Module C7.4 Viscous Dissipation Term in Energy Equations H. H. Winter University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts OBJECTIVES ‘After completing this module, the student should bbe able to: 1. Caleulate the rate of viscous dissipation for a given flow. 2. Calculate the rate of viscous dissipation in a ‘macroscopic energy balance. 3. Caleulate dissipation in a slip layer. 4. Use the dissipation function as a criterion to distinguish between a viscous and an elastic ‘material $. Calculate dimensionless groups to estimate the magnitude of viscous dissipation PREREQUISITE MATHEMATICAL SKILLS 1. First year college calculus. PREREQUISITE ENGINEERING AND ‘SCIENCE SKILLS 1, First year college physics. 2. Macroscopic balances. INTRODUCTION Deformation and flow of materials require energy. ‘This mechanical energy is dissipated, i.e. during the flow it is converted into internal energy (heat) of the material. This phenomenon can be demonstrated by performing a simple experiment with a metal paper clip: bend the clip ‘wide open and close it repeatedly until the clip breaks. Now, touch the metal near the region of the break and feel the high temperature. The mechanical energy for bending the metal has been converted into internal en ergy. The increase of internal energy expresses itself in a ‘temperature rise Viscous dissipation is of interest for many applications: significant temperature rises are observed in polymer processing flows such as injection molding or extrusion at high rates. Aerodynamic heating in the thin boundary layer around high speed aircraft raises the temperature of the skin, In a completely different application, the dissi- pation function is used to define the viscosity of dilute suspensions (Einstein, 1906, 1911): Viscous dissipation Modular Instruction Series for a fluid with suspended particles is equated to the vis- cous dissipation in a pure Newtonian fluid, both being in the same flow (same macroscopic velocity gradient) RATE OF VISCOUS DISSIPATION ‘The rate at which work is being done on a volume ele- ‘ment for changing its volume and its shape is defined as (for derivation, see Appendix) :Wv=—p¥ ver: Vy a rate of rate of work work for for shape volume change at change constant volume The stress, 1. Therefore, the viscous dissipation ‘might locally influence the temperature even if the gener- ation number is smaller than one. A safe value for ne slecting the effects of viscous dissipation seems to be Non < 0.1. “The generation number has been defined several ways and accordingly, has different names in the literature. This module will discuss two of the most common cases. ‘The other dimensionless group, the Graetz number, com- pares the magnitude of convection and conduction. It will not be discussed here. ‘Modular Instruction Series Flow With a Transverse Temperature Differenco ‘There are many flows with a given temperature differ- fence, ATycnn between the fluid and a wall, Tyan = Ty— Tr 28) or between the boundaries of the flow, AT process Tat — Tw (29) ‘Then this temperature difference is chosen to be the char- acteristic temperature difference, AT®, with which the temperature changes can be scaled: AT°= BT pecs G0) ‘The generation number in this case is called the Brinkman number (4), vine EBT yon fr the product of the Prandtl number, Npy, and the Eck- ert number, Nze (13), Na Both definitions are equivalent. The name, ‘Brinkman ‘mumber,"" seems to be preferred in studies on developing. in channel flow and the name, “Eckert is preferably used in studies on viscous dissi- pation in thermal boundary layers. Flow Without Imposed Temperature Difference Scaling of the temperature changes due to viscous dis: sipation becomes more difficult when there is no given temperature difference A Tycas- This situation always occurs when isothermal flow conditions are attempted (which is quite common in polymer processing). Viscous dissipation would disturb these isothermal conditions and its extent has to be estimated in modeling efforts The most common choice of scaling factor for temper- ature changes in nearly isothermal processes is onaT..<-(— AT?