Timeline of quantum computing

Paul Benio described quantum mechanical

Hamiltonian models of computers[2]

This is a timeline of quantum computing. For a list of

quantum computing companies, see List of Companies
involved in Quantum Computing or Communication.

Yuri Manin proposed an idea of quantum

computing[3]
1981

1970s

Richard Feynman in his talk (and also in his

famous lecture "Theres Plenty of Room at
the Bottom", too) at the First Conference on
the Physics of Computation, held at MIT in
May, observed that it appeared to be impossible in general to simulate an evolution of a
quantum system on a classical computer in an
ecient way. He proposed a basic model for
a quantum computer that would be capable of
such simulations[4]

1960
Stephen Wiesner invents conjugate coding.
1973
Alexander Holevo publishes a paper showing
that n qubits cannot carry more than n classical bits of information (a result known as
"Holevos theorem" or Holevos bound).

Paul Benio gave talk at the conference,

Physics of Computation held at MIT in May
1981. Talk title was Quantum mechanical
Hamiltonian models of discrete processes that
erase their own histories: application to Turing
machines.

Charles H. Bennett shows that computation

can be done reversibly.
1975
R. P. Poplavskii publishes Thermodynamical models of information processing (in
Russian)[1] which showed the computational
infeasibility of simulating quantum systems on
classical computers, due to the superposition
principle.

Tommaso Tooli introduced the reversible

Tooli gate, which, together with the NOT and
XOR gates provides a universal set for classical computation.
1982

1976

Paul Benio proposes the rst recognisable theoretical framework for a quantum
computer[5]

Polish mathematical physicist Roman

Stanisaw Ingarden publishes a seminal paper
entitled Quantum Information Theory in
Reports on Mathematical Physics, vol. 10,
4372, 1976. (The paper was submitted in
1975.) It is one of the rst attempts at creating
a quantum information theory, showing that
Shannon information theory cannot directly
be generalized to the quantum case, but rather
that it is possible to construct a quantum
information theory, which is a generalization
of Shannons theory, within the formalism
of a generalized quantum mechanics of
open systems and a generalized concept of
observables (the so-called semi-observables).

William Wootters and Wojciech Zurek,[6] and

independently Dennis Dieks[7] prove the nocloning theorem.
1984
Charles Bennett and Gilles Brassard employ
Wiesners conjugate coding for distribution of
cryptographic keys.
1985
David Deutsch, at the University of Oxford,
described the rst universal quantum computer. Just as a Universal Turing machine can
simulate any other Turing machine eciently,
so the universal quantum computer is able to
simulate any other quantum computer with at
most a polynomial slowdown.

1980s
1980
1

1990s

speedup for factoring, discrete logs, or physics

simulations. However, the algorithm can be
applied to a much wider variety of problems.
Any problem that had to be solved by random,
brute-force search, could now have a quadratic
speedup.

1991
Artur Ekert at the University of Oxford, invents entanglement based secure communication.
1993
Dan Simon, at Universit de Montral, invented an oracle problem for which a quantum
computer would be exponentially faster than a
conventional computer. This algorithm introduced the main ideas which were then developed in Peter Shors factorization algorithm.
1994
Peter Shor, at AT&Ts Bell Labs in New Jersey, discovers an important algorithm. It allowed a quantum computer to factor large integers quickly. It solved both the factoring
problem and the discrete log problem. Shors
algorithm could theoretically break many of
the cryptosystems in use today. Its invention sparked a tremendous interest in quantum
computers.
First United States Government workshop on
quantum computing is organized by NIST in
Gaithersburg, Maryland, in autumn.
In December, Ignacio Cirac, at University of
Castilla-La Mancha at Ciudad Real, and Peter
Zoller at the University of Innsbruck proposed
an experimental realization of the controlledNOT gate with trapped ions.
1995
First United States Department of Defense workshop on quantum computing and
quantum cryptography is organized by United
States Army physicists Charles M. Bowden,
Jonathan P. Dowling, and Henry O. Everitt;
it takes place in February at the University of
Arizona in Tucson.
Peter Shor and Andrew Steane simultaneously
proposed the rst schemes for quantum error
correction.
Christopher Monroe and David Wineland at
NIST (Boulder, Colorado) experimentally realize the rst quantum logic gate the C-NOT
gate with trapped ions, according to Cirac
and Zollers proposal.[8]
1996
Lov Grover, at Bell Labs, invented the
quantum database search algorithm. The
quadratic speedup is not as dramatic as the

