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Terminology
Sporangia - The structures in which spores are produced (sing.: sporangium).
spores - Impervious structures formed by some cells that encapsulate the cells and protect them
from the environment;
sporophyte - The diploid stage of a plant exhibiting alternation of generations. The diploid, spore
producing phase of the plant life cycle.
pollen grains - the containers for male gametophytes of seed plants produced in a
microsporangium by meiosis. Microspores produced by seed plants that contain the male
gametophyte.
pollen tube - structure produced by the tube nucleus in the pollen grain through which the sperm
nucleus (or nuclei in angiosperms) proceed to travel through to reach the egg.
pollination - the transfer of pollen from the anthers to the stigma by a pollinating agent such as
wind, insects, birds, bats, or in a few cases the opening of the flower itself.
Gametophyte - the haploid stage of a plant exhibiting alternation of generations, generates
gametes by the process of mitosis.
The gametophyte phase produces gametes by mitosis within an antheridium (producing sperm)
and/or archegonium (producing eggs).
Within the plant kingdom the dominance of phases varies.
Nonvascular plants, the mosses and liverworts, have the gametophyte phase dominant.
Vascular plants show a progression of increasing sporophyte dominance from the ferns and "fern
allies" to angiosperms.
Angiosperms
Flowering plants, the angiosperms, were the last of the seed plant groups to evolve, appearing over
100 million years ago during the middle of the Age of Dinosaurs (late Jurassic).
All flowering plants produce flowers and if they are sexually reproductive, they produce a diploid
zygote and triploid endosperm.
Clearly angiosperms are descended from some group of Mesozoic-aged gymnosperm seed
plant....but which one. The classical view of flowering plant evolution suggests early angiosperms
were evergreen trees that produced large Magnolia-like flowers.
Flowers
Flowers are collections of reproductive and sterile tissue arranged in a tight whorled array having
very short internodes.
Sterile parts of flowers are the sepals and petals.
When these are similar in size and shape, they are termed tepals.
Reproductive parts of the flower are the stamen (male, collectively termed the androecium) and
carpel (often the carpel is referred to as the pistil, the female parts collectively termed the
gynoecium).
Androecium
The individual units of the androecium are the stamens, which consist of a filament which
supports the anther. The anther contains four microsporangia within which microspores (pollen)
are produced by meiosis.
anther - The top of a stamen's filament; divided into pollen sacs in which the pollen grains form.
microsporangia - Structures of the sporophyte in which microspores are produced by meiosis. In
flowering plants the microsporangia are known as anther sacs.
Stamens are thought to represent modified sporophylls (leaves with sporangia on their upper
surface). Examinations by James E. Canright in the 1950s suggested an evolutionary series from
primitive angiosperms (like Austrobaileya ) which have leafish stamens to others with "normal"
stamens (Lilium).
Pollen
Pollen grains (from the greek palynos for dust or pollen) contain the male gametophyte
(microgametophyte) phase of the plant.
Pollen grains are produced by meiosis of microspore mother cells that are located along the inner
edge of the anther sacs (microsporangia).
The outer part of the pollen is the exine, which is composed of a complex polysaccharide,
sporopollenin. Inside the pollen are two (or, at most, three) cells that comprise the male
gametophyte.
The tube cell (also referred to as the tube nucleus) develops into the pollen tube.
The germ cell divides by mitosis to produce two sperm cells. Division of the germ cell can occur
before or after pollination.
Gynoecium
The gynoecium consists of the stigma, style, and ovary containing one or more ovules.
These three structures are often termed a pistil or carpel. In many plants, the pistils will fuse for all
or part of their length.
Like the stamen, the carpel is thought to be a modified leaf. Work by I.W. Bailey and his students
pointed to an evolutionary sequence from primitive angiosperms (like Drimys ) to "normal" carpels
like those of Lilium.
The stigma functions as a receptive surface on which pollen lands and germinates its pollen tube.
Corn silk is part stigma, part style. The style serves to move the stigma some distance from the
ovary. This distance is species specific.
The Ovary
The ovary contains one or more ovules, which in turn contain one female gametophyte, also
referred to in angiosperms as the embryo sac. Some plants, such as cherry, have only a single
ovary which produces two ovules. Only one ovule will develop into a seed.
Anther/pollen culture
Pollen mother cells are in anther primordia.