= AT pea = (st) we ea ‘The temperature changes are of interest since they affect the viscosity and hence, affect the flow pater. A viscos- ity with a temperature dependence of the Arrhenius type, n=aevT (G34) where 7'= absolute temperature gives a characteristic rheological temperature difference, t Tne where Ty For molten polymers, ATitea = 30-70 K absolute reference temperature 31‘The temperature differences are then scaled as (T — T,)/AT a and the generation number is called the Nahme number (12). v2ye FAT pea Nv 66) In nearly isothermal processes, the Nahme number is a ‘measure of how much viscous dissipation affects the tem- perature dependent viscosity. Large values of Ny indi- cate that isothermal conditions cannot be maintained, ‘Note that the temperature change and the generation number cannot be scaled with a temperature level T,. For scaling, one always has to use a temperature differ- ence. A quantity (T — T,)/T,) would be dimensionless; however, it would adopt different values in different tem- perature scales (Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin) ENERGY DISSIPATION AND STORAGE ‘The work done for deforming a viscous material is ir- reversibly converted into internal energy, i.e. itis dissi- ppated. The work done for deforming an elastic material, hhowever, is stored as potential energy, which can be re~ covered mechanically. An example is a rubber band in the stretched state. It can perform work when contracting to its original length. The dissipation function, 1:¥y, is applicable to both cases. It gives the rate of work done for deforming a material, independent of whether this ‘material is viscous, elastic, or viscoelastic. The dissipa- tion function is always positive when applied to viscous materials. It adopts positive or negative values with elas- tic and with viscoelastic materials. The name “dissipation function” is actually misleading when describing storage and recovery phenomena in deforming elastic materials. Example 4: Oscillatory Strain of a Hookean Material An elastic material is placed between two extensive parallel plates, as shown in Figure 3. The lower plate is stationary and the upper plate moves with velocity Y= U9 €08 (wt) @7) ayeh A momentum balance gives the velocity in between the plates. For uniform properties, it has the simple form » w YEE vy 008 (ut) 38) (=F ve 608 (wt) Ga) Calculate the rate of work done in order to deform the material. Integrate to find the total work for one cycle. Compare the result to the behavior of a Newtonian fluid in the same experiment. ‘The rate of work done is given by the dissipation func- tion, TVS tei oo ‘The shear rate is given by the velocity field of the exper 32 Figure 3. Sendwich device for shearing « material. iment, Equation 38: 0s (wt) (40) ‘The stress in the Hookean material. is proportional to the shear strain, 19" Ory » ‘The dissipation function becomes Toly= Crevin™ Gy sin (at) c08 (et) a /% =< K ) sin Qut) @) One cycle requires work 2 (x) fun cane Be z) cos 2uni=0 (43 2e ‘As expected for the elastic material, the work per cycle is equal to zero. The work done in one half of a eycle is recovered in the other half ‘The same experiment, however, with a Newtonian fluid, would be described by a dissipation function: tothe Chay) =H ( *) £08? (ut) «) and work per cycle wf 9 (2) oe nt (3) ‘The work is dissipated in the material, (4s) APPENDIX: DERIVATION OF THE DISSIPATION TERM Consider a small volume element (volume V, surface S) of a material which is deformed by a stress on the surface. The rate of work done on the surface of the ma- terial element is calculated by integrating (a-a-¥)s over American Institute of Chemical Engineersthe entire surface, Ba[f mo nsas ‘is the outward unit normal on the surface and (1-6) is the force per unit area of surface. Multiplication with the surface velocity gives the rate of work per unit surface. ‘The work done on the surface is used for deforming the material element (change of shape and volume), celerating it, and increasing its potential energy. This is shown in the following. It will lead to an expression for the rate at which work is being done for deforming the ‘volume element. The surface integral of Equation 46 is replaced by a volume integral (using the Gauss theorem): [f@-e-nsdse [ff vee ar andthe Ker in volume ip is eplced y th en (46) an veo 48) ‘The physical meaning of the product v-V-o can be ex plained from the stress equation of motion. Scalar multi- Plication of the local velocity v with the stress equation of motion (3), Vio-vso: Vey: (49) gives an expression for y-V-0. D/Dt is the substantial time derivative. The last two equations are introduced into the volume integral, Equation 47. The result of the derivation is ff@-o- meas D vee (50) ee of hangs of potential energy per uit vm Rate of change of kinetic energy per unit volume. Rate of work for changing the volume and shape, per unit volume (see Eq. 1). 