1990S

The United States Government, particularly in

a joint partnership of the Army Research Ofce (now part of the Army Research Laboratory) and the National Security Agency, issues
the rst public call for research proposals in
quantum information processing.
David P. DiVincenzo, from IBM, proposed
a list of minimal requirements for creating a
quantum computer.[9]
1997
David Cory, Amr Fahmy and Timothy Havel,
and at the same time Neil Gershenfeld and
Isaac L. Chuang at MIT published the rst
papers realising gates for quantum computers
based on bulk spin resonance, or thermal ensembles. The technology is based on a nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) machine, which
is similar to the medical magnetic resonance
imaging machine.
Alexei Kitaev described the principles of topological quantum computation as a method for
combating decoherence.
Daniel Loss and David P. DiVincenzo proposed the Loss-DiVincenzo quantum computer, using as qubits the intrinsic spin-1/2 degree of freedom of individual electrons conned to quantum dots.[10]
1998
First experimental demonstration of a quantum algorithm. A working 2-qubit NMR
quantum computer used to solve Deutschs
problem was demonstrated by Jonathan A.
Jones and Michele Mosca at Oxford University and shortly after by Isaac L. Chuang
at IBM's Almaden Research Center together
with coworkers at Stanford University and
MIT.
First working 3-qubit NMR computer.
First execution of Grovers algorithm on an
NMR computer.
1999
Samuel L. Braunstein and collaborators
showed that there was no mixed state quantum
entanglement in any bulk NMR experiment.
Pure state quantum entanglement is necessary
for any quantum computational speedup,

4.1

2005
and thus this gave evidence that NMR computers would not yield benet over classical
computer. It was still an open question as to
whether mixed state entanglement is necessary
for quantum computational speedup[11]

2000s
2000
First working 5-qubit NMR computer demonstrated at the Technical University of Munich.

3
DARPA Quantum Network becomes fully operational on October 23, 2003.
2004
First working pure state NMR quantum computer (based on parahydrogen) demonstrated
at Oxford University and University of York.
First ve-photon entanglement demonstrated
by Jian-Wei Pans group at the University of
Science and Technology of China, the minimal number of qubits required for universal
quantum error correction.[16]

First execution of order nding (part of Shors

algorithm) at IBM's Almaden Research Center 4.1 2005
and Stanford University.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign scien First working 7-qubit NMR computer demontists demonstrate quantum entanglement of multiple
strated at the Los Alamos National Laboracharacteristics, potentially allowing multiple qubits
tory.
per particle.
2001
Two teams of physicists have measured the capaci First execution of Shors algorithm at IBM's
tance of a Josephson junction for the rst time. The
Almaden Research Center and Stanford Unimethods could be used to measure the state of quanversity. The number 15 was factored ustum bits in a quantum computer without disturbing
ing 1018 identical molecules, each containing
the state.[17]
seven active nuclear spins.
In December, the rst quantum byte, or qubyte, is
Noah Linden and Sandu Popescu proved that
announced to have been created by scientists at The
the presence of entanglement is a necessary
Institute of Quantum Optics and Quantum Informacondition for a large class of quantum prototion at the University of Innsbruck in Austria, with
cols. This, coupled with Brauensteins result
the formal paper published in the December 1 issue
(see 1999 above), called the validity of NMR
[12]
of Nature.
quantum computation into question.
Emanuel Knill, Raymond Laamme, and Gerard Milburn show that optical quantum computing is possible with single photon sources,
linear optical elements, and single photon detectors, launching the eld of linear optical
quantum computing.
2002
The Quantum Information Science and Technology Roadmapping Project, involving some
of the main participants in the eld, laid out
the Quantum computation roadmap.
The Institute for Quantum Computing established at the University of Waterloo in Waterloo, Ontario by Mike Lazaridis, Raymond
Laamme and Michele Mosca.[13]
2003
Todd D. Pittman and collaborators at Johns
Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory and independently Jeremy L. O'Brien and
collaborators at the University of Queensland,
demonstrate quantum controlled-not gates using only linear optical elements.[14][15]

Harvard University and Georgia Institute of Technology researchers succeeded in transferring quantum information between quantum memories
from atoms to photons and back again.

4.2 2006
Materials Science Department of Oxford University, cage a qubit in a buckyball (a Buckminster fullerene particle), and demonstrated quantum
bang-bang error correction.[18]
Researchers from the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign use the Zeno Eect, repeatedly
measuring the properties of a photon to gradually
change it without actually allowing the photon to
reach the program, to search a database without actually running the quantum computer.[19]
Vlatko Vedral of the University of Leeds and colleagues at the universities of Porto and Vienna found
that the photons in ordinary laser light can be quantum mechanically entangled with the vibrations of a
macroscopic mirror.[20]

2000S

Samuel L. Braunstein at the University of York

along with the University of Tokyo and the Japan
Science and Technology Agency gave the rst experimental demonstration of quantum telecloning.[21]

Single atom single photon server devised.[38]

Professors at the University of Sheeld develop

a means to eciently produce and manipulate
individual photons at high eciency at room
temperature.[22]

University of Cambridge develops electron quantum

pump.[40]