First phase meiosis pollen mother cell
A tetrad forms from each PMC
Second phase microspores released from tetrads
Third phase microspores mature into pollen grains first pollen mitosis
Second pollen mitosis, maybe after germination
Generative and vegetative cells formed
Stage of development
Dicots first pollen mitosis
Between tetrad formation and exine formation
Monocots early uninucleate stage
Staging
Nutritional requirements
Sucrose essential
Mineral salts iron
Complex organics coconut milk
Activated charcoal
Influencing factors
HormonesSpecies requiring no hormones tobacco, petunia direct embryogenesis
Species requiring hormones callus phase monocots
Other factors
Cold or heat shock
Physiological status of donor plant
Albino plants
Isolated microspore culture
Anther/pollen culture
Method to produce haploid plants
Spontaneous occurrence in low frequency
Induction by physical and/or chemical treatment (nitrous oxide)
Chromosome elimination following interspecific hybridization
Anther culture 1966 pollen grains of Datura
Typically haploids can only be produced in polyploid plants wheat, tobacco, clover
Used in over 200 species
Parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis is a form of vegetative propagation in which an unfertilized egg develops into an
embryo. It is therefore maternal in origin.
Parthenogenesis occurs during meiosis and can result in a haploid or double haploid embryo. If
somatic doubling occurs (chromosomes in the egg double but do not divide) then the embryo will
be diploid, if not, then the resulting embryo will be haploid.
Embryos can be developed by parthenogenesis two different ways. The first is by apospory where
the embryo can be produced by a cell from the female parent.
The second is through diplospory, where an embryo can develop from a diploid spore from the
megaspore mother cell.
Parthenogenesis has been used in breeding peppers and corn. However anther culture has proven to
be more effective for these specie's. Parthenogenesis occurs in low frequencies because it cannot
be induced. The inefficiencies of screening for embryos, and the problems associated with
doubling chromosomes make it more worthwhile to study, anther or microspore culture.
Chromosome Elimination
Chromosome Elimination has been successful in barley. Barley haploids are obtained by crossing Hordeum
vulgare and Hordeum bulbosum. Since very few spikelets will develop from this pollenation, a hormone is
applied 1-2 days after crossing to increase seed set.
(a)
(b)
(a) Pollen is collected from plants of Hordeum bulbosum, a wild relative of cultivated barley (H. vulgare).
The haploid plantlet is then placed in soil and later treated with colchicine.
Anther Culture
Anter culture is the process of using anthers to culture haploid plantlets.
The technique was discovered in 1964 by Guha and Maheshwari.
This technique can be used in over 200 species, including tomato, rice, tobacco, barley, and
geranium.
Some of the advantages which make this a valuable method for obtaining haploid plants are:
the technique is fairly simple
it is easy to induce cell division in the immature pollen cells in some species
a large proportion of the anthers used in culture respond (induction frequency is high)
haploids can be produced in large numbers very quickly.
In experiments using Datura innoxia, induction frequencies of almost 100% and a yield of more
than one thousand plantlets or calluses have occurred under optimal conditions from one anther.
Success can be determined within 24 hours as cells begin to divide.
Some disadvantages of using anther culture to obtain haploids are:
when working with some species, the majority of plants produced have been non-haploid
in cereals, very few green plants are obtained; many of the plants are albinos or green-albino
chimeras
it is tedious to remove the anthers without causing damage
sometimes a particular orientation is necessary to achieve a desired response
Microspore Culture
Microspores are immature pollen cells. Buds are surface sterilized and homogenized to release the
microspores.
In many microspore culture procedures, a heat treatment causes the microspores to undergo equal
mitosis and essentially behave like egg cells and develop into an embryo.
The microspore culture technique can be so efficient that thousands of plants are produced at a
time; plant breeders can hardly handle the numbers.
The procedure for culturing microspores is as follows:
Unopened flower buds are removed and surface sterilized
Buds are blended with B5 wash. The homogenate is filtered and centrifuged, and the cells in the pellet are
resuspended on culture medium
The number of microspore cells are counted using a microscope and hemacytometer (a grid on a slide for
counting microspores).
The microspores are plated at densities of around 100,000 cells per mL.
The culture cells are incubated for four weeks in the dark.
The haploid embryos that are formed are cultured further to obtain plantlets.
The haploid embryos must be germinated in vitro.
Endosperm
Most angiosperms form endosperm tissue
Consumed by the developing embryo or stored in seed
Triploid tissue
Homogeneous mass of parenchymatous tissue
Endosperm culture
To produce triploids
Seedless plants
Study of endosperm biosynthesis and metabolism
Production
Doubled haploid plants have been used in a number of studies for several things.
1.They are used by plant breeders to get immediate, homozygous plants rather a
series of long selfings which will ultimately yield the same thing.
2.As we will see for mapping, they solve the problem of any residual
homozygosity which can cause problems for mapping.
3.They can be used for quantitative genetic studies for looking at linkage, etc. I.
I. In anther culture, immature pollen grains (n) are removed form the plant and
placed in culture.
II. The haploid anther cells are then induced to undergo differentiation into an
embryo where they undergo a distinct series of stages from torpedo to heart.
(Draw out).
III. The developing embryos are then placed on a media which will cause them to
form plantlets and roots. After some time on this media they can be transplanted
into pots and grown as normal plants.
From
gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Angiosperm/Lilium/Flower_dissection/Flowe
rhttp://www.plant.uoguelph.ca/research/biotech/haploid/haploids.htm