'v is the dissipation term in the equation of energy. For many applications in polymer processing, the changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligibly smal; all the work done on the surface is practically used for deforming the volume element. ‘Modular Instruction Series LITERATURE CITED 1. Ammutrong, R.C., and H. H. Winter, Heat Transer for Noo- ‘Newnonian Fluids In "Heat Exchanges Design and Data Book, Section 25.12, E. U. Selinger Ed, Hemisphere Pub. London (19m), 2. Astarita, G, and G. Marrecci, Principles of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanies," MeGraw Hill, London (1978), 3. Bin, RB, Stewart, W. ., and E.N. Lightfoot, “Transport Phesomena"" Wiley, New York (1960) 4. Brinkmun, H.C.. Appl. Sei Research, 2, 120-126 (1951), S. Cox, H. W., and C. W. Macosko, AICKE 1, 20, 785-795 97%), 6. Dinh, 8. M., and R. C. Armstiong, AICKE J, 28, 294-201 1983) 17. Esker, E.R. G., and RM. Dei, “Analysis of Heat Trane- fer," MeGraw Hl, London (1972), 8. Eine, A., Ann. Phys. 18, 286 (1906); Ann. Phys. 34, $91 asin, 9. Gavis, J, and R. L, Laurence, Ind. Brg. Chem. Fund, 7, 25- 527 (1968). 10. Landau, L. D., and E. M. Lif, “Fuld Mechanis,*Perga- ‘mon Press, Oxford, (1959). LL. Nate, R Ing-Archiv, 11, 191-209 1940), Pearson, 'RLA., Polym. ding. Si, 18, 72-229 (1978). Schlichting, Hand J. Kesin, “Boundary Layer Theory," Me- Grav Hil, London (1955), 4. Winter, Hy Polym, Eng, Sei, 15, 4-89 (1979. IS. Winer, Hl HL) Ady. Heat Trantfer, 13, 205-267 (1970. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING Equation of Energy: Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot, 1960 Astatita and Marrucci, 1974 Eckert and Drake, 1972 Dimensionless Groups: ‘Armstrong and Winter, 1982 Pearson, 1978 Schlichting and Kestin, 1955 Eckert and Drake, 1972 Winter, 197 Polymer Processing: Winter 197, 1975 Pearson, 1978 ‘Cox and Macosko, 1974 Gavis and Laurence, 1968 Dinh and Armstrong, 1982 Thermal Boundary Layer: Eckert and Drake, 1972 Schlichting and Kestin, 1955 ‘Heat Transfer Coefficient for FLOW WITH VIS- COUS DISSIPATION: Eckert and Drake, 1972 Winter, 1977 Suspension Viscosity Defined with DISSIPATION FUNCTION: Einstein, 1906, 1911 Landau and Lifshitz, 1959 ‘STUDY PROBLEMS. 1. Calculate the dimensionless temperature (T — 7,)/T, in degrees Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin. Use T = 33Figure 4. Sheer flow of two immiscible fide in a gap between erated plates. 180°C and T, = 150°C. Discuss how a dimension- less temperature can depend on the choice of tempera- ture scale, HINT: Each temperature scale refers to a different temperature as zero temperatur 2. State the system of equations for the velocity, the temperature, and the viscosity for flow in a pipe with isothermal walls. How are the equations coupled with each other? 3. When is the dissipation function positive and when is it negative? 4. Consider shear flow of two immiscible Newtonian flu- ‘ds in a narrow gap between two parallel plates, see Figure 4. The flow is due tothe parallel movement of the upper plate. The lower half ofthe gap is filled with fluid I (viscosity jy) and the upper half with fuid (viscosity jn). The viscosities differ by a factor of 10: j, = 10a. Where is the rate of viscous dissipa- tion higher, in the viscous fluid I or in the less vis- cous fluid 11? HOMEWORK PROBLEMS 1, Calculate the Nahme number for pipe flow of Exam- ple 1. Use ATigat = 50 K and k= 0.2 Wimk. 2, Use slip data from the literature to determine viscous dissipation in the slip layer. Ref.: L. L. Byler and A. C. Hart, “Capillary Flow Instability of Ethylene Polymer Melts,” Polym. Eng. Sci, 10, 193-203 (1970). 3. Extend Example 4 to a linear viscoelastic material with a shear stress +122, Tay A ASP hey ‘Hint: Determine the time dependent shear stress 1.,(0) first. 4. Calculate the rate of viscous dissipation 6(r, 6) in a ‘Newtonian fluid which flows around a single sphere (see Reference 3, p. 133). American Institute of Chemical EngineersMODULAR INSTRUCTION Series C: TRANSPORT Volume 7: Calculation and Measurement Techniques for Momentum, Energy and Mass Transfer R. J. Gordon, Series Editor AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERS© Copyright 1987 ‘American Institute of Chemical Engineers 345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017 ‘The appearance of the code below indicates the copyright owner’s consent that, for a stated fee per article, copies of articles in ths serial may be made for personal or internal use, or for the personal oF internal use of specific clients. This consent is given on the condition that the copier pay the per-copy fee for each article (appearing as part of the code) through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 