New error checking method theorized for Josephson

junction computers.[23]

First use of Deutschs Algorithm in a cluster state

quantum computer.[39]

Superior method of qubit coupling developed.[41]

Successful demonstration of controllably coupled
qubits.[42]

First 12 qubit quantum computer benchmarked by

researchers at the Institute for Quantum Computing
and the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
in Waterloo, as well as MIT, Cambridge.[24]

Breakthrough in applying spin-based electronics to

silicon.[43]

Two dimensional ion trap developed for quantum

computing.[25]

Diamond quantum register developed.[45]

Seven atoms placed in stable line, a step on the way

to constructing a quantum gate, at the University of
Bonn.[26]
A team at Delft University of Technology in the
Netherlands created a device that can manipulate
the up or down spin-states of electrons on quantum dots.[27]
University of Arkansas develops quantum dot
molecules.[28]
Spinning new theory on particle spin brings science
closer to quantum computing.[29]
University of Copenhagen develops quantum teleportation between photons and atoms.[30]
University of Camerino scientists develop theory
of macroscopic object entanglement, which has
implications for the development of quantum repeaters.[31]

Scientists demonstrate quantum state exchange between light and matter.[44]

Controlled-NOT quantum gates on a pair of superconducting quantum bits realized.[46]

Scientists contain, study hundreds of individual
atoms in 3D array.[47]
Nitrogen in
computing.[48]

buckyball

used

in

quantum

Large number of electrons quantum coupled.[49]

Spin-orbit interaction of electrons measured.[50]
Atoms quantum manipulated in laser light.[51]
Light pulses used to control electron spins.[52]
Quantum eects demonstrated across tens of
nanometers.[53]
Light pulses used to accelerate quantum computing
development.[54]
Quantum RAM blueprint unveiled.[55]

Tai-Chang Chiang, at Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, nds that quantum coherence can

be maintained in mixed-material systems.[32]

Model of quantum transistor developed.[56]

Cristophe Boehme, University of Utah, demonstrates the feasibility of reading spin-data on a

silicon-phosphorus quantum computer.[33]

Photonic quantum computing used to factor number

by two independent labs.[58]

4.3

Quantum bus developed by two independent

labs.[59]

2007

Subwavelength waveguide developed for light.[34]

Single photon
developed.[35]

Long distance entanglement demonstrated.[57]

emitter

for

optical

bers

Six-photon one-way quantum computer is created in

lab.[36]
New material proposed for quantum computing.[37]

Superconducting quantum cable developed.[60]

Transmission of qubits demonstrated.[61]
Superior qubit material devised.[62]
Single electron qubit memory.[63]
Bose-Einstein
developed.[64]

condensate

quantum

memory

4.5

2009

D-Wave Systems claims to have a working 28-qubit 4.5 2009

quantum computer, though this claim has yet to be
veried.[65]
Carbon 12 puried for longer coherence times[96]
New cryonic method reduces decoherence and increases interaction distance, and thus quantum computing speed.[66]

Lifetime of qubits extended to hundreds of

milliseconds[97]

Photonic quantum computer demonstrated.[67]

Quantum control of photons[98]

Graphene quantum dot spin qubits proposed.[68]

4.4

2008

Quantum entanglement demonstrated over 240

micrometres[99]
Qubit lifetime extended by factor of 1000[100]

Graphene quantum dot qubits

[69]

First electronic quantum processor created[101]

Quantum bit stored[70]

3D qubit-qutrit entanglement demonstrated[71]
Analog quantum computing devised[72]
Control of quantum tunneling[73]
Entangled memory developed[74]

Six-photon graph state entanglement used to simulate the fractional statistics of anyons living in articial spin-lattice models[102]
Single molecule optical transistor[103]

Superior NOT gate developed[75]

NIST reads, writes individual qubits[104]

Qutrits developed[76]

NIST demonstrates multiple computing operations

on qubits[105]

Quantum logic gate in optical ber[77]

Superior quantum Hall Eect discovered[78]
Enduring spin states in quantum dots[79]
Molecular magnets proposed for quantum RAM[80]
Quasiparticles oer hope of stable quantum
computer[81]
Image storage may have better storage of qubits[82]
Quantum entangled images[83]
Quantum state intentionally altered in molecule[84]
Electron position controlled in silicon circuit[85]

A combination of all of the fundamental elements

required to perform scalable quantum computing
through the use of qubits stored in the internal states
of trapped atomic ions shown[106]
Researchers at University of Bristol demonstrate
Shors algorithm on a silicon photonic chip[107]
Quantum Computing with an Electron Spin
Ensemble[108]
Scalable ux qubit demonstrated[109]

Superconducting electronic circuit pumps microwave photons[86]

Photon machine gun developed for quantum

computing[110]

Amplitude spectroscopy developed[87]

Quantum algorithm developed for dierential equation systems[111]

