RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity was discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896. He found that a uranium

compound emitted certain penetrating radiations which affected a photographic plate wrapped in
light proof paper. He called the phenomenon radioactivity. The emitted radiations were called
Becquerel rays or radioactive rays. The emission of radioactive radiations is spontaneous, not
affected by external agencies like temperature, pressure, electric field and magnetic field.
In 1898 Marie Curie and Pierre Curie discovered two highly radioactive elements named
as Polonium and radium. Other workers discovered radioactive elements such as thorium,
actinium, etc.
The phenomenon of spontaneous of highly penetrating radiations by certain elements
is called radioactivity. The radioactivity found in naturally occurring elements with atomic
number from 81 to 92 is called natural radioactivity.

Nature of radioactive radiations

In 1902 Rutherford found from experiments that radioactive rays are of three types. The
figure shows the experimental arrangement.

A small amount of radioactive substance is placed at the bottom of a small hole drilled in lead
block(Fig.1). The plates P1 and P2 are provided to set up an electric field. This arrangement is
kept in an evacuated chamber.
Rays which are deflected slightly towards negative plate are called -rays.
Rays which are deflected more towards positive plate are called -rays.
Rays which go undeflected are called -rays
Figure(2) shows the effect of magnetic field. Flemming s left hand rule gives the type of
charge.
These experiments show that rays are positively charged, rays are negatively charged and
rays are electrically neutral.
All radioactive atoms emit either rays or rays, never both simultaneously, but may be
accompanied by -rays.
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M.N.Sharath kumar

Properties of , and rays

Alpha rays
1) Alpha rays consist of helium
nuclei each having two units of
+ve Charge ( 3.2 1019 c ) and four
units of mass(4.0026amu).
2) They are deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
3) They affect a photographic
plate.
4) They produce fluorescence in
certain materials (Zinc sulphide ,
Barium platinum cyanide,)

Beta rays
1) Beta rays consist of
electrons, each having
1.6 1019 c of charge and
0.00055amu of rest mass.
2) They are deflected by
electric and magnetic fields.
3) They affect a
photographic plate.
4) They produce
fluorescence in certain
materials (Zinc sulphide,
barium platinum cyanide)

5)They have low velocities

ranging from 0.05c to 0.1c, where
c is the velocity of light.

5) They have low velocities

ranging from 0.3c to 0.99c,
where c is the velocity of
light.
6) Their ionizing power is
less(because they are light
and fast). It is 1/100th that of
rays and 100times that of
rays.
7) Their penetrating power is
high. They can penetrate
through a few mm of lead.

6) Their ionizing power is

highest(because they are massive
and slow). It is 100 times that of
rays and 10000 times that of
rays.
7) Their penetrating power is very
small. They are stopped by
2.8cm(range) of air.

Gamma rays
1) Gamma rays are highest
energy electro-magnetic
radiations with no charge or
rest mass.
2) They are not deflected by
electric and magnetic fields.
3) They affect a photographic
plate.
4) They produce fluorescence
in certain materials (Zinc
sulphide, barium platinum
cyanide & cadmium
tungstate).
5) They travel with the
velocity of light i.e,
c 3 108 ms1 .
6) Ionizing power is
least(because they are fastest
and have no rest mass). It is
1/100th that of rays and
1/10000th that of rays.
7) Their penetrating power is
is highest. They can penetrate
through a few cm of lead.

Radioactive disintegration

When the nucleus of a radioactive element emits or particle, the original atom called
the parent atom changes into another called the daughter atom. The parent atom is said to
disintegrate(or decay). If the daughter atom is also radioactive, the disintegration continues till
a stable isotope(usually lead) is formed. This gives rise to a series of radioactive elements.
There are four series, namely, 1) Uranium series 2) Actinium series 3) Thorium series & 4)
Neptunium series.

Laws of Radioactivity
There are two laws of radioactivity. The Soddys group displacement law is a bout the
individual radioactive atom or it I microscopic. The radioactive decay law is about the bulk of
the sample or it is macroscopic.

Soddys group displacement

1) When a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha particle, its atomic number decreases by 2
and its mass number decreases by 4 and the daughter nucleus falls in a group two columns to the
left of the parent element in the periodic table.
A
Z2 YA4 2 He4
ZX
2) When a radioactive nucleus emits a beta particle, its atomic number increases by 1 and the
mass number remains the same and the daughter nucleus falls in a group one column to the right
of the parent element in the periodic in the periodic table.

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M.N.Sharath kumar

XA

YA

Z1

e0

Note 1: Beta particle does not exist in the nucleus before its emission. It is formed due to
conversion of a neutron into a proton and electron just before emission.
Note 2: Gamma ray photon is emitted due to the transition of daughter nucleus, formed due to
or emission from higher nuclear energy level to a lower level. Hence there is no change in Z
or A due to emission.