21 Congress Street, Salem, Mass. 01970, for copying beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law. This consent does not extend to copying for general distribution, for advertising or promotional purposes, for inclusion in Publication, or for resale. LC 80-25573 ISSN 0270-7632/87/83,75 ISBN 0-8169-0415-4INTRODUCTION |In 1975 new venture in education by and for the chemical engineering community was initiated. Prepared by the CACHE Corporation (Computer Aids for Chemical Engineering Education) and under the sponsorship ofthe National Science Foundation (Grant HES 75- (03911), a series of small self-study fundamental concept modules for various areas of chemical engineering were commissioned, Chemical Engineering Modular Instruction, CHEMI, ‘thas been found in recent studies that modular study is more effective than traditional instruction in both university and continuing education settings. This is due in large mea- sure tothe discrete focus of each module, which allows the student to tailor the speed and ‘order of his or her study. In addition, since the modules have different authors, each writing inhis or her area of special expertise, they can be produced more quickly, and students may be asured of timely information. Finally, these modules have been tested in the classroom, prior to their publication ‘The educational effect of modular study is to reduce, in general, the number of hours, required to teach a given subject; it is expected that the decreased time and expense in- volved in engineering education, when aided by modular instruction, will attract a larger ‘number of students to engineering, including those who have not traditionally chosen engi- neering. For the practicing engineer, the modules are intended to enhance or broaden the skills or she has already acquired, and to make available new fields of expertise. ‘The modules were designed with a variety of applications in mind. They may be pursued in a number of contexts: as outside study, special projects, entire university courses (credit ‘or non-credit), review courses, or correspondence courses; and they may be studied in a variety of modes: as supplements to course work, as independent study, in continuing education programs, and in the traditional student/teacher mode. ‘A module was defined as a self-contained set of learning materials tat covers one or more. topics. It should be sufficiently detailed that an outside evaluation could identify its educa tional objectives and determine a student's achievement of these objectives. A module should have the educational equivalent ofa one to three hour lecture. ‘The CHEMI Project Staff included: E. J. Henley, University of Houston, Director W. Heenan, Texas A & I University, Assistant Director Steering Committee: LB. Evans, Massachusetts Insitute of Technology G. J. Powers, Caregie-Mellon University E.J. Henley, University of Houston D.M. Himmelblau, University of Texas at Austin D. A. Mellichamp, University of California at Santa Barbara RE, C. Weaver, Tulane University Editors: Process Control: T. F. Edgar, University of Texas at Austin Stagewise and Mass Transfer Operations: E. J. Henley, University of, Houston, J. M, Calo, Brown University Transport: R. J. Gordon, University of Flordia ‘Thermodynamics: B. M. Goodwin, Northeastern University Kinetics: B. L. Crynes, OMlahoma State University HL S. Fogler, University of Michigan Material and Energy Balances: D. M. Himmelblau, University of Texas at Austin American Institute of Chemical Engineersc7.1 c7.2 c7.3 c7.4 c7.5 c7.6 c7.7 c7.8 APPENDIX: SOLUTIONS TO THE STUDY PROBLEMS. . CONTENTS INTRODUCTION CONVERTING THE EQUATION OF MOTION TO DIMENSIONLESS FORM .. -++. W. E, Beckwith NEWTONIAN FLOW THROUGH FITTINGS, BENDS, CONTRACTIONS, EXPANSIONS AND NON-CIRCULAR DUCTS .. s+ K A. Solen VISCOSITIES OF NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS Leon Y. Sadler, II VISCOUS DISSIPATION TERM IN ENERGY EQUATIONS ceeseeeseeeeeeees He HL Winter GENERAL ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE DIFFUSION PROBLEMS... . Charles E. Glatz COUPLED TRANSPORT... .... Dorothy Lozowski and Pieter Stroeve APPLICATION OF ELECTROCHEMICAL LIMITING CURRENT TECHNIQUE TO THE STUDY OF INTERFACIAL MASS TRANSFER—INTRODUCTION AND THEORY : Robert F. Savinell, Frank W. Klink and John R. Sauter APPLICATION OF ELECTROCHEMICAL LIMITING CURRENT TECHNIQUE TO THE STUDY OF INTERFACIAL MASS TRANSFER—EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS Robert F. Savinell and Frank W. Klink Solutions to the Homework Problems are available