Superior quantum computer test developed[88]

Optical frequency comb devised[89]
Quantum Darwinism supported

[90]

Hybrid qubit memory developed[91]

Qubit stored for over 1 second in atomic nucleus[92]
Faster electron spin qubit switching and reading
developed[93]
Possible non-entanglement quantum computing[94]
D-Wave Systems claims to have produced a 128
qubit computer chip, though this claim has yet to
be veried.[95]

First universal programmable quantum computer

unveiled[112]
Scientists electrically control quantum states of
electrons[113]
Google collaborates with D-Wave Systems on image
search technology using quantum computing[114]
A method for synchronizing the properties of multiple coupled CJJ rf-SQUID ux qubits with a small
spread of device parameters due to fabrication variations was demonstrated[115]

2010s

5.1

Diamond
quantum
demonstrated[140]

2010

computer

memory

Qmodes developed[141]

Ion trapped in optical trap[116]

Decoherence suppressed[142]

Optical quantum computer with three qubits calculated the energy spectrum of molecular hydrogen to
high precision[117]

Simplication of controlled operations[143]

First germanium laser brings us closer to 'optical

computers[118]

Practical error rates achieved[145]

Single electron qubit developed[119]

computer

Ions entangled using microwaves[144]

Quantum computer employing Von Neumann

architecture[146]

Quantum state in macroscopic object[120]

New quantum
developed[121]

2010S

cooling

method

Quantum spin Hall topological insulator[147]

Two Diamonds Linked by Quantum Entanglement
could help develop photonic processors[148]

Racetrack ion trap developed

[122]

5/2 quantum Hall liquids developed[123]

Quantum interface between a single photon and a
single atom demonstrated[124]
LED quantum entanglement demonstrated

[125]

Microfabricated planar ion traps[127][128]

5.2

electrically,

not

February 3: A method for manipulating the charge

of nitrogen vacancy-centres in diamond[152]
February 21:
Reported creation of a 300
qubit/particle quantum simulator.[153][154]

2011

Entanglement in a solid-state spin ensemble[130]

NOON photons in superconducting quantum integrated circuit[131]
Quantum antenna[132]
Multimode quantum interference[133]
Magnetic Resonance
computing[134]
Quantum pen[135]
Atomic Racing Dual

[136]

14 qubit register[137]

January 9: D-Wave claims a quantum computation

using 84 qubits.[149]
January 26: Physicists create a working transistor
from a single atom[150][151]

Two photon optical chip[126]

Qubits
manipulated
magnetically[129]

5.3 2012

applied

to

quantum

Demonstration of topologically protected qubits

with an eight-photon entanglement, a robust approach to practical quantum computing
1QB Information Technologies (1QBit) founded.
Worlds rst dedicated quantum computing software
company.[155]
June 8: Decoherence suppressed for 2 seconds
at room temperature by manipulating Carbon-13
atoms with lasers.[156][157]
October 18: Theory of Bell-based randomness expansion with reduced assumption of measurement
independence.[158]

D-Wave claims to have developed quantum annealing and introduces their product called D-Wave 5.4 2013
One. The company claims this is the rst commer Coherent superposition of an ensemble of approxicially available quantum computer[138]
mately 3 billion qubits for 39 minutes at room tem Repetitive error correction demonstrated in a quanperature, and 3 hours at cryogenic temperatures.
tum processor[139]
The previous record was 2 seconds.[159]

5.5

2014

Documents leaked by Edward Snowden conrm

the Penetrating Hard Targets project,[160] by which
the National Security Agency seeks to develop
a quantum computing capability for cryptography
purposes.[161][162][163]
Scientists transfer data by quantum teleportation
over a distance of 10 feet (3.048 meters) with zero
percent error rate, a vital step towards a quantum
Internet.[164][165]
Nike Dattani & Nathan Bryans break the record
for largest number factored on a quantum device:
56153 (previous record was 143).[166][167]

5.6

2015

Optically addressable nuclear spins in a solid with a

six-hour coherence time.[168]
Quantum information encoded by simple electrical
pulses.[169]
Quantum error detection code using a square lattice
of four superconducting qubits.[170]
D-Wave Systems Inc., the worlds rst quantum
computing company, announced on 22 June that it
had broken the 1000 qubit barrier.[171]
Two qubit silicon logic gate developed.

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[6] Wootters, W. K.; Zurek, W. H. (1982). A single quantum cannot be cloned. Nature. 299 (5886): 802803.
Bibcode:1982Natur.299..802W. doi:10.1038/299802a0.
[7] Dieks, D. (1982).
Communication by EPR devices.
Physics Letters A. 92 (6):
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[172]

5.7

2016

Google, using an array of 9 superconducting qubits

developed by the Martinis group and UCSB, accurately simulates a hydrogen molecule.[173]

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13

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