Radioactive decay law

The rate of disintegration at any instant is directly proportional to the number of
radioactive atoms present at that instant.
Let N be the number of atoms present in a particular radioactive element at an instant of time t.
Let dN atoms disintegrate during the time interval dt(from t to t + dt) is the rate of
disintegration.
According to the law,
dN
N
dt
dN
N (1)
dt
Where is a constant called decay constant or
disintegration constant. depends on the element. The
negative sign indicates that N decreases with it.
Equation (1) can be written as
dN
. dt
N
Integrating both sides,
loge N . t C (2)
Where C is the constant of integration.
At t=0, N N0 , the initial number of atoms. Using this
condition in (2), we get
C loge N0
Substituting the value of C in (2),
loge N t log e N0
loge N loge N0 t
N
log e
t
N0
N
et
N0

N N0 et (3)

This equation shows that the number of atoms of a given radioactive element decreases
exponentially with time as shown in the figure.
When t

1
1
i.e ,

N N0 et
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M.N.Sharath kumar

 N0 e.1/
N0 e1
1
N . N0
e
Thus, the decay constant is defined as the reciprocal of time during which the number of
1
atoms of the original element decreases to
of its initial value.
e

Activity

The rate of disintegration is called activity(A).

dN
dt

dN
N
dt
A N
But

Consider N N0et

N N0et
A A0et
Where A is activity at time t and A 0 the initial activity.
The SI unit of activity is Becquerel(Bq)
1Bq = 1event/second
The other units of activity are curie & Rutherford.
1 curie(Ci) = 3.7 1010 disintegrations/second
1 rutherford(Rd) = 106 disintegrations/second

Half life
The half life of a radioactive element is defined as the time in which half of the
original atoms disintegrate.
Half life is represented by the symbol T.
Number of atoms present in a radioactive element at any instant t is given by

N N0 et (1)
Where N 0 is the initial number of atoms present at t=0 and is the decay constant.
At t T , N

N0
2

Substituting these values in (1), we get

N0
N 0 et
2
1
e t
2
1 1

2 e t
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M.N.Sharath kumar

e t 2
loge eT loge 2
T 2.303 log10 2

0.693

Thus the half life of a radioactive element is inversely proportional to the decay constant.
For example, T= 1600years, 3,8 days & 1.6 104 s for Radium 226 , Radon 222 and
Polonium 214 respectively.
Note: The equation of radioactivity is
N N0et
N
At t=T, N 0
2
N0

N 0 .eT
2
1
eT (1)
2
If t = nT, where n is the number of half lives then
N N0enT

N N0 (et )n
n

1
N N0
2
N
N n0
2
Multiplying both sides by
N
N n 0
2
A
A n0
2
Since N M, mass of radioactive element
M
M n0
2

Average Life(or mean life)

Radioactive disintegration is a statistical phenomenon. The atom disintegrating first will
have a life time equal to zero and the one disintegrating as the last atom will have life time of
infinity.
The average life or mean life ( Tav ) of a radioactive element is defined as the average
time for which the atoms of a radioactive element exist.
Average life of a radioactive element is equal to the sum of life times of all the atoms
divided by the number of atoms.
It can be shown that
M.N.Sharath kumar
38

Tav

Where is the decay constant.

Relation between T and

Tav

0.693
(1)

1
Tav (2)

Substituting (2) in (1)

T 0.693 Tav
T

Artificial radioactivity
Artificial radioactivity(or induced radioactivity) is defined as a process of producing
radioactive elements by bombarding nonradioactive elements with accelerated particles.
In 1934, Joliot and Irene Curie discovered artificial radioactivity. They observed that
when aluminium was bombarded with - particles, the target continued to emit
radiations(positrons) even after the removal of -source.

He4 13Al27 15 P30 n1

Phosphorus thus formed is radioactive & is called radiophosphorus. It emits a positron (

particle) and is converted into silicon

P30 14 Si30 1e

15

( T = 2.5 min)

The main difference between natural radioactivity and artificial radioactivity is that besides ,
& rays in both the cases, positrons are emitted in the case of artificial radioactivity only.

Radioisotopes and their applications

Isotopes of an element that are radioactive are called radioisotopes.
Radioisotopes are produced by several methods like placing the elements in nuclear reactors,
neutron bombardment and neutron capture.
4
27
15P 30 0n1 ; Radioisotope 15P 30 14Si30 1e
Eg: 2He 13 Al

n1 11Na23

11

Na24 ; Radioiodine 11Na24

3

12

Mg24 1e

14

24

The most important radioisotopes are tritium( H ), radio carbon( C ), Radiosodium ( Na ),

32
131
60
35
radiophosphorus( P ), radiocobalt( Co ), radioiodine( I ) and radiosulphur( S ).
Radioisotopes are extensively used in various fields in two ways, namely, as tracers and as
sources of radiation. The process of adding small quantity of a radioisotope to an element is
called labeling and the radioisotope is called the tracer. A tracer helps to trace the course of the
element in a system that receives it.
1)Medicine: Radioisotopes are used in diagnosis and treatment of some diseases. As diagnosis
tools, Na

24

is used to examine disorders in blood circulation, I 131 to examine the action of

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M.N.Sharath kumar

32

the heart, Fe 59 is used to examine anaemia, etc. P

60
diseases . Co is used in the treatment of cancer.

is used in the treatment of skin and blood

2) Agriculture: Radioisotopes are used to determine the proper micronutrients and fertilizer
required for different crops. They are used for producing new species and for preservation of
grains and vegetables.

3) Industry: Radiations from radioisotopes are used to a) check the thickness of paper metal or
rubber sheets, b) to detect leakage from pipes carrying petrol and other liquids and c) to find the
level of liquid in a closed reservoir.

4) Radioactive dating: The method of radiocarbon dating has been used for the age
measurement of specimens of archaeological and geological interest. The age of rock or mineral
235
238
containing uranium could be determined knowing the half lives of U and U .

5) Research: Radioisotopes are used to study nuclear, atomic and molecular properties. They
are also used to study biochemical reactions in living cells.

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M.N.Sharath kumar