as a separate reprint from the AIChE Educational Services Dept., 345 East 46th St., New York, NY 10017. The cost is $5.00. iv 35 a1 47Curriculum Analysis: E. J. Henley, University of Houston ‘The second phase ofthe project, designed to fil in gaps as well as develop new modules, is under the direction of D. M. Himmelblau, University of Texas at Austin. ‘Steering Committee: B. Carnahan, University of Michigan D.E. Griffith, Oklahoma State University L. Harrisberger, University of Alabama D.M. Himmelblau, University of Texas at Austin V. Slamecka, Georgia Institute of Technology R. Tinker, Technology Education Research Center Editors (* indicates a new task force head): Process Control: T. F. Edgar, University of Texas at Austin Stagewise and Mass Transfer Operations: J. M. Calo, Brown University EJ, Henley, University of Houston : ‘Transport: R. J. Gordon, University of Florida ‘Thermodynamics: G. A. Mansoori*, University of Hino at Chicago Circle Kinetics: B. L. Crynes, Oklahoma State University HLS. Fogler, University of Michigan “Material and Energy Balances: E. H. Snider*, University of Tulsa Design of Equipment: J.R. Beckman, Arizona State University ‘Volume 1 of each series will appear in 1980; Volume 2 in 1981; and so forth, A tentative ‘outline of all volumes to be produced in this series follows: SERIES C: TRANSPORT Volume 1. Momentum Transport‘and Fluld Flow 1.1 Simplified One-Dimensional Momentum Transport Problems G.K. Paterson C12 Friction Factor RJ. Gordon and N. H. Chen C13 Applications of the Steady-State Mechanical Energy Balance D. W. Hubbard Clit Flow Meters W. F. Beckwith CLS Packed Beds and Fluiization WoT Hatcher, Jr. CLG MultePhase Flow R.A, Greenkorn and D. P. Kessler ‘Volume 2. Momentum Transport, Viecoslasticity end Turbulence 2.1 Non-Newtonian Flow [Characterization of Fluid Behavior D. V. Boger and A. L. Halmos €22_Non-Newtonian Flow li—Fully Developed Tube Flow D. V. Boger and A’ L: Halos 23 Viscoelastic Fluid Flow Phenomens . V. Boger and R. I. Tanner 4 Turbulence: General Aspect lutated by Channel or Pipe Flow N'S. Berman GK. Paterson Volume 3. Equation of Motion, Boundary Layer Theory and Measurement Techniques “Measurements of Local Fuid Velocities Equation of Motion [Navier Stokes Equation for Steady One-Directional Flow undary Layer Theory ° joundary Layer Theory: Approximate Solution Techniques Diffusivity Measurement Techniques in Liquids Volume 4, Mathematical Techniques and Energy Transport . can a3 Mathematical Techniques Separation of Variables R. S, Subramanian Mathematical Techniques II—Combination of Variables RS. Subramanian Elementary Steady Sate Heat Conduction W. 5. Hatcher ‘Modular Instruction SeriesC84 Natural Convection ED Robi CAS Unsteady Sate Heat Conduction Hayakawa 4 Differential Eregy Balance RD. Noble Volume 8, Mass Transport C51 Unsteady-Suate Diffsion S. Uchida 52. Mass Transfer in Laminar Flow S.H: lorem C53. Turbulent Mas Transfer S.H. Morin 6.1. Bubble Dynamics: An Illuration of Dynamically Coupled Rate Proceses 1. G. Theofanous 62 Miscbie RLS, Subramanian 663 Biomedical Examples of Transport Phenomena I—Covpled Diffusion Effects RH. Noter 54 Biomedical Examples of Transpor Phenomena II—Facltated Diffasion, RH. Nowter C53 Mats Transfer in Heterogeneous Media 66.6 Advancing Front Theory Stroeve Srinivasan and P. Stroeve ‘Volume 7. Calculation and Measurement Techniques for Momentum, Energy and Mass Transfer C71 Converting the Equation of Motion to Dimensionless Form W. F. Beckwith 672 Newonian Flow Through Fitngs, ends, Contractions, Expansions and Now-Cicalar Duct. ‘KA. Solen C13 Viscosies of Non-Newionian Fluide LY. Sadler, C14 Viscous Dissipation Term in Energy Equations HH, Winter 1.5 General One-Dimensional Steady-State Diffusion Problems CE Gaz 7.5 Coupled Transport D. Lozoweki and P. Stoeve C7.7._ Applicaton of Bectrochemica! Limiting Current Technique to the Study of Interfacial RF. Savill, F. W. Klink Mase Transfer—Itroducton and Theory ‘and JR Saater- C18 Applicaton of Electrochemical Lioting Curent Technique to the Stady of Interfacial “Mass Tranfer—Examples of Applications RF. Savinell and F. W, Klink Publication and dissemination of these modules is under the direction of Harold I. Abramson, Staff Director, Educational ‘Activities, AICHE, Technical Editor is Lori S. Roth. Chemical engineers in industry or academia who are interested in ‘submitting modules for publication should direct them to H. I. Abramson, Staff Director, Educational Activities, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017. vi ‘American Institute of Chemical Engineers