
Zk}T, and the unit basis vector of local system is expressed as,

Next equation is obtained by computing each vector value and

substituting it to the above equation while unit vector of global
system is expressed as,
ex, ey and ez.

29

Design
tension based fabric
structures
Above of equations,
signifies
the

coordinate transformation
between two systems, the information of each nodal point can
be converted to the information of element coordinate system
by using the transformation matrix. The nodal point of each
element being transformed to plane can be represented by two
dimensional conversion based on the element connectivity.
In other words, new nodal position x inew can be attained by
converting i-th element based on the (i1)-th connection
element, as shown in equation below.
where, is the transformation matrix of the
angle of difference for the interface between two elements, as
shown in Fig. 2.3.2(b), and

x i1 is the transformation matrix of

the nodal datum point.

The fact that a new plane can be transformed by the element
connectivity means it can be expanded or spread by
appropriate separation of the elements. As shown in Fig.
2.3.3(a), extracted elements of the curved surface can be
converted to sub-planes, where P 1 in the figure is one of the
sub-planes, and there exist a great deal of combination
methods.
When a sub-plane Pn represents a partial set of the entire plane
composed of one or more elements and the line connecting the
two points inside Pn is set to be a partial set of the P n plane,
then the straight line satisfies all the conditions for being a
geodesic line of the curved surface. In other words, although
line 1 or line 2 of Fig. 2.3.3(b) satisfies the condition for being a
geodesic line, line 3 can no longer be a straight line on a plane
to
satisfy
the
condition
for
a
geodesic
line.

30

Design of tension based fabric structures

Thus, points of geodesic line can be simply calculated by using

two dimensional relative coordinates of P n, as shown in Fig.
2.3.4(a). Note that Pn should be able to be converted to a plane,
and the elements should not fold when transposed into a plane.
Accordingly, the elements including two end points of geodesic
line should be set to be the beginning and the end, and
continuative element series should be lined up in a sub-planes
to connect the two sections so that one of the sub-plane can be
formed. It is easy to determine if a plane contains geodesic line
or not by examining the condition of below, as shown in Fig.
2.3.4(b).

CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from the study presented
here in:A simple computational approach based on sub-plane of
extracted element series is used as the method for the search
of the geodesic line. By the rearrangement and mesh
redirection of sub-plane and using an adjacent node, the
geodesic line could be found easily and practically.
Geodesic patterning is used for cost saving by lowering the
curvature of the seam line of planar pattern, and about 21% of
the area is saved by the proposed catenary model of this work
in comparison to the element boundary line model. Although
the curvature of the seam line varies on the plane by the strip
31

Design
tension
based fabric
structures
size, itofcan
be expected
that
using geodesic line will provide the

nearest straight seam line to save the fabrication cost. Thus,

the smooth geodesic pattern generation as proposed in this
work could contribute to the design of membrane structures
with relatively simplicity and more cost savings.

CHAPTER 3
CONCLUSIONS
The design and analysis process for tensile structures differs
fundamentally from conventional structures as the overall
shape and the structural capacity are strongly coupled.
For conventional structures made of wood, steel or concrete a
wide range of experimental data is available. Due to that, it is
possible to compare the developed simulation techniques w.r.t.
32

Design
of tension
based fabric
structures
the realistic
results.
In the
case of tensile structures, such

experimental data is not available so far. In order to improve

the reliability of the simulation results, the validation of the
available numerical methods w.r.t. experimental results should
be intended.
Increasingly, physical models tend to be replaced by
computational ones. The software available on the market is
capable of powerful 3D visualization, but the reliance on it, to
the exclusion of physical modelling, is unwise, for a number of
reasons. While, at a conceptual design stage, a computational
model can give an impression of aesthetic qualities of the
proposed solution, it cannot really compete with a physical
model, which provides this information instantaneously, and
from any perspective. A computational model cannot convey
quite the same information about the functional features of a
structure, such as unobstructed floor area/volume or ease of
construction. Further, it cannot replace physical models as a
communication tool for members of a design team with a
mixture of architectural and engineering skills. In conclusion,
form-finding should be carried out by computational and
physical modelling, as the two approaches complement each
other.
While, in Cutting Pattern Generation, patterns where strip edges
are along geodesic curves generates straight lines in
accordance with an economical objective of minimal material
wastes. This approach may however be relativized since, in the
case of double curvature geometries, the surfaces are not
developable: we know that such operation leads to unavoidable
distortions. It is then judicious to use low dimension strips on a
surface zone with high total curvatures.

REFERENCES
1. Erica Henrysson, Conceptual
Membrane Structures, 2012.

33

Design

and

Analysis

of

Design
tension
based
fabric structures
2. Ishiiof K.
Form
finding
analysis in consideration of cutting

pattern of membrane structures [J]. International Journal of

Space Structures, 1999, 14(2): 105119.
3. Miriam Euni Son, The Design and Analysis of Tension Fabric
Structures, 2007.
4. Rosemarie Fang. The Design and Construction of Fabric
Structures, 2009.
5. SHON Su-deok, LEE Seung-jae, LEE Kang-guk, Smooth
cutting pattern generation technique for membrane
structures using geodesic line on subplane, 2013.
6. Wanda J. Lewis, Modelling
Associated Design Issues.

of

Fabric

Structures

and

7. Xu X, Guan F. A new method of cutting pattern [J].

International Journal of Space Structures, 2004, 19(2):
103107.

34